UDK 903(510)"633/634" Documenta Praehistorica XXVI The Mesolithic and the Neolithic in China Zhang Chi Department of Archaeology, Peking University, China ABSTRACT - llw concept of a Mesolithic period teas introduced in Chinese prehistoric archaeology from the West, Scholars argued in the seventies that the microlith cultures identified in open sites (northern China) and in cave sites (southern China) should he classified as Mesolithic. However, recent discoveries have revealed evidence of pollen production and agricultural activities in these contexts, thus challenging the notion of a Mesolithic period in the prehistory of China, The identification of Neolithic cultural development in China uas based on the regional pattern of Yellow Riivr Valley cultural sequences. It has been suggested recently that the Yangtze Riwr Valley region was the second Xeottthic centre. Cultural sequences in both regions consist of three phases the end of the SeotUhic period in China correlates with the decline of the Neolithic cultures in the Yangtze River Valley IZMEČEK - Pojem mezolitsko obdobje je v kitajsko prazgodovinsko arheologijo prišel iz zahoda Znanstveniki so v sedemdesetih letih dokazovali, da moramo mikrolitske kulture, ki so jih odkrili na planih najdiščih H:) and nitrogen isotope ("A", >SN) analyses of human bones excavated at Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan tend to confirm this observation. A substantial amount of faunal remains w as found at Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan. Remains include deer. boar, rabbit, fox. turtle and a variety of bird bones. Various species of deer predominate, followed by the remains of boar and bird. This would seem to reflect the general pattern of hunting activity during this period. Charcoal samples were taken from all layers in the 1993 and 1995 excavations of Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan. Chinese and American research teams submitted over 30 samples for AMS dating. However, die dates appear to be too early. Quite a few dates fall into the range between 19 780 ±360 bp (BA 951.36) -and 15 050 ±60 hp (I CR.3555). The youngest date is 12 430 ±80 bp (UCR3561), and comes from Layer 6 Tie MesoMhic and ttie Neolitfiic m China 3B1 of the Xianrendong site. This should he close to the date of the same stratum's cultural deposit. Two excavations were conducted at the Yuchanyan site (Yuanjiarong 1996) at the same time as the excavations at Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan. Yuchanyan is a cave dwelling site in the limestone region of Hunan. The deposit in the cave is relatively well preserved and the cultural component is rather homogenous. The excavations revealed a w ide range of lithic. bone, antler, teeth, shell and pottery artefacts. ITie lithic industry is all of chipped stone and includes choppers, scrapers, cutting tools and hoe-like implements, w hich are primarily unifacial-ly flaked pebble implements. The small flint implements that are present at the Xianrendong site are absent here. Bone artefacts include aw ls and adzes. Two piles of pottery sherds situated near the bottom of the deposit are the only remains of ceramics encountered on the site. The thickness of the body sherds varies: some specimens are 2 cm thick. The ware is dark brown and its clay tempered with quartzite of v arious grain sizes, the majority of w hich fall into a range between 5 and 10 mm. A round-based urn with a slightly pointed bottom, flared rim and slanted body is the only vessel that could be reconstructed. Pottery from this site also has stamped cord marks, which were produced with a method similar to that of the cord-marked pottery from the Xianrendong site discussed earlier. Rice phytoliths are widespread in the cultural deposit of Yuchanyan. More importantly, four rice husks w ere found at the site, two of w hich w ere found in layers close to the bottom of the deposit. Based on microscopic analysis of the morphological feature of the double peak on the surface of the husks, researchers believe that these rice samples retain characteristics of Oryza Satira itulica, Oryza Saliva japonic«, as well as wild rice. They represent the archaic prototype of cultivated rice at the initial stage of evolution from wild to cultivated rice. Over 40 species of plant were identified at the Yuchanyan site using the flotation method Deer predominated among the large amount of faunal remains, which include water deer, red deer, and other species of deer, followed by boar, cattle and the Chinese bamboo rat. There are abundant bird bones as well, accounting for 50 per cent of the total faunal remains. A substantial amount of aquatic faunal remains was uncovered at the site, including fish, turtle, mollusc and snail. These remains resemble those found at Xianrendong. Radiocarbon dates for Yuchanyan come from the AMS dating of organic carbon on a pottery sherd from Layer 3H. Among these samples, the carbon residue sample BA95057b yielded a date of 14810 ±230 bp. and the humic acid sample BA95057a yielded a date of 12 320 ±120 bp. The date of the pottery's manufacture and utilisation should fall between these two dates (Yuan SLxun el al. 1997). New discoveries in