JAMAICAN CAVES AND CAVE EXPLORATION JAME NA JAMAJKI IN NJIHOVO RAZISKOVANJE ALAN G. FINCHAM Izvleček UDK 551.44 (729) Fincham, Alan G.: Jame na Jamajki in njihovo raziskovanje Jamajka, otok v Velikih Antilih, meri več kot 11.000 km^, dve tretjini sta zgrajeni iz zakraselega apnenca z največjo višino okoli 1.000 m n.m. Podatkov o raziskavah v 18. in 19. stoletju je malo, raziskovanjejam na otoku se razmahne po 1940, ko so začeli izkoriščati guano kot gnojilo. V zadnjem času pa seje spoznavanje jam in krasa na Jamajki poglobilo zaradi številnih "ekspedicij" iz Severne Amerike in Evrope. Jamarski klub Jamajka, osnovan 1958, je glavno središče za obiske tako jamarjev kot speleologov. Jamski kataster obsega več kot 1200jam in verjetno so do sedaj raziskane večinoma vse večje in lažje dostopne jame. Največja do sedaj dosežena dolžina jame je 3.500 m oziroma globina 180 m. Speleološke raziskave na Jamajki so prispevale k svetovni geomorfološki, hidrološki, paleontološki, arheološki in biospeleološki literaturi. Čeprav je Jamajka gospodarsko odvisna od turizma, je do sedaj zelo malo urejenih turističnih jam. Porast prebivalstva in gospodarski pritiski na otoku bodo verjetno povečali ogroženost jam, zato priporočamo razvoj strategije za varstvo v sodelovanju zasebnih in državnih teles. Ključne besede: regionalna speleologija, novejše raziskave, literatura, varstvo jam in krasa Abstract UDC 551.44 (729) Fincham, Alan G.: Jamaican Caves and Cave Exploration The island of Jamaica in the Greater Antilles, has a land area in excess of ll,000km% two-thirds of which consists of cavernous limestones with a maximum elevation of about 1,000m a.s.l.. Records of explorations from the 18th and 19th centuries are few, but cave exploration in the island became more active in the 1940's when bat guano deposits were exploited as fertilizer. More recently, knowledge of Jamaican caves and karst has been enhanced by the activities of a series of "expedition" parties from both North America and Europe. The Jamaica Caving Club, formed in 1958, has acted as a focus for the work of both visiting cavers and speleologists. The present cave data-base contains records of over 1,200 sites and it is probable that most of the larger, more accessible caves have now been explored. The greatest mapped extent and depth for Jamaican caves are 3,500m and 180m, respectively. Jamaican speleological research has contributed to world geomorphological, hydro-logical, palaeontological, archaeological and bio-speleological literature. Although Jamaica is economically dependent on tourism, the organized development of "show-cave" sites has been minor. Existing population and economic pressures within the island are likely to increase cave-site endan-germent, and the development of conservation strategies by the coordination of both private and government bodies is suggested. Key words: regional speleology, recent explorations, literature, caves and karst protection Address - Naslov Alan G. Fincham CCMB Laboratory, School of Dentistry University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA 90033 USA BACKGROUND The associated article (Shaw T.R.,), provides an account of the karst literature of Jamaica covering the period from the Spanish invasion of the island (1509) to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. In this chapter, the author seeks to bring the reader an account of the more recent Jamaican karst literature and to provide an outline of the present status of Jamaican speleology. THE TERRAIN The island of Jamaica (Figure 1) has a land area of about 11,420km- of which almost exactly two-thirds of the surface rocks of are faulted limestones of Eocene to Miocene age (Robinson et al., 1977; Horsfield, 1974). Generally, the land is mountainous and much of the inland terrain is characterized by rugged areas of "Cockpit" and "Tower" karst with a local relief of over 100m, interspersed with poljes ("Glades" or "Bottoms"), making these regions difficult of access and of poor agricultural potential, apart from forestry and some subsistence farming within the glades. The main exposure of non-carbonaceous rocks occurs in the Blue Mountain Range; a ridge of peaks of about 2,300m which comprises much of the eastern interior of the island. The principal cave-bearing formation is that of the White Limestone of Middle Eocene to Middle Miocene age within which many of the major caves of the interior are developed (Wadge & Draper, 1977c). Younger limestones comprise the coastal formations of the island (e.g. Portland Ridge and the Hellshire Hills) and also contain notable caves. Some limestones (e.g. The Newport Formation of the White Limestone) are over 1500m in thickness, but caves of a depth greater