Language for Specific Purposes in the Framework of Criminal Justice and Security Editor Mojca Kompara Lukančič December 2022 Title Language for Specific Purposes in the Framework of Criminal Justice and Security Editor Mojca Kompara Lukančič (University of Maribor, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Slovenia) Review Isabella Matticchio (University of Rijeka, Croatia) Vesselina Laskova (University of Udine, Italy) Natalia Kaloh Vid (University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Slovenia) Donald F. Reindl (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, Slovenia) Katja Dobrić Basaneže (Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Croatia) Vlado Sušac (University of Zadar, Croatia) Charlie Mansfield (University of Plymouth, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Katica Balenović (University of Zadar, Croatia) Crisitna Dimulescu (University of Brasov, Romania) Andreea Nechifor (University of Brasov, Romania) Language editing Donald F. Reindl, Alexander Guy Bristow, Sacha Marković, Silvia Vidović Technical editor Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover designer Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover graphics Plumage, author: stux from Pixabay.com, CC0, 2022 Graphics material Authors & Kompara Lukančič, 2022 Published by University of Maribor University Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://press.um.si, zalozba@um.si Issued by University of Maribor Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security Kotnikova ulica 8, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia https://www.fvv.um.si, fvv@um.si Edition 1st Publication type E-book Available at https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/739 Published Maribor, Slovenia, December 2022 © University of Maribor, University Press / Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba Text © authors, Kompara Lukančič 2022 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 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If you would like to reuse any third-party material not covered by the book’s Creative Commons licence, you wil need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor 811.111'24:343(082)(0.034.2) LANGUAGE for specific purposes in the framework of criminal justice and security [Elektronski vir] / editor Mojca Kompara Lukančič. - 1st ed. - E-knjiga. - Maribor : University of Maribor, University Press, 2022 Način dostopa (URL): https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/739 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 (PDF) doi: 10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022 COBISS.SI-ID 132763139 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 (pdf) DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022 Price Free copy For publisher prof. dr. Zdravko Kačič, Rector of University of Maribor Attribution Kompara Lukančič, M. (eds.) (2022). Language for Specific Purposes in the Framework of Criminal Justice and Security. University of Maribor, University Press. doi: 10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY M. Kompara Lukančič (ed.) Table of Contents Foreword Mojca Kompara Lukančič 1 Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 5 Jelena Gugić Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 25 Mojca Kompara Lukančič Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 43 Nives Lenassi English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Chal enges 77 Dragoslava Mićović Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Differences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 97 Eva Podovšovnik, Tilen Smajla Communication Skil s in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 123 Jasna Potočnik Topler, Mojca Kompara Lukančič Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 143 Vanja Slavuj LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY M. Kompara Lukančič (ed.) Foreword MOJCA KOMPARA LUKANČIČ English for specific purposes (ESP) as part of criminal justice and security ranges from the core field of criminal justice and security to the subfields of policing, criminal justice, law, administration, and the military. The volume Language for Specific Purposes in the Framework of Criminal Justice and Security —with articles by Jelena Gugić from the University of Pula, Mojca Kompara Lukančič from the University of Maribor, Nives Lenassi from the University of Ljubljana, Dragoslava Mićović from the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies in Belgrade, Eva Podovšovnik from the University of Primorska, Jasna Potočnik Topler from the University of Maribor, Vanja Slavuj from the University of Rijeka, and Tilen Smajla from the University of Maribor—offers insights on English and Italian in the framework of topics related to criminal justice and security. Jelena Gugić’s contribution, “Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in Croatian and English: A Corpus-Based Critical Discourse Analysis,” presents a study conducted using the hrWaC and enTenTen2015 corpora that lists the fifteen most typical adjectival and verbal col ocates of the words refugee, asylum seeker, immigrant, and migrant in a critical discourse analysis, defining the discourse surrounding them in a qualitative way. 2 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. In her work “Issues in English Correspondence: Student Letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security,” Mojca Kompara Lukančič presents the most common issues faced by students when writing formal letters in English. The author gives an overview of correspondence, fol owed by a survey that focuses on the layout of the letters, the general content of the letters, language use, and common errors found in fifty-five such letters prepared by second-year students from the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security. Nives Lenassi’s work “Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations” presents the position of abbreviations in bilingual administrative texts and the process of transferring abbreviated linguistic features into the target language. Her analysis shows that abbreviations denoting general concepts do usual y not represent major translation problems, but abbreviations for academic degrees show diverse tendencies; for example, untranslated titles, source-oriented strategy, target-oriented strategy, general/neutral translations, and so on. Dragoslava Mićović’s contribution, “English for Police Purposes at the University Level in Serbia: Current Situation and Challenges,” presents a general overview of police education in Serbia and focuses on learning foreign languages and English for police purposes. The author argues that foreign language learning within police education has never been the focus of any reform, and she underlines some important issues: challenges in teaching English for police purposes, difficulties related to obtaining authentic materials, and a reduced number of classes. In their work “Foreign Language Teaching during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Differences in Students’ Attitudes toward the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security,” Eva Podovšovnik and Tilen Smajla present an analysis of students’ attitudes at the University of Maribor’s Faculty of Security Sciences (FVV UM) on the use of distance learning tools in foreign language learning and teaching. The authors investigate the students’ experience with language for specific purposes (LSP) distance learning tools and focus on the impact of different language teaching methods on the respondents’ attitudes toward these tools, the students’ and professors’ perceptions of using digital tools for online learning, and the professors’ ability to adapt their teaching methods to online learning. M. Kompara Lukančič: Foreword 3 The contribution by Jasna Potočnik Topler and Mojca Kompara Lukančič, “Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Security and Justice in Slovenia,” examines communication skills in ESP for tourism students and students of criminal justice and security. The authors present an analysis of students’ speaking skills during oral presentations in English. The survey shows that most students make pronunciation and grammar mistakes, and that vocabulary is mostly properly used. In the last contribution, “Learners and CALL in the Context of English for Specific Purposes (ESP),” Vanja Slavuj talks about the introduction of digital technology into language learning and the need for relevant digital skills and a positive attitude towards its use by both teachers and learners. The research focuses on the CALL experiences, digital skills, and attitudes towards CALL of twenty-four administrative law students from the University of Rijeka. The volume brings together eight authors whose contributions offer insight and provide the reader with an awareness of diverse topics in LSP and ESP for criminal justice and security. It is a significant work that reflects diversity through the prism of linguistic studies. 4 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. MIGRATION DISCOURSE PRECEDING THE GREAT MIGRANT CRISIS IN THE CROATIAN AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE – A CORPUS-BASED CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS JELENA GUGIĆ Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Pula, Croatia jelena.gugic@unipu.hr Abstract In this paper, a corpus-based critical discourse analysis of adjectival and verbal col ocates of the words refugee, asylum seeker, immigrant and migrant are presented. The research was conducted using two corpora available on the Sketch Engine interface - hrWaC and enTenTen2015. The aim of the research was to list the 15 most typical adjectival and verbal collocates of the aforementioned nodes in the Croatian and English language and compare them. The critical discourse analysis included in- depth reading of concordance lines including the extracted collocations in the two languages, as well as defining the discourse surrounding them in a more qualitative way. The Keywords: findings suggest that prior to the outbreak of the 2015 migrant corpus, crisis the discourse surrounding the four groups of people was critical discourse judgemental and prejudiced, unwelcoming, and sometimes even analysis, migrant crisis, extremist, but that the Croatian language discourse was less Croatian, xenophobic than the English language discourse. English DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.1 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 6 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction Croatia is, from the historical perspective, a country from which people have mostly emigrated. According to Jerić (2019) the emigration of Croatian people was caused by different economic or political reasons, in eight different historical periods. The first emigration wave occurred in the 15th century due to the onslaught of the Turks, fol owed by the second at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century when people emigrated because of the disease which affected grapes preventing people from earning their daily bread by producing wine, and then the third due to the Great Depression and its consequences between the two world wars. The fourth emigration wave occurred due to the founding of a communist regime, and it was followed by the emigration of the 1960s when the former Yugoslavia opened its borders to western countries. The sixth emigration was caused by the Croatian Homeland War (the Croatian War of Independence 1991 – 1995), and that was followed by the seventh wave linked to the financial crisis of 2008. The eighth wave started in 2013 when Croatia became a member of the European Union, and it is stil going on. Immigration also occurred throughout history in similar periods, and the immigrants coming to Croatian territory mostly originated from its neighbouring countries (Hungarians, Italians from the Venetian Republic, Austrians, Germans, Croatians from Bosnia, Slovaks, Czechs, Jews, and Poles) (Zlatković Winter, 1993). The European migrant crisis of 2015 was marked by a huge inflow of refugees trying to escape the turmoil occurring in the countries of the Middle East, especial y in the decade preceding this year. Croatia was a country which migrants only wanted to pass through, but when its neighbouring countries stopped accepting them, many were forced, or even decided themselves, to stay and seek asylum. The interest of this paper lies in the representation of refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and migrants in a Croatian and English language corpus (hrWaC and enTenTen2015) consisting of texts from the web from the period prior to the European migrant crisis, and in obtaining an insight into how the speakers of the two languages depicted them at the time when the huge migration wave had not yet occurred. After presenting similar research conducted about this topic before the present one, the paper presents the research aims which it wanted to achieve and the adopted methodology. The research included the analysis of the most typical adjectival and verbal collocates of the four nodes ( refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and migrants) in the two languages and after defining them quantitatively, they were also analysed in J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 7 a qualitative fashion with the intention to confirm or reject the findings reported by the collocation analysis. 2 Theoretical background Since the European migrant crisis started in 2015, numerous studies about the topic and discourse surrounding migrants have been conducted. Thus, Barlai, Fähnrich, Griessler and Rhomberg (2017) edited a book about the migrant crisis in which they included articles written by authors from almost all European countries tackling some aspect of the migrant crisis, mostly from the socio-political and public discourse perspectives. In 2016 Lendaro addressed the migrant crisis from the perspective of border policies and discussed their employment or lack of employment in different European countries which should apply the regulations thus guaranteeing the same human rights to al people, no matter what their country of origin. There were other numerous authors addressing the same topic from the national security perspective (Adamson, 2006; Lalić et al., 2015; Metelev, 2016; Ivanova, 2017; Vulević, 2018; Bježančević, 2019; Gryshova et al., 2019). Goodman et al. (2017) analysed the discourse surrounding the migrant crisis and found out that it changed according to the geographical position of the most serious event in the denoted period (i.e. from the “Mediterranean migrant crisis” to “Calais migrant crisis” and to the “European migrant crisis”, then turning into the “refugee crisis”). In 2015 Berry et al. prepared a report about the press coverage of the refugee and migrant crisis in the EU for the United Nations High Commission for Refugees. They analysed five European countries (UK, Sweden, Germany, Spain, and Italy). Knowing that the use of particular linguistic features and word combinations can affect public opinion, the migrant crisis covered by the media, especial y by the press, was of huge interest to linguists as wel . Most of them analysed the words migrants, immigrants, refugees, asylum seekers, Islam and Muslims using the corpus method and discourse analysis (Baker et al., 2008; Crymble, 2010; Khorsavinik, 2010; Baker et al, 2013; Blinder & Allen, 2016; Salashour, 2016; Al Fajri, 2017; Sakellariou, 2017; O’Regan & Riordan, 2018; Serafis et al., 2020). What seems to be the common ground of al these studies is that the arrival of the aforementioned groups of people was not seen as a positive occurrence, and attitudes toward them have been mostly negative. 8 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. In Croatia the number of studies addressing the migration crisis from a linguistic point of view is smal er. The most recently published one is by Dobrić Basaneže and Ostojić (2021) who investigated the migration discourse in the Croatian news media employing the corpus linguistics method and critical discourse analysis. After conducting a detailed analysis, the authors concluded that “RASIM1 are often discriminated against not only when they are physical y pushed back at the borders, but also in the words the media use to report on these incidents.” (Dobrić Basaneže & Ostojić, 2021, p. 22). They also claimed that although the migration discourse in Croatian news was less discriminatory than in the UK press, it stil created xenophobic attitudes (ibid., p. 22–23). Bezić and Petrović (2019) analysed the discourse strategies in the media representation of migrants on a corpus of Italian and British daily newspapers. They paid special attention to the construction of the opposite personal pronouns we/they (representing the European Union/migrants) and analysed the nomination strategies used which were more frequent in the Italian press due to Italy being the country from which the wave of migration starts and the UK being at the edge of this process. Finally, Podboj (2019) described the discourse construction of identity in narratives about personal migration experiences. She conducted a semi-structured interview with 10 participants who emigrated from Croatia in 2010. Although her dissertation did not include refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and migrants in the analysis, her work expressed the need for “new, discourse- and identity-oriented criteria” approaches to linguistic analysis (ibid, p. 13). 3 Empirical research 3.1 Research aims The first aim of the present research was to compare the most typical collocates of the four terms usual y analysed as part of the migrant crisis discourse (namely refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and migrants) in the Croatian and English language using the hrWaC corpus (Ljubičić & Klubička, 2014) and the enTenTen2015 corpus (Jakubiček et al., 2013). The second aim was to conduct a critical discourse analysis and compare the representation of these four groups in the two corpora and understand how they were pictured on the web in the period preceding the outbreak 1 Abbreviation for Refugees, Asylum Seekers, Immigrants and Migrants (Gabrielatos & Baker, 2008; Baker et al. 2008) J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 9 of the migrant crisis in 2015. The assumptions behind these aims were that both languages would have similar collocates of the words examined and that, as former studies proved, they would carry negative connotations. 3.2 Methodology Studies interested in the linguistic aspect of the migrant crisis discourse usually use a combination of the Corpus Linguistics method (CL) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). McEnery and Hardie (2012, p. 1) define CL as “an area which focuses upon a set of procedures, or methods, for studying language.” The most commonly used CL techniques in linguistic analysis are key word, collocation and concordance. CDA, on the other hand, is defined by Huckin (1997, p. 87) as “a highly context-sensitive, democratic approach which takes an ethical stance on social issues with the aim of improving society.” Taking into consideration discourse or “language above the sentence or above the clause” (Stubbs, 1983, p. 1), CDA looks at language in a critical manner and is interested in how ideologies and power relations are expressed in it (Baker, 2008). Since to apply the strategies of CDA it is important to have larger amounts of text, it does not come as a surprise that CDA found solid grounds for its application in CL. As already mentioned, one of the most exploited CL techniques is collocation. Collocations are defined as “strings of words that seem to have certain ‘mutual expectancy’, or a greater-than-chance likelihood that they wil co-occur in any text.” (Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992, p. 21, as cited in Moehkardi, 2002). In their cooccurrence, words can carry certain connotations (Stubbs, 1996) and are therefore used as markers signalling the mental image people can make by seeing those words together. However, as Stubbs (1996, p. 195) suggests “if col ocations and fixed phrases are repeatedly used as unanalysed units in media discussion and elsewhere, then it is very plausible that people will come to think about things in such terms.” Considering that Stubbs mentioned ‘unanalysed units in media discussion’, it is of the utmost importance not to leave the language we study unexplained. The quantitative nature of CL thus becomes empowered by the qualitative nature of CDA. The same two methods were applied in this research as wel . 10 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. To achieve the aims of this research two corpora available on the online concordancer Sketch Engine (Kilgariff et al., 2004; Kilgariff et al., 2014) were used, namely the hrWaC 2.2 and the EnTenTen2015. The web “contains a massive col ection of data that is ever-growing” (McEnery & Hardy, 2012, p. 7) and “contains genres that are not found in traditional written corpora, such as blogs and online discussion forums” (Al Fajri, 2017, p. 383). Therefore, corpora of texts crawled from the web were seen as a suitable ground for analysis by which to achieve the aforementioned aims. In Sketch Engine the hrWaC corpus consists of 1,211,328,660 words. It was created in 2014 and is composed of texts taken from the web (the .hr domain). To analyse the situation in the English language the enTenTen2015 corpus was analysed. It consists of 13,190,556,334 English words extracted from the internet. Although it would have been better to have two corpora belonging to the same corpus family (hrWaC and ukWaC), the enTenTen2015 was chosen in order to have a matching time period of texts crawled from the web in the two languages since the ukWaC corpus was compiled in 2007 (it is important to mention that the enTenTen2015 version is not the last one in the TenTen family corpus; it was fol owed by enTenTen2018 and enTenTen2020). First, collocations were extracted from both corpora using the Word Sketch tool. Only lexical or content words appearing as col ocates were considered since they bear semantic content and contribute to the meaning of the sentence or clause they appear in offering various types of information. According to Petrović (2007, as cited in Košuta, 2012) the most common types of collocations in the Croatian language are adjective + noun, verb + noun and adverb + verb. Since the four nodes observed in this research are nouns, the collocates analysed, at the same time content words, were adjectives and verbs. The same procedure was applied in the study of col ocates for the English nodes. The number of possible collocates for each of the four nodes was high in both languages (for instance, the word izbjeglica has 88 adjectival collocates, while refugee attracts 100 adjectival collocates). Therefore, only the top 15 col ocates with the highest logDice score were considered. “The logDice score has a reasonable interpretation, scales wel on a different corpus size, is stable on subcorpora, and the values are in reasonable range.” (Rychlý, 2008, p. 9). Its comparability among different corpora sizes makes it suitable for this research as well. LogDice is fixed at its maximum value of 14 and is therefore easy to interpret, because the closer the value to 14, the more typical the col ocation. However, in this respect, Rychlý (2008) states that the logDice value is usually less than 10. To reach J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 11 the second research aim, the Concordance tool was employed. It enables researchers to look at words or collocations of interest in context which is crucial to conduct discourse analysis. 