northern China In the 1980 s, work at the Nanzhuangtou site in Xu-shui, Hebei, in northern China uncovered ceramics and polished lithic implements in the same cultural context as Yuchanyan. but which date to approximately 10000 bp. New discoveries of the 1990 s come from the Nihewan basin in Yangyuan, Hebei. About ten sites containing microlithic assemblages have been excavated or intensively surveyed there, including Yujiagou, Ma anshan. Qijiawan. Gongdi-liang and Bashihutan. The dates of these sites fall into the range between I ^ 000 and 8000 bp. Fire hearths and ash pits were located at the Anshan site, along with lithic cores, flakes, microblades and blanks for lithic implements scattered throughout the site. The cultural deposit at the Yujiagou site consists of three layers. Its lithic assemblage includes microblades, scrapers, projectile points, burins and adzes. There are also decorative items made from mollusc shells, snail shells and ostrich eggs. The cultural deposit's faunal remains include frog, ostrich, mouse, wild horse, wild donkey, deer, bison and antelope, with the latter predominating. A small number of pottery sherds were uncovered in the middle and upper layers of the Yujiagou site. These pottery sherds were tempered with sand and are mostly reddish brown and yellowish brown, with incised, parallel arcs resembling fingernail marks on their exterior. The vessel ty pe was probably that of a jar. One of the pottery sherds has been dated by thermoluminescence to 11000 bp (Xie Fei ¡998). In addition, large numbers of pottery sherds have been found in the same cultural context with micro-liths at the Zhuannian site and the Zhejiangy ing site in Beijing. The pottery there was tempered with either coarse-grained quartz or mica, was brown in colour, and its vessel wall has a black core, indicating that its firing temperature w as not high. Vessel types include jars and pots. Stone mortars and pestles are also present in this cultural assemblage. Both sites are radiocarbon dated to a range between 9000 and 10(MX) bp (Yujincheng ¡998). 7 Zhang Chi Discussion The recent discoveries of the southern cave dwelling sites and the northern microlithic assemblage which date to the transitional period from the Pleistocene to the Holocene have contributed much to our understanding of early cultures in China. This contribution is reflected in the following respects. First, the presence of early pottery is confirmed. Second, the emergence of rice agriculture in the southern region during this period is suggested by the analyses of rice phytolith remains. Third, a general pattern can be observed in the diversified foraging economy, especially noteworthy for fishing and hunting activities. Large mammals such as deer and boar were the principal game animals in the southern region, supplemented by bird and aquatic fauna. The southern region has yielded the most complete data. The cave dwelling sites occupied during the transitional period from the Upper Pleistocene to the onset of the Holocene and during the Lower Holocene are distributed primarily along the base of limestone hills in the southern karst region. They are most frequently found along the southern and northern slopes of the Nanling Mountains and are the primary type of occupation site discovered in the south thus far. Open-air sites are also present, however, such as the Phase I remains recently excavated at the Dingshishan site in Yining (Fu Xianguo et al. 1998). It is likely that more open sites of this type will be identified in the future. Minor variations are present in artefact assemblages from these sites, although shared attributes include pebble implements with unifacial retouch, perforated "dibble discs," "cutting implements" with polished blades, artefacts of bone, antler and shell, cord-marked and plain pottery tempered with coarse-grained quartzite. and the remains of prototy pical rice agriculture, The occupants of these sites shared the same ecosystem, as well as a similar subsistence economy, and developed a homogenous settlement pattern. So far. cave dwelling sites are know n only in southern China. In contemporaneous sites in northern China, pottery Ls found in association with a widespread microlithic assemblage. The general characteristics of this cultural assemblage are not fully understood. However, the fact that the northern lilhic industry is characterised by microliths is in itself a feature that distinguishes it from the contemporaneous southern tradition. The lithic industry' of North China is associated with the lithic industry of Northeast Asia in this period. The lithic industry of the southern tradition had some similarities with the pebble lithic industry of adjacent continental Southeast Asia of the same period. Based on this similarity, some scholars of Southeast Asian cultures have concluded that the southern China assemblage is part of the Hoabinhian culture which was widespread in Southeast Asia during the same period. However, the Sumatra-type pebble implement, which is the typical artefact of the Hoabinhian culture, is clearly different from the pebble implement found in contemporaneous South China. Pottery was also absent in the Hoabinhian