than about 250m have not been found (Wadge & Draper, 1977a). The hydrology of the island is dominated by a series of rivers which generally sink around the northern edges of the Cenfral Inlier (Figure 1) feeding to risings associated with the E-W Duanvale fault system which is a dominant feature of the morphology of the cen-fral-northem Cockpit Country and the Dry Harbour Mountain region of the island. In many cases the underground drainage disfribution has been determined through water-tracing studies and some sink-to-rising distances in excess of 20km have been established (Smart & Smith, 1976). CAVE EXPLORATIONS; 1940 -1990 (a) The Geological Survey Department: Although some early geologists and naturalists working in Jamaica (e.g. Gosse, 1851; Sawkins, 1869; de La Beche, 1827) commented on the occurrence of caves in various parts of the island, no detailed studies were made. The stimulus for a detailed investigation of the island's caves came about through the need for a local supply of fertilizer during the early years of World War II, when the Jamaican Geological Survey Department (GSD) embarked on an island-wide survey of caves for bat-guano as a possible solution to the fertilizer shortage. The initial project under this scheme included the survey of the well-known Portland Ridge Caves in south Clarendon where a guano mining operation was undertaken (Edwards, 1942). In the forefront of this work was the late Mr. Brian R.G. McGrath, a "surveyor" to the GSD (Several other GSD employees also contributed to this work; most notably; B.V. Bailey and H.E. Edwards). In his field-books McGrath left notes on many caves throughout the island, recording the character and quantities of guano, together with topographic plans and sections of some of the larger, more accessible caves. While McGrath was employed to carry out this work, it is clear from his notes that he had a genuine caver's enthusiasm for Key to Map Locations 1 Portland Ridge Caves. 2 Jackson's Bay Caves 3 Dunn's Hole 4 The Volcano 5 Worthy Park Caves 6 Pedro Cave and Pedro River sink. 7 Riverhead Cave; Black River 8 Rock Spring Caverns, Dog Hole. 9 Cave River Sink. 10 Mouth River Sink. n Quashies River Sink 12 Windsor Great Cave. 13 Coffee River Cave. 14 Asuno Hole. 15 Domock Head Rising. 16 FontJrfielle Spring. 17 Peterkin and Rota Caves. 18 Hutchinson's Hole. 19 Cabbage Hall Caverns. 20 Mafoota River Caves. 21 Still Waters Cave. 22 Marta Tick Cave 23 Runaway Bay Caves. 24 Nonsuch Cave. 25 Braco Cave 26 Wondrous Cave 27 Roaring River Cave. 28 Gourie Cave. 29 Lowes River Sinks 30 Swansea Cave 31 Oxford Cave 32 St.Clair Cave 33 Mountain River Cave 34 Pantrepant Cave 35 Chesterfield Cave 36 Man Cave 37 Wallingford Cave 38 Long Mile Cave 39 God's Well 40 Two Sisters Cave 41 Blue River Sink 42 Hectors River Sinks 43 Deeside Risings 44 Printed Circuit, Mouth Maze 45 Bristol Cave 46 Me No Sen Cave 47 Golding River Cave 48 Thatchfield Great Cave 49 Falling Cave 50 Harties Caves 51 Lloyds Cave 52 Morgans Pond Hole 53 New Hall Cave 93 this study and may be thought of as Jamaica's first caver. Despite this enthusiasm, McGrath was not generally equipped for vertical descents and usually terminated his exploration when low passages, deep water or vertical drops were encountered. Thus, in several cases, major cave extensions have since been made beyond points where McGrath's plans show closure. The Annual Reports of the GSD for 1954-57 include an item on; "Topographic and Cave Surveys ", and for 1954-55 the report notes that: "... eleven caves were surveyed, eight in tPie parish of Clarendon and three in St. Catherine. One of the longest in the former parish is Long Pond Cave, situated east of Jackson's Bay, Portland Ridge. The length is nearly 400fi., with several offshoots on either side; it has an abundance of stalactites and stalagmites, with beautiful curtains. There are, however, no phosphates in this cave." (Zans, 1957). If McGrath was the first caver, the then Director of the GSD, Dr. V.A. Zans, may be credited as the first speleologist. Zans appears to have directed much of McGrath's earlier work and contributed some of the first detailed studies of Jamaican caves, for example, in his paper; "The Geology of the Mosely Hall Cave", (Zans, 1953). (See also: Zans, 1951; 1954; 1958; 1959). McGrath also contributed to the literature with his account; "A Descent into Dunn's Hole Sink" (McGrath, 1958) being the most noteworthy in that this assault on the 230m deep sinkhole was made using cable ladders and in collaboration with a visiting part of cavers from the US National Speleological Society (NSS), (White and Dunn, 1962). In addition to the cave surveys, the concerns of the GSD also centered around the