3.3 Results and discussion Since the four words to be analysed in this research ( izbjeglice, azilanti, imigranti i migranti - refugees, asylum seekers, immigrants and migrants) had been set prior to the commencement of the research, the first step to be taken was to search these four words using the Word Sketch tool offered in Sketch Engine. This was done in both the hrWaC and the enTenTen2015 corpus. The collocations were then sorted in order to extract those whose col ocate was a content word (adjective or verb), and among them only the top 15 according to their logDice score. 3.3.1 Adjectival and verbal collocates of izbjeglica and refugee Table 1: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of izbjeglica Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice palestinski 8.7 zbrinjavati 8.5 sirijski 7.9 zbrinuti 7.9 muslimanski 7.7 naseliti 7.6 afganistanski 7.4 boraviti 7.5 tibetanski 7.1 naseljavati 7.4 bošnjački 6.9 doći 6.8 irački 6.7 useliti 6.7 čečenski 6.6 doseljavati 6.7 kosovski 6.6 bježati 6.6 somalijski 6.6 doseliti 6.5 kubanski 6.6 pristizati 6.4 albanski 6.6 smjestiti 5.7 srpski 6.4 živjeti 5.6 sudanski 6.4 biti 5.5 židovski 6.4 prevoziti 5.3 Source: Sketch Engine 12 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Table 2: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of refugee Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice Syrian 11.0 resettle 10.0 Palestinian 9.6 arrive 7.9 Afghan 8.8 displace 7.3 Somali 8.7 repatriate 7.2 Iraqi 8.3 relocate 6.9 Sudanese 8.3 deport 6.9 Palestine 8.2 welcome 6.7 Burmese 7.6 admit 6.6 Eritrean 7.5 accept 6.5 Tibetan 7.4 assist 6.5 Rohingya 7.3 detain 6.5 Jewish 7.2 settle 6.5 Vietnamese 7.1 strand 6.5 (North) Korean 7.0 house 6.5 Bhutanese 6.9 shelter 6.5 Source: Sketch Engine The first most noticeable information given in Table 1 and Table 2 is that both the Croatian and English language associate the word refugee with their nationality. In fact, by checking the list, of the top 15 adjectival collocates, one sees that al are nationalities. Palestinian and Syrian refugees are the most typical collocations in both corpora (in reversed order). Besides them, nationalities mentioned in both corpora are Afghan, Tibetan, Iraqi, Somali, Sudanese and Jewish. When it comes to verbal col ocates, it is extremely interesting to notice that the most typical verbs associated with izbjeglica in the Croatian language are zbrinjavati and zbrinuti (‘to take care of, to give shelter to’), whereas the verb shelter is the least typical collocate in the English language. A more detailed analysis shows that all the Croatian verbs have a positive or neutral connotation. The only one which could be considered negative is the verb bježati (‘to run away from’), but a closer look at its concordances shows that the verb only describes the situation when the refugees had to flee from their countries: 1. državu dobrovoljno, u potrazi za boljim životom i ako se odluči vratiti kući nastavit će uživati zaštitu svoje vlade. Izbjeglice bježe zbog straha od proganjanja i ne mogu se u datim okolnostima sigurno vratiti svojoj kući Osobe za koje se putem 2. komentare, pozzzz. Ipak znam o ćemu da pišem. O strašnom ratu na Bliskom istoku. Izrael i dalje bombadira Libanon, a izbjeglice bježe u Siriju, Cipar i druge zemlje. STRAŠNO Gadno je dolje, ali mijenjam temu I onda kažu da je zrak onečišćen, pa kako J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 13 On the other hand, there are more verbs in the English language which could be classified as bearing a negative connotation ( repatriate, detain, strand). In the end, it can be said that the verbal collocates in both languages are mainly concerned with giving refugees a place to live ( zbrinuti, naseliti, useliti, doseliti, smjestiti and reset le, relocate, set le, house, shelter). 3.3.2 Adjectival and verbal collocates of azilant and asylum seeker Table 3: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of azilant Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice politički 3.7 odobriti 2.7 afganistanski 3.7 primati 1.9 lažan 3.6 priznati 1.6 potencijalan 3.2 primiti 1.4 smjestiti 3.0 ruski 2.5 ilegalan 2.4 takozvani 2.4 mnogobrojan 1.9 stran 0.2 Source: Sketch Engine Table 4: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of asylum seeker Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice destitute 6.7 deport 8.2 Eritrean 6.5 detain 8.1 Lankan 5.9 refuse 6.8 unaccompanied 5.9 fail 6.8 failed 5.7 resettle 6.2 Tamil 5.5 demonise 6.2 Afghan 5.5 relocate 6.1 LGBT 5.3 intercept 6.0 Rohingya 5.2 deter 5.9 Sudanese 5.0 repatriate 5.6 bogus 4.9 reject 5.5 Montagnard 4.8 imprison 5.4 Hazara 4.6 arrive 5.3 Syrian 4.5 house 5.2 Somali 4.5 disperse 4.9 Source: Sketch Engine 14 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. A first glance at Table 3 shows that the word azilant is seldomly used as a colocation node in the Croatian language corpus. It has only 10 adjectival and four verbal collocates. On the other hand, in the English language corpus there was a sufficient number of both types of col ocates for the node asylum seeker. It can be discussed that if the Croatian node was tražitelj azila instead of azilant (both have the same meaning – asylum seeker) there would be a larger number of collocates. However, the assumption proved to be wrong. The search resulted in only four adjectival and five verbal collocates. Besides the small number of collocates for azilant, their typicality is low. According to the logDice score, the closer the score value to 14, the more typical the col ocate-node association. The highest score is 3.7 for the collocate politički and afganistanski so it seems that Croatians were mostly, but not too seriously, concerned about the number of asylum seekers coming from Afghanistan, and the fact that they fled their country due to political reasons. It is also interesting to see that the Croatian corpus ranked third, fourth and seventh the collocates lažan, potencijalan and takozvani ( fake, potential and so-cal ed) which indicates a lack of trust toward the true reason of people wanting asylum. We can argue that this is a xenophobic stand toward the RASIM group in view of the crisis that was about to happen. Similarly, Maričić et al. (2014) found out that in 2013 the attitude toward asylum seekers was negative, but that there was also a lack of information among the public linked to their rights and the barriers they had to face in Croatia. We expected to see Afghan people depicted as fake asylum seekers (since they had a higher logDice score), but surprisingly, the topic was about asylum seekers from the territories of Serbia, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina seeking asylum in Sweden. Regarding verbal collocates, all the four verbs had a positive connotation ( odobriti, primati, priznati, primiti – approve, accept, recognise, admit). When it comes to the adjectival col ocates of asylum seeker, the English language corpus still revolves around their nationality or sexual orientation (LGBT), their poor financial means being the main concern ( destitute asylum seekers). In the top 15 adjectival col ocates there is one mention of asylum seekers being fake - bogus. Bogus has a higher logDice score (4.9) than the three adjectives of the same discourse in the Croatian language, so it can be argued that although there are less words depicting asylum seekers as fake, English language speakers make a stronger association between this group of people and their honesty in seeking a shelter and new place to live. Regarding the verbal collocates of asylum seeker, they have a much J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 15 higher typicality score than verbs in the Croatian corpus, and al except one ( house) bear a negative connotation. 1. al egedly to the reason why he sought asylum. IHR once again urges the European countries not to deport Iranian asylum seekers back to Iran. Mahmood Amiry-Moghaddam, the spokesperson of IHR said: The new charges against him are due to his 2. in its "Centers for Il egal Foreigners," in breach of its Law on Foreigners and Stateless Persons. Rejected asylum seekers are detained in extremely poor conditions pending their removal. Seven percent of asylum seekers live in substandard 3. State practice with regard to detention. While some EU Member States such as Germany and Italy rarely detain asylum seekers, more than 13,000 asylum seekers entered detention in the UK in 2012 and Malta continues to detain for months the vast Most of the verbal collocates in the English language corpus bear the meaning of ‘get rid of something’ ( deport, refuse, reset le, relocate, repatriate, reject), and this is how asylum seekers were depicted on the English web. 3.3.3 Adjectival and verbal col ocates of imigrant and immigrant Table 5: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of imigrant Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice ilegalan 10.7 deportirati 8.3 afrički 7.1 protjerati 6.3 muslimanski 6.7 zapošljavati 6.2 legalan 6.3 prevoziti 6.2 meksički 6.3 prebacivati 5.4 alžirski 6.2 uvoziti 5.2 sjevernoafrički 6.2 napadati 4.2 friski 6.1 mrziti 3.6 azijski 6.0 izbaciti 3.3 kubanski 5.8 privlačiti 3.0 nelegalan 5.7 privući 3.0 tuniski 5.6 primati 3.0 irski 5.5 spasiti 2.6 pakistanski 5.5 ubiti 2.3 bangladeški 5.5 spriječiti 2.1 Source: Sketch Engine 16 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Table 6: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of immigrant Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice undocumented 11.0 deport 8.9 illegal 10.6 detain 8.3 Mexican 8.1 arrive 7.9 Latino 7.7 criminalize 6.4 Muslim 7.4 legalize 6.3 unauthorized 7.4 assimilate 6.3 Irish 7.2 settle 6.2 Italian 7.0 blame 6.0 Jewish 6.9 naturalize 6.0 German 6.8 orphan 5.9 second-generation 6.8 smuggle 5.9 first-generation 6.7 arrest 5.8 Polish 6.7 apprehend 5.7 Chinese 6.7 welcome 5.6 Hispanic 6.7 bar 5.5 Source: Sketch Engine With the node imigrant in the Croatian language corpus the situation changes again. It is again concerned with the origin of the immigrants coming to the territory of Europe and Croatia ( afrički, muslimanski, alžirski, sjevernoafrički, etc.), and again its speakers seem to be bothered by the legal status of the immigrants. The most typical col ocate, with a score higher than 10 (the logDice value is usually less than 10, as already mentioned) is ilegalan (10.7), with nelegalan (5.7) also being given importance. Since ilegalan usually “collocates with words such as drugs, activities, trade, abortion, logging, rave and drug” (Al Fajri, 2017, p. 384), its association with the word imigrant bears a strong negative connotation. “It seems to more criminalise the people rather than their actions, and it can also dehumanise them.” (ibid, p. 384). With verbal collocations the situation gets serious for the first time. Of the top 15 collocates, 11 have a strong negative collocation, from deportation, banishment, attacking and hating to even killing! u Švedskoj. Upravo u toj državi izbili su neredi početkom ovog mjeseca, nakon što je policija ubila 69 - godišnjeg imigranta . Ukrajinska atletičarka Natalija Dobrinska osvojila je zlatnu medalju u petoboju na Svjetskom dvoranskom J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 17 It seems encouraging that the third most typical colocate is zapošljavati ( employ). It is an indication of a strong sense of humaneness that people felt toward the poor immigrants fleeing from their countries. However, a look at the concordances showed a completely different situation – immigrants were usual y employed as a cheap labour force or to work as unregistered employees who are easy to exploit. 1. predstavila je prijedlog direktive prema kojoj bi se strogo sankcionirali svi poslodavci koji svjesno zapošljavaju imigrante za rad na crno . Europski povjerenik za pravosuđe, slobodu i sigurnost Franco Frattini izjavio je kako Europa neće više 2. da rade za minimalnu nadnicu, a istodobno otpuštali stare radnike koji bi se mogli buniti i zapošljavali novodošle imigrante koji se nikada nisu bunili - Ne. Pozivanje na neku specifičnost Hrvatske nije opravdano. Slični problemi postoje i u 3. tradicionalno gostoljubiva zemlja ", objašnjava Vergara. Stručnjaci se slažu da neki farmeri zapošljavaju imigrante jer ih je lako izrabljivati . Sindikalni vođa Canamero kaže da se svake godine prijavi od 15 do 20 slučajeva Besides again being concerned with the nationality of the immigrants, the English language corpus showed high similarity to the Croatian. Undocumented, illegal and unauthorised score very high among adjectival col ocates, showing the same concerns as Croatians had. Undocumented and illegal have a logDice score higher than 10, which makes them extremely typical for that discourse. It is encouraging that undocumented is more typical than illegal. Being milder in its negative connotation than illegal, undocumented is also less dehumanising because it shows people who need to get documents in the country of their arrival. The verbal collocates of the English language corpus are typical y negative. The immigrants’ deportation and detention is stil something that concerns the English most, but one of the worst verbs which shows immigrants as objects or goods for which it is only important to be transported from one point to another – for good money, of course – is the verb smuggle. 1. risks that some immigrants are prepared to take to get into Canada. There is a growing business of at empting to smuggle immigrants into the country, many of which are hoping to acquire political asylum. However, the fate of most of these illegal 2. Police] has questioned 212 migrant traf ickers in the Calais area and dismantled 5 international rings smuggling immigrants into the United Kingdom, organized from several European countries. Eric Besson and Damian Green welcomed the fact 18 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. It needs to be said that there are, of course, verbs which show a positive attitude towards immigrants and depict them as people in need of help whose arrival in the country is seen as something inevitable and it is therefore better to make it easier for them to assimilate. These are: legalize, set le, naturalise, welcome. 3.3.4 Adjectival and verbal col ocates of migrant (Croatian and English word) Table 7: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of migrant – Croatian Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice ilegalan 8.4 skilled 7.5 neregularan 7.5 neregistriran 6.1 nezakonit 6.1 dnevni 5.5 afrički 4.1 legalan 3.5 ekonomski 3.3 kineski 2.5 potencijalan 2.5 muslimanski 2.4 siromašan 2.3 svakodnevan 0.6 ratni 0.6 Source: Sketch Engine Table 8: Adjectival and verbal col ocates of migrant – English Adjectival col ocate logDice Verbal col ocate logDice undocumented 9.8 deport 8.1 irregular 9.3 detain 7.6 illegal 8.1 smuggle 7.5 skilled 7.5 strand 7.5 neotropical 7.2 rescue 7.4 labour 7.0 arrive 7.2 long-distance 6.9 drown 6.2 Bangladeshi 6.9 apprehend 6.2 Burmese 6.9 intercept 6.1 forced 6.6 repatriate 6.0 Filipino 6.6 force 5.8 would-be 6.5 deter 5.7 African 6.4 return 5.6 passage 6.3 criminalize 5.5 vulnerable 6.3 traffic 5.5 Source: Sketch Engine J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 19 The first thing to notice for the Croatian node migrant is that the Word Sketch tool did not produce any results which would be considered verbal col ocates. Since this was considered improbable, the word migrant was checked using the Concordance tool. As many as 93 concordances were produced and a deeper analysis of the concordance lines found out that there were no verbs associated with the word migrant in the hrWaC corpus. It was also found that many concordance lines were in English, which explained why the second most typical adjectival col ocate of migrant in the Croatian language was an English word. By examining the wider context, it was clear that the word migrant was usual y associated with the adjective skilled because used by Croatian speakers who explained the migration procedure to their interlocutors, future emigrants: 1. iz Red Dot-a ($ 2 shop-a) Znam inzinjere koji zaradjuju nesto vise nego cistaci Znam i jednu Dalmatinku skilled migrant koja ima 2 (prirodnjacka) fakulteta od doma. Tu je vec petnaestak godina i nezaposlena je. Nedavno je ovdje 2. zadnji je za lokalnu upravu. Ovisno koji sektor te zanima. Jel ovo dovoljno ili želiš još Meni su ovi iz Highly Skilled Migrant Programe-a javili da imam dobre izglede za dobivanje radne dozvole ali bi sada trebala platiti nekaj da detaljne 3. skupiti AUD20k koliko treba za karte, papire i prvih mjesec-dva zivota ne treba nigdje ni ici. Takav niti nije skilled migrant Aha. Nivo produktivnosti agrarnog sektora je statican. Dosli smo do kraja razvoja agrarnog sektora i to je to. Zamisli As earlier, the adjectival col ocations of the word migran t in the Croatian language corpus also showed that according to the texts found on the web, Croatians were mostly preoccupied with the legal status of the migrants. Hence the col ocates ilegalan, neregularan, neregistriran, nezakonit ( illegal, irregular, unregistered, unlawful). Regarding their typicality, al have a logDice score above 5 which confirms that the discourse about the lack of a legally approved status of migrants was prevalent even in the years preceding the 2015 migration crisis. Regarding the English node migrant, both adjectival and verbal col ocates were found in the enTenTen2015 corpus. The most typical adjectival col ocates reflect the same concern among the British as among Croatians. The texts on the web mostly referred to undocumented, irregular and illegal migrants. It is interesting to note that the fourth most typical col ocate is skilled which can be correlated to the results of the Croatian language corpus concordance analysis where the word skilled was also highly 20 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. associated with migrant. In terms of the 15 most typical adjectival collocates of migrant, an adjective describing them as fake also appears: the adjective would-be. 1. and asylum seekers show the reality behind the European Union's bogus internationalism. The situation for would-be migrants has deteriorated significantly since these photos were taken, and in particular since uprisings and 2. , Texas, to see the pope. With mild weather ahead, southern Europe is once again bracing for new boatloads of would-be migrants and asylum seekers from North Africa. Italy has borne the brunt of this migrant flow for two decades, and it has 3. for 2015 : "And struggling economies on the continent will mean there will be more desperate young would-be African migrants washing up on the shores of Lampendusa in Italy. "The African Union will hold regular summits and our leaders will make This is in line with the findings by Al Fajri (2017). He analysed the ukWaC corpus and found that a very strong collocate of immigrant was would-be. The ukWaC corpus he analysed showed would-be immigrants as unwelcome, illegal and detained, as wel as dying at sea, which was also confirmed in the enTenTen2015 corpus. The verbal collocates, again, bear a negative meaning when it comes to migrants, and regarding their typicality, al can be considered highly typical (logDice score above 5). The largest number of them describe ways of physical y preventing the migrants from moving ( detain, strand, apprehend, deter, even force), there are verbs describing the need to send the migrants back to their country of origin ( deport, repatriate, return), and sadly, there are also two verbs which indicate that the activities around the migrants are illegal ( smuggle, traf ic). Luckily, among them there is a positive verbal collocate depicting the efforts made by local people and authorities trying to save lives while not caring about their status. 1. are responsible for saving tens of thousands of more lives. In 2014 seafarers aboard 800 merchant ships rescued 40,000 migrants . Their role in the large scale rescue of migrants should be recognised and commended. However, EU governments are J. Gugić: Migration Discourse Preceding the Great Migrant Crisis in the Croatian and English Language – A Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis 21 2. champions in Kenyans Sharon Cherop and Caroline Continue reading → Gal ery: The Daily Edit 04.21.15 A man rescues a migrant from the Aegean sea, within the japanese2 island of Rhodes, Monday, April 20, 2016. Greek authorities stated that no 3. for NGOS to move away from our comfort zone, strengthen our advocacy and bring about change." Local people rescued 700 migrants from a sinking ship last week The UN has condemned the refusal of South-East Asian countries to rescue thousands of 4 Conclusion and further implications The RASIM are an extremely sensitive group of people who are in need, due to various circumstances, of equal rights and opportunities as the citizens of the country they wish to live in. However, they are often seen as a threat to the local community, and the media have greatly contributed to that. “…by the choice of topic and the way of reporting on the phenomenon of migrations and migrants, the media shape attitudes about them” (Bezić & Petrović, 2019, p. 82). However, this is done through language, so it is very important to understand the role that language plays in depicting and shaping reality. The results obtained in this paper demonstrate that the public opinion about the RASIM group presented on the Internet in the period prior to the 2015 migrant crisis was mostly negative. One of the most prominent concerns speakers of the two languages had was the nationality of those coming to their country. In his book entitled “The Nature of Prejudice,” Gordon Allport defines prejudice as “an antipathy based upon a faulty and inflexible generalisation” (Allport, 1954, p. 13, as cited in Killan, 1955). It can be argued that the concern of people in finding out about the nationality of others is linked to the image, or maybe prejudice, they have about a certain nationality. Furthermore, people were interested in the reasons why those people fled from their countries and if their intentions were trustworthy. Hence, they were fake, potential, so-cal ed, would-be, bogus. However, when it comes to their honesty, Croatians, who do not have a tradition of immigration as the English do, seem to be more gul ible in this respect. Not only was public opinion concerned about the RASIM people’s good intentions, but even more with their legal status. Both were most afraid of them being illegal, undocumented, irregular, unregistered, unlawful. When it comes to verbs used to describe the actions undertaken around the RASIM 2 The island of Rhodes is a Greek island, but the mistake was not corrected in order to retain the original text found on the web. 22 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. group, the similarity between the two languages is smaler with verbs than with adjectives. Throughout the whole analysis, it is obvious that the Croatian language corpus uses more positive-connotation verbs associated with RASIM. It is concerned with giving RASIM a place to live ( reset le, relocate, set le, house, shelter), they wish to approve their status, accept, recognise and admit them, but there is a sub-group, namely immigrants, towards which the attitude is mostly negative - from deportation, banishment, attacking and hating to even killing! There are fewer positive verbs used in the English language corpus linked to the RASIM group. The UK, as a country used to, and perhaps tired of, immigration is concerned with finding a way to repatriate RASIM. Very seldomly do they use verbs such as house or shelter thus proving them unwelcome. Sadly, the English web gives examples of the RASIM dehumanisation when describing activities of smuggling and traf icking. This is extremely important if correlated with the strong association made between the RASIM group and their image of il egal and undocumented people. To conclude, in the period preceding the 2015 migrant crisis, the RASIM were described not too negatively except for the suspicion of their legal status in both languages. However, the actions undertaken around these people were less positive in the English than Croatian corpus. Considering the different traditions of the two countries – the UK being used to immigrations; Croatia being a country of emigrants – the milder, more positive verbs used on the Croatian web were expected. 