culture, nor have remains of rice cultivation been found there. Based on radiocarbon dating and relative dating, human occupation at the southern cave dwelling sites ceased at approximately 10000 to 9000 bp. This precedes the deposits of the Early Middle Neolithic cultures, such as that of the Pengtoushan culture in the southern region. The lithic industry of these Early Neolithic remains, characterised by the overwhelming presence of pebble implements and the additional occurrence of small flint and quartzite tools at some sites, Ls a continuation of the lidiic manufacturing tradition of southern China following the Paleolithic. The highly sophisticated nature of the bone and antler artefacts is a characteristic shared with contemporaneous cultures on the Eurasian continent and its adjacent areas. Their stroke-marked and cord-marked pottery vessels are the oldest known anywhere in the world to date. The stamped cord-marked pottery, however, is a distinctive local tradition. This pottery making method became widespread in the Middle Neolithic in southern China. In the subsistence economy, game animals in the Mesolithic consisted primarily of deer, boar and various kinds of aquatic resources, which is also similar to the faunal subsistence pattern of the Neolithic. except for the high frequency of bird remains characteristic of the Mesolithic cultural assemblage. The role play ed by rice agriculture in the subsistence economy is not known, although we do have evidence for the origin of a rice agricultural system, which became dominant in South China only later, during this period. This culture had developed some basic elements of the Neolithic cultures of the southern region. It became a major source for the development of the southern Middle Neolithic complex represented by the Pengtoushan culture, which Ls characterised by large, chipped pebble implements, small flint implements, cord-marked pottery and early rice agriculture. Therefore, this culture should be regarded as the Early Neolithic culture in South China. Although agricultural remains have yet to be identified in the northern microlithic cultures that 8 TN- Wesolithic and tne Neolithic in China arc contemporaneous with the southern finds, potter) emerged early in the north. The later phase of this microlith culture, represented hy the Zhuannian site and the Zhenjiangving site in Beijing, is chronologically dose to the Cishan-Peiligang culture of the Middle Neolithic. Hie microlithic tradition was maintained up to the Late Neolithic in the northern region. It can be argued that the cave sites in the southern region during the transitional period between the Pleistocene and the Holocene and the microlith culture in northern China represent the two principal sources for Neolithic cultures in prehistoric China. The Middle and Late Neolithic cultures centred in the Yangtze River and the Yellow River basins arose from these two bxses. The cultural assemblages that were identified xs Mesolithic before the 1980 s actually display characteristics of Neolithic cultures. They are clearly distinct from Mesolithic cultures in other regions of the world. II. AN OUTLINE OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEOLITHIC CHINA The presence of a Neolithic period on the territory of present-day China was proposed after the emergence of modern Chinese archaeology in the 1920 s. In the first decades of its development, Chinese archaeologists could not form a comprehensive framework of cultural developments in Neolithic China due to limitations of data and research. Only after the mid-1980 s did scholars start to propose a specific chronology and to synthesise the general characteristics of each period (Van Wenming ¡987; 1989). From then on, the archaeology of Neolithic China has made significant progress, most notably in recent years. This is especially reflected in the amount of data and research regarding the Neolithic cultures of the lower and middle Yangtze River and in the identification of Early Neolithic cultures in this area. This progress has allowed a better understanding of cultural development in Neolithic China. The middle and lower basins of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River were the heartland of cultural development in ancient China Although this vast region is a relatively independent geographic unit, the region's environment is highly complex and diversified. The diversity is best reflected in the differences between the north and the south. The economic and cultural differences here were a result of different ecological contexts that were already pre- sent in the Palaeolithic. In the Neolithic, a wide range of regional cultures developed on the basis of these differences. Over time, various interactions between the regional cultures homogenised the pattern of regional development. According to current data, the development of Neolithic cultures in the heartland of ancient China went through three phases, termed the early, middle and late phases. The late phase can be further subdivided into early and late periods. After the late period, there was a transitional period to the Bronze Age or Three Dynasties civilisation, which we also call the