60 2 0 2 4 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Glavni urednici / Editors-in-Chief Kristina Toplak, Marijanca Ajša Vižintin Odgovorna urednica / Editor-in-Charge Marina Lukšič Hacin Tehnični urednik / Technical Editor Tadej Turnšek Mednarodni uredniški odbor / International Editorial Board Synnove Bendixsen, Ulf Brunnbauer, Aleš Bučar Ručman, Martin Butler, Daniela l. Caglioti, Jasna Čapo, Donna Gabaccia, Jure Gombač, Ketil Fred Hansen, Damir Josipovič, Aleksej Kalc, Jernej Mlekuž, Claudia Morsut, Ikhlas Nouh Osman, Nils Olav Østrem, Lydia Potts, Maya Povrzanović Frykman, Francesco Della Puppa, Jaka Repič, Rudi Rizman, Matteo Sanfilippo, Annemarie Steidl, Urška Strle, Adam Walaszek, Rolf Wörsdörfer, Simona Zavratnik, Janja Žitnik Serafin Lektoriranje in korektura / Copyediting and proofreading Jana Renée Wilcoxen (angleški jezik / English) Tadej Turnšek (slovenski jezik / Slovenian) Oblikovanje / Design Anja Žabkar Prelom / Typesetting Inadvertising d. o. o. Založila / Published by ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC Izdal / Issued by ZRC SAZU, Inštitut za slovensko izseljenstvo in migracije / ZRC SAZU, Slovenian Migration Institute, Založba ZRC Tisk / Printed by Birografika Bori, Ljubljana Naklada / Printum 150 Naslov uredništva / Editorial Office Address INŠTITUT ZA SLOVENSKO IZSELJENSTVO IN MIGRACIJE ZRC SAZU p. p. 306, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija Tel.: +386 (0)1 4706 485; Fax +386 (0)1 4257 802 E-naslov / E-mail: dd-th@zrc-sazu.si Spletna stran / Website: https://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/twohomelands Revija izhaja s pomočjo Javne agencije za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije in Urada Vlade Republike Slovenije za Slovence v zamejstvu in po svetu / Financial support: Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency and Government Office for Slovenians Abroad ISSN 0353-6777 ISSN 1581-1212 203 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 C C B Y 4 . 0 | h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 3 9 8 6 / 2 0 2 4 . 2 . 1 1 I PhD student of sociology; HSE University, Faculty of Social Science, Doctoral School of Sociol- ogy, Moscow; yaiyai1h@gmail.com; ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3821-7574 @language: sl, en @trans-language: sl, en @publisher-id: id @doi: 10.3986/2024.2.11 @article-type: 1.01 @article-category: S 210 @pages: 203–230 @history-received: 01. 07. 2023 @history-accepted: 07. 08. 2023 * * * Ž u r n a l m e t a * * * @issue: 60 @volume: 2024 @pub-year: 2024 @pub-date: 01. 08. 2024 * * * O p r e m a * * * @avtorji: Yassir Ali Mohammed @running-header: Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries SUDANESE MIGRATION AND DESTINATION COUNTRIES: MOTIVATION FACTORS AND THE ROLE OF GENDER Yassir Ali MohammedI COBISS: 1.01 ABSTRACT Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries: Motivation Factors and the Role of Gender The article explores Sudanese migration, destination countries, motivation factors, and gender roles. An online survey was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic between 2020–2021. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods, the findings reveal that the main reasons for migration were lack of jobs and low salaries. Other factors included a commitment to success, corruption, and time consumption in government institutions. Arab Gulf countries were the primary destination for economic migration, followed by Europe. More females, despite the restriction of culture and tradition, are seeing migration as a means to establish their projects to help others. Sudanese migration identified more youth, regardless of migration type. Remittances had a greater positive impact on households than on the country in general. KEYWORDS: the role of gender, households, push factors, remittances, Sudanese migration IZVLEČEK Sudanske migracije in ciljne države: Motivacijski dejavniki in vloga spola Avtor v prispevku obravnava sudanske migracije, ciljne države, motivacijske dejavnike in vlogo spola. V obdobju 2020–2021, med pandemijo bolezni COVID-19, je izvedel spletno raziskavo z uporabo kvalitativnih in kvantitativnih metod, katere izsledki kažejo, da sta bila glavna razloga za migracije pomanjkanje delovnih mest in nizke plače. Drugi dejavniki, ki so vplivali na migracije, so bili želja po uspehu, korupcija in potrata časa v državnih institucijah. Glavni cilj ekonomskih migracij so bile države Arabskega zaliva, sledile pa so evropske države. Vse več žensk kljub kulturnim omejitvam in tradiciji vidi migracijo kot sredstvo za izvajanje projektov za pomoč drugim. Ugotovitve kažejo, da so pri sudanskih migracijah prevladovali mladi, ne glede na vrsto migracije. Denarna nakazila so imela večji pozitivni učinek na posamezna gospodinjstva kot na državo na splošno. KLJUČNE BESEDE: vloge spolov, gospodinjstva, dejavniki odbijanja, nakazila, sudanska migracija 204 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed INTRODUCTION Migration is mostly connected to several factors. For example, push-pull factors from developing countries to developed countries, respectively. Highly educated people prefer to go to developed countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Japan (Chiswick, 2005). Highly skilled immigrants prefer Anglo-Saxon countries due to the global influence of the English language (Chiswick, 2005). These preferences come in the form of recommendations from friends and family members to a certain country where potential migrants could relocate (Uddin et al., 2023). For example, Indians emigrate to the United States and the United Kingdom because of the use of the English language and to evaluate the value of their obtained academic degree, whether it be a secondary school diploma (a certificate that indicates the comple- tion of high school) or a graduate or postgraduate degree. This certificate helps migrants find jobs in their host country (Birks & Sinclair, 1980). The second group is unskilled migrants who seek asylum by any means. For example, individuals from Nigeria or Sudan may choose Libya as a transit country to seek asylum in another country. Therefore, Libya is the first destination nation for migrants from neighboring countries to developed countries (Marchand et al., 2017; Ayalew et al., 2018; Uddin et al., 2023). Qualified Sudanese immigrants choose Arab states as their common priorities due to the reciprocal language and culture (Abusharaf, 1997; Birks & Sinclair, 1980). However, some qualified Sudanese might relocate to Europe, the United States, Canada, and Australia as a second option. This option is connected to the English language and academic degree (Birks & Sinclair, 1980). In Sudanese migration, males represent a significant percentage of the migration due to cultural and religious viewpoints, which is why Sudanese indicate the Arab States as their first country of destination (Abusharaf, 1997). Moreover, it is easy to find a job there without experi- ence (Galal-Al-Din, 1988). Nevertheless, migrants may not have to work in unskilled jobs if they have a high level of education, which includes medicine, engineering, and information technology (Abusharaf, 