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Migrantska kriza kao izazov socijetalnoj bezbednosti u Evropskoj uniji. Vojno delo, 70(3), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.5937/vojdelo1803055V Zlatković Winter, J. (1993). Imigracije u Hrvatskoj: skica povijesnog toka. Migracijske teme, 9(3-4), 303– 323. ISSUES IN ENGLISH CORRESPONDENCE: STUDENT LETTERS AT THE FACULTY OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY MOJCA KOMPARA LUKANČIČ University of Maribor, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Ljubljana, Slovenia mojca.kompara@um.si Abstract This article presents the most common issues faced by students at the University of Maribor’s Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security when writing formal letters in English. It presents a brief overview of correspondence (Kompara Lukančič, 2021) followed by a survey that was conducted in 2022 and included fifty-five second-year students at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security. The analysis focuses on the product approach (Nunan, 2001)—that is, the production of an error-free and coherent text—and imitation of a model text Keywords: (Steele, 2004). In line with these concepts in the analysis, the English, focus was on the layout of the letter, the general content of the correspondence, letters, letter, language use, and common errors. The article presents the common errors, most common linguistic issues when writing formal letters. writing DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.2 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 26 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction English is often defined as an international language (Moses & Mohamad, 2019; McKay, 2012; Sharifian, 2009) and, as Sharifian states, (2009) it “has ‘traveled’ to many parts of the world” (Sharifian, 2009: 1) to serve as tool for exchanging not just words but thoughts and cultural views. English is also characterized as a world language (Bailey, Gorlach, & Arbor, 1986) and, as stated by Moses and Mohamad (2019: 1), it is “by far the most widely used language around the world,” a lingua franca (Holliday, 2009). According to Sharifian (2009), many prominent authors (Abbott & Wingard, 1981; Bailey & Görlach, 1982; Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Crystal, 1997; Graddol, 1997; Holliday, 2006; Jenkins, 2009; Kirkpatrick, 2007; McKay, 2002) have devoted their research interests to the processes, implications, and consequences of the spread of English as a worldwide language. Language acquisition as part of a multilingual society is also promoted by the European Union (Romaine, 2013), and knowledge of English is seen as a facilitator in the Europeanization process, according to Modiano (2009). Slovenia is an active country with regard to language acquisition. Slovenian primary schools are rapidly striving to introduce English as the first foreign language into the primary school curricula. Smajla and Podovšovnik (2016) present the professional positions of primary school principals in the introduction of the first foreign language in primary school, following the approach of content and language integrated learning, or CLIL (Smajla, 2014). Despite the policy of promoting foreign language learning, improvements are also needed in tertiary education. In her study, Čepon (2008) presents the situation of business English classes at the Faculty of Economics in Ljubljana and states that including language classes in the first year is necessary to prevent a gap in language knowledge. She warns about the one or more years of a gap in language acquisition; in particular, that students do not have English classes in the first year of tertiary education but only in the second or third. A crucial factor that influences language knowledge and language learning is motivation (Dörnyei, Henry, & Muir, 2015; Cook, 2016) which is a precondition for starting to learn a language. Beyond this, in language acquisition one must bear in mind optimization and the principle of language transfer (Nećak-Lük, 2008). This article focuses on the case of acquisition of English in tertiary education, focusing specifically on students’ writing skil s and their academic performance in writing. M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 27 2 An overview of writing in English According to Moses and Mohamad (2019), writing in English is seen as a challenge in second language acquisition among students. Jusun and Yunus (2016: 470) see writing as “the most chal enging skil s to be learnt and to be taught in ESL (English as a second language) classroom[s].” From this perspective, developing students’ writing skills is one of the major challenges language teachers face at all school levels. Moses and Mohamad (2019) state that writing has always been among the major difficulties faced by students learning English, already starting in elementary school. The complexity of writing is not only faced by students but is also a chal enge for teachers (Moses & Mohamad, 2019). Tangpermpoon (2008) states that for language learners writing is considered the most difficult skill, mainly because background knowledge in the foreign language is needed. Among the skil s required are rhetorical organization, appropriate language use, and a specific lexicon because al of these are needed in communication with the reader (Tangpermpoon, 2008). Writing plays a crucial role in the development of academic performance, and it contributes to individuals’ social and emotional development (Moses & Mohamad, 2019). Selvaraj and Aziz (2019) state that academic writing in tertiary education goes beyond words and involves meaningful communication. According to Zhu (2004), in academic writing one has to understand distinctive procedures of ideas and interaction because they are needed as a foundation for basic or general writing abilities. According to Moses and Mohamad (2019), teaching writing is complex because students face difficulties in learning writing skills, but advanced writing skills are crucial in academic performance (Kellogg & Raulerson, 2007). As discussed by Klimova (2014), the skill of writing has a crucial position in language teaching because it involves the other three language skills (listening, reading, and speaking) and it requires students to develop cognitive skills. Knowledge of writing is valuable in language learning and communication. Walsh (2010, cited in Klimova 2014) highlights the importance of writing in higher education and states that a lack of knowledge of writing skills is also a lack of knowledge of communication skills. One must also bear in mind that the majority of professional communication is written (i.e., e-mail, minutes, reports, applications, etc.), and writing is therefore part of daily life situations. Moses and Mohamad (2019) state that students with weak writing skil s experience drawbacks in their academic performance. Their inability to write wel also affects their career and professional path. Among the chal enges faced by 28 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. students are a lack of vocabulary, deficiencies in knowledge of grammar, poor spelling skills, and lack of exposure to reading materials. 3 English in business correspondence Being able to properly compose and prepare business correspondence implies, in the first place, adequate knowledge of business correspondence in one’s native language first and next in the foreign language (Kvasina & Radičević, 2018). Language plays an important role in business correspondence: it represents the heart of international business communication (Brannen, Piekkari, & Tietze, 2017). In recent decades there has been an increase in the use and position of English in business communication and in the global economy because it has become the working language (Tammelin, 2004). Many authors therefore agree that English has attained the position of a “lingua franca” in business communication (Gajšt, 2014; Mauranen & Ranta, 2009; Tammelin, 2004; Nickerson, 2000), that it exemplifies the specialized field of economics and business studies, and that due to its diversity and specialization it is seen as a burden for students of foreign languages (Plos, 2009). Włosowicz (2017) states that business English is a special genre of English language writing because it is an interdisciplinary branch of English for special purposes, which involves knowledge of economics, business, finance, and banking to understand the language (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998: 6–9). Today English is the world language, and it is used in communication between native and nonnative speakers and often also among nonnative speakers (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998: 53). Gajšt (2014) states that during the present time of globalization English plays the role of a global language in modern society and is among the top languages used in international business. She adds that most international business communication takes place in English and mostly among nonnative English speakers. This means that individuals that communicate come from different cultural backgrounds (Gajšt, 2014). Selvaraj and Aziz (2019) say that writing skills are important skil s that need to be acquired by students, and mastering writing skil s is important because they are needed in all professions. Individuals should enter any workplace with good writing skills (Zhu, 2004) because the business world requires and expects good writing skills from all employees. According to Gajšt (2013), learning business English at the tertiary level includes the acquisition of specific language and general competences together with the possibility of independent M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 29 language learning. In 2013, Gajšt focused on independent learning of business English. Business English can be defined in various ways from the perspective of English as a language for special purposes. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) see the teaching of business English as a branch of English teaching that ranges from general to professional content. Ellis and Johnson (1994, cited in Tammelin, 2004) therefore state that teaching business English is a genre of language for special purposes that differs from other genres in that it is often a mixture of professional and general content. Ellis and Johnson (1994, cited in Tammelin, 2004) add that in the early 1960s and 1970s teaching English was focused on teaching vocabulary (e.g., banking), and in the 1970s the focus shifted to communication skills, written communication, and listening and reading comprehension of business content. El is and Johnson (1994, cited in Tammelin, 2004) state that in the next phase, which continued into the 1980s, teaching business English focused on the functional aspect (e.g., giving advice and, above all, using what had been learned). Therefore, university students’ knowledge of business English is typical y more theoretical than practical, although some students already have extensive work experience (El is & Johnson, 1994, cited in Tammelin, 2004). According to Tammelin (2004), the role of business English in today’s work environment and the complexity and dynamism of today’s work environment are forcing universities to become increasingly interdisciplinary and, consequently, an increasing number of conventional business English subjects are no longer in line with the complex issues of academic multidisciplinary needs. 4 The process versus product approach This article focuses on the product and process approach in producing correspondence because a similar approach was used in Klimova’s (2014) research. In that article, students’ writing was examined through these two most common approaches in writing. As stated by Applebee (1981), Leki (1989), Chunling and Guoping, (2009), and Graham and Sandmel (2011), the process approach has been used more than the product approach because it emphasizes the composition process rather than form. According to Graham and Sandmel (2011), the process approach is one of the most popular methods for teaching writing. Chunling and Guoping (2009) state that the process approach in teaching English writing has been advocated in contrast to the traditional product approach, and researchers are stil 30 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. discussing which is better. According to Chunling and Guoping (2009), there is still no universal y accepted definition of the process approach in writing, although according to Graham (1993) the process approach views al writing as a creative act that needs time and positive feedback. Steele (1992) states that the process approach is oriented more toward varied classroom activities aimed at promoting the development of language use, such as brainstorming, group discussion, and rewriting. According to Steele (2004), the process approach is oriented toward the text as a resource for comparison where ideas as starting points need more than one draft and the focus is on purpose, theme, text type, and so on. In the process approach, the reader is emphasized; collaboration with other peers is promoted, and creativity is desired. The product approach in writing involves a model text that is discussed and analyzed, and later the learners construct a similar or parallel text. Although this may be seen as a mechanical task, learners familiarize themselves with discourse structure, linguistic features, and the overall organization of ideas. Steele (2004) defines the product approach as an imitation of a model text in which the organization of ideas is more important than the ideas themselves, and the emphasis is on the end product. McCrimmon (1994) states that there is a difference in writing as a way of knowing (process) and writing as a way of tel ing (product), and Murray (1980) points out that there is a difference between internal and external revision; namely, revising to clarify meaning for oneself versus revising in order to clarify meaning for the reader. According to Nunan (2001), there is a clear difference between the process and product approaches. The product approach is oriented toward writing tasks, in which the role of the learner is to imitate, copy, and transform the models supplied, whereas the process approach focuses on creating a piece of work. The aim of product writing is an error-free coherent text, and the aim of process writing is admitting the fact that no text is perfect, but that the writer will come closer to perfection by producing, reflecting on, discussing, and reworking successive drafts of a text. Chunling and Guoping (2009) state that, in the distinction between process- and product-oriented writing, there is one important point: a good product depends on a good process. M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 31 5 The research As part of the course English Terminology, criminal justice and security students learn about basic topics in security, justice, policing, criminal justice, law, and so on. They also learn about concepts of correspondence: preparation of cover letters, letters of reference, recommendation letters, and other forms of written correspondence. The textbook English in Uniform (Kompara Lukančič, 2021) was prepared by the language instructor as required course material. The book explains the theory of correspondence and, in line with the product approach, sample letters are displayed as models of good practice. In the chapter devoted to correspondence (Kompara Lukančič, 2021), criminal justice and security students learn about not only business communication but any written form of communication. Proper correspondence skil s are of utmost importance in any field of communication, not only in criminal justice and security. As future police officers and inspectors, students must familiarize themselves with the basic concepts of correspondence because in their work they wil have to produce written texts for different purposes: official notes, information for the media, formal letters, and so on. As part of correspondence, the students learn about the basic elements of communication, starting with the structure of a formal letter, with an emphasis on the importance of letter layout in formal correspondence. The research, which was performed in the 2021/2022 academic year, involved 120 second-year undergraduate students from the University of Maribor’s Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security that attended the course English Terminology in the first and second semesters. As part of the course assignment, the students had to prepare a cover letter for a position advertised at the Ministry of the Interior. Fifty-five students participated in the survey by preparing cover letters for the position advertised. 5.1 Methodology The analysis focused on the product approach. In line with Nunan’s (2001) concept of the product and process approaches, the focus was on the product writing approach; that is, preparation of an error-free and coherent text. In line with Steele (2004), focus was placed on imitation of a model text, organization of ideas, and emphasis on the end product. In line with the above concept in the analysis, the fol owing were emphasized: 32 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. a) The layout of the letter; b) General content of the letter; and c) Language use and common errors. 6 Text analysis and discussion a) Letter layout The layout of the letter plays an important role in writing formal letters, and it follows a general format that may differ from country to country. This is also the case for Slovenian and English, and it requires the inclusion of specific elements: a letterhead, a salutation, and so on. Among the parts of formal letter are the sender’s address, which is written in the top right corner of the page, unless there is a printed letterhead. In British English no sender’s name is placed before the sender’s address. The sender’s address is fol owed by the receiver’s address, which is written below the sender’s address, on the opposite side of the page or in block style. The receiver’s address starts with a courtesy title—that is, Mr, Mrs, Ms, or Miss, where open punctuation is used. For the receiver’s address, when one does not know the name of the person written to, the address can use the person’s title or position in the institution (e.g., The Dean of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security), the department (e.g., The Department of Security Systems), or the institution (e.g., Nacionalni forenzični laboratorij). Some exceptions are for the attention of instead of including the receipt’s name or position in the address, and to whom it may concern in letters of reference, in recommendations, or for general purposes. The date is placed below the sender’s address and is separated by a space. The receiver’s address is fol owed by a subject line to give the reader clear information about the topic of the letter and the salutation, which is based on whether the addressee is a man, a single or married woman, a company, or a person whose sex is not known. Within the body of the letter, block style is used, whereas indented style is used in handwritten letters. The letter ends with a complimentary close; for example, Yours faithful y when addressing individuals whose name, sex, and marital status are not known, and Best regards, Best wishes, Regards, or Yours sincerely when the receiver’s name, sex, and marital status are known. The letter finishes with a concluding sentence (e.g., We look forward to hearing from you soon; We look forward to meeting you; I am looking forward to hearing from you soon; A prompt reply would be appreciated; or We apologize again for any inconvenience) and a M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 33 signature, which is composed of a handwritten signature, a typed name, and the position in the company or institution. The research analyzed fifty-five cover letters. The first step checked the layout of the letters, verifying whether al the letter elements were included (i.e., the sender’s and receiver’s addresses, date, subject line, salutation, body of the letter, concluding sentence, complimentary close, and signature). Among the fifty-five cover letters, fourteen did not include the required letter elements. Ten letters included neither the sender’s nor the receiver’s address, four letters included only the receiver’s address, and the block style was used. Ten letters were missing the date, and in the remaining four letters the date was written incorrectly, mainly due to influence from Slovenian. The most common mistakes were the following: 10. March 2022, 16. March 2022, 9th March 2022. , and March 14., 2022, in which the period and comma should be omitted. The inclusion of the period resembles the Slovenian structure for the date; that is, 10. marec 2022. The subject line was missing in all fourteen letters, and eight letters contained paragraphs in the body. The correct salutation (i.e., Dear Sir or Madam, applicable in cases when the addressee is not known) was used in seven letters, and among them open punctuation was applied only one time. Among the inappropriate salutations were salutations directed toward an individual (e.g., Dear Mr. Nunić), in three cases no salutation was included, and in one case the salutation was Respected and Greetings. The salutation Dear Mr. Nunić is inappropriate because in cover letters one usual y does not address an individual, but the entire company or institution. Regarding the complimentary close, the students did not follow the pattern of salutation versus complimentary close. They concluded the letter with a complimentary close used in cases when one does not know the individual being written to when addressing an individual by surname; that is, Dear Mr. Halilović and Yours faithful y, which is wrong. Within the remaining forty-one letters that had an appropriate layout, the following was noticed. The sender’s and receiver’s addresses were included in al letters, thirteen letters used block style, and in the remaining twenty-eight letters the sender’s address was placed in the top right corner of the letter. The date was missing in six letters, and fifteen letters included the date after the sender’s address and before the receiver’s address, both in block style or on the right side of the letter. In the 34 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. remaining twenty letters the date folowed the two addresses, which is wrong. In twenty-nine letters, the date was provided with the following pattern: numbered day, spel ed-out month, and numbered year (e.g., 5 March 2022). In five letters, the date was provided as March 17th, 2022 or 14th March 2022. In one example, the date was written incorrectly because it followed the Slovenian structure (i.e., 13. 