Post-Neolithic period. In the following sections, the general features of these phases cultural development are elaborated. The Early Neolithic (c. 12 000-6500 BC) The cultural differences between the north and south were already noticeable in the Palaeolithic. By the Karlv Neolithic, two distinctive cultural systems had clearly developed in southern and northern China. The northern manifestation was a microlith culture distributed throughout the North China plain and its adjacent regions. Many sites or localities of this culture have been identified in Hebei. Ilenan. Shaanxi. Shanxi and Shandong. Over one hundred sites have been found in the hilly region in central Shandong alone. On the basis of minor differences in cultural attributes, the microlith assemblage was once further subdivided into the "Shayuan culture.""Hutouliang culture" and "Fenghuangling culture," even though these cultures' shared characteristics make them very similar. The microlithic assemblage consists of microlithic cores which conical, wedge-shaped and keel-shaped, xs well xs a long, narrow microhlade. Both small lithic tools such xs scrapers, projectile points and burins, and large lithic tools such xs adze-shaped implements are present Ceramic vessels represented by jars, stone implements represented by mortars and pestles, xs well as bone and shell artefacts that include awls and pendants, have been found in the later manifestations of this microlithic assemblage. These later forms are found in the middle and upper layers of the Yujiagon site in Yangyuan, the Zhuannian site in Beijing and the Nan-zhuangtou site in Xushut Antelope was the principle game animal utilised at the Yujiagon site. Large mammals such as wild horse, cattle, wild donkey and deer were also present. Deer and boar were the primary game animals uncovered at the Nanzhuangtou site. Zhang Chi An early culture characterised by cave dwellings w xs discerned along the northern and southern bases of (he Nanling Mountains in South China. To date, a dozen sites of this type have been identified. The majority of these sites are cave sites, but some are open-air sites. The use of pebble implements is a primary feature of this southern culture. Its lithic assemblage includes bifacially flaked chopping implements, perforated pebbles and cutting implements with polished blades. Small lithic tools of flint and quartz are also present at some sites. The manufacture of bone, antler and mollusc shell implements, which include awls, needles, projectile points, knives and harpoons, were highly developed in this culture. A type of round-based pottery jar which was tempered with coarse grained quartzite was found at the Xianren-dong site in Wannian, the Yuchanyan site in Daoxian. the Miaoyan site in Guilin and the Dalongtan site in Liuzhou. Reliable evidence of rice cultivation is also found at Xianrendong and Yuchanyan. although a liigher proportion of huntingfishing-gathering activities is observed in the subsistence economy. Deer and boar were the game animals that served as the main sources of protein for the foraging groups. The exploitation of aquatic fauna and birds was also significant. These Early Neolithic sites are not extensive in area, which suggests that the organisation of these early settlements was not complex. Six hearths were identified on a single living floor excav ated at the Xianrendong site, which suggests that different consumption areas might have been present within a single settlement at the same time. The Middle Neolithic (6500-5000 BC) Remains of agriculture have not yet been identified in Early Neolithic sites of the northern region. However, it is likely that the agricultural systems in both the north and the south during the Middle Neolithic period emerged from their preceding cultural assemblages of the Early Neolithic. In the middle and lower Yellow River basin, many northern sites of the Middle Neolithic period yield remains of foxtail millet and hroomcorn millet, which are both dry-land crops. Over 80 storage pits filled with millet were found at the Cishan site. The total weight of grain is estimated at 50 tonnes when fresh. Domesticated stock and fowl include pig. dog and chicken. A large quantity of cultivated rice remains was found in the mid-Yangtze River basin, which indicates the presence of a system of paddy agriculture. Pig, buffalo, and chicken were the principal domesticated fauna in the southern region. Several hundred sites dating to this period have been found. The northern cluster includes sites of the Laoguantai culture in Shaanxi, the Cishan-Peili-gang culture in Hebei and llenan, the llouli culture in Shandong and the Xinglongwa culture in Southeast Inner Mongolia. Although microlithics are still present among the remains of this period, polished stone tools comprise the bulk of the lithic assemblage. Typologically. the assemblage includes stone mortars, pestles, spades, sickles, knives, axes, adzes and chisels. The ceramic vessel types are also diverse and include jars, urns, pots and alms bowls. The northern cluster features an advanced industry of bone tools as well. The Pengtoushan-Zaoshi culture is the only group with agricultural remains known from this