hydrology of the island. In 1955, Dr. Majorie Sweeting, a karst geomorphologist from Britain, conducted a two month programme of hydrological studies in collaboration with the GSD. (Dr. Sweeting was assisted by Brian McGrath in the field work involved.) These studies culminated with the publication of a report; "Hydrogeological Observations in Parts of the White Limestone Areas in Jamaica, B. W.L " (Sweeting, 1956) which was to prove seminal for future work on the karst hydrology of the island, and together with additional publications (Sweeting, 1957; 1958), stimulated a wider interest in Jamaican karst and caves. (b) The Jamaica Caving Club: The creation of the University College of the West Indies (now the University of the West Indies) in 1948, brought to the region, for the first time, an institution of higher education which sought to attract academics in a wide range of disciplines, including the sciences. The Jamaica Caving Club (JCC), formed in 1958 by a group of cavers (initially headed by Dr. Allan Cunningham, a mountameer), was centered at the University. Under the leadership of Dr Ronald Read, Professor of Mathematics, the club became a focus for visiting cavers and associated academics. The Caving Club's membership was drawn from the University staff and students, together with other interested individuals (principally professionals working for Jamaican Government bodies). The Club organized a programme of week-end "expeditions" during which many of the caves more accessible from the University in Kingston were explored. Curiously, at this time, little interest was shown in preparing detailed records of these explorations, or mapping the caves. Rather, "caving" was seen by most members, solely as a recreational activity. The then existing cave records and surveys, accumulated by McGrath and his associates at the Geological Survey Department appear to have been largely unknown to the Caving Club group. Many of the original McGrath cave surveys were only discovered by the author m 1976, in the records of the Geological Survey Department, during his research for Jamaica Underground; (Fincham, 1977). Nevertheless, the early days of the Caving Club were embellished by several major discoveries. In 1958, entry was gained to the underground course of the Coffee River near Auchtembeddie in Manchester, and a spectacular river passage followed upstream through several boulder-falls for over 2700m. The rocks of the underground river bed were found to be eroded into contorted solutional razor-edged forms, later to be described by Aley (1964), as echinoliths. In 1964 the Club visited some caves reported at Jackson's Bay, on the southern side of Portland Ridge in Clarendon. This site had previously been visited by McGrath in 1955, and recorded as Olive Park Caves. Partial surveys of areas around Entrances # 1 and #3 were subsequently found in the fieldbooks (Fincham, 1977). Initial explorations at this site extended over a period of three years, culminating in the publication of a plan of the Jackson's Bay Cave in 1966. In 1969 the author, a biochemist and caver from Britain, was recruited to the Faculty of the UWI and had the opportunity to work with the Caving Club until leaving the island in 1985. During this period a computerized data-base for recording of the caves of the island was developed leading to the publication of Jamaica Underground (Fincham, 1977) which sought, for the first time, to provide a comprehensive listing and description of the knovra caves, then numbering some 960 sites. The initial data-base for Jamaica Underground was prepared using punch-cards and processed on an IBM 1620 main-frame computer. The final output for publication came from the University IBM-360 System using a line-printer, unfortunately without any lower case character capability! Since its establishment m 1956 the Jamaica Caving Club has provided both a local outlet for recreational caving activities and a nexus for Jamaican cave studies. The organization and membership of the Club has fluctuated greatly with the availability of individuals with caving experience. The current Club organizers can usually be reached through the Departments of Geology/Geography, at the University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7. (c) The Expeditions: In addition to the explorations undertaken by JCC and GSD personnel, knowledge of the island's caves has been greatly enhanced by a series of caving expeditions. Most of these visiting cavers originated in the United Kingdom (Leeds University Expedition, 1963; Karst Hydrology Expedition, 1965-66; Bristol University, 1967, 1969 and Liverpool University, 1977) The earliest such visit was made by a party from the U.S. National