1997; Badri & elAzab, 2013). There are various studies conducted on Sudanese migration (e.g., Elnur, 2002; Ali, 2006; Assal, 2010; Nour, 2011b; Abu-Agla et al., 2013; Abdalla et al., 2016; Malik, 2017). However, these scholarships did not focus on the second alternative country for Sudanese. Thus, this study tries to fill this gap. The second gap is that Sudanese prefer certain countries of destination for economic, regular, irregular, voluntary, and involuntary migration. For example, Sudanese may not migrate to Chad and Central Africa for economic migration. Illegal migrants may migrate to Libya due to its borders, a migration which leads to Europe (Ayalew et al., 2018; Serra Mingot, 2022). In terms of peace, they are more likely to migrate to Arab Gulf Countries. Even though there are reciprocal benefits between sending and receiving countries, the researcher concentrates on Sudanese migration due to youth migration, which 205 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries might affect the country in the long term (Dako-Gyeke, 2016). Sending countries benefit in the forms of 1) transfer of technology and 2) remittances that impact the households and the country, while receiving countries benefit in the forms of 1) demographic balance, 2) economic development, and 3) filling the labor shortage to sustain development (McKay, 2003; Uddin et al., 2023). Hence, this study aims to examine the motivation factors that attract Sudanese to specific nations. Moreover, it compares the role of gender between Sudan and the Philippines, Arab states, and religious beliefs, respectively, alongside culture. It also seeks to analyze the outcome of remittance on households (children) and the country, such as sending children to good schools and offering better health- care. This study distributed the online questionnaire to Sudanese migrants around the globe, and a sample of 135 respondents was collected during the COVID-19 Pandemic in 2020–2021. The paper concluded with content analysis, in which the researcher generated data from open-ended questions to demonstrate the reasons for migration (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Uddin et al., 2023). Supporting relatives and children are among the factors that push Sudanese to migrate. While the estab- lishment of new businesses attracts Sudanese migrants to return to their country. The literature review and research questions are provided below. The methodol- ogy and data collection follow subsequently. The empirical data is presented in the results section. The discussion precedes the conclusion and implications. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The researcher applied two different theories; the first one is the new economic labor migration theory, “NELM” (Durand & Massey, 1992; Massey et al., 1990). This theory considers migration as the best option for migrants to enhance their fami- lies’ financial status and personal objectives. Moreover, it deals with households’ influence on the migrants’ decisions. Furthermore, migrants persuade non-migrants to think of migration as a way to resolve problems like poverty. The second theory is the “push-pull.” The principle of the theory states the negative factors that push migrants from their country of origin to their country of destination (Lee, 1966). The theory further notes that negative factors such as poverty and war push them away from their country of origin. Pull factors such as security and job opportunities pull them to the destination country. Against this background, the researcher examines the main push-pull factors that influence Sudanese migration to a particular nation. The push factors include a lack of employment, low salaries, and a bad environment. The environment could be a place of work or a place of residence. Whereas pull factors include high salary, employment opportunities, and a good environment. These theories were chosen because of their suitability for Sudanese migrants as well as the country’s structure and its location in Africa (Dako-Gyeke, 2016). 206 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed THE MOTIVATION FACTORS FOR SUDANESE MIGRATION AND COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION One of the reasons that stimulates Sudanese to migrate to seek asylum is war; when war occurs, many people escape to neighboring countries (Vujadinović et al., 2013). Likewise, during the conflict that occurred in April 2023, many Sudanese fled to Egypt, Chad, Eritrea, Libya, and South Sudan seeking shelter. The United Nations Humanitarian Commission of Refugees (UNHCR) reported that the number of Suda- nese who applied for asylum in 2021 was 22,402. The second cause of migration is political. In Sudan, like in other African countries, individuals who oppose the government are arrested or forced to flee to another country (Richlen, 2023). These oppositions may escape to neighboring countries that are economically and politi- cally unstable (Abusharaf, 1997; Assal, 2010). There are a great deal of other African countries that have requested asylum in other countries (Uddin et al., 2023). In terms of voluntary migration or economic migration, several reasons could be explained since the individual has options, which include socioeconomic factors, a bad environment, self-improvement, and unemployment (Abusharaf, 1997; Nour, 2011b). Moreover, children’s education could have an impact on emigration and low wages (Vižintin, 2022). Also, the lack of information technology was associated with inadequate internet facilities and the lack of career development, in addition to the long working hours in both public and private institutions (Abusharaf, 1997; Assal, 2010). Furthermore, dissatisfaction with work and the undervaluation of produc- tivity could lead to quitting jobs and migration or stress and inner conflict. These negative factors can result in lower productivity and reduced contributions to the labor market or development of the country, which may cause the country to lose its youth and talented people. However, positive benefits may occur when these migrants transfer remittances or technology. The qualified or semi-skilled individual selects a country of destination depend- ing on their qualifications and possible employment chances (Badri & elAzab, 2013). Özden & Phillips (2015) examined highly qualified foreign-born doctors who were employed in the United States. The authors revealed that the majority of African physicians were either raised or educated in Africa. The bulk of those African profes- sionals were not born in the continent, and only 15% had received their medical education in Africa. However, after a few years of serving their country of origin, many of their qualified people migrate. Anderson Adzei & Sakyi (2014) examined the motivation of healthcare workers to return to Africa to contribute to the development. Personal development and spousal consideration, followed by additional factors, including socioeconomic ties to the country of origin, affect an individual’s decision to return. Migrants impose restrictions on their return because they anticipate the societal problems that they will encounter when they return to their