03. 2022). The subject line was present in eight letters, of which only three had the correct structure (i.e., subject, colon, and name of position), and only had the one correct structure for that (i.e., Public tender – police inspector, number xxxxx). In the remaining two cases, the subject line was inappropriate (i.e., Police inspector in the economic crime sector, criminal police sector, or Job for police inspector). Also, among the remaining eight letters in which the subject was not included, there was only one correct structure (i.e., Application for Police Inspector). Other inappropriate structures included To apply for the position – Police inspector and Apply for the position of Police Inspector. Within the body of the letters, paragraphs were used in twenty letters. The correct salutation (i.e., Dear Sir or Madam, applicable in cases when the addressee is unknown) was used in twenty-four letters, and among them open punctuation was applied four times in one case ( sir/madam was written in lower-case letters). In four letters, the salutation was not included. Among the inappropriate salutations were the structures To whom it may concerned (used mainly in reference letters), Dear Sirs (used when addressing a company), and a salutation directed toward an individual (i.e., Dear Mr. Urbas). There were also two inappropriate salutations; that is, Dear Tina and Dear Klavdija, with a low formality level that is not al owed in business correspondence. Regarding the complimentary close, the students did not follow the pattern of salutation versus complimentary close. They concluded the letters with a complimentary close used in cases where one knows the individual written to (i.e., Sincerely) in eleven cases. The correct pattern of salutation and complimentary close was used in thirteen letters (i.e., Dear Sir or Madam, Yours faithful y). b) General content of the letter Among the fourteen letters that were not written following the appropriate letter style, in terms of general content it is necessary to point out two letters that cannot be characterized as letters because the students did not write a proper letter but simply copied the text from the job advertisement. In a way, the students partial y translated the job advertisement and did not write a cover letter. An explanation of that might be misinterpretation of the guidelines provided by the language teacher. M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 35 The remaining forty-one letters al folowed the appropriate letter style, and in terms of general content they can al be characterized as letters. In two cases, the students provided their personal information, following the structure from the job advertisement and giving information in the form of answers to the job requirements (e.g., an adequate level of education, work experience, and so on in bullet points; e.g., I am citizen of Slovenia, I have 2 years of work experience). Such a structure is not common in business correspondence. Some cover letters were also too long. It is assumed that the students wanted to say everything in the cover letter, forgot the purpose of such communication, and misinterpreted the purpose of a resume and cover letter. c) Language use and common errors Among the fourteen letters that were not written following the appropriate letter style, the elements of language use and common errors in the body of the letter were divided into the following categories: − Stylistic inappropriateness − Grammatical errors − Spelling mistakes − Level of formality Table 1: Language use and common errors in inappropriate letters Style Grammar Spel ing Formality I am writing to express I feel that you would University of Criminal As a freshly graduate my interest … bring a lot of good to your justice and security from … organization. I have never commit ed a faculty of criminal justice I am exited to submit my crime … 14 years ago I and security application … diplomated in I have al the information security. english, slovene, I am a perfect fit for the documentation … hungarian position … I am a citizen of I want to … Republic of Slovenia with permanent residence in I have drive licence for B EU. category. I m also not a part in any political party … 36 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. As seen in Table 1, among the inappropriate stylistic structures is repetition: in one letter composed of thirteen sentences, the student started ten sentences with the pronoun I. Repetition of the pronoun I was present in eight out of fourteen letters lacking a proper letter structure. Among the generally stylistic inappropriate sentences was also I have drive licence for B category, where drive is used as a verb instead of an adjective (i.e., driving licence), and the word order is incorrect (the correct sentence is I have a B category driving licence). Among the grammatical errors are sentences in which the wrong pronoun is used (i.e., I feel that you would bring a lot of good to your organization, where I has to be used instead of you). In this sentence, the level of formality is inappropriate; the structure bring a lot of good should be replaced by I would contribute to the development of, and the verb feel should also be omitted. The sentence 14 years ago I diplomated in information security shows the wrong use of the verb; the verb graduated should be used instead. In the sentence I am a citizen of Republic of Slovenia with permanent residence in EU, the definite article is missing twice: the Republic of Slovenia and the EU. The sentence I m also not a part in any political party shows wrong use of the verb to be (it should be I am or I’m), and the structure not a part in should be replaced by not a member of. Spelling mistakes mainly involved names of languages, for which the first letter should be capitalized ( english, slovene, hungarian), and also names of institutions, for which the first letter should be capitalized ( University of Criminal justice and security, faculty of criminal justice and security). Regarding the level of formality, students tend to be too informal in written discourse, as is visible in the following structures: As a freshly graduate from, I am exited to submit my application, I am a perfect fit for the position. Words such as freshly, perfect, and excited should be strictly avoided because they reduce the level of formality. Also, in the example I am exited to submit my application the wrong verb is used; excited should be used instead of exited. Among the forty-one letters written in an adequate letter style, the elements of language use and common errors in the body of the letter were divided into the same categories as in the examples in Table 1. Table 2: Language use and common errors in appropriate letters: style Repetition Contracted form I am writing to express my interest I’m I am currently a student It isn’t I believe my knowledge I won’t I graduated I speak I understand M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 37 As seen in Table 2, among the inappropriate stylistic structures is repetition (almost al letters repeatedly used the pronoun I). Among the letters analyzed, there are examples of sentences starting with the pronoun I in ten sentences out of fourteen in one letter. Sentences that mostly use the pronoun I imply that the individual producing the text has limited linguistic knowledge and has not put any effort into creating a concise, coherent, and cohesive text. Such structures are highly inappropriate for the tertiary education level. Among the inappropriate stylistic feature there are also contracted forms (e.g. I’m, isn’t, and won’t), which are not grammatical y wrong but are not highly accepted in written discourse. Specifical y, students are asked to avoid them in correspondence and research papers. Table 3: Language use and common errors in appropriate letters: grammar Articles, prepositions, etc. Verb forms, etc. I am currently a student at Faculty of Criminal Justice I finished the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security and Security I finished master’s degree in security. I also worked on a police station In July of 2021 I have passed the examination. I am working as a police of icer for two years now. In the year of 2018 I have passed a …. I went through a website gov.si I got my diploma on the Faculty of criminal justice This year I wil graduate from Faculty of Criminal Justice I frequented the Faculty I have also passed an examination for Table 3 presents the most common grammatical errors errors: definite articles, prepositions, verb forms, and so on. In the sentence I am currently a student at Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security the definite article before the name of the faculty is needed. The sentence I also worked on a police station shows the wrong usage of the preposition; at should be used instead of on. In the sentence I am working as a police of icer for two years now, the structure for two years now requires the use of the present perfect continuous (i.e., I have been working as a police of icer for two years now). The sentence I went through a website gov.si should use the definite article. In the sentence This year I will graduate from Faculty of Criminal Justice, the definite article should precede the name of the faculty. When anticipating something planned, the structure going to is used; that is, This year I am going to graduate from the Faculty of Criminal Justice. Among the sentences are also examples of incorrect use of verb forms. In the sentence I finished the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security one could replace the verb by using I 38 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. completed my undergraduate studies at the Faculty. In the sentence I finished master’s degree in security the verb should be changed to I obtained my master’s degree because you finish your master’s thesis and obtain your master’s degree. In the sentence In July of 2021 I have passed the examination, the simple past should be used and of should be omitted (i.e., In July 2021 I passed the examination). The simple past must also be used in the sentence In the year of 2018 I have passed. In the sentence I got my diploma on the Faculty of criminal justice the verb got should be replaced with obtain (i.e., I obtained), and the preposition on should be replaced with from. In the sentence I frequented the Faculty the verb must changed (i.e., I was enrol ed, I completed my studies at the Faculty). Table 4: Language use and common errors in appropriate letters: spel ing Languages Institutions Spellchecker english, sloveneSlovene, albanian faculty of criminal justice and facluty, univerty, subbmit, aplication, security job advertisment university of Maribor Among the spel ing mistakes in Table 4 are the incorrect usage of uppercase letters; that is, these are missing in the names of languages ( slovene, english) and names of institutions ( university of Maribor, faculty of criminal justice and security). Also, students did not use the spel checker when writing their letters on a computer. Misspel ed words such as the fol owing occurred: facluty, univerty, subbmit, aplication, and job advertisment. Table 5: Language use and common errors in appropriate letters: formality Inappropriate level Paraphrase needed I hope to work for Criminal Police My knowledge of of icial language is great. Like I said I am happy to submit I am excited to submit my application I have around three and a half years of experience I’m very hungry for knowledge. Table 5 shows errors in the level of formality for business correspondence. In this genre, verbs such as hope, like, dream, and excited should be avoided, as in I hope to work for Criminal Police, Like I said, and I am excited to submit my application. M. Kompara Lukančič: Issues in English correspondence: student letters at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 39 In the sentence My knowledge of oficial language is great, the adjective great must be omitted; a more appropriate sentence is I have a satisfactory / an advanced knowledge of Slovene. Sentences such as I am happy to submit should be omitted; instead, the structure I am submit ing / I submit should be used. When providing information, one has to be concise and accurate; an inappropriate sentence is the following: I have around three and a half years of experience. Sentences such as I’m very hungry for knowledge should be avoided and paraphrased as fol ows: I am willing to achieve new competences. 7 Conclusion This article presents the position of English as a lingua franca and the most widely used language around the world. It focuses on the position of English writing skil s, highlighting the importance of writing in higher education. Writing skills are important skills that need to be acquired by students, and mastering writing skills is important because writing is needed in all professions. Individuals should enter the workplace with good writing skills because the business world requires and expects them from al employees. The importance of writing skil s also applies to business correspondence in criminal justice and security. Using the process and product approach, this study involved fifty-five students from the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security that prepared a cover letter as part of their course assignment. The study is oriented toward the the product approach and it focuses on the layout of the letter, the general content of the letter, language use, and common errors. 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Retrieved 10 April 2022, from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/articles/product-process- writing- a- Comparison Tammelin, M. (2004). Introducing a Col aborative Networkbased Learning Environment into Foreign Language and Business Communication Teaching. (Accademic Dissertation) University of Helsinki Department of Applied Sciences of Education. Tangpermpoon, T. (2008). Integrated Approaches to Improve Students Writing Skil s for English Major Students. Abac Journal, 28, 2, 1–9. Zhu, W. (2004). Faculty views on the importance of writing, the nature of academic writing, and teaching and responding to writing in the disciplines. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(1), 29–48. Walsh, K. (2010). The importance of writing skills: Online tools to encourage success. http://www.emergingedtech.com/2010/11/the-importance-of-writing-skills-online-tools-to-encourage-success/. Włosowicz, T. M. (2017). The Development of Basic Business Correspondence Skil s by English Philology. In S. Goźdź-Roszkowski, & A. B. Makowska (Eds.), Languages for Specific Purposes in Educational Contexts (pp. 154–169). Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. 42 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. BILINGUAL ADMINISTRATIVE TEXTS IN SLOVENIAN ISTRIA: AN OVERVIEW OF ABBREVIATIONS NIVES LENASSI University of Ljubljana, School of Business and Economics, Ljubljana, Slovenia nives.lenassi@ef.uni-lj.si Abstract Administrative texts in the bilingual area of Slovenian Istria feature several abbreviations that are transferred from the majority language (Slovenian) into the minority language (Italian) with either their expanded or abbreviated forms. When transferring abbreviated linguistic features into the target language, the translator’s task is to decide whether to expand the abbreviated form or add it to the target text although there is no corresponding expanded or abbreviated form in the source text, and to decide which translation strategy to use. Analyses show that, when translating abbreviations that denote general concepts, there are usual y no major translation problems, whereas translations of abbreviations for academic degrees show various tendencies, such as cases of untranslated titles (in various lists of officially authorized persons in some municipal administrations), the source-oriented strategy, the target-oriented Keywords: strategy, general or neutral translations, and some rare cases of bilingualism, pragmatically less adequate translations. The most frequently expansion, adopted approach in the texts studied is general or neutral translation, academic title, translation, which might be ascribed to the fact that there is absence of insufficient uniformity in terminology. guidelines DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.3 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 44 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction Slovenian Istria is a multiethnic territory in which the coastal municipalities of Koper, Piran, Izola, and Ankaran are recognized as bilingual areas by the Slovenian constitution, 1 guaranteeing equal rights to Slovenian and Italian. Furthermore, the equal rights of both languages are recognized by various acts, such as Article 4 of the Public Administration Act (Zakon o državni upravi, 2002), paragraph 1, Article 28 of the Public Sector Salary System Act (Zakon o sistemu plač v javnem sektorju, no date), and Articles 5 and 45 of the Courts Act (Zakon o sodiščih, 1994). 2 Equality is also ensured by various decrees; for example, the Decree on Administrative Operations (Uredba o upravnem poslovanju, 2018). Its Article 5 determines that “in the areas of self-governing local communities where, in addition to Slovenian, the official languages are also Italian or Hungarian, the components of documents, authorities’ stamps, and forms are also in Italian or Hungarian” (cf. also Benedetti 2015; Mulec 2015). In addition to the recognition of bilingualism at the national level, the right to use both languages is also granted at the level of individual municipalities; that is, in the statutes of the bilingual municipalities (Paolucci 2020). Members of the indigenous linguistic minorities in ethnically mixed territory are entitled to the translation of institutional texts into their language, as established by the London Memorandum of 1954. Therefore, the translation of both institutional texts and various news is carried out at the municipal level, and the translation of these documents is guaranteed (Paolucci & Lenassi 2021). In the not-too-distant past, al the information relevant to the four bilingual communities of Slovenian Istria was predominantly accessible through printed media, and there were no significant problems with their availability, as stated by Pipan (2007, p. 233). Now this information is (obviously) even more easily accessible through municipal web pages—which, however, present different degrees of the 1 See Article 64 on the Special Rights of the Indigenous Italian and Hungarian Ethnic Communities in Slovenia; Article 61, which refers to the expression of ethnic affiliation; Article 11, which states that “in those municipalities where Italian or Hungarian ethnic communities reside, Italian or Hungarian shall also be official languages”; and Article 4, which defines the official language in administration: “Slovenian shall be the official language of administration. In those municipalities where Italian or Hungarian indigenous ethnic communities reside, the official languages of the administration shall also be Italian and Hungarian, respectively.” 2 For detailed information about the acts cited above and previous studies on the legal aspects of bilingualism, see Benedetti (2015, pp. 22–23) and Kompara, Lenassi, and Paolucci (2022). N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 45 presence and absence of translated documents into Italian. Namely, as revealed through an analysis of the web pages of the four bilingual municipalities, there are some inconsistencies in presenting and translating information, such as notifications that are missing or notifications that do not follow the flow of Slovenian, some submenus with blank spaces where Italian text is expected, irretrievable or non-existent administrative forms in Italian, a disorganized cluster of information, and incongruities in providing titles and subtitles of some texts as well as in supplying some statutory documents in Italian (Kompara Lukančič, Lenassi, & Paolucci 2022). For the Croatian part of Istria, where bilingualism is recognized by various laws at the national level and by statutes of individual administrative units, it has already been determined by Lalli Paćelat, Brkić Bakarić, and Matticchio (2020, p. 826) that only 37% of official documents are available in Italian. This information emerged from a bilateral project between Slovenia and Croatia entitled Of icial Bilingualism in Slovene and Croatian Istria: The Case of Translations of Administrative Texts carried out in 2018 and 2019. The project was organized with the aim of studying official bilingualism in Istria based on translations of administrative texts from Croatian and Slovenian into Italian. In addition to studies based on Croatian and its renderings into Italian, the project also included research on some aspects of municipal websites and various documents from Slovenian bilingual municipalities, some of which have already been presented (Paolucci 2020; Paolucci & Lenassi 2021; Kompara Lukančič, Lenassi, & Paolucci 2022). Some other aspects are described below in this article. The analyses carried out by the Croatian project members show that it is necessary to develop and use translation tools and language sources adapted to Italian as a minority language to facilitate and accelerate translation, thereby al owing for better equal use of Italian as a minority language. As already mentioned, the study pointed out that not all types of texts are translated, which results in a partial application of bilingualism (Lalli Paćelat, Brkić Bakarić & Matticchio 2020; Lalli Paćelat & Matticchio 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted translation difficulties, as analyzed in a study by Matticchio and Melchior (2021, 2022), who emphasize that relevant information such as provisions relating to precautionary behavior by residents was present, yet even in these brief communications it was possible to identify inconsistent translations. 46 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. The translation difficulties and incongruences categorized in Lali Paćelat and Matticchio (2021, pp. 282–283) for Croatian Istria indicate the need to elaborate and standardize Italian terminology related to the Croatian legal system, which requires careful descriptive and normative terminological work that, in addition to standardization of terminology, also provides for the creation of a terminology database and of other specialized resources and tools, as already recognized by Lalli Paćelat and Brkić Bakarić (2019), who identified the need to create appropriate paral el corpora. A very similar problem regarding terminological issues in the bilingual area of Istria has already been recognized for the Slovenian part of the region by Paolucci (2017, 2020), who determined a lack of uniformity in terminology. As a consequence, there is a relatively high degree of variability in translations of some terms that are of vital importance in any community; for example, zdravstveni dom ‘health center’, v rtec ‘preschool’, upravna enota ‘administrative unit’, and so on (Paolucci 2020). Specifically, the analyses showed that in the bilingual texts studied more acceptable options are often provided. The translator’s choice of an option depends on a number of parameters that need to be respected in the translation process to avoid terminological inconsistencies and—as a consequence—misinterpretation by the intended audience; that is, the Italian linguistic community in Slovenian Istria. 