Speleological Society (NSS) in 1958 and the NSS was again the sponsor for the series of Jamaica Cockpits Project expeditions of 1985-1988. Frequently, these visitors have been responsible for major explorations, particularly of some of the deeper sections of caves and sinkholes where their superior experience and equipment has proved valuable. The background and achievements of each of these expeditions is briefly summarized below:- The NSS Expedition (1958): This appears to have been the first visit to the island by an organized party of cavers, and was made in collaboration with the GSD. The most notable contribution of this expedition was the exploration of the 230m deep pit (Dunn's Hole) near Stewart Town in Trelawny, bemg perhaps the first exploration of a deep, vertical cave ("sinkhole") in the island. In addition to this descent the party also visited Windsor Cave and several hitherto unrecorded sites on the south coast (White & Dunn, 1962; White, 1962). Probably the first descent of a sinkhole in Jamaica was that made by Sir Henry Blake, (then Govenor of Jamaica) who, in July 1895, was lowered to the floor of the 80m deep Hutchinson's Hole in St. Ann (Ashcroft, 1976). Governor Blake's interest was to seek the remains of persons reputedly flung into the pit by a notorious local murderer; Lewis Hutchinson! (Marshall, 1963; see also; Gascoyne, 1975). Leeds University Expedition (1963): The Leeds expedition was stimulated in part by the enthusiasm and advice given by Dr. Majorie M. Sweeting. The nine-member party spent six weeks in the island and focussed their activities on the Lluidas Vale polje in northern St. Catherme (Fig. 1). The group made explorations and surveys of 26 caves and sinkholes in and around this area (6,100m mapped), including the complex Worthy Park Sink caves, and the Pedro Great Cave (Fincham & Ashton, 1967). Hydrological studies included a tracing test (19kg of fluorescein) of the Rio Pedro sink, without result! Also, a series of discharge and water analyses were made at the Riverhead Cave Rising, which subsequently stimulated a theoretical treatment of the properties of karst drainage systems (Ashton, 1966). Outside of the Lluidas Vale area, the party explored and mapped the 2,600m Rock Spring Caverns and the associated Dog Hole system. On reflection, the 1963 expedition was ambitious for its time and perhaps a harbinger of the host of international caving expeditions which have today become almost commonplace. Karst Hydrology Expedition (1965-66): Originally, this party had plarmed a visit to Puerto Rico, but after discussion with the members of the 1963 Leeds party, they decided instead on Jamaica. This five-man British-Canadian expedition spent a total of 8 months in the island and explored and mapped over 29,000m of cave passages, much being new exploration! (Livesey, 1966). Much of their work was focussed on new explorations of the Cave River, Mouth River and Quashies River systems, although surveys were also made of the previously explored Winsor Great Cave and Coffee River Cave. The first exploration of the waterfall shafts of the Quashies River Cave and the 116m free cable ladder descent of the Asuno Hole are both "classic" exploration accounts (Livesy, 1966; Boon, 1977). In addition to their exploration and mapping, the party conducted a major series of water traces, usmg both dyestuffs and lycopodium spores. The drainage of the Cave River and Quashies Rivers to the Dornock Head Rising (the source of the Rio Bueno) and the Mouth River to Fontabelle Spring drainage were established for the first time (Brown & Ford, 1968). Bristol University Expeditions (1967,1969): The 1967 party comprised 12 members and focussed their work on the area around Maldon and Maroon Town in St. James. An extensive and ambitious programme of water tracing, karst hydrology and geomorphology was undertaken, together with the exploration and mapping (~6,700m) of the caves of the area (Smith et al, 1969a). In the cave exploration category, the party made a detailed study of the underground course of the Tangle River, from its sinks near Peterkin Cave, through Rota Cave and Rota Sink and at its eventual rising at Deeside some 6km distant. The intermediate course of this river, remains one of the more tantalizing problems of Jamaican cave exploration. During 1969, some cavers from the 1967 group returned to Jamaica and made significant explorations in some other areas of the island, notably of the 1,600m long complex at Cabbage Hall, in Clarendon and the Mafoota River system in St. James. Liverpool University Expedition (1977): This five man party spent six weeks in the island based in the Troy area of Trelawny. The major cave exploration was the discovery