76 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008
Dr Zdenko Medve{, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts; e-mail: zdenko.medves@guest.arnes.si
Abstract: Vocational education is considered socially inclusive if it provides actual employability 
and income above the poverty threshold. In terms of equity the problem arises when differentiation 
of vocational education matches the hierarchical structure of professions. The article analyses the 
actual chances that education in Slovenia gives to the disadvantaged social groups, especially those 
coming from families with lower socially-economic status, those whose mother tongue is other than 
Slovene, persons with special needs, and women. The changing pattern of enrolment in different types 
of upper secondary schools in the last few years reveals that the vocational schools have gradually 
become schools leading to social marginalisation and are therefore losing their attractiveness. But 
it is impossible to give a complete answer to the question about the level of inequality that the 
disadvantaged social groups may experience since some crucial data is lacking due to the protection 
of personal data; the Slovenian legislation is restrictive in their collection. No data is collected which 
would enable monitoring of the equity of the education system at different levels: at enrolment, 
during schooling, and at the completion of secondary education. But some fi ndings of the studies 
conducted on the representative samples show us a displeasing picture. Therefore action has to 
be taken both at the societal and educational levels: the dialogue between social partners has to 
be enhanced, higher parity of esteem in upper secondary education achieved and the quality of 
learning outcomes improved. A variety of contemporary vocational qualifi cations and also additional 
alternative learning pathways leading to them have to be developed. In addition, institutional 
differentiation of vocational education should be replaced with a more unifi ed, but fl exibly organised, 
comprehensive vocational school.
Key words: vocational education, equity, social inclusion
UDK: 
Contribution of vocational education 
and training to equity and social 
inclusion
CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008, 76–94
Dr Zdenko Medve{ et al.
1

 77
Views on school equity In modern democratic societies, equity in edu-
cation is more and more recognised as an essential characteristic of national 
educational systems. Several views and concepts of equity exist. Traditional un-
derstanding of equity has two basic meanings. On one hand it means complian-
ce with legislation, and on another equality. The fi rst condition for educational 
system to be equitable is that the legislation regulating it is equitable. The 
second condition is the principle of equal possibilities for education, regardless 
of social situation, gender, race, nationality, religious beliefs and other diffe-
rences which are insignifi cant for education. One of the most common manners 
of empirical assessment of equal educational possibilities in a given educatio-
nal system is measuring the degree of correlation between the variables which 
mark the status of children (gender, parents’ education, socio-economic status) 
and accessibility and success of their schooling at different types of schools and 
at different levels of the educational system. The higher the correlation, the 
lower the equity of the educational system, but only if positive correlation is a 
consequence of differences in educational possibilities, and not of differences 
in preferences of children and their parents. From that perspective, vocational 
education seems to be the most inequitable part of educational system, as here 
the correlation between the mentioned variables is usually much higher than 
in the system of general education. But in addressing equity in vocational edu-
cation, two things must be taken into consideration. First, the role that vocatio-
nal education plays in ensuring equity in educational system as a whole, and 
second, the degree of equity in vocational education itself. The degree of equity 
in vocational education itself depends mainly on the successful implementation 
of various principles of equity (’to everyone according to one’s merits’, ’to everyo-
1
 Material was prepared for The Meeting of Directors General for Vocational Education and 
Training (Brdo, 1
st
-4
th
 March 2008) by the following group:
 
dr.
 
Zdenko Medve{, Jasna Ma`gon, dr.
 
Klara Skubic Ermenc,
 
Zdenko Medve{, dr.
 
Zdenko Kodelja, Zdenko Kodelja, dr.
 
Jasna Ma`gon, Klara 
Skubic Ermenc, dr.
 
Mojca Pe~ek ^uk,
 
Mojca Pe~ek ^uk, dr.
 
Irena Lesar, Irena Lesar, mag.
 
Slava 
Pevec Grm
 
Slava Pevec Grm. dr.
 
Mojca Straus and Tina Klari~ have participated in compiling data. 
Pictures were designed by Ga{per Cankar.

