— 154 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express Causality Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska Ss. Cyril & Methodius University in Skopje, Boulevard Goce Delchev 9, MK 1000 Skopje, n.stojanovska@flf.ukim.edu.mk DOI: https://doi.org/10.18690/scn.16.2.154-174.2023 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek – 1.01 Original Scientific Article Prispevek predstavlja izsledke analize angleških in makedonskih vzročnih veznikov na podlagi vzorcev literarnih besedil v obeh jezikih in njihovih ob- javljenih prevodih. V obeh jezikih obstajajo vezniki, ki se uporabljajo izključ - no za označevanje vzročnosti med dvema stavkoma (kot na primer because in бидејќи ‘ker’), obstajajo pa tudi vezniki, ki se običajno uporabljajo za ozna - čevanje drugih odnosov (kot je začasnost v primeru since in штом ‘odkar’, ‘takoj ko’), ki so sčasoma razvili vzročni pomen. Tudi usklajevalni veznik and v angleščini ter и ‘in’ v makedonščini imata lahko vzročno interpretacijo, ki se je razvila s pomočjo implikature (Lyons 1995: 162–163, 286–287) ali inferencialne obogatitve (Mauri & Auwera 2012: 383–384). This paper presents the findings of an analysis of English and Macedonian causal conjunctions based on samples of literary texts in both languages and their published translations. In both languages there are conjunctions used exclusively to indicate causality between two clauses (such as because and бидејќи ‘because’), but there are also conjunctions typically used to indi- cate other relations (such as temporality in the case of since and штом ‘as soon as’, ‘once’) which have developed a causal interpretation over time. The coordinating conjunctions and in English and и ‘and’ in Macedonian can also have a causal interpretation developed by means of implicature (Lyons 1995: 162–163, 286–287) or inferential enrichment (Mauri & Auwera 2012: 383–384). Ključne besede: vezniki, podredni vezniki, povezovalci, vzročnost, vzročni členi Keywords: conjunctions, subordinators, coordinators, causality, clauses of reason — 155 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … 1 Introduction Languages possess various mechanisms for expressing causality, only some of which are explicit, such as prepositions, conjunctions and linking adverbials. The purpose of this paper is to present the findings of an analysis of English and Macedonian causal conjunctions based primarily on a sample of prose liter- ary texts in both languages and their published translations. In both languages there are conjunctions that are used exclusively to indicate causality between two clauses (such as because and бидејќи ‘because’), but there are also con- junctions typically used to indicate other relations (such as temporality in the case of since and штом ‘as soon as’, ‘once’), which have over time developed a causal interpretation. The coordinating conjunctions and in English and i ‘and’ in Macedonian can also have a (less explicit) causal interpretation, and this has developed by means of implicature (Lyons 1995: 162–163, 286–287) or inferential enrichment (Mauri & Auwera 2012: 383–384) from the perceived temporal sequentionality of two coordinated events. Despite diverse causal conjunctions seeming to be interchangeable, closer in- spection shows that there appear to be certain positional and stylistic restrictions on the use of specific conjunctions, and these will be discussed in this paper. 2 Theoretical framework English sources make a distinction between cause and reason. Specifically, cause indicates a reason that has an objective reality, while reason is limited to subjective and personal judgment (Quirk et al. 1985: 484). Additionally, the term motivation, mentioned in this context, is understood as a psychological cause. In Macedonian sources (Minova-Ǵurkova 1997, 2000, 2003), the term причина ‘reason’, ‘cause’ is primarily used, and it subsumes the English interpretations of cause and reason. Based on the ubiquitous principle of causality, according to which all events, changes and phenomena are produced by a certain cause, Minova-Ǵurkova (1997: 21) perceives a relation of near-synonymy between complex sentences with clauses of reason and clauses of result, the distinction being that the former focus on the reason for an event, while the latter bring the consequence to the fore. In the following analysis, a broad understanding of causality is adopted, since the reader’s point of view makes it seem practi- cally impossible to always unambiguously classify examples into subtypes, the boundaries of which are not always clearly defined. The terminology used in this paper was based on the Comprehensive Gram- mar of the English Language by Quirk et al. (1985) because of its thorough and analytical approach. Most of the terms used in this grammar correspond to the terminology of the traditional grammar. It is precisely for this reason that it is suitable for contrastive studies with Macedonian. — 156 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska 3 Methodological Approach This study is based on samples of fiction (novels and short stories) originally written in English and Macedonian and their translations. The rationale behind this decision was that documented written materials should reveal trends and tendencies that would otherwise go unnoticed if examples were created solely for the purposes of the study. Furthermore, a comparison between the originals and their translations should make it possible to draw parallels and identify differences between diverse conjunctions in the two languages. The selection included works by a large number of authors, so as to obtain a wide variety of constructions and expressions used for establishing the causal relationship in English and Macedonian. The Appendix includes an extensive list of liter- ary sources from which examples for this paper were taken, as well as their abbreviations. The majority of examples in the samples unequivocally encode a causal interpretation, however, there are also those where a causal relationship is covertly present and readers are encouraged to recognize it on their own. More precisely, the second case has causality expressed implicitly by means of asyn- deton, coordinating conjunctions and participle forms, whereas the first case has it explicitly expressed through prepositions at the clause level, conjunctions of hypotaxis at the complex-sentence level, and through adverbs and adverbial expressions at the level of discourse. This paper primarily focuses on the subordinating conjunctions used to es- tablish a causal relationship between clauses in English and Macedonian, while also briefly discussing coordinating conjunctions used for the same purpose. 