home country without success (Campbell, 2020). One of the strong reasons considered by migrants as regards returning home 207 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries is that if they become successful abroad, the likelihood of returning to their country of origin is higher. This success could be in terms of saving money for the future, purchasing land, establishing the land, or having a business. In contrast to this group, unsuccessful migrants have a lower likelihood of returning due to the same reasons. For Sudanese migrants, helping relatives and friends is a part of success in addition to purchasing land (Abusharaf, 1997). Good workplace conditions, excellent salaries, employment opportunities, a high standard of life, and political and economic stability are the factors that drive Sudanese to migrate to developed countries (Nour, 2011b). However, to avoid culture shock, a lot of Sudanese migrate to Arab Gulf countries. It is essential to state that the Arabic language is the official language of these countries. This language helps Sudanese to search for jobs and a better life (Norris & Inglehart, 2012). As we stated earlier, some jobs do not require skills or academic degrees (Birks & Sinclair, 1980). Along with comparable pull considerations, the provision of long-term job prospects, flexible working hours, and personal development could motivate other Sudanese to migrate to the United States, the United Kingdom, or Europe. However, it is essential to note that there are some conditions to consider. Conditions such as obtaining a high degree of education and the ability to speak English (Bidwell et al., 2013). THE ROLE OF GENDER IN SUDANESE MIGRATION COMPARED TO THE PHILIPPINE MIGRATION AND THE RECIPROCAL CHALLENGES The paper selected to compare the Philippines and Sudan because of numerous simi- larities in gender migration and the host countries are nearly identical. The second argument is that incentive factors in push and pull factors may be similar. The third point is that many Filipinos work in the medical sector as nurses, medical doctors, and pharmacists, which appears to be typical of Sudanese. The fourth reason this study chose the Philippines, in particular, is to show the impact of gender migra- tion on left-behind children. When females emigrate, they leave their children in the care of relatives or fathers. This issue is common in the Philippines migration (Trager, 1984; Oishi, 2002). Although it is not common for Sudanese females to migrate due to their children, if their children are very small, the possibility of migration is low. In contrast, if their children when their children are a bit older, the likelihood of having a job and migrating is high (Nour, 2011a). Relatives, husbands, or brothers may oppose female migration due to culture, habits, and religious viewpoints (Serra Mingot, 2020; Abuova et al., 2024). Even though this study is not comparative, it is important to compare these two countries to provide a clear picture of Sudanese gender migration. When the poverty rate was high in the Philippines in the 1970s, many females decided to migrate to escape poverty (Trager, 1984). Filipinos set their sights on 208 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed a few specific countries, including Arab states (Rodriguez, 1998). Similar to what happened in Sudan after the separation of South Sudan from Sudan in late 2011, the country was reliant on oil as the primary source of revenue. As a result, many Suda- nese families chose to send their daughters and spouses abroad due to economic viewpoint. Therefore, they allow females to migrate to Arab states because of the similarity in Arabic language usage and reciprocal culture. Many Sudanese work as teachers (if they have an academic degree) or in beauty salons (the beauty salons do not require an academic qualification). The vast majority work as nurses or medi- cal physicians. A study investigated the reasons for the transition of the agricultural sector from being used for domestic consumption to commercial objectives in which females engage (McKay, 2005). This is another likely reason for escaping the country of origin during harvest time. The author described how the agricultural sector changed when females migrated from the Philippines to foreign countries or occasionally migrated within the border. If this is the case for agriculture, what about their children? In Aljazeera, the Kordofan states, and the western region of Sudan, the agri- cultural sector has a booming female workforce. However, the male workforce dominates it (Alipio, 2019). These rural areas of the country rely on agriculture more than any other sector. That is the rationality in comparing the Sudanese situation to the Philippines (see Table 2). Filippino women invest in agricultural sectors by using their fortune before and subsequent migration (Trager, 1984; Oishi, 2002). Mean- while, Sudanese women do not invest in the agricultural sectors because agriculture needs more care and time. Another viewpoint is that most of the Sudanese female migrants are from big cities. These differences could reflect the social background of the two nations. Some studies stated that with the rise of female education in Sudan, females have more chances to migrate due to religious and cultural factors (Maglad, 1998; Jack, 2010; Steel, 2021). Earlier, some families did not support gender educa- tion; females themselves were less likely to have a job (Maglad, 1998; Nour, 2011a). However, many things have changed due to the economic situation. The effects of remittances on the micro level and macro level were examined by (Oishi, 2002), who discussed the significance of remittances on families left behind and the country to which females transfer money. Families prefer female migration over male migration since women are more responsible when it comes to remit- tance transfer. However, recruited agencies might exploit these females to end up with trafficking and sex trade (Rushing, 2006). For this reason, some Sudanese fami- lies hesitate to send females abroad and thus prefer to send males overseas. 