1.1 Abbreviations One linguistic feature often present in administrative texts is abbreviations, which are “known to produce reading errors, especial y when they are used by specialized writers to communicate to non-specialized readers” (François et al. 2020). Therefore, some studies suggest a limited use of abbreviated lexical elements. Thus, for example, the text written by the working group promoted by the Institute of Theory and Techniques of Legal Information and the Accademia del a Crusca—one of the main points of reference for research on Italian, (Alfieri et al. 2011), whose aim is to propose rules and suggestions for writing administrative documents—recommends that the use of abbreviations and acronyms be limited because they are often obvious to the text’s author, but not transparent to the reader. 3 For administrative texts to be clear to all recipients, it is preferable to use abbreviations and acronyms sparingly 3 See also the U.S. Government Publishing Office (2016, p. 221), which states that “abbreviations and letter symbols are used to save space and to avoid distracting the reader by use of repetitious words or phrases.” N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 47 (Cortelazzo & Pellegrino 2014; Williams 2005); if they are employed to make a text smoother and eliminate repetitions, it is important to utilize them properly and to apply homogeneous criteria for writing. A limited use of abbreviated forms is also recommended in Nomotehnične smernice (Legal Drafting Guidelines; Služba Vlade Republike Slovenije za zakonodajo 2018, p. 96)4 for Slovenian used in regulations. As for the nomenclature of abbreviated lexical units, many researchers report differences between various studies (Mattiello 2012, p. 152; Gualdo & Telve 2014, pp. 113–115; Caon 2016, p. 11; Kompara Lukančič 2018, pp. 8–10; Lengar Verovnik 2018, pp. 23–24). According to some authors (e.g., Mattiello 2012), abbreviations are considered to be various forms of shortened lexical items, whereas others (e.g., Comar 2003) define them as lexical formations consisting of some parts of the expanded forms. As such, they may be formed by the initial letter(s) of a word (Italian n. for numero ‘number’ or tab. for tabel a ‘table’; Slovenian g. for gospod ‘Mr.’ or odg. for odgovor ‘reply’), of the first and last letter(s) (Italian ca for circa ‘approximately’ or Sig.ra for Signora ‘Ms’; Slovenian dr. for doctor ‘Dr.’), or of selected consonants (e.g., Slovenian mrd. for milijarda ‘billion’ or the capitalized Italian equivalent Mrd for miliardo ‘billion’). The second one (cf. Comar 2003) is also the definition that is followed in this contribution, which implies that acronyms (e.g., PIN ‘personal identification number’), clippings (e.g., info ‘information’), blends (e.g., smog ‘smoke + fog’), signs (e.g., %, €), symbols (e.g., m ‘meter’, t ‘time’), and formulae (e.g., H2O, NaCl) are not considered in this text. The orthographic sign indicating that a term has been shortened is usual y a period, which can be either final, 5 as seen in most of the examples cited in the previous 4 According to the Government Office of the Republic of Slovenia for Legislation (Služba Vlade Republike Slovenije za zakonodajo 2018, p. 96), in principle, acronyms and abbreviations are not used in the texts of regulations. Exceptionally only abbreviations whose use in regulations is established and familiar to everyone may be used; for example, symbols of measurement units ( ha, m², kg) and abbreviations such as npr. (for na primer) ‘for example’, itd. (for in tako dalje) ‘et cetera’ , or št. (for številka) ‘number’. Where, when citing a publication, the Official Gazette is quoted in parentheses, the abbreviation shall also be used to indicate the type of the Official Gazette: Official Gazette of the SRS ‘Socialist Republic of Slovenia’, Official Gazette of the RS ‘Republic of Slovenia’, and—in relation to the determination of the expiry of use—also still the Official Gazette of the SFRJ ‘Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’. When referring to the state organ with its ful name, the words Republic of Slovenia shall be written and the acronym ( RS) shall not be used. Also, when citing certain elements in regulations, the abbreviations denoting structural units of the Official Gazette are not used; for instance čl. (for člen) ‘article’, par. (for paragraf) ‘paragraph’, tč. (for točka) ‘point’, al. (for alineja) ‘indent’, and Ur. l. (for Uradni list) ‘Official Gazette’. 5 In some cases, the final period can be omitted if the abbreviated word in Italian contains the initial and final letter (e.g., ca for circa ‘approximately’; Alfieri et al. 2011, p. 30). See also Serianni and Castelvecchi (2015, p. 50): if the shortening process reduces the remaining letters to two or three units, the period is placed at the end ( dr., cfr. ) or is suppressed ( dr, cfr). This is the case of the aforementioned numeral Mrd for miliardo ‘billion’ which is written without a period in formal texts. In Slovenian, the final period is eliminated if the abbreviation denotes a school grade ( odl 48 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. paragraph, or internal (e.g., in Italian Sig.ra ‘Ms’ or P.za for Piazza ‘square’). In Slovenian, the internal period is used in coordinate and subordinate compound words such as l.r. for lastnoročno ‘handwritten’ (Bizjak Končar & Dobrovoljc 2015, pp. 270–271). As far as linguistic consistency6 is concerned, abbreviations can be either one-offs or conventional and established (Comar 2003, p. 122). Because it is often recommended that abbreviations be used sparingly in administrative texts (cf. Cortelazzo & Pellegrino 2014; Williams 2005), the objectives of this study are to verify their presence in the bilingual administrative texts studied, determine possible combinations of corresponding abbreviated and/or expanded forms in both languages, and consider possible issues regarding the translations of shortened items into the target language. 2 Analyzed texts This study analyzed ninety documents in Slovenian and their translations into Italian, all available on the webpages of the four bilingual municipalities. The documents, which are accessible either in pdf format or as Word documents, cover invitations to various meetings and amendments to the agenda of meetings, forms or applications for the issue of various municipal permits, lists of confirmed candidates for elections and election reports, lists of officially authorized persons in municipal administrations (i.e., informative texts), and decrees, additions to decrees and mayoral decisions (i.e., normative texts). The texts are bilingual within one text, with the following variants: a) a short section in the source language is followed by the corresponding translated section, and then this alternation of the two languages is repeated until the end of the text; or b) the entire source language text is fol owed immediately by the entire target language text in the same document. Alternately, there are two separate documents, one in the source language and one in the target language, which can be easily cognitively linked by readers because the numbering of the two texts and/or their concise title al ows readers to quickly identify the interconnection between the two documents. for odlično ‘excellent’) or a musical label deriving from Italian ( pp for pianissimo ‘very quiet’, f for forte ‘loud’; Pravopis 8.0). 6 Žagar Karer (2018, p. 236) explains that “the most important terminological principle is the principle of consistency, according to which the preferred term is the term that is most commonly used in professional texts.” N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 49 To determine the degree to which abbreviations are present in both languages, manual annotation and an algorithm for automatic recognition of abbreviations were used (Kompara Lukančič, & Holozan 2011). The next steps consisted of classifying the possible combinations of the presence and absence of the expanded and shortened forms in individual source- and target-language texts to distinguish possible factors that influence the choice of one or both forms, and then determining possible problem areas in translating abbreviations. 3 Abbreviations in the texts studied In all the texts except for two (i.e., 98%), there were one or more abbreviations7 in both languages, but in either language there may be some differences regarding the presence or absence of the short and/or expanded form. The abbreviations found are divided into two groups: general abbreviations (cf. Sections 3.1.1–3.1.5 and details about Appendix 1 in Section 3.1) and abbreviations for academic degrees and professional titles (cf. Section 3.3 and details about Appendix 2 in Section 3.3). The total number of different abbreviations found and their numerical presence in each group is shown in Table 1, which clearly points to a tendency to expand abbreviations in the target language. 8 Table 1: Number of different abbreviations in the Slovenian and Italian corpus Abbreviation type Slovenian Italian General 36 27 Academic degrees and professional titles 66 38 Total 102 65 However, despite the general trend toward expansion, there are different possibilities regarding the presence and absence of abbreviated and expanded forms in individual documents, as demonstrated in the following sections. The presentation of possibilities begins with user-friendly pairs, in which both the Slovenian and the Italian terms are at first written with the expansion, fol owed by the abbreviated form, which is referred to with the umbrel a term short form in this text. Subsequently, 7 The texts in which no abbreviations were found were a call for proposals to appoint a member of the Municipal Recognition Committee and a form (an application for a temporary water connection for agricultural production needs in the municipality). 8 Various realizations of one abbreviation in Appendix 1, such as Št., št., štev., are regarded as one abbreviation, whereas the ones in Appendix 2 (e.g., univ. dipl. + various disciplines) are treated as different abbreviations to better trace the variety of options in the target language. 50 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. various combinations of the presence and/or absence of these forms in both languages are presented to give an overview of the options found within the corpus (Section 3.1.), fol owed by the il ustration of different approaches to the translation of abbreviated lexical items within two texts (Section 3.2) and the description of the situation for academic titles, which are frequently used in the texts analyzed (Section 3.3.). 3.1 Combinations of short and expanded forms in the source and target languages Based on analyses carried out regarding the tendency to use ful and/or short forms in both languages, there are five possible combinations in individual pairs of corresponding texts (i.e., the source text and its translation): 1) the short form followed by the full form in both languages; 2) short forms without expansions in both languages; 3) the short form in the source language, and the expanded equivalent in the target language; 4) the source-language short form with no expansion, which remains unaltered in the target language; and 5) the expanded form in the source language, and the short form only in the target language. All the abbreviations found in both languages are listed in Appendices 1 and 2, in which multiple short forms are frequently given for one lexical unit, depending on how they are used in the various texts comprising the corpus. For example, the most frequently used abbreviation for number can be found in the source texts in a form with a capitalized first letter ( Št. ) to denote the document that is being read, sometimes translated as N. prot or Prot. N. (for protocollo numero, numero del protocollo ‘document number’) or in a form with lower-case letters to refer to previous documents ( št., štev. ‘number, numbers’), whereas the Italian documents offer N., No., n., nr. (for numero ‘number’) or the plural form nn. (for numeri ‘numbers’). Appendix 1 contains general abbreviations that cover characteristic terminology referring to legal documents (e.g., Odl. US for Odlok ustavnega sodišča, ‘Constitutional Court Decree’, Ur. l. for Uradni list ‘Official Gazette’), commercial law (i.e., d.o.o. for družba z omejeno odgovornosto ‘limited liability company’, s.p. for samostojni podjetnik ‘sole proprietorship’), a wide variety of terms used to encompass various aspects of life in a municipality (e.g., šol. leto for šolsko leto ‘school year’, n.m. for nad morjem ‘above sea N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 51 level’), metadiscourse markers (e.g., npr. for na primer ‘for example’, oz. for oziroma ‘or’), and so on. As Appendix 1 shows, the abbreviations are regularly translated, with the exception of two terms referred to as “absence of translation” and also that two of them are transferred into the target language through the use of an ellipsis instead of the expected alphabetic notation equivalent (i.e., itd. for in tako dalje ‘and so on’, and idr. for in drugo ‘and other’). Not surprisingly, these two phenomena that deviate from the anticipated target-language expressions were retrieved for informative texts with no binding legal effect (Paolucci 2020). Finally, this appendix also contains two equivalents, again from informative texts, which in the given context do not correspond to the source language term (i.e., the metadiscursive markers oz. for oziroma ‘or’ translated as o/e ‘or/and’, and vendar ‘but, however’ translated as ovv. for ovvero ‘or’ instead of ma, però). Appendix 2 lists abbreviations for academic degrees and professional titles in which lexical resources denoting academic degrees in particular have such a variety of translation possibilities (cf. Section 3.3) that they are presented separately from general abbreviations. 3.1.1 Expanded and short forms in both languages The combination of an expanded form and the corresponding abbreviation is only rarely found in the texts analyzed, which implies that the source-text authors expect the majority of abbreviations to be known to the readers. However, in some rare cases the expansion may be given, as in example (1), which refers to the first occurrence of the condensed form, used again later on in the text to fol ow the economy principle (Mattiello 2012, p. 149). The text is an application form to be filled out by residents of the municipality that want to use certain services offered by the local community. The ful form and its abbreviated version undoubtedly have a user-friendly effect, which can be seen as a characteristic trait of al local abbreviations; that is, abbreviations whose expansions appear in the same text (cf. local and non-local acronyms by Hogan et al. 2021, p. 127; Jacobs et al. 2020, p. 518). 52 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. The translated text folows the easy-to-use tendency in the source text, providing the corresponding expanded and short form in Italian: (1) Katastrska občina (k.o.) Comune catastale (c.c.) ‘Cadastral municipality’ Among the abbreviations found the corpus, this is the only example in which the expansion and its short form are provided in both languages, which may suggest that in principle source-text producers and translators expect readers to be acquainted with the abbreviated forms. 3.1.2 Short forms without expansions in both languages In contrast to 3.1.1, abbreviations with no expansion appear quite often in the texts studied. This is, of course, the case of wel -known and lexicalized acronyms that may be used to favor textual efficiency (Mattiello 2014, pp. 7–8). All the unexpanded abbreviations identified in the texts are widely known and accepted in both languages and used in both normative and informative texts. 9 (2) parc. št. 5559/4, [for parcela številka] particel a n. 5559/4 [for numero] ‘parcel number 5559/4’ zap. št. [for zaporedna številka] n. prog. [for numero progressivo] ‘sequential number’ v.d. direktorja občinske uprave [for vršilec dolžnosti] Diret ore del ’Amministrazione comunale f.f. [for facente funzioni] ‘acting director of the municipal administration’ l.r. [for lastnoročno] m.p. [for Lat. manu propria] 9 One of them— v.d. (for vršilec dolžnosti), pronounced vede; ‘acting director’—has also undergone lexicalization in the source language: N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 53 ‘written by one’s own hand’ Ur. l. RS št. 106 [for Uradni list Republike Slovenije, številka] Gazz. Uf . del a RS n. 106 ‘Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia Number 106’ In normative texts, the abbreviations are always used according to the orthographic rules of both languages; that is, with the final period. In informative texts, however, the orthographic principles are sometimes modified; for example, the final period is omitted or the abbreviation composed only of the first letter is capitalized (Goli, Osrajnik, & Fišer 2016, p. 79), as in the following examples from an informative text whose aim is to communicate some basic characteristics of candidates for elections: (3) spol/sesso: m/m [for moški, maschile] ‘sex: M’ spol/sesso: ž/f [for ženski/ femminile] ‘sex: F’ Spol: Ž Sesso: F ‘sex: F’ Spol: M Sesso: M ‘sex: M’ Abbreviations can occasionally remain unmodified in the target language. This occurs especially in informative texts if: a) the abbreviation denotes the company’s legal form that is an integral part of the company name, as in the following case of a firm that is not headquartered in the bilingual territory of Slovenian Istria: (4) pri Delavski hranilnici d.d. [for delniška družba] presso Delavska hranilnica d.d. ‘at the public limited company Delavska Hranilnica’ 54 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. b) the bilingual legal form is already included in the officialy registered name of the company located and operating in one of the four bilingual coastal municipalities: (5) Komunala Koper, d.o.o.-s.r.l. [for družba z omejeno odgovornostjo, società a responsabilità limitata] ‘the limited liability company Komunala Koper’ Marjetica Koper, d.o.o.-s.r.l. ‘the limited liability company Marjetica Koper’ However, not al the companies headquartered in the ethnical y mixed area of Slovenia use a bilingual designation of their legal form. Article 11 of the Slovenian Companies Act (Zakon o gospodarskih družbah, 2006) stipulates that, in areas inhabited by the Italian or Hungarian ethnic communities, Italian or Hungarian may also be used in the company acts (Slov.: se v aktih . . . lahko uporablja tudi italijanski ali madžarski jezik). Given the possibility of using a bilingual designation or not, some companies headquartered in the coastal area but operating in a wider region use only the Slovenian designation of the legal form, as in the following example in which only the Italian text provides the corresponding abbreviation in the target language: (6) Soglasje k pozivu . . . Luki Koper d. d., glede Consenso all’appel o alla società Luka Koper s.p.a in merito al a ‘Consent to the cal to . . . Luka Koper d. d., regarding’ At this point, it is necessary to mention that with abbreviated company designations there are no unified criteria on exactly which language components to include in the shortened form of the target language. For example, in one normative text the company podjetje API arhitekti d.o.o. and podjetje Biliving d.o.o. are translated into the Italian text as impresa API arhitekti d.o.o. – s.r.l. and impresa Biliving d.o.o.-s.r.l. N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 55 A similar tendency can be observed in a formal informative text in which the mayor convenes a meeting of the municipal council: (7) Predlog sklepa o potrditvi sklenjene sodne poravnave med . . . ter družbami Finali Trading, d.o.o. in Finali, d.o.o. Proposta di delibera sul ’approvazione del a transazione giudiziaria condizionale tra . . . e le aziende Finali Trading d.o.o. /s.r.l. e Finali d.o.o. /s.r.l. ‘Proposal for a decision confirming the court settlement concluded between . . . and Finali Trading, d.o.o. and Finali, d.o.o.’ 3 1.3 Short form in the source language, expanded equivalent in the target language Some characteristic and established Slovenian abbreviations may also be found only in the expanded form in the target language, although most of them also have direct abbreviated equivalents in Italian. In such cases, the use or non-use of the short form depends on the translator’s judgment of its appropriateness in the given context: (8) Ur. l. [for Uradni list] Gazzet a uf iciale10 ‘Official Gazette’ hišna št. [for hišna številka] numero civico ‘house number’ poštna št. [for poštna številka] codice di avviamento postale ‘postal code’ parc. št. [for parcelna številka] n. particel a catastale ‘parcel number’ 10 The use of uppercase and lowercase initial letters varies in the texts analyzed, depending on individual documents and translator’s choices. One example of this variation is Gazzet a Ufficiale, Gazzet a ufficiale, and also Gazz. Ufficiale. , Gazz. ufficiale, Gazz. Uff. , and Gazz. uff. 56 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. k. o. [for katastrska občina] comune catastale ‘cadastral municipality’ s. p. [for samostojni podjetnik] imprenditore individuale ‘sole proprietorship’ roj. [for rojen/rojena] nato/nata ‘born’ oz. [for oziroma] ovvero ‘or’ Some source-language informative texts may also feature occasional abbreviations that can be easily restored by native-speaker recipients, considering the given communicative circumstances. Understandably, such non-standardized word formations are always expanded in the target language: (9) osn. kap. [for osnovni kapital] capitale sociale ‘share capital’ Poobl. za vod. upr. postopkov [for Pooblaščenci za vodenje upravnih postopkov] Funzionari autorizzati a svolgere e a decidere ‘Persons authorized to conduct administrative procedures’. preb/ha [for število prebivalcev na ha] abitanti/ha [for numero di abitanti per ha] ‘number of inhabitants per hectare’ N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 57 3.1.4 Expanded form in the source language, short form in the target language In some rare cases, the translator chooses to use the abbreviated form although the short-form item is not present in the source language. This is predominantly the case with the abbreviation str. (for strada) ‘street’ in informative texts: (10) Jadranska cesta 16 Str. del ’Adriatico 16 Ivančičeva cesta 11c Str. Ivančič Franc-Rudi 11c and also with the widely used člen / art. (for articolo) ‘article’ in various normative and informative texts to denote the numerical sequence of articles in decrees, regulations, and so on whose aim is to provide an appropriate legal basis for further actions. The tendency to use the clipped form art. can be attributed to the influence of paral el Italian normative texts, 11 in which this term is predominantly used in its shortened form. The same tendency is observed in the frequently used term ‘(document) number’, expressed in Slovenian with the generalized term Številka: 410-59/2020, whereas in corresponding Italian paral el documents numero del protocollo ‘document number’ with its condensed form usual y appears as: N. prot.: 410-59/2020. 