4 Results and Discussion The distribution of the English conjunctions that have most frequently been used for explicit expression of causality in the sample of English literature used in this study was as follows: because (65.03%), for (20.86%), since (8.85%) and as (5.26%). Naturally, because is the predominantly used causal conjunction by far. This is due to several factors: its distinctly causal meaning, its stylistic neutrality, the variety of constructions in which it occurs, the ability to func- tion both as an adjunct and as a style disjunct. Worthy of note is also its ability to introduce clauses that occur in different positions in the sentence: initial, medial and final. As a result of the many restrictions imposed on its use, the conjunction for is approximately three times less frequent in this English literature sample than because. Since and as have even a lower frequency, which can be attributed to their semantic variability and multifunctionality. Namely, in addition to introducing clauses of reason, these two conjunctions encode other relations: time (since), and time, manner and comparison (as). Also, their inability to — 157 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … appear in constructions characteristic of adjuncts further contributes to their less frequent use. It should be noted that the abovementioned sequence of the most frequently used causal conjunctions from this study coincides with the findings from studies of causal linking in the Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (LOB) corpus of British English written texts (Quirk et al. 1985: 1107; Altenberg 1984: 41). This section discusses the following conjunctions as the main indicators of causal relations: because, for, as and since. Apart from them, some minor conjunctions also indicate causality (seeing that, as long as, in case, in that, inasmuch as, insofar as, now (that), while), however, the notion of causality in these minor conjunctions is usually intertwined with another shade of meaning. The distribution of conjunctions used to express causality in samples of Mac- edonian literature, on the other hand, was as follows: зашто (66.67%), затоа што (14.09%), бидејќи (11.92%), оти (6.78%) and дека (0.54%) (Stojanovska- Ilievska 2009: 229) . Three of these conjunctions are used to indicate exclusively a causal relation between two clauses (зашто, затоа што, бидејќи). Indeed, the study showed that зашто is the predominantly used conjunction, which can be explained with its stylistic neutrality, its ability to occur in different sentence positions and the wide range of constructions in which it is used. Дека and оти have both undergone functional derivation from complemen- tizers to causal conjunctive predicates (Topolinjska 1997: 72). The causal use of both дека and оти is typical of conversational style (Ǵurkova 2019). The fact that дека ‘that’ is the least frequently used conjunction expressing causality can be attributed to its primary and extensive use as a complementizer in comple- ment clauses. Moreover, дека is more commonly used as a complementizer than оти in present-day literary Macedonian (Koneski 1986: 123). Alongside the above-mentioned five conjunctions, several other conjunctions can express causality. Пошто and чим are characteristic of several regional dialects. They are typically used in conversational style and are not consid- ered standard (Minova-Ǵurkova 2003: 130, 141). The use of пошто has been intensified in colloquial speech under the influence of Serbian and Croatian (Minova-Ǵurkova 2000: 256). On the other hand, чунки and дилми, which were borrowed from Turkish during the period of Ottoman rule in the Balkans (Koneski 1986: 218), are now considered archaic and obsolete in present-day Macedonian. — 158 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska 4.1 Conjunctions used exclusively to indicate causality between two clauses 4.1.1 English For The status of for as a conjunction with which the causal relation is realized is questionable. According to some authors, it should be treated as a conjunc- tion of parataxis, while others place it among the conjunctions of hypotaxis. Quirk at al. (1985: 1104–1105) analyse it in the section on causal subordinators although they note that its status is close to that of a coordinating conjunction. According to Jespersen (1954: 392), on the other hand, for is generally consid- ered to be a coordinating conjunction, because the clause introduced with for is always in postposition, similar to the conjunctions denn in German and car in French. However, from a historical perspective, for has been a subordinat- ing conjunction, as demonstrated in examples where the clause introduced by for is in preposition. According to Huddleston and Pullum (2002: 1321–1322), for as a conjunction signalling a causal relation differs from subordinators in that it is unable to appear in initial position and it is impossible for clauses beginning with for to be coordinated with and. For as a conjunction signalling a causal relation also differs from coordinators since coordinators connect a variety of categories, while for is limited to connecting finite clauses. Thomson and Martinet (1986), further on, maintain that the use of for as