209 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries THE OUTCOME OF REMITTANCES ON SUDANESE LEFT-BEHIND HOUSEHOLDS AND THE COUNTRY McKay (2003) investigated the role of gender in migration in terms of sending and receiving remittances. The author added the role of the father when the female migrates: the father is planting different crops, so when the migrant is back, this person can rely on some fortune. The second point is that when migrants relocate, they leave their children in the care of their parents, ensuring that these children receive a better education and enjoy better health because their parents are trust- ees. Another point is that when these left-behind fathers receive remittances, they take care of migrants’ children by buying basic items like TVs, phones, personal computers, and refrigerators and saving some portion for the future. This was one of the rational ideas that pushed many young girls to think before migrating. When the country of origin receives remittances, the market will generate more goods, which will lead to economic improvement. In other words, money is spent on migrants’ chil- dren to educate them, take care of them, and provide better health and well-being. Another point to consider is how remittances contribute to low-income families more than middle-class families by improving their quality of life. From a macro-eco- nomic viewpoint, formal systems, such as “government official banks,” are used to transfer money that reserves hard currency for the country of origin, which is subsequently received in local currency to purchase goods. Microeconomics and macroeconomics both gain from this circle (Rodriguez, 1998). However, some Afri- can countries, including Sudan, use an informal remittance system to transfer money (Akuei, 2005). Sudanese sent remittances, but they were not transferred formally. Remittances were frequently sent for a variety of reasons, including the Muslim holidays of Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, and Adha (Muslim ceremonies). Even though the professions of these migrants include lawyers, doctors, and academics (Akuei, 2005), they still choose to send money through this informal system (see Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 in the appendix). The next framework in Figure 1 presents the theoretical framework applied to the study, including the words and sentences linked to the theories. 210 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed Figure 1: Motivation factors for push-pull and NELM theories. RESEARCH QUESTIONS RQ1: What are the main push-pull factors that lead skilled, unskilled, voluntary, or involuntary Sudanese to migrate? RQ2: What is the first and second country of destination for Sudanese migrants seek- ing economic or involuntary migration? RQ3: To what extent do remittances contribute to the development of Sudan in Sudanese migration, as well as on households? RQ4: What is the role of gender in Sudanese migration? 211 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries METHOD AND DATA COLLECTION This paper employed both quantitative and qualitative methods of research (Wilson, 1998; Uddin et al., 2023). These methods are convenient to adopt when using open- ended questions in social and psychological science (Singleton Jr. et al., 1988; Uddin et al., 2023). The survey was designed in two phases. The first stage involved a pilot study of potential participants who were available to the author. After readjusting the participants’ comments, the survey was distributed to Sudanese migrants through the Sudanese Research Initiative on Facebook. More so, this group contains a lot of Sudanese migrants around the globe who are considered involuntary migrants or economic migrants, but also the majority are youth. The survey was to be filled out voluntarily. If participants were not in this group, the author searched for other groups in different countries. To reach more partici- pants, the researcher sent the survey link through other social media platforms such as Telegram, LinkedIn, and others. The online questionnaire took approximately 20–25 minutes to fill in due to some open-ended questions where individuals were expected to explain their viewpoints. The researcher aimed to collect data from 1,200 participants. It was convenient at that time to use the online questionnaire in 2020–2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Data was collected from a sample of 135 respondents. Even though this sample could not be representative of the general population, it is convenient (Wilkins & Epps, 2011). The survey consists of 22 sections. The first part involves a few demographic questions, including gender, age, marital status, and place of residence. The second part involves the motivation factors for migration. Questions such as, what was the main reason for migrating from Sudan? What is your current place of residence? The third part involves several socioeconomic factors, such as the influence of the house- hold on migrant decisions and the effect of remittances on the family. Questions related to salary and wages: Do you send money home? How do you send money home? Another question was about the willingness to play a role in the homeland’s progress. This last question explored female perspectives on migration and the role of gender. Due to the nature of the open-ended socioeconomic questions in the survey, individuals had the chance to give detailed information regarding the proposed questions (Singleton Jr. et al., 1988). It is also essential to note that some questions were not required to be answered. The study applied a deductive content analysis approach to the open-ended questions in the survey. This allowed the researcher to categorize the data and its theme (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). 212 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed DEDUCTIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS The reason for selecting content analysis as a method of analysis is that it enables the researcher to combine qualitative and quantitative methods, conduct statistics analysis, and data interpretation in determining the meaning of the text. In terms of analysis, the author provides a thorough explanation of the process so that readers understand how the study was conducted and what limitations it has. This supports the choice of content analysis in this paper (GAO, 1996). One of the difficulties of content analysis is that there is no single approach to analyzing data (Weber, 1990). Some information in the content analysis may be related to some classification other than the one the researcher tried to categorize. Hence, the best solution is for the researcher to go back to the text in a repetitive manner (Bush et al., 2020; Sandelowski, 1995; Stemler, 2000). In terms of deciding the meaning of this group of words for common use in migration, a word might have more than one meaning (Stemler, 2000). The paper preferred to employ word frequency in the text to overcome this barrier. Because of the purpose and questions of the research, the researcher coded the words based on their appearance in the text. The study employed the first group of words, sentences, or phrases by identi- fying the push factors that were associated with the country of origin. The factors include a lack of a job, a bad environment, political issues, poverty, low salary, war, and freedom of speech. The second group of words, sentences, or phrases were associated with pull factors such as good environment, job opportunities, high salary, and freedom of speech. The paper did not employ an inductive technique because this phenomenon is well-known and has sufficient knowledge in the field of migration; if there is little information, a deductive approach is preferable (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). When evaluat- ing hypotheses or research questions through existing knowledge from general to specific, the deductive approach is the best fit (Kyngas & Vanhanen, 1999; Latvala et al., 2000). Due to a paucity of studies in the paper’s current area of interest, this last option was preferred for the research analysis. First, the study arranged the analysis by preparing and reporting (Guthrie et al., 2004). Preparation is the first step in selecting a unit of content analysis. This classi- fication can be done by theme or by words (Polit & Beck, 2004). It is also necessary to choose which sample to include in the unit of analysis (Cavanagh, 1997). On the other hand, the unit of analysis is too narrow, for example, one word, as this paper did in most of the analysis (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). This unit of analysis could also be a letter, word, sentence, or portion of a page (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The study made an interpretation of the meaning and the words’ appearance or hidden content (Robson, 1993). The next stage was to give the data meaning (Morse & Field, 1995). 