12 Regarding the abbreviated form of numero, it can be noted here that the translator may decide to use the plural form of the short form or not. This apparent inconsistency in both normative and informative texts may be ascribed to the fact that there are no fixed rules, but merely tendencies. The Treccani webpage (Treccani, 2015) dedicated to Italian specifies that the plural of numeri ‘numbers’ can be formed ( può . . . realizzarsi) using the form nn. 11 See Floros (2004), who specifies in the literature review that parallel texts are seen as comparable texts in different languages whose topic, function, and context are constant. 12 The texts also offer cases with the postmodifying noun in Italian: Številka: 371-631/2017 / Prot. n.: 371-631/2017 (for protol o numero )‘Number 371-631/201’. Both forms, with either the preceding or following noun, are acceptable in Italian. 58 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. (11) Uradne objave, št. 40/00, 30/01 in 29/03 in Uradni list RS, št. 90/05 Bol et ino uf . n. 40/00, 30/01 e 29/03 e la Gazzet a uf . del a RS, n. 90/05 ‘Official Bulletin numbers 40/00, 30/01, and 29/03 and the Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, number 90/05’ 47. člen Odloka o občinskih cestah, Ur. objave štev. 2/04, 35/07, Ur.list RS štev. 40/11 Articolo 47 del Decreto sul e strade comunali, Bol et ino Uf iciale, nn. 2/04, 35/07, Gazzet a uf iciale n. 40/11). ‘Article 47 of the Decree on municipal Roads, Official Bulletin, numbers 2/04, 35/07, Official Gazette number 40/11’ An additional example similar to ‘document number’ is the relatively nonspecific term Telefon ‘telephone’ used in forms intended for local residents, which is transferred into the target language in the more context-appropriate and precise form N. di telefono ‘telephone number’. Al the examples given here indicate that the translation has narrowed the semantic field of this term, rendering it less inclusive, which has proven to be an effective translation strategy in a given context. As seen above, the translator can decide to use an abbreviation to fol ow the Italian text conventions in parallel texts (as in the case of ‘article’ presented above) or to restrict the semantic field of a particular term by using a hyponym because such a restriction is characteristic in specific genres (as in the previously mentioned examples of ‘document number’ and ‘telephone number’). 3.1.5 Short form only in the target language Sometimes the translator inserts an abbreviation although no corresponding cue is given in the source text, as in the example below, in which the name of the person that conducted the meeting is written. To follow the established Italian pattern in the paral el texts, the translator added the abbreviation m.p. (for Latin manu propria) ‘(signed) by one’s own hand’: (12) Ime Priimek, Predsedujoča Občinskega sveta Nome Cognome, Presidente dei lavori del Consiglio comunale m. p. ‘First Name, Last Name, Chair of the Municipal Council’ N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 59 Another example of good practice is the inclusion of the honorific Sig.ra (for Signora ‘Ms’) before a person’s name in the target text. From the pragmatic perspective, the insertion of this apposition contributes to increasing the politeness of communication: (13) Za podžupanjo Občine . . . se imenuje članica občinskega sveta Ime Priimek Nel a funzione di vicesindaco del Comune di . . . viene nominata la Sig.ra Nome Cognome, membro del Consiglio del Comune di ‘Member of the municipal council First Name Last Name is appointed as the deputy mayor of the Municipality of . . .’ Last but not least, to demonstrate the translator’s tendency to improve the informative value of texts, mention should be made of the added abbreviation n. for numero ‘number’, which was omitted in the source text: (14) Dokazilo o plačilu stroškov izpita na podračun Občine Piran 01290-0100005871. At estato di pagamento del e spese per la prova sul conto del Comune di Pirano n. 01290-0100005871. ‘Certificate of payment of the test costs to the Municipality of Piran’s account 01290-0100005871.’13 The translator’s accuracy in adding the expected abbreviation in the target language is particularly evident in two normative texts regarding the spatial plan of two municipalities, in which each source-language text contains fifteen appearances of the abbreviation št., all translated with the abbreviation n. With al the short forms of numero added where necessary, one Italian translation totals twenty-seven appearances of n. and in the other twenty-nine appearances. (15) Grafična vsebina Zasnove komunikacijskega omrežja je v merilu 1:50.000 prikazana na karti 2.4 13 It might happen, however, that some abbreviations may remain unaltered, but this is clearly a case in which the abbreviation has escaped the translator’s attention, probably due to time constraints: Ur. list RS št. 94/07 / Gazzetta Ufliciale RS št. 94/07 ‘Official Gazette no. 94/07’ or it might happen that the original abbreviation remains in the text next to the translated abbreviation: Nepremičnine s parc. št. 3705/1, k.o. Bertoki / Beni immobili p.c.n. št. 3705/1, c.c. Bertocchi ‘Real estate with parcel number 3705/1, cadastral municipality of Bertoki’ 60 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. L’elaborato grafico Pianificazione del a rete di comunicazione è illustrata in scala 1:50.000, mappa n. 2.4. ‘The graphic report The Design of the Communication Network is shown at a scale of 1:50,000 on map 2.4’ 3.2. Different approaches to the expansions and short forms within one text As far as the length of lexical units is concerned, they may or may not be rendered in the target language in the same way as in the source language, depending on the translator’s judgement on their appropriateness in the target text (cf. Sections 3.1.1– 3.1.5). This is clearly evident in Table 1, which contains data about abbreviations used in the mayoral proclamation launching the discussion on the municipal budget. The source language text contains 221 words, whereas the translation has 305 words. The extent to which abbreviations are used in the target language shows that the translator opted for the target-oriented strategy, fol owing the tendency for the use of abbreviated forms in parallel Italian texts. This clearly indicates that the adoption of the source or target-oriented strategy also applies to the use or non-use of expanded and abbreviated forms. In Table 2 it is particularly evident that the target-oriented strategy is fol owed in the translation of the document number, translated with the hyponym ( Prot. N. ); the word ‘article’ is abbreviated as in the paral el texts, and the formation of the abbreviated plural form follows the morphological rules of Italian, whereas the conjunction oz. ‘or’ is not abbreviated, although a possible abbreviation is ovv. Table 2: Abbreviations in the source and target language (Proclamation) Slovenian Italian English Številka: 403-02-2 Prot. N.: 403-02-2 document no. Na podlagi 28. člena In virtù del ’art. 28 article Uradni list RS, št. 79/99, 124/00 Gazzet a Uf iciale RS nn. 79/99, 124/2000 nos. Uradni list RS št. 45/02 Gazzet a Uf iciale RS n. 45/02 number oz. Ossia or Table 2 also shows that uniform criteria for writing abbreviations are used in this particular text in both languages. As already mentioned, it is advisable to follow the same approach through the entire text (cf. the advice to follow the homogenous criteria for writing acronyms and abbreviations by Alfieri et al. 2011, p. 30), but most N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 61 often there is a combination of approaches, as shown in Table 3, featuring the abbreviations in a decree amending a spatial plan, in which in the target text the number of the document is abbreviated as N. (source-oriented) instead of with the hyponym Prot. N. or N. Prot. as in the target-oriented strategy, whereas the abbreviation of ‘article’ is present only in the translation (the target oriented-strategy). Also, the plural form nn. ‘numbers’ could be used to fol ow tendencies in Italian parallel texts. The Slovenian text contains 9,378 words, whereas its translation consists of 11,920 words. Table 3: Abbreviations in the source and in the target language (decree) Slovenian text Italian text English translation Uradni list RS, št. 33/07, 70/08 – Gazzet a Uf iciale del a RS, n. ZVO-1B, 108/09, 80/10 – 33/07, 70/08 – ZVO-1B, number ZUPUDPP 108/09, 80/10 – ZUPUDPP 106/2010 popr. 106/10 corr. corrected 1. člen Art. 1 article Architecta d.o.o. Architecta srl limited liability company k.o. c.c. approximately 22,0 m nv 22,0 m slm above sea level maks. 31,0 m massimo maximum dim. dim. dimension Uradni list SFRJ, št. 30/91 Gazz. Uf iciale del a RSFJ, n. 30/91 Gazette Št. N. Number l.r. m.p. (Latin) (signed) by one’s own hand Sometimes a unified approach in the use of abbreviations in the target text is not fol owed even in the same sentence, as in (16), in which uradne, uradni ‘official’ is at first abbreviated and then not: (16) Na podlagi 4. člena Odloka o izbirni lokalni gospodarski javni službi “upravljanje določenih javnih parkirišč” (Uradne objave, št. 45/01 in Uradni list RS, št. 1/12) in 27. člena Statuta Visto l’articolo 4 del Decreto sul servizio pubblico economico facoltativo »gestione di determinati parcheggi pubblici« (Bol et ino uf ., n. 45/01, nonché Gazzet a uf iciale del a Repubblica di Slovenia, n. 1/2012) e l’articolo 27 del o Statuto ‘Pursuant to Article 4 of the Ordinance on optional local public service “management of certain public car parks” (Official Publications, number 45/01 62 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. and Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, number 1/12) and Article 27 of the Statute’ 3.3 Abbreviations for academic titles Sandrini (cited in Lalli Paćelat & Matticchio 2021, p. 281) states that translating from a majority language into a minority language—when the source text and the target text are used in the same context and when there is no transition from one language and culture to another, but rather a transition from one language to another within the same culture, subject to the same legal, school, political, and health system—is very complex. In this case, it is necessary to use different approaches to the translation of terminology (p. 281). As Lalli Paćelat and Matticchio (2021, p. 281) point out, some recent studies of Slovenian and Croatian texts clearly confirm the tendency to specific approaches in the translation of legal terminology of Slovenian Istria (Paolucci 2017, 2020, 2021) and in Croatia for the terminology of administration (Lalli Paćelat et al. 2020). Due to differences in the education systems and, consequently, in academic titles between Slovenia and Italy, in some texts academic titles remain untranslated, following the Lisbon Recognition Convention or, specifical y, the Revised Recommendation on Criteria and Procedures for the Assessment of Foreign Qualifications (2010), in which the Article 24 states: “As a rule, titles of foreign qualifications should be provided in the original language without translation.” 14 In the corpus at hand, the tendency of not translating academic titles is observed in some lists of names; for example, in the list of authorized civil servants responsible for certain areas of public administration, in lists of persons responsible for various projects, and so on. However, if the academic title is a part of a text, it is always translated:15 14 A detailed list of Slovenian academic titles and their abbreviations is available on the website of the Legal Information System of the Republic of Slovenia ( Seznam znanstvenih naslovov in njihovih okrajšav 2015). 15 An interesting exception is presented by an informative text in the form of a call for tenders newsletter, a genre that is not included in this analysis. The case is interesting because the web page with the news is managed by the Italian linguistic minority. In the news one can read about a document that ‘was prepared by the real estate appraiser and construction expert First Name Last Name, BS in civil engineering’ ( ga je izdelal cenilec stvarnega premoženja in izvedenec gradbene stroke Ime Pri mek, univ. dipl. inž. grad. / è stato definito dal perito del patrimonio reale e esperto del set ore edile, univ. dipl. inž. grad. Nome Cognome (https://cancapodistria.org/sl/2022/08/19/razpisna-dokumentacija-javnega-razpisa-za-oddajo-poslovnega-prostora-kavarne-skupnosti-italijanov-santorio-santorio-koper-v-najem/). N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 63 (17) izdelovalec je podjetje Pia studio d.o.o. Portorož, vodja projekta Ime Priimek, univ. dipl. inž. arh. [for univerzitetna diplomirana inženirka arhitekture]16 realizzato da Pia studio d.o.o – S.r.l. Portorož –Portorose, responsabile del proget o Nome Cognome, dot .ssa [for dot oressa] in architet ura ‘prepared by Pia Studio d.o.o. Portorož, project manager First Name Last Name, bachelor of science in architecture’ As can be seen in (17), the translator opted for the short form dot .ssa (for dot oressa) ‘female doctor’ to denote the title awarded after receiving the bachelor’s degree according to the Italian education system. The selection of this term confirms that the translator decided in favor of the target-oriented translation strategy, with a clear domestication effect (cf. Ožbot 2021, pp. 83–96). The text is written for informative purposes with no binding nature for the recipients, and therefore the target-oriented strategy is preferable to make the text better perceived by a wider audience (Paolucci 2020, p. 115). In the corpus at hand, the tendency to prefer domestication is evident in all the academic titles that are translated into Italian as dot . for males and dott.ssa for females to indicate someone with a bachelor’s degree17 (cf. Appendix 2). In contrast to the target-oriented strategy, one finds cases of the source-oriented strategy as a result of literal translations, with an explicit foreignization effect. Paolucci (2020, pp. 129–130) claims that this strategy is recommended in normative texts, containing binding provisions for recipients. The adoption of this strategy in normative texts not only highlights the source language and legal system, but also the intention of the legislator. In the case at hand, such an approach is evident in translations of titles containing the element univ. dipl. (for univerzitetni diplomirani) to refer to a bachelor’s degree obtained in the pre-Bologna system presented in the list of professional titles for bachelor’s programs accredited before June 11th, 2004 ( Seznam strokovnih naslovov po dodiplomskih študijskih programih, akreditiranih pred 11. 6. 2004 2015). This is sometimes translated into Italian as laur. universitario in (for laureato universitario in ‘university graduate in’) followed by the name of the discipline, resulting in a term not familiar to a wider Italian-speaking community in Italy. 16 The academic title valid for undergraduate programs accredited before June 11th, 2004 ( Seznam strokovnih naslovov po dodiplomskih študijskih programih, akreditiranih pred 11. 6. 2004 2015). 17 For the Italian School system, see Italian Qualifications Framework (2011). 64 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. In between the two strategies, one finds an approach that could be caled neutral or general because the translator chooses an intermediate option that covers both the source- and target-oriented approach. In this approach, regardless of the designation in Slovenian for denoting a bachelor’s degree ( univ. dipl., dipl. ), the translator’s choice is the generic laur. or laurea, laureato, laureata plus the name of the discipline; for example, architecture, economics, and so on. At this point, it is necessary to specify that when the terms univ. dipl. and dipl. are used in the same document the translator usual y distinguished between the two titles, referring to the first one with the source-oriented laur. univ. in economia and the second one with the neutral laur. in economia. Summing up, there are no uniform tendencies in translating academic titles. Thus, for example, somebody that received a degree in economics and business is usual y referred to with the abbreviations presented in Table 4: Table 4: Abbreviations for ‘bachelor of economics’ in the corpus Slovenian Italian univ. dipl. ekon. 18 laur. univ. in economia dipl. ekon. laurea in economia dipl. ekonomist dott. in economia univ. dipl. oec. 19 dipl. ekon. (un.) spec. Table 4 shows that no distinction is made to denote a specialization after the bachelor’s program ( dipl. ekon (un.) spec. ), probably because in the Bologna system there is no adequate correspondence to this pre-Bologna title ( Stopnje in ravni visokošolske izobrazbe, 2020). As far as the use of the term un/UN is concerned to denote Slovenia’s research-oriented bachelor’s program (cf. School of Economics and Business, n.d.a) as opposed to the applied bachelor’s program, (cf. School of Economics and Business, n.d.b) it is necessary to specify that the corpus contains only three cases in which it is clearly indicated that the person completed the research-oriented bachelor’s program in business and economics, or diplomirani ekonomist (UN), whereas there was no indication regarding the applied bachelor’s program in business administration, or diplomirani ekonomist (VS), which may suggest 18 The extended forms in this table are: univ. dipl. ekon. = univerzitetni diplomirani ekonomist, dipl. ekonomist = diplomirani ekonomist, and dipl. ekon. (un.) spec. = univerztitetni diplomirani ekonomist, specialist. 19 The abbreviation oec. is no longer used, but it was found in the case of a person that graduated from the Faculty of Economics and signed a document to be used in the municipal administration. Compare, for example, dr. rer. oec. (for doctor rerum oeconomicarum ‘PhD in Economic Sciences’; Fran Pravopis, no date). N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 65 that in practice the short form indicating the distinction between the research-oriented and applied bachelor’s program is only rarely used. Another point of interest in this study concerns academic titles containing the designation inženir ‘engineer’ (usually abbreviated as inž. or ing.), for which inconsistencies occur especial y if one first checks the Italian terms and then observes the Slovenian situation (Table 5): Table 5: Equivalents for titles containing the word inženir ‘engineer’ in the corpus Slovenian Italian univ. dipl. ing. laurea in ingegneria univ. dipl inž. laurea univ. in + discipline dipl. ing. ingegnere ing. inž. strojništva ingegnere meccanico Table 5 shows that the title translated as ingegnere corresponds to both univ. dipl. ing. ‘BS’ and inž. ‘BS’, but this equivalence is invalid because the Slovenian terms refer to two different levels of education. The first one refers to the pre-Bologna system, which in the Bologna system changed into dipl. ing. as explained in documents about the degrees and levels of higher education ( Stopnje in ravni visokošolske izobrazbe, 2020) to denote a research-oriented bachelor’s degree, whereas the second one applies to the title obtained for an applied bachelor’s degree (Analiza stanja na področju višjega strokovnega izobraževanja, no date). In addition to the previously presented possibilities of non-translation, the source-and target-oriented strategies, and generalization, there is another one that can be found only occasionally and can be defined as a pragmatically less adequate expression in the given context, although it occurs in an informative text (cf. Table 6). This involves equivalents such as sociologo ‘sociologist’, legale ‘legal counsel’, assistente sociale ‘social worker’, and psicologa ‘(female) psychologist’, which in the target language do not correspond to the academic degrees present in the source language, but rather to terms general y used to denote trained professionals in specific disciplines. 66 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Table 6: Some examples of less adequate translations Slovenian Italian English dipl. sociolog (UN) sociologo bachelor of arts in sociology univ. dipl. pravnik legale bachelor of law univ. dipl. prav. univ. dipl. soc. del. assistente sociale bachelor of arts in social work univ. dipl. soc. dela univ. dipl. socialna delavka mag. soc. dela univ. dipl. psihologinja psicologa bachelor of arts in psychology Regarding the use of short and/or expanded forms for academic degrees in the target language, Table 1 (cf. Section 3) indicates that the expanded form is favored, mostly because the translators tend to predominantly (in 64% of cases) use general or neutral Italian equivalents, which are mostly realized as laurea/laureato/laurata plus the discipline. With the expanded version, more transparency is offered to the text recipient (Alfieri et al. 2011) and, with the general or neutral translation approach, the specific features of two different educational systems are not expressed, which means that potential inconsistencies that might be caused by a lack of uniformity in terminology (Paoluci 2017, 2020) are avoided. 4 Conclusion Abbreviations are very frequent linguistic features in administrative texts in Slovenian Istria, appearing in almost all the texts analyzed (i.e., in 98 % of texts), following the principle of economy in language and wel -established text-typological communication conventions in the genre (Lenassi 2020). Regarding their presence in both languages, the study shows that they may or may not be rendered in the target language in the abbreviated way, following the shortened pattern in the source language. The use of the short form and/or its expansion in the target language is conditioned by various factors, of which just a few have been presented, and therefore further research would be needed to identify more precise trends and parameters in this field. N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 67 As far as the translation of abbreviations is concerned, the analyses show that translating general abbreviations does not present major problems because in most cases they are terms that are commonly accepted and usual y abbreviated in both languages. If there are some cases of one-offs in the source language, they are understood from the context and adequately transferred into the target language with the corresponding expanded form. Translations show expected expressions, with some examples of good practice, such as added abbreviations, to increase the accuracy of the information provided, and some instances of hyponymy that appropriately narrow the semantic field of a translated term. In contrast to general abbreviations, the abbreviations for academic degrees already pose some chal enges in the source language because of the coexistence of titles acquired in either the pre-Bologna or Bologna programs, which may result in some possible inconsistencies in translations; for example, ingegnere to refer to both a research-oriented bachelor’s degree and to an applied bachelor’s degree. Furthermore, analyses show that there are five different orientations in translating abbreviated academic degrees: the source-oriented strategy, the target-oriented strategy, general or neutral equivalents, some rare cases of pragmatical y less appropriate equivalents in given contexts, and, in accordance with the Lisbon Recognition Convention, some untranslated degrees, mostly in various lists of names. The analyses also demonstrate that, when translating abbreviated qualifications, translators most frequently opt for expansions in the target text to achieve transparency, as suggested by some studies, and for general or neutral equivalents, which might be ascribed to the fact that there is insufficient uniformity in terminology for the bilingual region of Slovenian Istria (Paolucci 2017, 2020). In the light of the analyses carried out, it can be concluded that the translation process for a minority language community poses various chal enges regarding shortened lexical units because in the absence of adequate public commissions (Paolucci & Lenassi 2021, p. 291) there are no universally agreed-upon sets of actual guidelines on which to ground one’s decisions for which approaches and strategies to favor in order to guarantee the most adequate expression in certain communicative situations. In a variety of cases, there are several possible terminological options in the target language depending on various parameters that one should be aware of to provide the most appropriate and unequivocal option in the target language. 