ne according to one’s capabilities, ’to everyone according to the results of one’s 
work’, etc.) in every particular vocational school and in the whole sub-system of 
vocational education.  These principles are an attempt to concretize the general 
principle of formal equity, which requires that the same are treated equally 
and the different differently. Therefore, for example, a teacher has to grade all 
pupils in a given class who have shown the same knowledge (put in the same 
effort, etc.) with the same grade. But that would only achieve equity of grading 
in one class. To ensure it at the level of a vocational school or the whole sub-
system of vocational education, all teachers should be using the same criteria 
for grading. In that sense, the assessment of equity in vocational education is 
in fact not different from the assessment of equity in general education, only it 
has to be performed on comparable groups. But in that we can already see the 
specifi cs of vocational education. In the context of general education, external 
differentiation or concentration of less successful children (who are very often 
the very children coming from socially and culturally underprivileged environ-
ments) to separate groups, classes or schools is usually interpreted as unfair, 
as it selects and separates children according to characteristics on which they 
very often have no infl uence, but which are essential for their further schooling 
and therefore largely for their success in life. Vocational education, on other 
hand, has to be differentiated by disciplines and branches. In the context of 
vocational education, differentiation of children and adults by branches and 
disciplines is understood in the opposite way, i.e. as an element of equity.  The-
refore vocational education is usually socially inclusive, as it leads to skilled 
employment. Employment has a key role in preventing social exclusion, and is 
at the same time one of the essential social foundations of human self-esteem. 
Therefore vocational education is an important element of the social strategy 
for achieving higher levels of social equity and social inclusion; but it can only be 
that if it provides actual employability and income above the poverty threshold 
(Halliday). From that we can conclude that not all branches and all program-
mes of vocational education have the same role in preventing social exclusion, 
although they are socially inclusive as they include a big part of socially less 
privileged persons. The problem in terms of equity arises especially when dif-
ferentiation of vocational education is adapted to the hierarchical structure of 
professions, providing for its social reproduction within a discipline or a branch 
of education. Also, the mere inclusion in vocational education does not guaran-
tee equity of the whole educational system. Educational achievement of persons 
from marginalised environments has to be improved through positive discri-
mination (lower number of pupils in class, better teachers, equipment, etc.) in 
order to provide quality education for employment, further education and active 
citizenship. It is therefore also true for vocational education that equity cannot 
be measured only by equal possibilities, but also by realistic conditions to attain 
quality education for fl exible employment, lifelong learning and development of 
personal and professional career. 
Our study does not address all the above questions, our key question is: 
how high benchmarks, which Slovenia reaches in the fi eld of education, are rea-
78 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

ched by less privileged social groups, among which we count groups with lower 
social status, citizens for whom Slovenian is not their mother tongue, persons 
with special needs and women. We are interested what are their realistic possi-
bilities within upper secondary education, especially vocational education. 
Position of vocational education and training in educational system 
– the principle of positive discrimination
The system of vocational education has been built on basic premises of 
positive discrimination and lifelong learning already for a good quarter of cen-
tury, as the current school paths in vocational education and training have been 
designed already in 1980s. But these premises were completely set after the re-
form of Slovenian legislation on schools in 1996, when the principles of positive 
discrimination and lifelong learning were established also in relation between 
vocational and general education – gymnasium/grammar school. The principle 
of lifelong learning means abolishing school ‘dead ends, i.e. the paths that lead 
nowhere ahead but require returning back. Setting up such educational paths 
in the system of secondary education now enables advancement in acquiring 
higher levels of education (from ISCED2 to ISCED3 up to ISCED 5,6) and by 
that building of professional career without returning back to the beginning of 
education. 
The principle of positive discrimination is upgrading of the principle of li-
felong learning, and in the educational system it means that for the same level 
of education (for example ISCED 3 or ISCED 4) and the same profession, two 
paths of education are laid out: a direct and an indirect. The direct path is shor-
ter by a year or two, but steeper and therefore more diffi cult and riskier. A good 
example of direct paths to acquire full upper secondary education in Slovenian 
system is gymnasium and secondary technical school. The duration of both is 
4 years. An indirect path to the same level of education (full secondary) or the 
same profession (for example at the level of a technician) is longer, and there-
fore more appropriate for certain parts of population which have diffi culties in 
advancing at school due to any reasons. Indirect route is comprised of several 
education levels and already after 2 or 3 years of schooling enables acquiring 
completed education for employment and for further schooling. 
It is possible to enrol in lower vocational education with completed 7th 
grade of 9-year elementary school (or 6th grade of 8-year programme) or with 
completed elementary school with lower educational standard. There is also a 
possibility of continuation from a lower to a 3-year vocational education, usually 
in the second year of schooling in a similar discipline or profession. Lower vo-
cational education enables that participants fulfi l, in total of two years of edu-
cation, the key knowledge on the level of compulsory education and are trained 
for less demanding tasks in the profession, and usually compensate one year in 
the 3-year vocational education. As also the youth with special needs (including 
the ones with minor mental disorders) can enrol in lower vocational education, 
Contribution of vocational education ... 79