a causal conjunction is more limited than that of because due to the fact that a clause introduced with for cannot be preceded by not or but or any other conjunction. Also, it does not come as a response to a why question. Accord- ing to the authors, a clause introduced with for ‘does not tell us why a certain action was performed, but merely presents a piece of additional information which helps to explain it’ (Thomson & Martinet 1986: 290–291). The Collins Cobuild grammar (Sinclair 2017: 905) indicates that the use of for with causal meaning is considered ‘old-fashioned’, and Quirk et al. (1985: 1104) state that this use of for is considered ‘somewhat formal’. Examples from the English literature sample confirm that clauses introduced by for do not appear in sentence-initial position, and the translation equivalents are зашто (1), ø – where the translator is believed to assume that the causal relation is implied even without the use of a conjunction (2) and бидејќи (3). (1) His tongue was tired for he had been talking all the afternoon in a public-house in Dorset Street. (D) Јазикот му отежна, зашто целото попладне зборуваше во кафеаната во Досет улицата. — 159 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … (2) He did not question her again, for he felt that she would tell him of herself. (D) Повеќе не се запрашуваше, ø знаеше дека и сама ќе му раскажува. (3) Evidently it surprised her as much as it did me, for she yawned and with a series of rapid, deft movements stood up into the room. (GG) Очигледно и таа беше изненадена колку и јас бидејќи се проѕевна и нагло стана. Example (3) illustrates the use of clauses with for as style disjuncts, i.e., indi- cators of indirect reason (reason for the speech act, not for the stated conse- quence). Therefore, yawning and getting up abruptly are not reasons for her being surprised, but rather reasons for the speaker to conclude that she was surprised. The Macedonian translation suggests that the conjunction бидејќи can be used for the same purpose. The sample in this study included several examples with a clause with for containing causal meaning appearing in isolation. In those cases, however, the sentence with for was separated from the previous sentence only by means of punctuation. Example (4) below, thus, shows that the idea conveyed in the sentence introduced with for builds on the meaning of the previous sentence. (4) …and I was terribly impressed by the tragedy of a sane, normal, saintly man be- ing crushed by the brutal will of society. For the Bishop was sane, and pure, and noble. (IH) Страшно бев потресена од трагедијата на овој здрав, нормален, свесен човек, кого го здроби бруталната волја на општеството. Зашто епископот беше здрав, и чист и благороден. According to Thomson and Martinet (1986: 291), the pause that is usually made in speech before uttering a clause introduced with for is reflected in writing in the form of a punctuation mark: a comma or a full stop. The latter case is illustrated in example (4). Because According to Jespersen (1954: 390, 391), because (derived from bi (by) + cause) is a conjunction which has been in frequent use since the 14th century. He also mentions the rare use of for because with the same meaning, but no example of this construction was found in our sample. On the other hand, the abbreviated forms ‘cause and ‘cos are widely spread in present-day colloquial speech. The abbreviations were also not detected in the English literature sample, partly because they are a characteristic feature of conversational style. According to Quirk et al. (1985: 1106), adjunct reason clauses with because can occur in sentence-initial position, which, however, is not the case with style disjuncts with the same conjunction, as they only occur in final position. — 160 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska The examples below show that constructions in which because occurs are very diverse. In the literature sample, clauses introduced with because appear in sentence-initial (5) and sentence-final (6) position. There were also instances of clauses introduced with because that were coordinated with and (7) and or (8). Moreover, some clauses succeeded each other but contained no coordinator (9). (5) Because she was very pretty, they gave it excellent space and drew scrolls about it. (SC) Бидејќи беше многу убава ѝ дадоа видно место со текст под неа. (6) She made no answer, because she could think of nothing to say. (SC) Кери не одговори ништо зашто не знаеше како треба. (7) No; you’re not feeding me now for work performed. You are feeding me because everybody else is feeding me and because it is an honor to feed me. (ME) Не; вие сега не ме храните поради вложениот труд. Вие ме храните затоа што и сите други ме хранат, и затоа што ви прави чест да ме храните. (8) John was discharged from shop after shop, and never because he was incompetent or because the customers disliked him – at least, they never disliked him till the Great Fact was whispered to them. (KR) И така Џона го отпуштаа од еден дуќан, па од друг, никогаш поради тоа што не беше добар работник или поради тоа што не го сакаа клиентите , туку, во најмала рака, тие секогаш го сакаа додека некој не им го дошепнеше оној голем факт. (9) He hated her because she was young and pretty and sexless, because he wanted to go to bed with her and would never do so, because round her sweet supple waist, which seemed to ask you to encircle it with your arm, there was only the odious scarlet sash, aggressive symbol of chastity. (NEF) Ја мразеше затоа што беше млада и згодна и несексуална, затоа што тој сакаше да појде со неа в постела, а никогаш нема да го стори тоа, затоа што околу нејзината слатка тенка половина, која како да те повикува да ја опфатиш со рака, се наоѓаше само оној одвратен црвен појас, тој агресивен симбол на невиност. Several types of constructions with because-clauses of reason were registered that meet the defining criteria for adjunct status. Namely, a