68 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. References Alfieri, G. et al. (2011). Guida ala redazione degli at i amministrativi. 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Retrieved 30 April 2022 from https://www.uradni- list.si/glasilo-uradni-list-rs/vsebina?urlid=199419&stevilka=779 Žagar Karer, M. (2018). Upoštevanje terminoloških načel v terminografski praksi. Slavistična revija: časopis za jezikoslovje in literarne vede, 66(2), 235–249. Zakon o državni upravi (2002). Retrieved 30 April 2022 from http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO3225 N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 71 Appendix I: General abbreviations Slovenian texts Italian texts Člen Art. (for articolo) čl. (for člen) Articolo datum oddane vloge data present. domanda (for data del a presentazione del a domanda) davčna št. (for številka) codice fiscale d.o.o. (for družba z omejeno odgovornostjo) s.r.l. (for società a responsabilità limitata GSM Cel . (for cel ulare) GSM fiz. (for fizična) oseba absence of translation ident. št. (for identifikacijska številka) n. ID (for numero identificativo) idr. (for in drugo) … ( el ipsis) ipd. (for in podobno) o altro itd. (for in tako dalje) ecc. (for eccetera) etc. (for et cetera) … ( el ipsis) k.o. (for katastrska občina) c.c. (for comune catastale) l.r. (for lastnoročno) m.p. (for Lat. manu propria) M., m. (for moški) M., m. (for maschile) matična št. (for številka) Codice di immatricolaziione max. (for maksimalno) massimo n.m. (nad morjem) s.l.m. (for sul livello del mare) npr. (for na primer) ad esempio n.pr. (for na primer) ad es. (for ad esempio) p. es. (for per esempio) quali Odl. US (for odlok Ustavnega sodišča Sentenza della Corte Costituzionale osn. kap. (for osnovni kapital) capitale sociale oz. (for oziroma) oovvero o/e ossia ovv. (for ovvero) p.c. (for podružnična cerkev) chiesa succursale parc. št. (for parcelna številka p. c. n. (for particel a catastale numero) particel a catastale n. (for numero) popr. (for popravek) ret. (for rettifica) rettifica in seguito corr. (for correzione) preb. (for prebivalci) abitanti reg. št. (for registrska številka) n. (for numero) targa roj. (for rojen, rojena) nato, nata s.p. (for samostojni podjetnik) imprenditore individuale I.A. (for imprenditore autonomo) sprem. in dop. (for spremenjen in dopolnjen) mod. ed int. (for modificato ed integrato) šol. leto (for šolsko leto) anno scol. (for anno scolastico) Št., št., štev. (for številka) N., No., n., nr. (for numero) Številka nn. (for numeri) 72 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Slovenian texts Italian texts Prot. n. (for Protocol o numero) N. prot. (for Numero del protocol o) tel. (for telefon) tel. (for telefono) tel. št. (for telefonska številka) numero di telefono tar. št. (for tarifna številka) absence of translation vendar ovv. (for ovvero) Ulica Str. (for strada) Uradne objave Bollettino ufficiale U. O. Bolletino uff. B.U. Uradni list RS Gazzetta ufficiale della Repubblica di Slovenia Ur. list RS Gazzetta Ufficiale del a Repubblica di Slovenia Ur. l. RS Gazzetta ufficiale RS UL RS Gazzetta ufficiale del a RS Gazzetta Ufficiale del a RS Gazzetta uff. Gazz. Uff. del a Repubblica di Slovenia Gazz. uff. del a RS Gazz. uff. RS Gazz. Uff. RS G.U. della RS zap. št. (for zporedna številka) n. prog. (for numero progressivo) Ž., ž. (for ženski) F., f. (for femminile) ž.c. (for župnijska cerkev) chiesa parrocchiale N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 73 Appendix 2: Abbreviations for academic degrees and professional titles Slovenian texts Italian texts abs. (for absolvent) geologije laureando in geologija dipl. druž. (un.) (for diplomirani družboslovec; laurea in sociologia univerzitetni študijski program) dipl. ekon. (for ekonomist) laurea in economia dipl. ekon. (un.) spec. (for ekonomist, laureata in economia univerzitetni ptudijski program, specializacija) dipl. ekonomist laurea in economia dipl. inž. (for diplomiran inženir) navtike dott. (for dottore) in ingegneria nautica dipl. inž. (for diplomirani inženir) prometne ing. (for ingegnere) dei trasporti tehnologije diplomiran inženir tehnologije prometa dott. in ingengeria delle tecnologie del trasporto ing. elett. (for ingegnere elettrotecnico) dipl. ing. elekt. (for diplomirani inženir elektrotehnike) laurea in ingegneria meccanica navale dipl. ing. ladijskega strojništva laurea in ingegneria navale dipl. ing. navtike laurea ing. tecnologie trasporti dipl. ing. za tehnologijo transporta laurea in geografia dipl. geograf laur. (for laureato/laurea) in ingegneria civile dipl. inž. grad. (for diplomirani inženir gradbeništva) laurea in ingegneria edile dipl. inž. gradbeništva laurea in tecnologie dei trasporti dipl. inž. tehnologije prometa laurea in scienze dei trasporti dipl. kultorologinja in soc. antrop. (for socialna laurea cultural. sociol. antrop. (for antropologia antropologinja) culturale e sociale) dipl. marketinga (for diplomant marketinga) laurea in marketing dipl. m. s. (for diplomirana medicinska sestra) laurea in infermieristica diplomiran organizator turizma dott. (for dottore) in organizzazione del turismo laur. scienze turistiche (for laurea/laureato in dipl. org. tur. (for diplomirani organizator scienze turistiche) turizma) laurea in economia aziendale dipl. posl. (for poslovni) ekonomist dott.ssa (for dottressa) in scienze sociali diplomirana socialna delavka sociologo dipl. sociolog (UN) (for univerzitetni študijski program) laureata in organizzazione amministrativa dipl. upravna organizatorka laurea organizz. (for organizzazione) dipl. upr. org. (for diplomirana upravna amministrativa) organizatorka) laur. sc. amministrative (for laurea in scienze amministrative) laurea in scienze dell'amministrazione dipl. upravni organizator laurea in scienze della protezione dipl. varstvoslovec direttrice del a prestazione del e assicurazioni direktorica izvajanja zdr. zav. (for zdravstvenega sanitarie zavarovanje) dott. (for dottore) di ricerca in geopolitica e dr. (for doktor) znanosti geopolitike in geoeconomia geoekonomije ing. oblikov. tekstila in oblačil ing. designer di tessuti e abiti inž. (for inženir) ingegnere 74 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Slovenian texts Italian texts inž. strojništva ingegnere meccanico inštruktor prakt. (for praktičnih) vsebin istruttore di applicazioni pratiche magister ekonomskih znanosti dott. mag. scienze economiche magistra ekonomije dott. magistrale in economia magister farmacije dott. magistrale in farmacia mag. dr. veterinarske medicine (for magister dott. (for dottore) magistrale di medicina doktor) veterinaria mag. politologije dott. mag. in scienze politiche mag. pravnih ved master in giurisprudenza mag. prava laurea magistrale in giurisprudenza mag. prof. inkluzivne pedagogike (for magister dott. (for dottore) magistrale in pedagogia profesor) inclusiva mag. soc. (for magister socialnega) dela assistente sociale magister socioloških znanosti dott. mag. (for dottora magisrale in) scienze mag. upr. ved (for magister upravnih ved) sociologiche master in scienze amministrative mag. veterine (for magister veterine) dott. (for dottore) magistrale in veterina dott. mag. (for dottore magistrale) in veterinaria laurea magistrale mag. (for magister) znanosti dott. mag. in org. (for dottore magistrale in mag. znan. org. (for magister znanosti organizzazione) organzacjskih) ved vicedirett. ambulat. veter. (for vicedirettrice namestnica dir. veterin. amb. (for namestnica dell'ambulatorio veterinario) direktorja veterinarska ambulanta) realizzatore siti web e portali oblik. (for oblikovanje) in urejanje splet. (for spletnih) potralov poobl. za vod. upr. postopkov (for pooblaščenci funzionari autorizzati a svolgere e a decidere za vodenje upravnih postopkov) samost. ref. (for samostojni referent) obdelave referente autonomo assicurazione zav. (for zavarovalnih) pogodb strok. sod. (for strokovni sodelavec) coll. tec. (for col aboratore tecnico) univ. dipl. (for univerzitetni diplomirani) dott. in economia ekonomist univ. dipl. ekon. (for ekonomist) laureato in economia laurea in economia laur. univ. (for laurea universitaria) in economia laureato in geografia univ. dipl. geograf laurea in geografia laureato in microbiologia univ. dipl. mikrobiolog laurea in ingegneria univ. dipl. ing. (for inženir) laurea ing. tecnologie trasporti (for laurea in univ. dipl. ing. tehnol. (for tehnologije) prometa ingegneria del e tecnologie dei trasporti) univ. dipl. inž. (for inženir) tehnologije prometa laurea in tecnologie dei trasporti univ. dipl. inž. univ. dipl. inž. arh. ingegnere laur. univ. in architettura univ. dipl. inž. grad. (for gradbeništva) laurea in architettura univ. dipl. inž. gozdarstva laur. univ. in ingegneria civile univ. dipl. obramboslovec laurea in scienze forestali univerzitetni diplomirani pedagog laurea in scienze del a difesa N. Lenassi: Bilingual Administrative Texts in Slovenian Istria: An Overview of Abbreviations 75 Slovenian texts Italian texts univerzitetni diplomirani pravnik dott. (for dottore) in pedagogia univ. dipl. prav. (for pravnik) dott. in giurisprudenza laurea in giurisprudenza laur. univ. in giruisprudenza univ. dipl. polit. (for politolog) legale univ. dipl. politologinja laur. univ. in scienze politiche univ. dipl. psihologinja laureata in scienze politiche psicologa univ. dipl. socialna delavka laureata in scienze sociali laurea in scienze sociali laurea in servizio sociale assistente sociale univ. dipl. soc. (for sociolog) laurea in soc. (for sociologia) upr. teh. (for upravni tehnik) tecnico amministrativo v.d. (for vršilec dolžnosti) f.f. (for facente funzioni) viš. med. tehnik (for višji medicinski tehnik) laureato in infermieristica viš. upr. del. (for višji upravni delavec) ufficiale amministrativo superiore višja svetovalka za gosp. in tur. (for consulente sup. economia e tur. (for (consulente gospodarstvo in turizem) superiore per l'economia e per il turismo) višji med. (for medicinski) tehnik laureato in infermieristica vodja reševanja zav. (for zavarovalnih) primerov res. per la ris. degli inf. (for responsabile per la soluzione *risoluzione degli infortuni) 76 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. ENGLISH FOR POLICE PURPOSES AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL IN SERBIA – CURRENT SITUATION AND CHALLENGES DRAGOSLAVA MIĆOVIĆ University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies, Belgrade, Serbia dragoslava.micovic@kpu.edu.rs Abstract Since its origins, police education and training in Serbia have gone through many reforms. This paper offers an overview of police education in Serbia in general, specifical y the learning of foreign languages and more recently English for Police Purposes at the only institution of higher police education in the country. Foreign language learning within police education has never been the focus of any reform. On the contrary, it has been cast aside, resulting in a reduced number of classes and English- Keywords: only policy. This situation reflects other state universities in police education, foreign languages, Serbia, the paradox being that al this has been happening since English for Police the adoption of the Bologna Declaration. The chal enges Purposes, teachers face in teaching English for Police Purposes include English-only policy, work in large multi-level classes, difficulties related to obtaining large multi-level authentic materials and a reduced number of classes. classes DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.4 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 78 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction A century ago, in 1921, the Education Gazette, the official journal of the Ministry of Education at the time, published an article by dr Milan Šević (1921: 229), a Professor at the First Grammar School, titled Teaching Modern Languages. The author was writing about reform in the teaching of modern languages, referring to the decisions made by the Association of New Philologists in Hamburg on June 05, 1920, which stated that in addition to teaching English, French and Spanish (as modern languages) this group should include other languages such as Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Polish, Dutch, Danish-Norwegian and Swedish, which may be required because of international relations. Speaking about the education of new philologists at universities, he recommended that university curricula be made in such a manner as to provide an opportunity for foreign language learning to be connected with other non-linguistic courses, such as philosophy, history, geography, political economy, legal sciences, art, etc. In this way it could successfully improve the knowledge of foreign nations. The main task of such education is to encourage understanding of spiritual and material culture of a foreign nation based on the relevant foreign language. (Šević, 1921: 229; Mićović, Anđelić-Nikolendžić, 2019). A century later there is stil debate on the same issues when it comes to foreign language learning. The situation in Serbia today is that two foreign languages are learnt in primary and secondary schools, but when these same students go to universities the situation changes completely. There is also a great difference between private and state universities. In order to better understand the current situation and chal enges that English for Police Purposes at university level faces today, a few various perspectives must be taken into consideration. First, it is necessary to go back to the past to the origins of police education in general, as foreign language learning for police purposes cannot be considered without providing an overview of police education. A brief history of police education in Serbia shall be given, the first part will cover police education before World War II and the second part wil cover police education since World War II. We shal consider the teaching and learning of English for Police Purposes through the prism of foreign language learning at university level in Serbia in general, comparing it with the situation at other universities. Finally, the challenges we face today shal be addressed. D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 79 2 How did it all begin? A brief overview of police education in Serbia Police education in the late 19th and early 20th century was not institutionalized, and the first professional education was organized for gendarmerie members, while the training of other police personnel developed more slowly and consisted of sporadic attempts to lay a more permanent foundation for the education of traditional police. With regard to professional police education, Serbia did not differ from other European countries, where at that time police forces also relied on learning through practice (Jaćimovski et al. 2021: 18). In the following section police education development in Serbia, classifying this development into two periods, pre and post World War II wil be discussed. 2.1 Before World War II In order to be able to follow the chronology of foreign language learning within higher police education, it is necessary to go back a century and fol ow the development of police education in Serbia in general. Articles and information published in the Police journal proved to be quite helpful in this quest. As one of the most significant journals dealing with organization, development and improvement of policing, this journal published articles on education of the gendarmerie of the time from the very beginning. What used to be cal ed Gendarmerie School (established in 1909) was actually a course which lasted three to four months and their goal was “that the gendarmes, in addition to their military knowledge, get acquainted in detail with their police duties” (Policija, 1910 (3): 63-64). The curriculum included both military and police courses. Military courses covered the regulations and rules of service, training in fire arms and drills. Police courses included the Constitution, penal law, criminal proceedings, police regulations, conduct of gendarmes with citizens, the rules of gendarmerie service, police orders for Belgrade and administrative division of the country. Course attendants also learned about legal regulations on the press, municipalities, hunting and fishing, public gathering and associations, and a part of curriculum included general education courses such as history with geography, reading, writing and calculus (Jovanović, 1911: 324). The first time foreign languages are mentioned is in Issue no. 3 in 1912, in an article reporting on the 8th course having been completed in the Gendarmerie School and that the journal launches the initiative for the gendarmes 80 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. to apply to learn foreign languages. After this reference on the initiative, there is no further information whether language courses were held at al . Police journal was not published for five years because of World War I. Publishing resumed in 1919, when police education and police schools become a serious topic. Although the journal had dedicated a lot of writing about the work of dr Archibald Reiss already, in 1919 it published his comprehensive article entitled The Principles of Modern Police (Rajs, 1919: 5-60), which was essential y a project on the creation of a contemporary police force in Serbia. According to Reiss, “the first condition for good police is to establish theoretical and practical schools“ of both lower and higher rank. The first double issue of Police 1–2 in 1921 published an article entitled Ceremony of opening police school in Belgrade, which was published on February 08, 1921 (Policija, no. 1-2, 1921: 59). Today this date is considered a benchmark of higher police education in Serbia, although this school actually delivered a four-month course attended by 18 police clerks and 10 agents, and the classes were held every work day from 08.00-12.00 and from 15.00 to 18.00 (Ministarstvo i ministri policije u Srbiji 1811–2001, 2002: 182). The principal and teacher of the school was dr Archibald Reiss. He taught criminology and general policing issues, and according to A. Todorović, one of the students, the classes were held in French, while “every sentence was translated from French into Serbian by an interpreter”. The courses included Criminal Law, Criminal Proceedings, Laws on police regulations and their implementation, General Political Education, Practical Exercises in Criminal Law and Procedure, Practical knowledge of chemistry and physics, Anatomy and Hygiene, Forensic Medicine, Scientific police, Identification and Description of Culprits, Criminology and General Policing, Practical exercises of technical police, Practical exercises in description and identification, Special gymnastic exercises and French. In addition to dr Reiss, the teachers in the school were inspectors of the Ministry of Interior Kosta Katić, A. Kuzmanović and the founder, owner and editor of Police journal Vasa Lazarević, then dr Ivan Đaja, Assistant Professor of the University, dr Đ. Đorđević, the Head of the Department for Venereal Disease Control, Aleksandar Andonović, the Head of Technical Service Department, Ž. Simonović, the editor in chief of the Police Gazet e, etc. French language teacher was Aleksandar Polić (Božović, 2004; Mićović, 2017: 78). D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 81 As outlined, the first language taught at the first police school was French. Why French? In the early 20th century when the school was founded, French stil held the status of the major world language, a status it was about to shortly lose to English. In addition to this, it is a very wel -known fact that dr Reiss founded a school for studying police sciences at the Swiss University of Lausanne in 1910, where he was also a professor. Prior to founding the Institute for Scientific Police, dr Reiss was a protégé of Bertil on, the Head of the Department for identification in the Parisian police. Finally, French was still the language of diplomacy (it held this status from the 17th century until the mid-20th century), as wel as the language of Interpol Red Notices for wanted persons at the time. Among those who would become the most prominent figures in Serbian policing and education was a famous inspector of the Ministry of Interior of Serbia at that time, Dušan Alimpić, a student at Reiss’s school, who would later co-edit Police journal together with Vasa Lazarević. In 1912, year-long studies in Lausanne at the Institute of Professor Reiss were completed by Aleksandar Andonović, a clerk at the Anthropometric Division of the Ministry of Interior, who returned to the country as an expert for forensic technique (Božović, 2004: 47), who also became a teacher in the newly founded school in Belgrade. Therefore, if a choice had to be made which language to teach, French was the most logical choice at that moment. However, as Reiss’s forward thinking was difficult to accept in Serbia at the time, and due to insufficient support of the authorities, the school soon closed (Policija, no. 11-12, 1921: 571-574; Ministarstvo i ministri policije u Srbiji 1811–2001, 2002: 182). Stil , based on Reiss’s report, the Law on Internal Administration was adopted, and then in 1929 the Criminal Institute with Theoretical Section and Sections for criminal technique and criminal psychology and psychiatry was founded at the University of Belgrade. Two years later, on January 21, 1931, the Ordinance on central school for police executive officers was adopted. A school was opened in Zemun, where six-month courses were held for police officers and police agents (police officers – apprentices, sub-supervisors, commanders and supervisors, police agents – apprentices and chiefs, supervisors and sub-supervisors), and specialist courses were organized as wel (Ministarstvo i ministri policije u Srbiji 1811–2001, 2002: 182). 82 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. The German attack and occupation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1941 marked the discontinuation in education of personnel for the Ministry of Interior. 