this form of education in principle also means an instrument of strengthening 
inclusion.  
The system of 3-year vocational education is upgraded with a 2-year vo-
cational-technical education (what is called the 3+2 system), which enables, 
without returning back to the beginning of education, in total of 5 years, to ac-
quire vocational maturity examination (vocational matura), i.e. the same level 
of education and profession as obtained in corresponding discipline from 4-year 
secondary technical education. Consequently, it gives the same rights in em-
ployment and in continuation of studies in tertiary education at all higher and 
high schools (except University study programmes).Taking a ’matura’ course, 
anybody who has completed any vocational or technical school can obtain a ge-
neral matura and by that a possibility to continue studies at all forms of tertiary 
education, also at University.
Positive effects of high vertical and horizontal transitivity in secondary 
education are visible in high benchmarks
For assessment of equity in vocational education, the only important fact is 
not just formal possibility of vertical transitivity (from lower to higher levels of 
education) or of horizontal transitivity (from vocational and technical education 
to general (to matura), and vice versa from general (gymnasium) to vocational 
and technical education, but also how population is using the possibilities pro-
vided by the system in reality.  In the real world, unfortunately, not all possibi-
lities of transitivity are equally implemented. The trends in transitivity refl ect 
characteristic Slovenian values in the sphere of education. Two values are espe-
cially typical: a) to acquire higher level of education at secondary level, and b) if 
possible it should be gymnasium / general matura. Firstly, that is visible in aspi-
rations for transition from lower levels and from simpler ancillary professions 
(ISCED 3C) to more demanding (ISCED 3B). But it is also massively refl ected in 
the wish for transition from standard crafts and industrial professions (ISCED 
3B) to professions at the level of a technician, or to what are called the ‘servi-
ce professions’ (insurance business, administrative-economics, tourism, health 
care, childcare workers, etc.) (ISCED 3A). So in the recent years we can notice 
in our school practices that the great majority of graduates from 3-year voca-
tional education continue schooling at 2-year vocational-technical school which 
ends with a vocational matura, and that enables them acquiring qualifi cations 
for a higher profession in the branch, and opens the path to studying in tertiary 
education. 
Such school organisation of secondary education has no doubt contributed 
to at least four important achievements, which place Slovenia among the most 
developed European countries in the fi eld of education. 
1. In Slovenia the percentage of population that does not continue schooling 
after compulsory education is small,
2. a high percentage of population that acquires full secondary education and 
80 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

by that obtains possibility to continue studies at tertiary level,
3. a high percentage of adults continue formal education to acquire higher 
level of education, 
4. slightly above European average is also inclusion in education for population 
up to 29 years of age.
Negative trends in 3-year vocational education 
Decrease in national birth-rate ’affects’ mainly vocational education The oc-
currence of high educational aspirations, which is refl ected in a high percentage 
of youth who continue education, is not without negative effects. We will show 
that on the basis of the following table.
First we would like to point out the background of the presented dynamic 
of enrolment to secondary schools. A visible decline in enrolment is a consequen-
ce of low birth-rate in Slovenia in the past two decades. At the end of 1980s, 
around 33.000 children were born in Slovenia per year, while in 2006 just above 
17.000 were born. The effects of this fall are, in the recent years, visible also in 
enrolment in secondary education. 
The index of total enrolment in all types of secondary schools has, due to 
lower growth of population, decreased by 20% in the past years. But it is still 
true that around 98% of generation continues schooling after elementary school 
in one way or another.
More than dynamics, originating in birth-rate, we are interested in its so-
cial dimension. We can see that the decrease in enrolment in secondary schools 
due to a decrease in birth-rate was almost totally to the detriment of vocational 
Ad 1) Benchmark: Until 2010 not more than 10% of population aged 18-24 with com-
pleted elementary school or less
2006
EU 15,3
Slovenia 5,2
Ad 2) Benchmark: Until 2010 85% of population aged 20-24 with completed higher 
secondary education
2006
EU 77,8 %
Slovenia 89,4 %
Ad 3) Benchmark: Until 2010 at least 12,5% of adults (25-64) participating in educa-
tion
2006
EU 9 %
Slovenia 15 %
Tables 1-3 (Source: All data for year 2006 are extracted from the Commission Staff Working Docu-
ment Progress towards the Lisbon Objectives in Education and Training, Indicators and benchmarks, 
2007)
Contribution of vocational education ... 81

Picture 1: Enrolment in the fi rst year of secondary schools, with regard to the number of births 15 
years before, and the number of graduates from elementary school (prepared on the basis of data from 
the archive of MES – Ministry of Education and Sport)
Picture 2: Dynamics of enrolment in the fi rst year of different types of secondary schools (prepared on 
the basis of data from the archive of MES)
82 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