clause of reason with because as a subordinate conjunction can be in the focus of an it-cleft (10), emphasizing that it is precisely this reason that leads to the action of the main clause. Because may also be the focus of negation in the construction not because… but because… (11). Furthermore, dependent clauses of reason can have a focusing subjunct, such as only, simply, etc., appear before because (12). Evidently, in question-answer sequences, one possible response to the question word why is for the answer to be introduced directly with because (13). — 161 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … (10) “I have been reading your ‘Working-class Philosophy’,” I said, and his eyes lighted in a pleased way. “Of course,” he answered, “you took into consideration the audience to which it was addressed.” “I did, and it is because I did that I have a quarrel with you,” I challenged. (IH) “Ја читав вашата “Филозофија на работничката класа,” реков, а очите му засветкаа од задоволство. “Се надевам,” ми одговори, “ги имавте на ум читателите на кои им е наменета таа.” “Да, токму затоа што ги имав, сега сакам да порасправам со Вас,” го предизвикував. (11) Why, you whelp, you even won other fellows’ girls away from them, not because you wanted the girls, but because in the marrow of those about you, those who set your moral pace, was the instinct of the wild stallion and the bull-seal. (ME) Па ти, момче, дури и одземаше девојки од други, не затоа што девојки ти беа потребни, туку затоа што во мозокот на оние околу тебе, се наоѓаше инстинктот на пастув и бик. (12) Often she was ready to accept the official mythology, simply because the difference between truth and falsehood did not seem important to her. (NEF) Често беше подготвена да ја прифати официјалната митологија, просто затоа што разликата меѓу вистината и фалсификатот за неа немаше никакво значење. (13) “Why didn’t you kill him?” he demanded in a sour, discontented voice. “Because I could do better than that,” Brown said with an amused smile. (LJ) “Зошто не го убивте?” прашал со остар и незадоволен глас. “Бидејќи мо жам да сторам нешто по добро о д тоа, ” рек ол Бра ун со весела насмевка. Example (14) will also serve to illustrate the appearance of the causal conjunc- tion because in sentence-initial position, when the main clause specifying the consequence does not appear in postposition. In such cases, the consequence is specified in the preceding sentence and is separated from the sentence with because by a full stop. (14) And the reason he was elected, the simple and obvious reason, was because Ernie wouldn’t let us nominate him. Because he’s so darn shy and modest and all. (CR) А причината зошто беше избран, е едноставна и очигледна. Ерн не дозволи да го кандидираме. Затоа што е така лудо скромен и повлечен и сé друго. The sentence introduced with because in the above example thus builds on the previous idea in the following manner: Ernie wouldn’t let us nominate him — 162 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska because he’s so darn shy and modest and all. Cases in which because occurs after a period are considered stylistically marked. In the translation we have затоа што ‘because’, and зашто, which can also be used in such function, as the analysis of the Macedonian conjunctions will show. Example (15) illustrates the use of because as a subordinator indicating an indirect reason. In such cases because-clauses are style disjuncts and appear exclusively in sentence final position. The clause introduced by because does not indicate the reason why the speaker did not sleep too long, but the reason why the speaker says he did not sleep too long. Therefore, it can only be inter- preted as a reason for the speech act. (15) I didn’t sleep too long, because I think it was only around ten o’clock when I woke up. (CR) Не спиев многу време, бидејќи мислам дека, кога се разбудив, беше веќе некаде околу десет часот. From all the above examples we can conclude that затоа што, бидејќи, зашто, поради тоа што can be expected to be the most common translation equivalents of because. 4.1.2 Macedonian Зашто The conjunction зашто derives from the Greek conjunction γιατί and it gener - ally replaces оти in literary language (Koneski 1986: 124). In present-day Mac - edonian, зашто is used more frequently than оти even in colloquial language. This predominantly used causal conjunction appears in various constructions, which explains its widespread use. Зашто is most frequently used when the reason clause follows the clause introducing the consequence (16). (16) Потоа го советуваа да остане уште некое време, зашто книгите се продаваа добро. (PČ) Then they advised him to stay for a while, because the books sold well. There were also occasional examples where зашто is used in correlation with затоа ‘therefore’ to emphasise the strength of the relationship of causality, as in (17). (17) Затоа и го советувала својот маж да престане да ги осакатува со чинки овците, зашто природата нејзе ѝ се одмаздува, неродилка е. (DKV) This was why she advised her husband to stop crippling the sheep with his spells, because nature took revenge on her: she was childless. — 163 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … When a clause introduced by зашто is placed in sentence-initial position, as in (18), its English translation tends to be since, because English reason clauses in initial position are primarily introduced by since or as (Quirk et al. 1985: 1107) . (18) И зашто навистина секој ден имал свое зло, тој понекогаш ја совладувал жестокоста на сушите со теургија. (DKV) And since every day really had enough evils of its own, he sometimes beat the fierceness of the draughts with theurgy. When the reason clause introduced with зашто is used on its own, it generally portrays the reason for the previously mentioned situation, as in (19). In such cases the reason and consequence occur in two distinct sentences separated by a full stop, while still