213 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries RESULTS The first variable explains the push factors for Sudanese migration, which was the first research question (see Figure 2). The leading reasons for Sudanese migration were low salaries (64.4%) out of the total 100%, lack of jobs (47.4%), political issues (24.4%), and others 25.9%. Sudanese leave their country for economic reasons (Assal, 2010; Nour, 2011b; Abu-Agla et al., 2013). Politics comes next (35%), followed by environmental concerns (33%). Figure 2: The main push factors that lead Sudanese to migrate. Table 1 shows the first country of destination in which Sudanese migrants chose to settle, the Arab Gulf countries at 38.5% (52 migrants), followed by Europe at 20% (27 migrants), then other African countries at 17.8% (24 migrants). The remaining migrants were distributed to Asia with 14.8% (20 migrants), the United States and Canada at 5.2% (7 migrants). The smallest share of migrants destined for Australia, New Zealand, 2.2% (3 migrants), and Latin America, 1.5% (2 migrants). Country of Destination Number of Participants Percentage Other African countries 24 17.8 Arab Gulf countries 52 38.5 Asia 20 14.8 Europe 27 20.0 United States and Canada 7 5.2 Australia and New Zealand 3 2.2 Latin America 2 1.5 Table 1: The country of destination for Sudanese migrants (source: author’s survey, 2020–2021). 214 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed The next variable was gender 21% of the respondents were female (28 migrants). The role of gender was the fourth research question. Then, age revealed that the majority of migrants worldwide were young people. There were (43) migrants less than 30 years old and less than 39 years old (63) people. (24) Migrants between 40 and 49 years old, and (5) persons between 50 and 59 years old. 51.9% were married and 47.9% were single. Do you send money home? 72.7% of migrants replied yes. Meanwhile, 27.3% of singles said no (see Figure 3). These answers predict the outcome of remittances on Sudanese households and the country in general. This is the third research question about remittances. Figure 3: The status of Sudanese migrants in transferring money to Sudan (there were 132 answers because the question was not obligatory). However, some migrants may not send money through official government banks (see Figure 4). This result is similar to Akuei (2005), who states that Sudanese migrants send money informally. Figure 4: Channel on which Sudanese migrants transfer money. In the last question about the role of gender, 20.7% out of the total participants, 100% were females (28 migrants). The following concepts and words appeared in the analyzed text: 11 times the word experience, 6 times the word training, 1 time the word teaching, 3 times the 215 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries word gain, 1 time the word health, 1 time the word education, 11 times the word development, 5 times the word developing. The word product appeared 4 times, the word support 5 times, and the word research 4 times. We linked the same set of words to NELM theory. In terms of the role of remittances, the paper exposed these words: Money appeared 7 times, projects 6 times, businesses 4 times, and laboratories 1 time. In addition, women’s gender was mentioned 4 times, and inequality was mentioned 1 time. The second category of push and pull factors consisted of the following: lack of efficiency and experience appeared 1 time, environ- ment and cleaning 1 time. Time consumption in government buildings and internet speed all 1 time. Networking to find a job in a public organization appeared 1 time. Corruption 1 time and government employees delay 1 time. Similarities Differences Sudan Philippine Sudan Philippine Host countries Arab states, economic migration Host countries Arab states, economic migration Arabic as an official language Tagalog as an offi- cial language Depend on agriculture Depend on agriculture Males dominate migrants Females dominate migrants Educated females work as doctors in Arab Gulf countries Educated females work as doctors in Arab Gulf countries 45 million total population 113 million of the total population Young population Young population 23,454,198 popula- tion female 56,879,731 popula- tion female Females in devel- oping country Females in devel- oping country Fertility rate 4.54 per woman Fertility rate 2.78 per woman Females send remittances Females send more remittances than male Islam is the main religion Christianity is the main religion Climate +30 degree Climate +30 degree Transfer of remit- tances through unofficial money transfer channels Transfer of remit- tances through the official banking system of the state High unemployment High unemployment Political and economic instability Political and economic stability Table 2: Comparison of female migration between Sudan and the Philippines (source: The World Bank, 2022). 216 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed DISCUSSION RQ1: What are the main push-pull factors that lead skilled, unskilled, voluntary, or involuntary Sudanese to migrate? Sudanese migrate due to socioeconomic reasons such as lack of employment and low wages. This result is similar to Assal (2010), who stated that socioeconomic factors motivate Sudanese to migrate. This article adds to the body of literature by stating that corruption and incompetence in the public sector drive Sudanese migrants. Moreover, the internet speed leads to time consumption in this govern- mental building. This negative result demotivates Sudanese to stay in Sudan. The negative factors were discussed in the literature review section. They play a role in the internal conflict, causing stress for Sudanese who are going to the public sector to obtain a personal identification card. As a result, individuals may be reluctant to visit public service centers to perform certain tasks. These negative causes enhance in Sudanese people, and they eventually decide to migrate. In migration, Sudanese may achieve their personal goals that are connected to family objectives. Parents and friends motivate Sudanese to migrate to afford a better life for the migrants’ children. Relatives and friends are also considered a part of their success. As a result, we witnessed the emergence of some words associated with NELM theory that are linked to households. There are reciprocal benefits between indi- vidual migrants and families left behind. The second