education (ISCED 3B and 3C), as the absolute number of enrolment in secon-
dary technical schools and in gymnasium (ISCED 3A) remains stable during 
this time . 
We also have to mention enrolment in lower vocational education, which 
decreased by more than a half. Considering the small number of pupils, this 
school does not have a real function in the school system any more. Pupils with 
uncompleted elementary school and with elementary school with lower educa-
tional standard are admitted (316 to 445 persons per year are enrolled), so it 
is more and more becoming a ‘special’ vocational school. But that is in confl ict 
with principles of integration, on which Slovenian system is based. Namely, in-
tegration has been very much strengthened at the level of compulsory education 
in Slovenia in the recent years.
An advantage of lower vocational schools are really small learning groups, 
but on the other hand their main disadvantages are: a) differentiation of edu-
cational system already at the age of 15, b) very limited offer of programmes 
and occupations, especially for girls, and c) very badly developed network of 
schools offering these programmes.  A challenge for the future is to think about 
integration of lower vocational education into the 3-year education. At least two 
important details show that such integration could be successful:
– In yearly reports on general and vocational matura we can see that matura 
exam is successfully passed by 350 persons with special needs every year 
(which is only 100 less than the number of those enrolled in lower vocational 
education in 2007/08) which are educated in integrated form, which points 
to the fact that our secondary-school teachers can offer suitable help and 
support to their education in inclusive forms,
– Every year more than half of pupils, after completed lower secondary 
school, continue schooling at secondary vocational or technical school. 
A decrease in interest for vocational education is a form of escape from social 
marginalisation and exclusion
Critical is especially the trend that, in the past fi ve years, enrolment in 
3-year vocational education has almost halved (index 66, for girls 58). That is 
a bigger problem, as 3-year vocational education is mass education in terms of 
societal needs and vocational profi les, because all professions on the level ISCED 
Picture 3: Percentage of elementary school pupils with special needs, integrated in mainstream class-
es, and in special education – school year 2007/08 (prepared on the basis of data from Statistical 
Offi ce of the Republic of Slovenia – SORS)
Contribution of vocational education ... 83

3B are educated here. We would therefore expect that this would be a mass 
secondary school, but the trends of enrolment in the past years show that this 
school is quickly losing attractiveness. But not only lower enrolment, an impor-
tant fact is also the ‘escape of graduates’ from 3B to education at level 3A. On 
the basis of reports on vocational matura we are assessing that a great majority 
of graduates from 3-year vocational school continue education in vocational-te-
chnical school until acquiring a vocational matura, which opens the door to ter-
tiary education, and at the same time means ‘leaving’ the wide vocational profi le 
(ISCED 3B) and obtaining a profession at the level of a technician (ISCED 3A). 
In 2006, vocational matura exam was taken by 5.700 candidates (which is 33% 
of all vocational graduates in a given year), which have fi rst completed 3-year 
vocational education and then continued at vocational-technical education (sy-
stem 3+2). If we compare this percentage with enrolment in 3-year vocational 
education fi ve years ago, it means around 80% of everybody who enrolled in se-
condary vocational school at that time. We are not claiming that the connection 
is causal, as detailed and precise data about transition of generation from 3-year 
vocational school to further education is not available; we can only asses that 
in a generation of youth in Slovenia only 25% of generation remained at level 
ISCED 3C and 3B.When assessing transitivity in the system of Slovenian voca-
tional education, we must also consider transitivity between general and voca-
tional education. Also here we can notice very obvious trends. Transitivity from 
gymnasium to vocational education is organised by vocational training, which is 
fi nanced by the state for gymnasium graduates. Around 1,7% gymnasium pupils 
per year enrol in vocational training, the duration of which is maximum one 
year. The reason for such low percentage is no doubt in low valuation of vocatio-
nal education, although it is true that also offer for such additional education for 
gymnasium pupils is relatively poor. Slovenia has not followed the example of 
numerous other European countries, which have, with expansion of enrolment 
in gymnasium, also expand offer of vocational education after completed gym-
nasium. So far only rare professions at level 3A enable that: economic-admini-
strative technician, childcare worker in kindergartens and branches of catering 
industry, tourism and computing, which are full-numbered in regular education 
anyway (for example: among vocational graduates, around 45% are economic-
administrative technicians). The reason for small possibilities of additional edu-
cation for gymnasium pupils is mainly the system of one year training, which is, 
in opinion of the majority of branches-in-excess-demand, too short to be able to 
acquire vocational qualifi cations required by the labour market. School policy in 
the past years has listened to the argument of the branches and has according to 
new VET law prolonged the vocational training for half a year. 
Is in the background of high educational aspirations high valuation of education, 
or fear of social marginalisation?
The question of course is, whether this prolongation of vocational training 
would increase attractiveness of education of gymnasium pupils in vocational 
84 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