being causally related. The English translation is for, which is, as shown in example (4), used in a similar fashion as its Macedonian counterpart. (19) Го знаел тоа и се насмевнал во себе. Зашто тој бил волшебник. (DKV) He knew that and smiled within himself. For he was a sorcerer. Бидејќи From among all Macedonian causal conjunctions, бидејќи occurs most fre- quently when clauses of reason are in initial position (Gegovski 2013: 21; Stojanovska-Ilievska 2009: 229). This could be attributed to the fact that clauses introduced with бидејќи tend to present given, rather than new information. This might be related to the fact that the form of the conjunction itself is a historical development of the active present participle of the verb ‘be’ in Old Church Slavonic (Lunt 1952: 76; Topolinjska 1997: 71, 95; Gegovski 2013: 47, 64; Friedman 2001: 36; Stojanovska-Ilievska 2013: 207). The translation of бидејќи when the clause of reason is in initial or medial position tends to be since, as in (20, 21), but when it is in final position the translation is generally because, as in (22). (20) Тие, бидејќи првиот пат не наздравија, тоа го сторија сега. (AMPR) Since they hadn’t toasted each other the first time, they did so now. (21) … му реков на професорот дека […] сѐ што отсекогаш сум сакала е да бидам покрај него, а бидејќи музиката била единствената легитимна можност за тоа, сум свирела часови, денови, месеци и години … (SK) …I told the professor that […] all I ever wanted was to be by him, and since mu- sic was the only legitimate chance to achieve that, I had played for hours, days, months and years … — 164 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska Clauses of reason introduced with бидејќи can also express an indirect reason, or a motivation for the speech act, as in (22) where the clause of reason specifies the reason why the narrator came to the conclusion that the author (character in the short story) writes about his own dilemmas. (22) Авторот пишува за некои свои дилеми, за идентитетот на својот јунак односно за самиот себе бидејќи текстот е пишуван во прво лице. (AMPR) The author writes about some dilemmas of his, about the identity of his hero, that is, himself, because it’s written in the first person. Затоа што Затоа што is another commonly used Macedonian causal conjunction. The clauses introduced by затоа што typically occur in sentence-final position, as in (23), and hardly ever were there examples of such clauses in sentence- initial position. (23) Но тогаш се свестуваш дека тоа повеќе нема за тебе никакво значење, затоа што било не ни сон туку само полусон. (NDBR) But then you realize that has no meaning for you anymore, because it wasn’t even a dream, just half a dream. This conjunction can be preceded by a focusing subjunct, such as само ‘only’ (Stojanovska-Ilievska 2009), as is example (24). It is generally translated to because in English. (24) … имаше и филмови кои ни изгледаа како нови само затоа што Ноно Бесонов ги пушташе од крајот кон почетокот, или свртени наопаку. (BZD) …there were also films that seemed new to us only because Nono Besonov pro- jected them from end to beginning, or upside down. 4.2 Conjunctions used to indicate multiple semantic relations between two clauses 4.2.1 English As and Since Swan (1995: 72) believes that as and since are used when the cause is known to the speaker/reader or when it is not the most essential part of the sentence, as opposed to because which emphasizes the importance of the cause and in- troduces information unknown to the speaker/reader. For this reason clauses introduced by as and since normally appear in initial position, while clauses — 165 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … introduced by because more frequently appear in the final position. From a functional sentence perspective, this would mean that clauses introduced with as and since generally have the status of theme/given information, while those introduced by because have the status of rheme/new information in the sentence. Adverbial clauses of reason with as and since are content disjuncts, as opposed to temporal adverbial clauses with the same conjunctions which are classified as adjuncts. Quirk et al. (1985: 1105) state that the appearance of as and since in both temporal and causal adverbial clauses testifies to the relation- ship between temporal sequencing and causation. As a result, some sentences can have ambiguous interpretations. As According to Jespersen (1954: 391), as, which was originally used in compari- son, often appears as a causal conjunction, mainly to serve as an explanation of the main clause. Examples from the literary sample in our research show that dependent clauses of reason introduced by as occur in initial (25, 26), medial (27) and final position (28). Since the clauses of reason introduced by as are not adjuncts, they cannot be expected to appear in the focus of an it-cleft, question, negation or a focusing subjunct. (25) As the clients were both male, the chief clerk allowed himself a laugh. (D) Бидејќи двајцата посетители беа мажи, главниот писар се насмеа. (26) As the husband was often away and the daughter out giving music lessons Mr.Duffy had many opportunities of enjoying the lady’s society. (D) Бидејќи мажот беше често отсутен, а ќерката излегуваше давајќи часови по музика, господин Дафи имаше доста можности да ужива во друштвото на госпоѓата. (27) Tom Crenway, as he could not think of anything reproving to say, just looked it. (KR) Том Кренвеј, бидејќи не си споменуваше на ништо за што би можел да му префрли, едноставно изгледаше таков. (28) She turned her head as there was a light dignified knocking at the front door. (GG) Таа ја сврти главата затоа што на вратата се слушна тивко тропање. When clauses of reason occur in initial and medial position, as tends to be translated with бидејќи, however, when these clauses occur in final position it is commonly translated as затоа што. — 166 