and survey of the complex and partially flooded Still Waters Cave (3350m), near Accompong (McFarlane, 1980). A geomorphological study was made of karren relief in selected areas differing in average rainfall, and a survey of some bat-cave sites was also conducted. NSS Jamaica Cockpit Project (1985-1988): In 1985 a party of nine cavers from the US initiated a project (The NSS Jamaica Cockpits Project) to explore the karst and sinkholes of the interior of the little-knovra Cockpit Country region. The party was based at Quick Step, in Trelawny on the southern fringe of the area and was assisted by local guides and JCC members. The 1985 party explored 22 pits and caves and completed the mapping and exploration of the 1750m long Marta Tick Cave (Baker et al., 1986). Further expeditions to this, and adjacent areas, were made in 1986 and 1987 (Baker, 1987). Over 20 additional sinkholes were explored, many of70-80m in depth, but significant lateral development was generally lacking (Canter, 1987). In 1988 an NSS party again visited the island and made some explorations into the difficult terrain of the John Crow Mountains in the east of the island. This highly fissured range of limestone hills rises to about 1,000m and gives rise to numerous streams and rivers on its eastern flanks. However, no significant caves were located. COMMERCE AND CONSERVATION The arrival of the Spanish in Jamaica in 1509 opened a period of some 300 years of colonial rule of the island, with the Spanish confrol being supplanted by the British in 1655. Sugar became the basis of commerce, and the labour was provided through the importation of Africans as slaves for work on the European owned and controlled sugar plantations which expanded to occupy most of the arable level areas of the land (Williams, 1970). Frequently these cane-field areas are closely surrounded by regions of tower karst containing obvious caves in their fringing cliffs. Many such caves house substantial bat populations and probably then, as today, the bat guano provided a source of fertilizer for the small farmer. Whether such guano deposits were exploited by the plantation owners or their slaves for fertilizing vegetable plots is not recorded, but appears likely. Nevertheless, Ja- maican folk traditions frequently associate caves with "duppies" (ghosts) and such strongly held superstitions may have inhibited the widespread exploration of caves by local people. Long (1774) in his "History of Jamaica", provides a description of the masonry dams and sluices installed within the Riverhead Cave, St Catherine, which were employed to provide water to an indigo washing facility operated close to the cave entrance and beside the usually dry bed of the Black River (See; Shaw, p. 39). Although caves abound throughout the island, it is surprising that references to them in the writmgs of the 17th and 18th century are sparse. In more recent times caves which contain bat guano deposits (Cousins, 1903) have been worked by local farmers for fertilizer and a few other caves have been exploited as water supplies (possibly of dubious quality) and as local tourist attractions. This latter activity has been sporadic in the past, with several caves being "shown" to passing travellers by local persons (e.g., the Windsor Great Cave in Trelawny). Some sites, notably the Runaway Bay Caves ("Green Grotto") appear to have been active, if not commercial, tourist attractions since the mid to late eighteenth century (Zans, 1960). More recently, the Athenry Estate Caves in Portland have been developed under the name of Nonsuch Caves as a show cave site. At the present time, caves in the island have not been developed as tourist attractions through government sponsored agencies, although some minor sites are now being exploited by local entrepreneurs (e.g., the Braco Cave in Trelawny, which attracts passers by under the title of "Arawak Cave".) These caves are certainly not amongst the more spectacular to be found in Jamaica, but many of the other suitable caves are commonly difficult of access (e.g., Wondrous Cave, St. Elizabeth) or are located well away from the more usual tourist areas and have not been "developed" for visitors (Frank, 1973). However the, Roaring River Cave in Westmoreland has apparently recently been opened as a tourist site. Possibly, Jamaica, relying heavily on its income from tourism, needs to look more closely at the potential value of developing show caves as alternative tourist atfractions and could take example from Harrison's Cave in central Barbados, a model show cave development pioneered by the Barbados government "Caves Authority". While the development costs may be high, once such a project is completed the site becomes