sector. In answering that, we have to immerse in the background of the high 
educational aspirations in Slovenian population, and face the values which sti-
mulate them. Values are an important factor in decisions of population for a 
particular type of school. If we look at the opposite transition, the transition 
from vocational schooling to general gymnasium and general matura, we fi nd a 
completely different picture from the one shown in transition of gymnasium pu-
pils to vocational educational sector. Transition from vocational sector to general 
matura is, in Slovenian school system, organised via a one-year matura course. 
This is also an organised form, fi nanced by the state: around 7% of graduates 
come to general matura exam from this programme every year. In addition, vo-
cational graduates can, on their own initiative, take an additional matura exam 
in one subject of general matura after they have completed vocational matura, 
and by that place themselves almost on the same level in the rights to continue 
studies at tertiary level, because they can also continue studies in university 
programmes (except for medicine, law and pedagogical and some humanistic 
studies) which are otherwise not available to vocational graduates.  This per-
centage is around 6% per year. In total, 13% of general matura graduates there-
fore transit from vocational education to general matura, while in the opposite 
direction, from gymnasium to vocational matura, the percentage is only 1,7%.
This undoubtedly points to the prevalent Slovenian value regarding secon-
dary education: to acquire full secondary education at level ISCED 3A, if possi-
ble at gymnasium, and have all possibilities open for continuation of studies at 
tertiary level. 
Estimates also show that more than 91% of vocational graduates want to 
continue studies at tertiary level. 
In the background of this valuation is social climate which has been pre-
sent for a longer period, also from the ’socialist times’, when some kind of negati-
ve discourse started in valuation of crafts and industrial professions, and on the 
other hand the social signifi cance and prestige of bureaucracy was strengthened. 
Picture 4: Transition from vocational branches to general matura and vice versa, from gymnasium to 
vocational education (prepared on the basis of reports on general and vocational matura for 2006)
Contribution of vocational education ... 85

This is also refl ected in low valuation of the work of professions at level ISCED 
3C and unfortunately also ISCED 3B, presented by 3-year vocational education, 
which can be seen in collective employment contracts and in the whole wage 
system of public and private sector. But in contrast, the same professions are 
well-paid and have relatively good reputation as private entrepreneurs. 
From the table, progressive correlation between the level of education and 
average salary is visible. Between the levels 3C and 3B on one side, and 3A 
on the other side is a clearly visible hierarchy, and also population understan-
ds levels in such hierarchical way. A levelling of wages is visible all the way 
to ISCED 3B level included, and here is the biggest ’leap’ of average salaries, 
exactly between ISCED 3B and 3A, and of course further to 5B and 5A. The 
shown wage ratios can have important contribution to the explanation of educa-
tional aspirations of Slovenian population. 
But it is not only the salary what generates high educational aspirations. 
Many traditional elements of valuating professions join it. Hierarchical ratio 
between professions at level 3C and B and professions at level 3A leads to the 
fact that professions below level ISCED 3A are still marked as predominantly 
manual, work in them is more dependent on external control and is routine, less 
creative (except in the form of private entrepreneurship); for these professions 
there is also not much possibility of promotion and development of professio-
nal career. All this, coupled with low wages, is diminishing their reputation in 
society. It is obvious that these valuation orientations have set up among po-
pulation a system of educational values, in which education at level ISCED 3C 
and 3B is linked to an image of danger of general social marginalisation, which 
Picture 5: Chain indices of average salaries of employees employed with private individuals and legal 
entities, per levels of school education (Source: prepared on the basis of data from the SURS 2005)
86 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

is for an individual even more critical than safe employment. Namely, the fact 
is that education still has a high level of formal value in the system of wages 
(collective or tariff agreements). The system of salaries is still more dependent 
on the level of education than on work performance and other factors. Also data 
about unemployment does not have real motivational effects on the choice of 
school, as majority of regions, except the most developed central Slovenian re-
gion, mainly require ancillary workers and workers without profession. Until 
2003, the most employable persons among the unemployed were persons at le-
vel ISCED 3 C and B, while after 2004 also persons with level ISCED 3A were 
more easily employable. So we can understand the trend that youth and adults 
decide for education leading to professions and the level of education, for which 
higher income and reputation is ensured, and also for professions (economic ad-
ministrative area) in which the risk of unemployment is relatively high. But on 
the other hand, as much as 40% of youth up to the age of 30 say that they would 
accept work with lower position and salary than appertains to the level of edu-
cation which they acquired (Slovenian Public Opinion – SJM, 2004). In practice, 
people with acquired level of education 5B and 5A are very often employed for 
work, for which level 3A is required. Weak correlation is for Slovenia shown also 
between the indexes ’participation in education’ and ’long-term unemployment’, 
which again points to the fact that Slovenian citizens participate in education 
more because of high valuation of knowledge and education than for pragmatic 
reasons, such as for example employment.
Picture 6: Correlation of percentage of adults (25-64 years) in education and training with percentage 
of long-term unemployed in the total number of unemployed (Source: SURS 2007)
Contribution of vocational education ... 87