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska Since According to Jespersen (1954: 391–392), since, which was originally a prepo- sition, is not only used as a temporal conjunction, but also as a causal one. Zandvoort (1975: 216), on the other hand, suggests that since introduces a reason which is presented as an undeniable fact. Examples from the sample in this study show that dependent clauses of reason introduced by since occur in sen ten ce- ini ti al ( 2 9 ) an d - final pos i ti o n (30). Neither clauses of reason introduced by as nor those introduced by since are adjuncts. Therefore, there are no registered instances in which they appear in the focus of an it-cleft, question, negation or focusing subjunct. (29) Since he did not in fact know what kind of help he expected from O’Brien, it was not easy to say why he had come here. (NEF) Бидејќи не знаеше точно каква помош очекува од О’Брајан, не му беше лесно ни да каже зошто дошле. (30) The chessboard was always waiting for him, his corner table was always reserved; even when the place was full he had it to himself, since nobody cared to be seen sitting too close to him. (NEF) Шаховската табла секогаш го чекаше, неговата маса во аголот беше секогаш резервирана; дури и кога местото беше полно, тој седеше сам покрај неа, затоа што никој не сакаше да биде виден како седи блиску до него. Macedonian translation equivalents of since in the sample were the following: since in sentence initial position was primarily translated as бидејќи ‘because’, while in final position it was translated as затоа што ‘because’. Alongside content disjuncts (as in the examples above), since can also in- troduce a style disjunct. Style disjuncts with since can occur in both sentence- initial and sentence-final position. Example (31) demonstrates the use of since as a subordinator introducing a style disjunct for an indirect reason. (31) “Why? I’d be interested to know - I really would.” “I simply happen to find Eastern philosophy more satisfactory than Western. Since you ask.” (CR) “Зошто? Сакам да го знам тоа – навистина ме интересира.” “Едноставно, заради тоа што сметам дека источњачката филозофија подобро ми одговара од западната. Кога веќе прашуваш.” ‘Since you ask’ in the example above does not provide the reason why Eastern philosophy is more suitable for the speaker, but the reason why the speaker says that Eastern philosophy is more suitable for him. Therefore, ‘Since you ask’ can only be interpreted as a reason for the speech act, which makes it a style disjunct. — 167 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … Style disjuncts are normally separated from the main clause both by into- nation and punctuation, and in this particular example, the intonation pause is captured by the punctuation mark full stop. However, it is clear that ‘Since you ask’ builds on the previous sentence as follows: I simply happen to find Eastern philosophy more satisfactory than Western, since you ask. Although the construction used in the Macedonian translation contains the temporal conjunction кога ‘when’, it has here lost its temporal meaning and is used to express a fulfilled condition, so its use resembles a combination of condition and reason (Minova-Ǵurkova 1997: 164). 4.2.2 Macedonian Дека and Оти Both дека and оти are used primarily as complementizers, and their use as causal subordinators is limited to conversational style. There were few instances in the samples of оти with a causal interpretation, and even fewer such exam- ples with дека, possibly because дека seems to take precedence over оти in its use as a complementizer in present-day Macedonian. Дека is a calque from the Greek conjunction ποũ, which means ‘where’ when used as an adverb, just like the Macedonian conjunction (дека < kъde-ka) (Koneski 1986: 123; Gegovski 2013: 47). Оти is a borrowing from Greek and the fact that Greek provided Macedonian with even function word borrowings testifies to the intensity of the Greek influence on Macedonian (Koneski 1986: 214). Koneski (1967: 538) states that the conjunction оти occurs more frequently as a complementizer than a causal conjunction. While clauses of reason in - troduced by бидејќи tend to occur in preposition within complex sentences, those introduced by оти generally appear in postposition in complex sentences. This suggests that the two conjunctions are related to different communicative perspectives (Topolinjska 1997: 71; Gegovski 2013: 40). The most commonly used translation equivalent is because. This applies both to situations where оти introduces a clause specifying the reason for the event in the previous clause (32), and also to situations where оти introduces the motivation for the speech act rather than the real reason for the event mentioned in the preceding clause to take place (33). (32) »Како зајакот« – одговори жената, а другите замолчаа оти им се пристори дека споредбата не е умесна. (AMPR) »Like the rabbit,« answered the woman, and the others kept quiet, because the comparison didn’t seem proper to them. — 168 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska (33) … страшен тресок одекна низ Домот кој веќе беше празен и пуст, всушност мислевме дека е празен и пуст оти беше поминало доста време по завршувањето на настапот и публиката се беше разотишла. (SK) …a terrible jolt echoed through the empty and deserted House of Culture—actually we thought it was empty and deserted, because it was long after the concert had ended and the visitors had all gone. Штом and Кога Both штом and кога are primarily used as temporal subordinators but they can also be used to suggest a causal-conditional interpretation of complex sen- tences in which they occur (Minova-Ǵurkova 1997: 48–49, 164), cf. (34) and (35). In such instances they are oftentimes translated with since and as, which are themselves multifunctional subordinators, whose meanings range from temporal to causal. Sometimes the causal interpretation is reinforced by тогаш ‘then’, as in the correlative conjunctions кога … тогаш ‘since/as… then’. The use of these conjunctions in postposed and preposed clauses of indirect/direct reason is illustrated in examples (34) and (35), respectively. Кога and штом can also be interpreted as indicating a fulfilled condition (Minova-Ǵurkova 1997: 49; Minova-Ǵurkova 2000: 267), as in (35). (34) Да, дури сега нешто најпосле ќе мора да се случи штом му се испречи улица пред патот и штом не постои начин, друг пат, таа да се заобиколи, та да се избегне. (MZP) Yes, now at last something had to happen, since a road cut right across his path and since there was no other choice, no detour he could make, no way in which he could avoid it. (35) — Кога си решила, […] тогаш […] треба да се замонасиш тогаш кога ќе го осетиш искушението да бидеш жена. (OIA) — As you have decided, […] Then, she said, you should take your vows when you feel the temptation to be a woman. 