benefit was the aspiration to succeed as a personal goal. RQ2: What is the first and second country of destination for Sudanese migrants seek- ing economic or involuntary migration? Several Sudanese chose to relocate to Arab countries because it is easy to obtain jobs without qualifications. Sudanese migrants take advantage of the knowledge of the Arabic language, which is straightforward to adapt to the new culture and comparable to Sudanese culture. Therefore, this finding is similar to Birks and Sinclair (1980) and Norris and Inglehart (2012), who stated that adaptation to the culture might be a reason to target a specific country, which is why it was ideal for Sudanese migrants to choose the Arab Gulf countries. The second contribution is that Sudanese migrants consider neighboring countries in terms of war, such as Egypt, Chad, Kenya, and Eritrea. Of the overall percentage, 17.8% lived in other African countries. This number could indicate that these migrants are considering other African countries as shelters if war occurs. According to the paper’s literature review section, when conflict arises, individ- uals seek shelter first, followed by other items. Shelter should not be chosen just to escape the war in their country of origin. Like the present crisis, which began in April 2023, many Sudanese escaped to neighboring nations, including the ones stated above. However, for economic migration, individuals can be selective. For this reason, they consider Arab Gulf countries and Europe as countries of destination 217 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries due to high salaries, job opportunities, and good environment. This result is similar to Assal (2010) and Birks & Sinclair (1980), who indicate that high salaries and job opportunities are among the factors that attract migrants to Arab states. The words developing and development appeared 16 times in the text, indicat- ing an intense desire from the participants to witness the country to be developed. In general, returnees from overseas bring several benefits, including the transfer of technology and a new experience that can contribute to the development of the country. This result is similar to Rodriguez (1998), who stated that sending countries could benefit from migration circles. Investing, starting one’s own business, teaching, and training country counterparts are some of the interconnected benefits in terms of micro, meso, and macro-economic viewpoints between migrants and the country. RQ3: To what extent do remittances contribute to the development of Sudan in Sudanese migration, as well as on households? Do you send money home? 72.7% out of the total 100% of migrants replied yes. While 27.3% out of the total 100% of singles said no. Married Migrants were fully committed to transferring money regularly because of family engagement, as opposed to unmarried migrants, who do not transfer money regularly. Regarding this commitment, money will be sent to Sudan so that both the family and the country can benefit from it. Remittances were used to supplement the family’s expenditure on goods such as purchasing land and send- ing their children to school and finally save some money for future purposes. This circle generally improves the quality of life in the sending countries. This result is similar to Koc & Onan (2004), who showed that remittances could be used to send children to better schools and improve their well-being in general. It is vital to state that the government will have solid currency in its possession because of this money circle. The government cannot save a lot of hard currency to import goods and tech- nology since 11% out of the total 100% send money formally. When all these steps occur, the country will be able to progress. Therefore, remittances have a positive impact on Sudanese left-behind families rather than the country since the majority of migrants transfer money regularly, as we notice in the result section. In other words, many families might be able to improve their circumstances. This result reflects migrants’ commitment to the establishment of new projects and the development of the country. This result is similar to McKay (2003) and Azizi (2018), who stated that productive investment is not only spending on daily needs. The examination and analysis of this paper revealed that Sudanese migration and the impact of remittances had a micro-level outcome on the family rather than a macro- level impact on the state’s gross domestic product in general. RQ4: What is the role of gender in Sudanese migration? The role of gender remains insignificant in comparison to other countries, with 20.7% out of the total 100%. Gender migration is not high in Sudanese migration, although this result showed some improvements. This result is similar to Galal-Al-Din 218 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed (1988), Abusharaf (1997), and Abu-Agla et al. (2013). Due to Islamic beliefs and cultural practices, some families were hesitant to allow their daughters and wives to go abroad. The traditions and culture are reflected in the participant’s viewpoints. Some females believe that traditions are unfair since they prohibit many of them from achieving their personal goals. These habits impede their path to success. Both genders complement one another; this is how some females want to perceive society. When females achieve success abroad, they are more likely to support their communities and the country. As a result, females’ success contributes to the overall success of the community. The following answers support this statement. A woman should be respected, not looked down upon as a weakling, a man’s play- thing, or a sympathetic figure. She is an indomitable spirit, a birthright to be free, and a destiny to stand by the side of man as his equal. A Complementary Relation- ship: In his words, he states that a woman must voice her needs; she is not different from a man. A man and a woman complement each other; they have the same soul, the same life, and the same rights; they need each other. The ancient concept of a woman as a man’s inferior being is strongly opposed. Irrational traditions: Gandhi was not against traditions, but he despised meaningless traditional beliefs such as untouchability, child widowhood, child marriages, and superstitious practices. To him, God was Truth. He believed that traditions should take man closer to God and that humanity should not offend humans. Such practices which offend human dignity should be banished. (male, age 30–39 years old, single, master’s degree) The research revealed some progress in the Sudanese gender migration; the economic crisis that hit the country influenced people to send females abroad, whether for education or work. This result cannot be compared to other countries, such as the Philippines, where the majority of migrants are females. In the past, the situation of Sudanese female migration was even worse. But now there is an increase (20.7% out of 100% compared to the past), which still shows a huge gap compared to the Philippines. Earlier, many families refused to send their female members abroad. Recently, more families have decided to send their