To social marginalization and exclusion leads also differentiation of 
vocational education
Differentiation in educational system is potentially leading to social exclusion
Any external differentiation in educational system is potentially leading to 
segregation and diminishes its equity. The same is with differentiation of voca-
tional school types, which youth choose after completed compulsory education, 
at the age of 15. In that year they have to choose one of the four types of educa-
tion which are available: lower vocational, 3-year vocational, 4-year secondary 
technical education and gymnasium (grammar school). To diminish discrimina-
tion effects of this differentiation, we have developed numerous paths in Slove-
nian system to bridge enclosedness of schools, for vertical and horizontal transi-
tivity without returning to the starting year. All this was described in detail in 
previous section, positive and negative consequences were shown. 
Now we cannot avoid the fi nding that negative effects of differentiated sy-
stem of vocational education have been strengthening in the past years, which 
was stimulated on one hand by the shock in birth-rate and on other hand by poli-
tical and economic transition. With implementation of market economy, relation-
ships at the labour market were also changing. Transition from the former full or 
fi ctive employment to real employment caused a surplus of labour force, and also 
structural unsuitability of the employed. Requirements for some professions are 
decreasing, especially where whole branches of economic activity were reduced 
or they even disappeared. Consequently, in the transition period enrolment in 
certain vocational schools was strongly reduced (textile industry) and some were 
abolished (mining, leather, furrier’s trade). We can understand that the problem 
of differentiation of secondary schools (vocational, technical schools and gymna-
sium) is aggravated by the already described orientation in values of Slovenian 
population with regard to choice of school, as certain forms of education (lower 
and secondary vocational) simply don’t fulfi l their expectations.
 
The best elementary school pupils enrol in gymnasium
With regard to the low valuation of certain vocational levels we can con-
clude that the choice of secondary school is based on negative selection. Lower 
vocational schools are chosen by pupils with lower study performance and with 
lower social indicators, possibly to a greater extent even citizens whose mother 
tongue is not Slovenian, and persons with lower study capacity. 
School year 3-year vocational 
schools
4-year technical 
schools
gymnasiums
2007/08 117 to 135 116 to 149 137 to 180
2005/06 25 to 31 61 to 79.5 83 to 113
Table 4: The span in the minimum number of points in study achievements (study results and other 
achievements) for enrolment in particular school, in case of limited admittance (Source: Archive of MES)
88 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

For lower vocational schools, admittance has never been limited. Differen-
ce between years is a consequence of change in criteria for choice. The span 
in the picture illustrates ‘negative selection’ in enrolment from elementary to 
secondary schools. Pupils with lowest school results come to lower vocational 
and to 3-year vocational schools, which is reinforcing the differences in quality 
among schools, as well as social, economic homogenisation, because in Slovenia 
we also have positive correlation between success at school and socio-economic 
cultural factors. Data is also pointing to a certain paradox. In 2007/08 it was 
more diffi cult to be admitted to a secondary vocational school with limited ad-
mittance than to a secondary technical school or even to a gymnasium, which 
had not limited admittance. It is especially diffi cult to explain the trends in 
changing criteria for choice, as we come across another paradox: in 2007/08 
interest for 3-year vocational and technical education is much smaller than in 
the previous years, but some schools still had to limit admittance (medical assi-
stants, hairdressers, mehatronic).
In recent years we are noticing an increase in capacity (seats) at gymnasiu-
ms, so the number of gymnasiums that are limiting admittance is falling. But 
at the same time, there is an increase in the number of technical schools with 
limited admittance, particularly for professions where mainly women apply:  
computing, pre-school education, veterinary medicine, tourism, media, health 
care, design, cosmetics, pharmacy, dentistry. The admittance policy is therefore 
‘forcing’ women to go to gymnasium, which is unfavourable especially for girls 
with lower study results or with wishes for a profession. 
Women are privileged in secondary education, but their weakest element 
does not have a suitable offer in vocational educationThe position of women in 
secondary education is contradictory. On one side, women are prevalent in gym-
nasium, as the elite form of secondary education. In average they achieve better 
results than men, and by that they also have advantage in enrolling in tertiary 
education at the most desired fi elds of study, where there aren’t enough places 
at faculties for everybody who wants to enrol (medicine, architecture, pharmacy, 
biotechnology, economics, some social sciences, some languages).
Type of school/
year
2000/01 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08
Gymnasiums 37 39 34 28 25 30 10
Secondary 
technical schools
27 30 24 17 25 34 29
Secondary 
vocational schools
6887542
Table 5: Dynamics in the number of secondary schools which have limited admittance
Contribution of vocational education ... 89