period in the mid-Yangtze River basin of South China. Chipped pebble implements and small flake tools were the principle types of lithics. Polished stone implements such as axes and adzes were also present. In addition, a variety of bamboo and wood implements are known from the southern assemblage. Ceramic vessel types include pots. urns, and plates, w hich were tempered with charcoal and impressed with cord marks. A hunting-flshing-gath-ering culture known as the Baozitou culture was identified in the Yijiang River basin in the Lingnan region further in the south, which also had pottery and polished stone implements. Large settlement sites over tens of thousands of square meters in area are know n from this period. Some settlements were enclosed by moats. For instance, the settlement at the Xinglongwa site in Ao-han Banner, Inner Mongolia w as enclosed by a moat two meters wide. The enclosed area was about 20000 square meters and had multiple rows of house structures. The moat-enclosed settlement at the Bxshidang site in Lixian. Hunan was almost 30000 square meters in area and w as comprised of a residential area, storage area, a cemetery and waste disposal area. The houses of this period were relatively large, often ranging between 30 and 40 square meters each. Social stratification in houses and in burial practices is not significant which has been interpreted as show ing the insignificant insti-tutionaJisation of social inequality at these settlements. The Karlv Phase of the Late Neolithic (5000-5500 BC) The Late Neolithic is a time of full-blow n develop ment in prehistoric China. Over ten thousand sites of this period have been found. Regional diffcren- 10 The Mosolithic and the NeoliBvc in China tiation in cultural attributes increased dramatically. The remains of the early phase of the Late Neolithic include the sites of the Yangshao and Beixin Dawen-kou cultures in the Yellow River basin, the Zhaobao-gou-Hongshan and Xiaozhushan cultures north of the Yellow River basin, the Daxi culture in the mid-Yangtze River basin, the Hemudu, Majiabang and Songze cultures in the lower Yangtze River basin, and the Xiantouling culture in the Pearl River basin. The societies of this period experienced rapid development in agriculture. This is manifested in the diffusion of agricultural practice to regions north of the Yellow River basin and south of the Yangtze River basin. Moreover, rice and other crops of paddy agriculture were introduced to North China, while millet and other dry land crops were brought to the Yangtze River basin. Goats were raised in both die south and north. Also common to both regions w as a variety of crops such as cabbage, melon and hemp. Regional development gave rise to craft specialisation and specialised production zones during this period. A broad variety of pottery , including highly developed painted pot-ten,-. as well as refined stone, jade and lacquer w are are all examples of specialised production. Regional pottery making traditions became extremely complex. as did exchange networks. Sev eral specialised lithic manufacture centres have been identified. The largest is located in the Ningzhen region in Jiangsu. Its products reached not only the entire lower Yangtze River basin, but also the mid-Yangtze River basin and the lower Yellow River basin. The lithic production centre in the Three Gorges area was also quite large; its products are found in most areas of the mid-Yangtze River basin. The Western Liaoning and Ningzhen regions were two major jade manufacture centres. Products from the latter were distributed broadly, extending through the entire Yangtze River basin and the middle and lower Yellow River basin. The expansion of trade networks formed the basis of cultural interaction. The area of the settlement sites during this period is generally in the range of tens of thousands of square meters, and the settlements were usually centrally organised. For instance, the moat-enclosed settlement of Phase I at the Jiangzhai site in Lintong, Shaanxi consisted of five groups of houses. The houses in each group were of three different sizes. The entrances of all these buildings faced a central plaza. The settlements associated cemeteries were usually large, some hav ing over one thousand indi- viduals. The burials were usually grouped into hierarchically differentiated groups within each cemetery. This has been interpreted as varying levels of social organisation within the communities. Large settlement centres of over one hundred thousand square meters in area emerged in the latter part of this phase. Towns with earthen wall enclosures have been identified at the Xishan site in Zhengzhou, lie-nan and at the Chengtoushan site in LLxian, Hunan Large burials furnished with conspicuous items started to appear, such as in the Lingjiatan site in Han shan. Anhui. These have also been taken as indicators of intensive social stratification. The Late Phase of the Late Neolithic (3500-2500 BC) The archaeological cultures of the late phase of the Late Neolithic retain the general patterns of their earlier phase predecessors. In the northern region, the Yangshao culture, the Dawenkou culture and the Hongshan culture were in the