4.3 Conjunctions Indicating Implicit Causality in English and Macedonian The establishment of a cause-and-effect relation between independent clauses by the English coordinator and and the Macedonian coordinators и, па and та is demonstrated in examples (36) – (38) respectively. (36) His long and freckled hands were deft, and he did a worthy job…(KR) Неговите долги дамчести раце беа вешти и тој солидно ја заврши работата… — 169 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … (37) “I was able to do the commissioner a favour once, and he sends me a Christmas card every year.” (GG) “Му направив услуга во една пригода, па секој Божиќ ми праќа честитка.” (38) Некако случајно, таа нашла негови скриени пари и купувала во соседните села месо и живина. (Č) She accidentally stumbled across his hoard of money, and bought meat and poultry in neighbouring villages. Linguistic literature has to date frequently confirmed that coordinators (and, и) can in compound sentences evoke a causal or simply temporal interpretation (Lyons 1995: 162–163, 286–287; Minova-Ǵurkova 1997: 23–24; Topolinjska 1997: 12; Stojanovska-Ilievska 2011: 143–147) but the assumed temporal se - quencing and causality do not necessarily apply to all instances of coordinator usе. The causal interpretation, when possible, arises as a result of the supposed compliance with Grice’s cooperative principle, and his maxims of relevance and manner (especially orderliness). Thus, the linear order in which events are described is perceived to reflect the temporal sequencing of the events. In addi- tion, it is also inferred that the second event occurs as a result of the first one. In order to intensify the sense of causal relatedness coordinators are often- times accompanied by adverbials such as therefore in English and затоа in Macedonian (Quirk et al. 1985: 930; Minova-Ǵurkova 1997: 24). The interpreta - tions of temporal sequencing and cause-and-effect relationship are not included within the coordinators themselves. They do, however, occur as a result of implicature or inferential enrichment (Mauri & Auwera 2012: 383–384) from the perceived temporal sequentionality of two coordinated events. In such cases the coordinators and and и are not equivalent to the conjunction & in the logical operation of conjunction, because p & q should have the same truth value as q & p and in cases of conversational implicature truth-conditions do not apply. 5 Conclusions The present study based on English and Macedonian literary samples draws the following conclusions: the most important English causal conjunctions are: as, because, for, since, while minor conjunctions include: seeing that, as long as, in case, in that, inasmuch as, insofar as, now (that) and while, in which the causal meaning is intertwined with another shade of meaning. Among Mac- edonian conjunctions functioning as markers of causality, causal conjunctions зашто, затоа што and бидејќи were primarily used, all of them restricted to conveying a causal meaning. The complementizers оти and дека were also discussed in examples where they introduce clauses of reason, as well as the primarily temporal conjunctions кога and штом. It is worth noting that both languages have one predominant conjunction as indicator of causal meaning: — 170 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska because in English and зашто in Macedonian., Each of them has a share of over 65% in the clauses of reason in the selected samples, and this can be at- tributed to their neutral register, their being monosemous, and to the multitude of constructions in which they occur. The data from the samples show that clauses of reason appear primarily in sentence-final position in both languages, though they can occur in initial position, and very rarely also in medial position. Both languages have been observed to make a distinction between a direct cause and an indirect cause, i.e., a reason for the speech act and a motivation for the speech act. The sample demonstrates that the same conjunctions were used to indicate both a direct reason and an indirect reason. REFERENCES Bengt ALTENBERG, 1984: Causal Linking in Spoken and Written English. Studia Linguistica 38, 20–69. Victor FRIEDMAN, 2001: Macedonian. Durham: Duke University, Slavic and Eurasian Language Resource Center. Rodney HUDDLESTON, Geoffrey PULLUM, 2002: The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Otto JESPERSEN, 1954: A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles (Vol. 4). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Horace G. LUNT, 1952: А Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language. Skopje: Državno knigoizdatelstvo na NR Makedonija. John LYONS, 1995: Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Caterina MAURI, Johan van der AUWERA, 2012: Connectives. The Cambridge Hand - book of Pragmatics. Eds. Keith Allan, Ksasia M. Jaszczolt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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Slavistički studii 15–16, 205–212.] Зузана ТОПОЛИЊСКА, 1997: Македонските дијалекти во Егејска Македонија, книга 1, Синтакса, II дел. Скопје: МАНУ . [Zuzanna TOPOLINJSKA, 1997: Make- donskite dijalekti vo Egejska Makedonija, kniga 1, Sintaksa, II del. Skopje: MANU.] Appendix LITERARY SOURCES AND ABBREVIATIONS English George ORWELL, 1989: Nineteen Eighty-Four. London: Penguin Books Ltd. (NEF) Џорџ ОРВЕЛ, 1998: 1984 . Скопје: Детска радост. Превод: Невенка Митревска. F.Scott FITZGERALD, 1994: The Great Gatsby. London: Penguin Books Ltd. (GG) — 172 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska Ф. Скот ФИЦЏЕРАЛД, 2004: Големиот Гетсби. Скопје: Медиа принт Македонија. Превод: Снежана Вулгаракис. James JOYCE, 1993: Dubliners. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited. (D) Џемс ЏОЈС, 1989: Даблинци. Скопје: Македонска книга. Превод: Томе Момировски. Joseph CONRAD, 1993: Lord Jim. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd. (LJ) Џозеф КОНРАД, 1976: Лордот Џим. Скопје: Македонска книга. Превод: Вера Чаповска. Jack LONDON, 1982: The Iron Heel in Novels and Social Writings (The People of the Abyss, The Road, The Iron Heel, Martin Eden, John Barleycorn). New York: Literary Classics of the United States. (IH) Џек ЛОНДОН, 1988: Железната петица. Скопје: Мисла. Превод: Августина Гулеска – Хајдиќ. Jack LONDON, 1982: Martin Eden in Novels and Social Writings (The People of the Abyss, The Road, The Iron Heel, Martin Eden, John Barleycorn). New York: Literary Classics of the United States. (ME) Џек ЛОНДОН, 1989: Мартин Идн. Скопје: Култура. Превод: Мето Јовановски. Sinclair LEWIS, 1947: Kingsblood Royal. New York: Random House. (KR) Синклер ЛУИС, 2005: Кралска крв. Скопје: Медиа принт Македонија. Превод: Марика Паунова. J. D. SALINGER, 1961: The Catcher in the Rye. New York: New American Library of World Literature Inc. (CR) Џером Д. СЕЛИНЏЕР, 2004: Игра во ‘ржта. Скопје: Нова наша книга. Превод: Инда Костова-Савиќ. Theodore DREISER, 1970: Sister Carrie. New Y ork: W . W . Norton & Company. (SC) Теодор ДРАЈЗЕР, 1979: Сестрата Кери. Скопје: Мисла. Превод: Илинка Смилевска. Macedonian Славко ЈАНЕВСКИ, 1988: Чудотворци. Скопје: Македонска книга. (Č) Slavko JANEVSKI, 1997: Miracle Workers. Skopje: Detska Radost. Translated by Zoran Ančevski and David Bowen. Славко ЈАНЕВСКИ, 1989: Девет Керубинови векови. Скопје: Македонска книга. (DKV) Slavko JANEVSKI, 1997: The Nine Centuries of Kerubin. Skopje: Detska Radost. Translated by Snežana Nikolovska-Nečovska. Игор ИСАКОВСКИ, 2002: Песочен часовник. Скопје: Магор. (PČ) Igor ISAKOVSKI, 2004: Sandglass (on Babylonia CD-Rom). Skopje: Blesok. Translated by Elizabeta Bakovska. — 173 — A Contrastive Study of English and Macedonian Conjunctions Used to Express … Саво ЦВЕТАНОВСКИ (ур.), 1990: Антологија на македонскиот пост- модернистички расказ. Скопје: Наша книга. (AMPR) Savo CVETANOVSKI (ур.), 1990: Anthology of the Macedonian postmodern short story. Skopje: Naša kniga. Translated by Milena Mitrovska and Michael Black. Блаже МИНЕВСКИ, 2000: Орелот и Агнија во Тајна одаја: Антологија на македонскиот расказ на XX век. Скопје: Три. (OIA) Blaže MINEVSKI, 2001: The Eagle and Agnija in Kata Ḱulavkova (ed.) Caesarean Cut – Macedonian short stories. Skopje: Macedonian P.E.N. Centre. Translated by Elizabeta Bakovska. Оливера ЌОРВЕЗИРОСКА, 2003: Струшкиот клавир во Оливера Ќорвезироска. (С)плетени раскази. Скопје: Магор. (SK) Olivera ḰORVEZIROSKA, 2001: The Struga Piano in Kata Ḱulavkova (ed.) Caesarean Cut – Macedonian short stories (CD-ROM). Skopje: Macedonian P.E.N. Centre. Trans- lated by Ljubica Arsovska and Margaret Reid. Димитар СОЛЕВ, 1994: Ни ден без ред во Разгледи 7–10, 452–465 (NDBR) Dimitar SOLEV, 2001: Not a Day without Order in Kata Ḱulavkova (ed.) Caesarean Cut – Macedonian short stories (CD-ROM). Skopje: Macedonian P.E.N. Centre. Translated by Elizabeta Bakovska. Богомил ЃУЗЕЛ, 2003: Машина за пишување во Игор Исаковски (ур.) Ернест. Babylonia CD-ROM. Skopje: Blesok. (MZP) Bogomil ǴUZEL, 2003: The Typewriter in Igor Isakovski (ed.) Ernest. Babylonia CD- ROM. Skopje: Blesok. Translated by Alan McConnell. Блаже МИНЕВСКИ, 2003: Балкан за деца во Игор Исаковски (ур.) Ернест. Baby- lonia CD-ROM. Скопје: Блесок. (BZD) Blaže MINEVSKI, 2003: The Balkans For Children in Igor Isakovski (ed.) Ernest. Baby- lonia CD-ROM. Skopje: Blesok. Translated by Zoran Anchevski and Richard Gaughran. KONTRASTIVNA ŠTUDIJA ANGLEŠKIH IN MAKEDONSKIH VEZNIKOV ZA IZRAŽANJE VZROČNOSTI Jeziki imajo različne mehanizme za izražanje vzročnosti, od katerih so le nekateri eks - plicitni, kot so predlogi, vezniki in povezovalni prislovi. Prispevek na podlagi vzorcev proznih literarnih besedil v angleščini in makedonščini ter njihovih objavljenih prevodov raziskuje angleške in makedonske vzročne zveze. Nekateri med njimi se uporabljajo samo za označevanje vzročnosti med dvema stavkoma, obstajajo pa tudi vezniki, ki se uporabljajo predvsem za izražanje časovnega razmerja, vendar so sčasoma razvili vzročni pomen. Usklajevalni vezniki imajo lahko tudi (manj eksplicitno) vzročno raz - lago, ki izhaja iz zaznane časovne sekvence dveh usklajenih dogodkov. V obeh jezikih je bilo ugotovljeno, da razmerja resnične vzročnosti med stavkoma ni mogoče vedno vzpostaviti, saj obstajajo situacije, v katerih dejanje, prikazano v odvisnem stavku, ni dejanski vzrok dogodka, prikazanega v glavnem stavku, ampak odvisni stavek preprosto navaja motivacijo za govorno dejanje. Čeprav se lahko zdi, da so različni vzročni vezniki medsebojno zamenljivi, se ob natančnejšem pregledu izkaže, da obstajajo omejitve pri — 174 — Slavia Centralis 2/2023 Natasha Stojanovska-Ilievska uporabi določenih veznikov, npr. stavki, uvedeni z angleškim veznikom for, se običaj- no ne pojavljajo v začetnem položaju povedi. Drug primer je, da so nekatere vzročne zveze običajno povezane z določenim jezikovnim stilom. Ugotovljeno je, da vzročna raba makedonskih veznikov дека in оти v leposlovnih besedilih ni niti približno tako pogosta kot raba зашто, ki je nevtralen in najpogosteje uporabljan vzročni veznik v makedonskem korpusu.