At gymnasium, the percentage of females is high above the average of their 
enrolment in secondary schools. The trend also shows that the percentage of fe-
males enrolling in gymnasium has been increasing in the past 5 years, the same 
as in 4-year technical schools (ISCED 3A) which lead to vocational matura; and 
in the same period it was falling in 3-year vocational education (ISCED 3B), 
where this year only 13% of women enrolled, and is half the size of enrolment in 
year 2003. These trends of ’escape’ of novices from vocational educational sector 
to gymnasium is, coupled with the shock in birth-rates, very explicitly visible 
particularly for females. Only 93 women enrolled in the fi rst year of lower voca-
tional school this year, while 1419 enrolled in the fi rst year of 3-year vocational 
education, out of the total number of 10.636. 
This shows that there is no suitable programme offer for women at the le-
vel of lower vocational education. 17 programmes of lower vocational education 
exist, which are not all offered, and they are not equally available throughout 
the country. In 2007/08, girls enrolled only in three programmes in relevant 
numbers: house assistant (32 girls enrolled = 78%), assistant tailor (6 = 100%), 
assistant baker (43 = 60%).An additional problem is limitation of admittance to 
secondary technical programmes, which would attract young girls: computing, 
economics and administration, health care and medical care, cosmetics, phar-
macy, dentistry, media, tourism, pre-school care, hairdressing, trade, cookery. 
Instead, females prefer to enrol in gymnasium. It is not due to prejudice about 
what are referred to as ’female’ and ’male’ professions, but because other profes-
Picture 7: Dynamics of enrolment of girls in various types of secondary schools (data from archive of 
MES) (in the legend, NPI is missing, which is barely visible in the picture)
90 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

sions are not attractive among youth anyway. That is especially understanda-
ble if we establish that with limited admittance to secondary technical schools, 
higher results have to be acquired at compulsory education (higher number of 
points) than to enrol in gymnasium which does not have limited admittance. 
With expansion of admittance to gymnasium, the government policy in the past 
years ’succumbed’ to public opinion and educational values of population, which 
means that today there is probably no policy that would dare to change this 
ratio between gymnasium and technical school using limitations and repressive 
means. But everything else would require substantial changes in conditions 
which have led, in society – especially in economy and public services – in em-
ployment and valuation of work, to the current system of valuation of education 
among population.  
To sum up the view on equity of vocational education in relation to women, it 
is shown that women are actually privileged in the current Slovenian school arran-
gement, as they achieve higher results with responsibility for work and learning, 
and by that the doors are more open to them to enter further levels of education. 
But on the other hand, there is obviously no offer in vocational education suitable 
for them; especially for those who are not very good at theoretical learning.
Discriminatory effects of economic, social and cultural factors
As the fundamental dilemma we have mentioned that the posed question 
cannot be analysed on the whole population, as we simply don’t have adequate 
data for that. On the example of the project PISA (Programme for International 
Student Assessment), to which Slovenia was for the fi rst time included in 2006, we 
get very interesting explanations of some questions.First, the citizens of Slovenia 
have accepted the news about achievements of our 15-year olds with pride. In the 
joint assessment of literacy in natural sciences, which was the central subject of 
measuring achievements in 2006, they achieved 12th place among 57 countries. 
Our 15-year olds were, as a rule, chosen from the 1st year of secondary educa-
tion, so the sample was stratifi ed and it included a proportional number of pupils 
from lower vocational schools, secondary vocational schools, secondary technical 
schools and gymnasiums. PISA showed for Slovenia a high level of dispersion 
(variance) of achievements, which is for Slovenia almost twice as high as the ave-
rage of OECD, and so Slovenia is allocated to the high third place among the 57 
participating countries according to the size of differences among achievements of 
15-year olds. The high dispersion of achievements can be, evidently, to the grea-
test extent attributed to separation of pupils to different types of schools, which 
is not encouraging from in terms of equity of secondary education though, as it 
points to an assumption that in deciding for different types of secondary schools, 
and by that also of vocational schools, there is negative selection, which means 
that pupils with lower study results enrol in all forms of vocational education 3C 
and 3B, although of course we must not understand that relation causally.The 
basic duty and also challenge of any equitable school policy is to provide help for 
everyone to acquire quality knowledge and highest possible achievements.  But 
Contribution of vocational education ... 91