later stages of their course of development. In the middle and lower Yangtze River basin, the southern region witnessed the continuous development of the Qujialing-Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures, which had already flourished in the previous period. The dramatic development of social complexity on a regional scale was characteristic of this period. Social stratification is the most striking feature of this period, and is reflected in the variety of settlement sizes. The size of most settlement sites falls into a range between thousands of square meters and tens of thousand of square meters. However, some sites are as large as hundreds of thousands of square meters, and a few extraordinarily large settlements such as the Taosi site in Xiangfen, Shanxi. the Dawenkou site in Ningyang, Shandong, the Liangzhu site in Yuhang. Zhejiang, and the Shijiahe site in Tianmen, Hubei reach up to several million square meters. In addition, large ceremonial centres, such as the Niuheliang site in Lingyuan of Liaoning. which was over ten square kilometres in area, date to this period. The settlement pattern often consists of clusters of a dozen or even several dozen sites. Walled enclosures constructed of stone or earth were present in several regions. The walls surrounding the central settlement at the Shijiahe site were over 4000 meters in length. The moat was 60 meters wide. It would have taken an estimated 1000 people a period of ten years to construct the w all. Such a labour force would require a community with an estimated population of 20000 to 40000 indiv iduals 11 Zhang Chi (Nakamura Shinichi 1997). This matches the population of an early city-state. Houses in the smaller settlements were generally not large during this period. However, large structures such as palatial architecture and altars were present in the large settlements. In mortuary practice. the majority of burials in cemeteries had few grave goods. Large burials were few in number; they were generally arranged in clusters, and were furnished with substantial amounts of delicate pottery , jade carvings, lacquer ware, ivory carvings and silk garments. This suggests that elite status was already well established at this time and that it might have been hereditary. The stone and jade production centres in the Three Gorges region and the Ningzhen region declined in this period. The elite had monopolised access to raw materials as well as the manufacture and distribu tion of finished goods for the production of conspicuous items such as ritual pottery ware, jade tim ings. lacquer ware and ivory carvings, in order to reinforce their power of social control. The pattern of production and exchange of daily items was different from that of the previous period. Incised picto-graphic symbols began to appear on both ceremonial pottery vessels and ritual jade items in this phase. The Post Neolithic (2500-2000 BC) The concept of a Post-Neolithic is proposed here in order to describe the period previously known as the Longshan Horizon/Period. In the Yellow River basin, the Qijia. Kexingzhuang, Wangwan and Long shan cultures comprised the Post-Neolithic. In the middle and lower Yangtze River basin, the Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures, which had flourished in the preceding period, declined in the Post-Neolithic. Few settlement sites of this period have hern found in the Yangtze River basin region, although remains from these sites clearly demonstrate cultural traits of the Yellow River basin in the north. Contemporaneous settlements in the Yellow River basin retained local cultural features from the preceding period. ITie use of the potter s wheel became highly developed. Bronze items are frequently encountered. A pottery sherd incised with eleven characters was found at the Dinggong site in Shandong. The Post-Neolithic was the transitional period from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age or Three Dynasties civilisation of China. According to the conventional scheme, the late phase of this period noticeably overlapped with the period of the legendary Xia dynasty. The Three Dynasties civilisation emerged in the general region of the Central Plain, which is also known as the middle and lower Yellow River basin; it was a continuation of Post-Neolithic cultures in this region. Translated from Chinese by Li Min. 12 The Mesolltfiic and the Neofrthic in China REFERENCES INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY, CASS 1984. Xin zhongguo de Kaogu Faxian he Yanjiu: 33-35. JIANGXI PROVINCIAL COMMITTEE FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF CULTURAL RELICS 1963. Jiangxi Wan-nian Dayuan Xianrendong dongxue yizhi shijue (Test excavation at the Xianrendong cave site in Da-yuan. Wannian, Jiangxi). Kaogu Xuebao 1:1-16. JIANGXI PROV INCIAL MUSEUM 1976. Jiangxi Wannian Dayuan Xianrendong dongxue yizhi di'erci fajue haogao (Report of the second excavation at the Xianrendong cave site in Dayuan. Wannian Jiangxi). Wenun 12. 12-23. NAKAMURA SHINICHI 1997. Several questions on the Shijiahe sit e. Journal ofJapan Society for the Archaeology of China 7. 24-40. PEIANPING 1996. 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