daughters and spouses abroad due to economic reasons. This result is similar to Steel (2021), who states that some females have their own businesses, yet due to certain norms, they created online businesses to access the world economy. However, this result is in contrast to (Nour, 2011a), who stated that women are less likely to be employed. Now, many Sudanese female migrants want to be successful and contribute to Sudan’s development. This success could be seen in the context of female education. Many educated women desire to transfer knowledge, experience, and technology to Sudan and help their colleagues and students. Furthermore, female education benefits society and the country. Some of the participants support this statement and indicate their willingness to function as a bridge between sending and receiving countries. This is one of the 219 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries benefits of the migratory circle, which the author indicated at the beginning of the paper (McKay, 2003; Uddin et al., 2023). By transferring the knowledge I gain during my stay in Europe to my colleagues and students in Sudan, I am also planning to build a strong academic scientific network to create further collaboration and agreements between interested researchers, academic professors here, and my home university, to which I am going to return, although I did not get their support properly, we need to be the change to contrib- ute to our knowledge development. (Female, age 30–39 years old, single, PhD) To volunteer or engage in jobs where I can utilize my experience, and which will enable me to enhance the country in my related fields or other opportunities. (Female, age 30–39 years old, single, master’s degree) I am planning to share knowledge about sustainability and to take advantage of developing Sudan, starting from small communities first, by creating affordable projects to increase opportunities at low cost. (Female, age 30–39 years old, married, master’s degree) Sudanese female migrants also want to start projects to encourage young females to make their own decisions. The participants’ viewpoints supported some of these ideas. Gender migrants were ready to help other females to migrate to achieve their personal goals and later help the country by investing in some projects. Despite some restrictions on female migration, females still want to help their relatives, other females, and the country by transferring technology. These answers show their responsibilities toward the community and the country, which are considered positive plans. Establish businesses that empower young females. (Female, age 30–39 years old, married, master’s degree) I am interested in investing in resources for clean water. (Female, age 50–59+ years old, married, bachelor’s degree). To introduce new technologies and advanced experiences that will develop the country. (Female, age 50–59 years old, married, PhD) However, when comparing Sudanese female migrants globally, there is still a vast gap. This is because 20.7% requires further study, and the researcher does not know if economic determination would change some values and norms. The paper’s limitation is that, due to several travel restrictions, it was difficult to set up an in-depth interview, a formal interview, or a face-to-face interview during 220 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed COVID-19. Those who filled out this questionnaire might not have a concrete answer because of the pandemic in 2020. Globally, people were under quarantine from October 2020 to March 2021. We acknowledge the number of participants who might not be representative. Therefore, future researchers need to increase the number to conduct quantitative research. Many Sudanese migrants were unable to complete this questionnaire due to the language used (English language). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The paper explored the main push-pull factors that drive Sudanese to certain countries and the outcome of remittances to households and the country. The moti- vation to succeed and return home to establish business were among the reasons that pushed Sudanese migrants to relocate. Remittances might help the country if they were sent officially. This contribution might reflect on meso-economic and macro-economic levels. Therefore, this paper recommends inspiring people to trans- fer money officially through government banks as this result inspires policymakers. Since the result showed that Sudanese migrants are ready to contribute to the development of the country, the paper recommends attracting them back. If these migrants are not ready to return permanently, they might return to spend some time and then go back to the host country. Another suggestion is that the government and NGOs should provide a solution to youth migration by funding projects that would give opportunities to new graduates. This will help to reduce youth migration or adopt a new policy to attract foreign professionals to Sudan. Another implication is that Sudanese favor economic migration to Arab Gulf countries as their first destination due to the use of the Arabic language and culture. More so, Europe comes second in terms of migration, considering that migration to English-speaking European countries requires English language skills. Conse- quently, unskilled people need to learn the English language to open new doors to developed countries legally. Gender migration requires more focus, and policy- makers may wish to employ the females’ planning of responsibility for assisting the communities and the country. ACKNOWLEDGMENT AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION The author acknowledges the Sudanese Researchers Foundation Group, which assisted in sharing the link to the survey. I am grateful to all participants who filled out the survey as well as to the anonymous reviewers who provided suggestions for improving the text. 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Student evaluation websites as potential sources of consumer information in the United Arab Emirates. International Journal of Educational Management, 25(5), 410–422. World Bank Open Data. (n.d.). World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 18 June 2024. https://data.worldbank.org WorldData. (2023a). Asylum applications and refugees from the Congo. WorldData. info. https://www.worlddata.info/africa/congo-kinshasa/asylum.php WorldData. (2023b). Asylum applications and refugees from Eritrea. WorldData.info. https://www.worlddata.info/africa/eritrea/asylum.php WorldData. (2023c). Asylum applications and refugees in Ethiopia. WorldData.info. https://www.worlddata.info/africa/ethiopia/asylum.php WorldData. (2023d). Asylum applications and refugees from Somalia. WorldData.info. https://www.worlddata.info/africa/somalia/asylum.php 226 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed WorldData. (2023e). Asylum applications and refugees from Sudan. WorldData.info. https://www.worlddata.info/africa/sudan/asylum.php#:~:text=38%2C408%20 people%20from%20Sudan%20fled,in%20Kenya%20and%20in%20Libya APPENDIX Year / Economy 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Sudan 0.2622 0.2608 0.0619 0.3462 0.6408 0.7038 1.4555 0.1514 0.4954 Egypt 2.6960 3.2117 4.2835 3.2260 2.8520 5.0173 12.4531 18.3254 29.6029 Ethiopia 0.0122 0.0142 0.0052 0.0274 0.0532 0.1735 0.4361 1.0870 0.4041 Table 3: Personal remittance distribution in Sudan, 1980–2020, in billions of US dollars (source: World Bank Open Data). Country Origin Country Destination Year flow 2020 Year flow 2021 Sudan Saudi Arabia 435,810 481,215 Sudan Qatar 42,000 23,415 Sudan Kuwait 49,611 49,399 Sudan Oman 17,724 19,879 Sudan Egypt 33,459 60,066 Sudan Libya 14,751 15,400 Sudan UAE 127,057 133,226 Sudan Bahrain 14,281 13,982 Sudan Jordan 2,265 6,010 Sudan Algeria 3,205 1,566 Sudan Yemen 27,397 27,044 Sudan Iraq 3,867 3,826 Sudan Lebanon 725 2,201 Sudan Ethiopia 41,734 41,959 Table 4: Sudanese migrants according to country of destination (source: KNOMAD Database, 2020–2021). 