a permanent national resource and, in certain cases, such "development" has proved to be an effective way of promoting cave conservation, although in the hands of the inexperienced developer, such commercialization can become a refined form of vandalism. In the friture, it is likely that conflicts between cave conservation and industrial and urban developments (water supply, waste disposal, quarrying, commercialization, mining etc.) will become increasingly important. Such problems are evident in the continuing urban development of Hellshire Bay ("Kingston's Twin City") on the honeycomb limestones of the east Hellshire Hills in St. Catherine. Indusfrial and urban impacts on karst water supplies in the more rural areas have been documented. Sugar industiy waste has been implicated in serious water pollution problems at Black River in St. Elizabeth (Wright, 1972); Bog Walk m St. Catherine (Fmcham & Ashton, 1967); Wakefield in Trelawny (Fincham, unpublished observations). Contamination of a local water supply at Maldon in St. James was noted by Tratman (1969). While much has been accomplished in the recording and study of the caves of Jamaica together with their associated hydrology, geomorphology, archaeology and biology, much remains incomplete or unexplored. Public awareness and planning in the evaluation and control of incipient karst-related environmental problems requires strengthening. An integration of the Caving Club expertise and knowledge within existing national structures (The National Trust, the UWI and the Department of Mines and Geology), will be needed if these complex matters are to be wisely addressed. JAMAICAN SPELEOLOGY (a) Organization: The development of speleological studies in Jamaica is immature. There is presently no Caves Authority or other government-sponsored, or academic speleological organization in the island to represent caving and conservation interests, despite the very large number of caves and their actual or potential impact on the community. (However, the Jamaican National Trust has recently proposed the establishment of a number of National Park areas which would include parts of the Cockpit Country and also Portland Ridge. The Trust has also shown active interest in the conservation of cave sites). It is perhaps notable that, notwithstanding the extensive limestone areas of Jamaica, the UWI Departments of Geology and Geography have generally failed to develop karst studies as a major theme for research. While the Jamaica Caving Club, has experienced the periodic fluctuations in support and membership which are common to clubs of this type, it nevertheless has served as a focus for caving in the island and, in particular, the club has worked closely with the several groups of visiting cavers and speleologists who collectively have done much to develop the existing knowledge of the island's caves. (b) Karst morphology studies: Accounts of Jamaican caves and their associated karst landforms are few. The pioneer hydrogeological and geomorphological studies of Jamaican karst areas (Sweeting, 1956; 1957; 1958) have served to establish the Jamaican Cockpit Country as a "type area" in tropical karst geomorphology. Versey (1959) provided a general review of the Jamaican karst and during the early 1960's, Aub (1969a,b) made detailed studies of a sinkhole karst area in northern Clarendon, although much of this latter study remains unpublished. Day (1976), and Brook & Hanson (1986) studied the morphology and hydrology of karst depressions in St. Ann, and each of the expedition groups have contributed to such studies (Drew, 1969; Smith, 1969b; Smith et al, 1972; Brown & Ford, 1973). Wadge & Draper (1977a,b) made some preliminary observations on tectonic and lithological factors in Jamaican speleogenesis and a detailed structural study of the caves of the Jacksons Bay area (Figure 2) of Clarendon was published in 1979 (Wadge et al., 1979). (c) Hydrology: In the area of hydrology, Jamaica has provided an important proving ground for the development of water-tracing techniques suitable for tropical karst, with most of the visiting parties making their contributions (e.g., Ashton, 1966; Atkinson et al., 1973; Smart and Smith, 1976). In particular, these studies served to highlight technical problems in the use of fluorescent dyestufl's under tropical conditions. Today, the broad picture of drainage patterns in the Jamaican karst is well established, although a few major systems (e.g., Gourie Cave in Manchester and Lowes River Sinks in St. Ann) await detailed study. The principal Jamaican karst drainage systems established by water tracing techniques are listed in Table 1. Table 1 Jamaican Karst Drainage Tests Sinks Rising(s) Distance (i