even more than that, we fi nd it essential to stress that the level of school equity 
is mainly in reducing especially those factors, which reduce individual’s success 
at school, which are not fault of theirs. Such are especially the factors arising 
from economic, social and cultural environment of an individual. Also from this 
perspective, PISA is unveiling a painful dimension of ’Slovenian’ achievements. 
A relatively very high share of variance in achievements is, namely, explained 
exactly with economic, social and cultural background of pupils. In the countries 
participating in the project PISA 2006, economic-socio-cultural factors should on 
average explain less than 20% of dispersion of achievements, while in Slovenia 
the percentage is 46%. Within that, low achievements of immigrants also have 
strong effect. PISA defi nes status of an immigrant also for pupils, the parents of 
which are not born in Slovenia. In Slovenia we have approximately 10% of such 
’second generation’ immigrants. These pupils have, on average, lower achieve-
ments: not even 30% of second-generation immigrant pupils achieve the basic 
level of literacy in natural sciences, while there is only a bit more than 10% of 
such ’national’ pupils. Besides that, PISA showed that children of immigrants in 
signifi cantly higher percentage attend lower (3C and 3-year vocational education 
(3B)) than (3A) secondary technical education and gymnasium.This problem is 
complementary explained also by the fact that in Slovenia we have relatively 
high dispersion of achievements also within a particular school, whereby this 
dispersion is explained with economic-socio-cultural factors only in 0,3%. About 
other factors that could explain it (differences in abilities, learning capacity, mo-
tivation) we can only assume, as there are no data. But even just on the basis of 
the PISA project results we can form an additional assumption about high so-
cio-cultural heterogeneity among different types of secondary schools, and about 
socio-cultural homogeneity within a particular secondary school, which directly 
speaks of social exclusion. PISA is also showing interdependence between educa-
tion acquired by parents, and the school chosen by their children. The percentage 
of children of parents, whether it is the father or the mother, with uncompleted or 
completed elementary school, is highest in lower vocational school (30-38%) and 
is linearly decreasing, and in gymnasium amounts to 12-13%, and vice versa, the 
percentage of children of parents with gymnasium is highest in gymnasiums 36% 
and is decreasing towards lower vocational school, where it is only 8%. Also on 
the basis of the survey Slovene Public Opinion 2004, which was conducted on a 
representative sample, we can establish statistically high important connection 
between the acquired level of education of parents and children. 
Answer to the key question and challenges for the future
How can we ensure that the government policy and its development strategies 
will be founded on databases and their analyses?
 
We cannot give a clear answer to the question how the less privileged social 
groups achieve European benchmarks in education, as there are no adequate 
92 CONTEMPORARY PEDAGOGY 5/2008 Zdenko Medve{

data. Slovenian legislation is restrictive in their collection due to protection of 
personal data. There is no information about candidates, not at enrolment, not 
during schooling, and not at completion of secondary education (at fi nal exami-
nations, vocational or general matura), which would enable monitoring of effi -
ciency of education with regard to social, cultural, national, regional indicators, 
which is the basis for assessment of equity of the system. Sample surveys point 
more to the favour of a conclusion that educational system as a whole, and also 
vocational education, contribute to marginalisation of social groups, particu-
larly with regard to their different economic, social and cultural situation, and 
of people with special needs. But due to the fact that there are no appropriate 
national databases, this conclusion cannot be confi rmed on a national level. 
The key problem is that in Slovenia, in politics as well as in the educational 
science, no relevant data is available to develop strategies on the national level 
to remedy unjustness in educational system. Without appropriate data, it is also 
not possible to implement the principle that the state is forming and developing 
its educational strategy on the basis of databases and analyses. 
How can we reduce effects of secondary education on social exclusion, and achieve 
higher equity in vocational education?
1. By increasing attractiveness of vocational education; modernising Slovenian 
vocational standards; developing modern professions, more attractive for 
young people and suitable for their different abilities, and more suitable 
to modern development of work. A dialogue of traditional partners in 
vocational education, chambers of commerce, and associations and trade 
unions has to be developed. Strengthening activity of trade unions in the 
elements which could signifi cantly contribute to more appropriate valuation 
of work and professions at lower levels of education (3C, B) with activities 
for development of modern supply of work, with higher initiative, less 
hierarchy, less routine work, more independence and more responsibility, 
higher level of inclusion; in short, for work which requires higher quality 
of knowledge as opposed to routine.
2. By preparing a more diverse offer in vocational education, especially for 
girls, by developing alternative forms and paths to acquire vocational and 
technical education; by achieving higher alternation between work and 
education, schools and companies, and by putting higher consideration on 
informal education.
3. By reducing or abolishing the rigid structure of types of vocational and 
technical schools; by reducing institutionalisation or removing some 
current forms of differentiation in technical and vocational education; by 
studying the possibility to form, for a certain branch, a model of joint 3-
year vocational and technical school, increase selectivity of study subjects, 
by connecting current activities for renovation of programmes also with 
planning of well-structured educational standards which enable entrance 
to employment with regard to how demanding professions are and what the 
Contribution of vocational education ... 93

capacities of population are, and to ensure, on the principles of integration, 
appropriate learning help to persons with lower learning capacity and 
persons with special needs.  
 
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