227 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries Country of destination Number of applied Number of accepted Number of rejected Ratio of acceptance Libya 7,172 566 105 84.4% Egypt 6,071 932 1,048 47.1% United Kingdom 2,385 892 50 94.7% France 1,674 968 1,399 40.9% Kenya 388 237 0 100.0% Spain 305 119 16 88.1% Germany 233 80 120 40.0% Italy 171 57 49 53.8% Netherland 136 33 33 50.0% Rwanda 98 133 0 100.0% Canada 90 438 27 94.2% United States 89 70 66 51.5% Belgium 80 40 90 30.8% Greece 55 38 18 67.9% Jordan 52 209 141 59.7% Australia 35 5 5 50.0% Table 5: Sudanese asylum seekers according to country of application in 2022 (source: WorldData, 2023e). Country of origin Number of applicants Number of accepted documents Number of rejected documents Ratio of acceptances Ethiopia 2,561 815 1,426 36.4% Eritrea 2,560 488 884 35.6% Somali 7,528 680 2,106 24.4% Congo Dem. Republic 6,852 902 3,782 19.3% Table 6: Other African countries’ application for asylum in 2022 (source: WorldData, 2023a; WorldData, 2023b; WorldData, 2023c; WorldData, 2023d). 228 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S • 6 0 • 2 0 2 4Yassir Ali Mohammed POVZETEK SUDANSKE MIGRACIJE IN CILJNE DRŽAVE: MOTIVACIJSKI DEJAVNIKI IN VLOGA SPOLA Yassir Ali Mohammed Avtor v prispevku preučuje sudanske migracije, ciljne države, motivacijske dejavnike ter vlogo spola. Pri tem izpostavlja dejavnike, ki vplivajo na to, da sudanski migranti izberejo določene države. Obravnava tudi neprostovoljne in ekonomske migracije iz Sudana ter primerja sudanske migrantke s filipinskimi migrantkami glede na ciljno državo in žensko delo. Pri tem avtor uporablja dve različni teoriji, novo ekonomsko delovno migracijo ter teorijo odbijanja in privlačevanja, kot metodologijo pa uporablja mešane metode. Podatki so bili zbrani prek spleta med pandemijo bolezni COVID-19 v obdobju 2020– 2021, in sicer na vzorcu 135 anketirancev. Študija je kot dejavnike odbijanja v Sudanu opredelila pomanjkanje delovnih, negativno okolje, politične težave, revščina, nizke plače in vojna, medtem ko med dejavnike privlačevanja sodijo pozitivno okolje, možnosti za zaposlitev in visoke plače. Avtor je za statistično analizo izbral metodo analize vsebine, pri kateri je kot enoto analize uporabil besedo ali stavek. Sudanski migranti se pogosto selijo zaradi socialno-ekonomskih dejavnikov, kot so nizke plače, korupcija in nekompetentnost v javnem sektorju. Ti dejavniki prispevajo tudi k notranjim konfliktom, še dodatno otežuje situacijo. Sudance k selitvi spodbujajo starši in prijatelji, da bi svojim otrokom omogočili boljše življenje. Sudanski migranti se pogosto odločajo za selitev v arabske države iz ekonomskih razlogov, in sicer zaradi dobrih zaposlitvenih možnosti in lažje prilagoditve na novo kulturo zaradi arabskega jezika. Sosednje države, kot so Egipt, Čad, Kenija in Eritreja, vidijo tudi kot zatočišče v primeru vojne. V primeru ekonomskih migracij se sudanski migranti zaradi visokih plač, delovnih priložnosti in pozitivnega odločajo za arabske zalivske države in Evropo. Izsledki študije kažejo, da 72,7 % sudanskih migrantov redno nakazuje denar domov. Denarna nakazila se uporabljajo za financiranje družinskih nakupov blaga, za prihodnje naložbe v zemljišča in šolanje otrok ter za varčevanje za prihodnost. Ugotovitve so pokazale tudi, da nakazila vplivajo na družine na mikroravni, ne pa tudi na bruto domači proizvod države na makroravni. Migracije na podlagi spola v Sudanu niso obsežne, saj predstavljajo samo 20,7-odstotni delež. Nekatere družine zaradi islamskih prepričanj in kulturnih praks svojim hčeram in ženam ne dovolijo odhoda v tujino, kljub tem omejitvam pa družine vse pogosteje pošiljajo svoje hčere in žene v tujino zaradi ekonomskih razlogov. Tovr- stne spremembe so v nasprotju z ugotovitvami dosedanjih študij, ki so pokazale, da so ženske manj pogosto zaposlene. Številne sudanske migrantke želijo s prenosom znanja in tehnologije prispevati k razvoju Sudana, nekatere med njimi delujejo tudi kot vezni členi med državami pošiljateljicami in državami prejemnicami. Prizadevajo 229 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 Sudanese Migration and Destination Countries si za projekte, ki mlade ženske spodbujajo k samostojnemu odločanju in vlaganju v projekte, ki pomagajo državi. Kljub omejitvam migrantke še naprej pozitivno prispe- vajo k svojim skupnostim. D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 6 0 • 2 0 2 4 UREDNIŠKI UVODNIK OB 60. ŠTEVILKI REVIJE DVE DOMOVINI, RAZPRAVE O IZSELJENST VU / EDITORIAL FOR THE 60TH ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL T WO HOMEL ANDS, MIGRATION STUDIES TEMATSKI SKLOP / THEMATIC SEC TION DUŠEVNO ZDRAVJE V KONTEKSTU MIGRACIJ / MENTAL HEALTH IN THE CONTEXT OF MIGRATION S a n j a C u k u t K r i l i ć Mental Health in the Contex t of M igrat ion: I ntroduc t ion to the Thematic Sec t ion D i n o M a n z o n i , L i l j a n a Š p ra h The I mpac t of the COVID -19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Refugees : A Systematic L i terature Review M oj ca Va h J e v š n i k Navigat ing I ntegrat ion and Emotional Distress Dur ing Vulnerable Stages of L i fe : The Case of S lovenian Repatr iates From Venezuela M a r t i n a B o f u l i n Three’s a Crowd? Language Ass istance in Mental Healthcare Sett ings in S lovenia M a j a G o s t i č Mental Health and Psychosocia l Suppor t for Forc ibly Displaced People : I ns ights From Slovenia D u š ka K n e ž e v i ć H o če va r, S a n j a C u k u t K r i l i ć Managing the Distress of M igrant Farmworkers : Lessons Learned From the M idwestern United States ČL ANKI / ARTICLES M i l a n M r đ e n ov i ć, M a t j a ž K l e m e n č i č Kongresnik John Blatnik v boju za dr žavl janske pravice v ZDA K l a ra Kož a r Ro s u l n i k , M a r i n a L u k š i č H a c i n , M a r i j a n ca A j š a Vi ž i n t i n Mednarodno k roženje in izmenjava najv iš je izobraženih a l i beg možganov? Fra n ce s co D e l l a P u p p a Prac t ic ing Mult i -S i ted Ethnography : Ref lec t ions, Strategies, and Tools for Qual i tat ive Research on Transnat ional M igrat ion Ya s s i r A l i M o h a m m e d Sudanese M igrat ion and Dest inat ion Countr ies : Motivat ion Fac tors and the Role of Gender 602 0 2 4 9 7 7 0 3 5 3 6 7 7 0 1 3 ISSN 0353-6777 ISSN 1581-1212 D V E D O M O V I N I • T W O H O M E L A N D S 6 0 • 2 0 2 4