2.2 After the World War II until today The first foundations of a new educational system were laid in Belgrade immediately after the liberation of the city. Short dril courses and courses in arms handling for national police officers were held from November 1944 in the building of today’s Faculty of Mining and Geology, and after the completion of the course 10 to 15 police officers with a commander were sent to duty in individual city areas (Ibid: 183-184). Education of the Ministry of Interior personnel was carried out mainly at local courses, but the greatest issue was the education of personnel management. There were various types of education for personnel management, at one point in time even divided according to the republics of the then Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and the issue was given more attention in 1966/1967. This resulted in the founding of “Pane Djukić” High School of Internal Affairs in Sremska Kamenica, and then the College of Internal Affairs in Zemun. The College began operating on October 18, 1972 (Ibid: 184-186). Until 1991, the College of Internal Affairs held the status of an independent institution, while in the period from 1991 to 2006 it was a special organisational unit of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia. In addition to this, the Col ege was also part of the educational system whose work was guided by the regulations in the field of higher education. The basic activities of the College of Internal Affairs included professional and scientific education for work in the field of public and state security and permanent training of police personnel. In addition to basic activities, there was also research and development work, supervised work with students and extra-curricular activities of its students. In the beginning the education lasted for two years (or four semesters), and later on for five semesters. In addition to the courses required for education of police personnel and other security services both in the Republic of Serbia and other parts of former Yugoslavia, the College of Internal Affairs paid special attention to foreign languages. Although there were specialized language courses organized to develop communicative skil s D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 83 in a number of languages, including regional and minority languages in former Yugoslavia, only English and German were mandatory courses for al students during four semesters (out of five), which in practice meant that the students had language courses throughout the entire educational process (Anđelić-Nikolendžić et al. 2017: 128-133). In the late 1990s, acknowledging new trends and taking into account the expert opinion of foreign language teachers who worked at the College at the time, the management decided to introduce two more language courses – French and Russian, and thus complete the group of languages which were already learnt during primary and secondary schools respectively. This decision was motivated by the fact that al children in Serbia at that time were learning at least one or two mentioned languages (English, German, French and Russian), so that they could continue to expand their respective language knowledge at university level, learn police terminology, thus avoiding unnecessary repeating of general language rules (Anđelić-Nikolendžić et al. 2017: 128-133). There was also a wide range of specialized language courses for police officers who were already in service, such as border police, traffic police, criminal police, etc. The majority of courses were either in English or German. In addition to this, there were tailor-made English and German language courses for a number of police stations and agencies, which included, among others, a helicopter unit, Special Anti-Terrorist Unit, and other specialized police forces. The most comprehensive and the most ambitious project of this type were the basic English and German language courses and comprehensive testing of all traffic police officers which started in 2003 and lasted for almost two years (Anđelić-Nikolendžić et al. 2017: 128-133). In 1993 the Police Academy was founded in Belgrade, as an institution for educational and scientific activities significant for security and policing. The Academy had two levels of studies: four-year bachelor studies and two-year master studies. As an institution of higher education, the Academy educated the personnel management for police and security institutions. As for foreign languages, only English language was taught, at first in the form of two two-semester courses during the first two years of studies respectively, and one two-semester course at master studies. 84 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. In 2001 Richard Monk, the OSCE advisor for police issues conducted a study on policing in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 1 First of al , it should be pointed out that this study referred primarily to the reform of policing, but stated that great changes were required in police training, and based on efficiency and financial justification a fundamental review of training was required (Ibid: 7). As for higher education, Monk stated that there are two institutions of higher police education, the Higher Police School or College for students 18 – 20/21 years of age, and the Police Academy (University) for students 18 – 22 and above, and that there is an overlap between the programs the two institutions offer. Two higher police education establishments, the Higher Police Col ege and the Police Academy, provide training with inevitable overlap. According to him, police training is extensive, demanding and rigorous in both institutions but excessively theoretical and as a result of a decade of isolation, outdated. At the Police Academy, each student takes 3,600 lessons and 40 examinations. He also mentions that general education subjects including a foreign language account for 10% of the course, but the Academy is still considered the leading police academic institution in the Balkans (Ibid: 44-45). It is his opinion that “there is no national curriculum authority to ensure that the standards of training provided initially to officers is maintained throughout their careers and tested on a regular basis. The Police Academy should become a national curriculum and standards authority for al police training”. 2 As a part of comprehensive police reform, and consequently police education in the Republic of Serbia, through integration of the Higher Police College and the Police Academy, the Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies was founded in 2006, as an independent institution of higher education for the requirements of all levels of police education. It also provided other forms of professional education and training relevant for criminal investigation, police and security related tasks. As for foreign languages, the decision was made to keep only English language courses. The scope of the course also changed in such a way that two two-semester courses were reduced to two one-semester courses, the only difference in their place in the curricula being that English Language 1 and English Language 2 were taught during 1 There are two versions of this study available, one from July 2001 in English, and one from October 2001 in Serbian. Although they have approximately the same number of pages, there are certain differences in content. 2 One of the differences between the two versions, English and Serbian, is here. In Serbian translation it is said that “there should be a referent institution in charge of the curricula…” (Report in Serbian, p. 47), while the English version says that “the Police Academy should become a national curriculum and standards authority for all police training” (Report in English, p. 49). D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 85 the first and fourth semester respectively at academic and vocational undergraduate studies of criminal investigation. At undergraduate studies of forensic engineering and undergraduate studies of information and computer science these courses were taught only in the first year of studies – during the first two semesters. Here a paral el can be made with what was noted in the research by Ignjačević (2014: 206), that it was exactly the same situation at other faculties in the country. She says that the data she gathered for the period until 2008 suggest without any doubt that any educational policy in the field of foreign language learning does not exist at university level. This is in stark contrast to educational policy related to foreign language learning in the European Union and the trends and practice in EU member countries (Ibid.). Students of the Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, however, had their own opinion regarding foreign language learning. In her 2011 research on the subjective data as a part of needs analysis in syllabus design, Mićović (2014) also asked students the following question: “According to your opinion, should English Language be introduced as an elective course at the III and IV years of studies?“. The majority of 76 students (out of 102), or 74,51% gave a positive answer, 19 or 18.63% said no, while 7 or 6.86% did not provide any answer. What was also noted on that occasion was that the students who wanted to continue learning English were those who had good marks during previous education and the majority of beginners. A smal number of beginners and those who had lower marks were in the group who said that English should not be introduced as an elective course at the III and IV years of studies. The data suggest that the students are aware that they would need English language in their professional career and that they would like to continue to expand their knowledge of specialized language which is not otherwise available at other courses in the market. These data also il ustrate that what students want and what the language policy is are two different things. Language policies often do not take into account students’ wishes. In 2014, by the decision of the Government of the Republic of Serbia the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies was founded, which marked the beginning of transformation into the university. The transformation was completed in December 2018. This was the period when some of the existing curricula were also reformed. This refers to Master Studies of Criminal Investigation, which were 86 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. completely transformed and the new curriculum began in the 2018/2019 academic year. As for foreign languages, the first positive step was made introducing the English Course for Criminal Investigators into the master curriculum, as one of the elective courses. For the first time after 12 years (since the integration of two institutions and founding of the Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies) a foreign language became part of the curriculum at graduate level. In addition to being a part of higher education in the Republic of Serbia, the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies is the only institution of higher police education, and it has become a part of the international system of higher education through both participation in Erasmus+ projects and Erasmus Charter of higher education. This document makes it possible for the institution to apply for and participate in Erasmus+ programs, and it also contains the basic principles the institutions of higher education should respect. It represents the basic framework of quality in both European and international cooperation. Such cooperation in the future and the mobility of students and teaching staff implies appropriate preparation in terms of foreign language knowledge, first of al general language and then language for specific purposes. In order for the students to be able to attend other courses in a foreign language (mainly English), it is necessary for them to get acquainted with language material and general language skills, language for academic purposes and language used in a specific discipline (Ignjačević, 2014: 209). Comprehensive experience in European countries concerning foreign language as a medium in teaching and learning, as wel as the research results (see, for instance Sercu, 2004) suggest that if the students have insufficient knowledge of language and have not acquired the corresponding skills, they wil not be able to learn the foreign language and the contents of some other course. Thus, they wil not acquire satisfactory knowledge of either (Ignjačević, 2014: 209). After this step forward, a new accreditation round further reduced the number of English language classes at undergraduate academic and vocational studies of criminal investigation (from four to three per week). D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 87 3 Challenges When addressing the chal enges, it becomes apparent that they do not differ from chal enges other ESP teachers face today. In order to support this claim, it is important to present the current situation with foreign languages at other tertiary educational institutions in Serbia, and then present the chal enges which need to be tackled in the future. A pioneering research on the relationship between language for specific purposes and language policy was conducted by Ignjacević in 2014 (Ignjačević, 2014), as her contribution to the monograph titled Languages in Education and Language Educational Policies. In a brief historical overview of foreign language learning, it is stated that as far as university level is concerned, one foreign language was introduced after World War II, and at that time the Russian language was considered the most welcome due to social-political circumstances. The need for other foreign languages, especial y English, did not emerge until 1948, when there was a shift in state politics and the country opened towards the West. The faculties had autonomy in deciding which foreign languages they would include in their curricula, as well as how long and when they wil be learned in the course of the studies. The majority of faculties decided to include foreign language learning either in the first or in the first two years of studies. By the end of the 1950s, foreign language is given the status of elective-mandatory course, which meant that students could learn one foreign language, usually selecting the one they were learning in primary and secondary school respectively (English, Russian, French or German) (Ibid: 203). The four mentioned languages were part of curricula of the University in Belgrade, but also part of the curricula of other universities in Serbia. Language teachers were part of the university teaching staff until 2005, when the situation started to change, i.e., when reform started and studies according to the Bologna declaration started. At the same time, this happens to be the period when foreign language teaching for professional and academic purposes has made considerable progress and when many textbooks and scientific papers on this topic were published (Ibid: 204). 88 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Although in her paper Ignjačević speaks mainly about the University of Belgrade, the paradox which occurred spil ed over to other institutions of higher education in Serbia as wel . The studies reformed according to the Bologna declaration, at a time when it was quite clear that it was not possible to become a part of a system of higher education without the knowledge of a few languages at least (student mobility in Europe, cooperation and connections among institutions of higher education, etc. (Ignjačević, 2009)), when plurilingualism was accepted globally as one of the essential civilizational values and learning various languages in Europe was paid special attention at all levels of education. Ignjačević concluded that the value of foreign language learning was not recognized at the University of Belgrade judging by the status, space and evaluation of these courses at the majority of faculties (Ignjačević, 2014: 205). According to the data that she gathered, there is a noticeable trend of decreasing the number of foreign languages at the faculties of the University of Belgrade (other than the Faculty of Philology). According to the results of an informal survey of the members of the group of university LSP teachers of the Society of Foreign Languages and Literatures of Serbia in 2009, the trend continues not only at this University but at other state universities in Serbia as well (Ibid: 205). It was then stated that foreign languages were to be given less and less space in the reformed curricula at faculties, the number of classes per week was reduced drastical y and the languages to select were limited mostly to English (Ibid: 206). In 2017, a Group of university LSP3 teachers conducted further research on the status of LSP at faculties other than the Faculty of Philology in Serbia, including an increased number of state and private universities. The results of this research were presented at a forum on the status of LSP within university education, held on February 23, 2017 at the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade. 4 This survey covered all state universities in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, Kragujevac, as well as private universities (Metropolitan, Singidunum, Alfa, Union, John Nesbitt University), and three vocational col eges (Belgrade Polytechnic Vocational Col ege, Vocational College of Applied Studies in Vranje, College of Hotel Management). The analysis showed that problems could be classified into two groups: the first group includes problems related to the status of foreign languages at faculties other 3 LSP – Language for Specific Purposes 4 Report from the forum on status of LSP in higher education which was held on February 23, 2017 at the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade (in Serbian). D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 89 than the Faculty of Philology in Serbia, and the second group includes the problem of losing plurilingualism. Among the conclusions were that it could not be expected for foreign language teaching to be harmonized and standardized even within one university (for instance, the University of Belgrade), since status is addressed by each faculty individually; the number of classes and related ECTS points often differ ranging from 3 to 6 per week, or 2 to 8 ECTS points. The duration of courses ranges from one to four semesters at state universities, and private universities offer either mandatory or elective courses during all four years of bachelor studies. The number of languages offered ranges from one (only English) to four (English, French, German and Russian) at state universities; private universities offer more options, students can choose two foreign languages at all levels of studies; the status of LSP at faculties which cover social sciences and humanities is better, and the range of various languages is also better. There is a need to include LSP as a part of Master and Doctoral studies (which is currently dealt with by each faculty individually). The general conclusion is that the status of LSP, in addition to being solved by each faculty individually, should be solved in close cooperation with other faculties, universities and the wider professional and academic community. It is necessary to conduct surveys which will deal with the attitudes of students towards foreign languages, and then according to specific desires and needs of students offer various options for language courses (beginner courses, organizing classes per language levels, teaching foreign language at senior years without grading them, including the possibility to teach them at master and doctoral levels). It is necessary to raise awareness on the need of foreign language knowledge, particularly LSP which opens possibilities for professional improvement and increases the mobility of experts in the labour market. In this narrative related to English for Police Purposes, the background and the current situation so far have been presented. However, a few chal enges for the future remain. The three most important in our opinion are very difficult to overcome: dealing with large multi-level classes, textbooks (or course materials) and the reduced number of classes vs increased requirements for language knowledge. 90 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 3.1 Large multi-level classes These are regrettably commonplace in foreign language learning, particularly at university level in Serbia. At the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies English classes are held in groups which are usually large (at least 25 students, sometimes more, except for the programmes of Forensic Engineering and Information Science where less candidates are enrol ed). In practice this means that teachers have to find a way to deal with quite varying previous knowledge of the students when teaching English for Police Purposes (EPP) courses. Sometimes finding a middle course can be quite chal enging, since on the one hand, you have to be careful with students whose knowledge is insufficient and you must not make them lose interest in learning EPP because it is difficult. On the other hand, you have students who could easily find the course boring if too much repetition of what they already know is included. Also, first year students in Serbia are expected to be at B2 level of English language proficiency according to CEFL. This estimation is made on the basis of the period of learning English as a Foreign Language in elementary and high schools. Depending on the availability of English teachers in elementary schools, they start learning English either in the first or in the third grade of elementary school, so this period ranges from 10 to 12 years. The selection of course books is made by relevant teachers, but no matter which course book is selected, the fourth grade of high school is completed with a B2 level course book. This is also confirmed in the research by Danilović and Grujić (2014) as well as Danilović-Jeremić (2015) who confirm in their study that “the students had spent between eight and ten years learning English in elementary school and high school. Their level of proficiency in English was estimated as B2 (according to the Common European Framework of Reference)”. From personal experience, the actual level of knowledge is rather different from the expected level, in that there are students who are actual y B2 level, but there are also those who are only A2, and some are even C1 (if they learned English additionally at extracurricular courses). Although this claim should be investigated additionally in the future, one illustration of how much the students can vary is offered by the results of previous research by Mićović (2020). Investigating the influence of vocabulary size knowledge on reading comprehension of technical texts, the author found that the number of years the investigated sample had been learning English ranged between 8 and 12, whereas the number of words they had D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 91 learned ranged between 2,000 and 10,100 based on the Vocabulary Size Test by Nation (2007). As can be seen, these are the obstacles which make planning and designing lessons rather difficult. 3.2 Textbooks One of the problems with textbooks is that from the very beginning, ever since the first police col ege was founded back in 1972, textbooks for foreign languages for police purposes simply did not exist. Therefore, taking into account the specific needs of their students on the one hand, and the unavailability of relevant textbooks at the time on the other, teachers had to create their own materials and it was not a matter of choice, as Mićović and Stojov (2011) noted. Sometimes, even when there are published materials, they do not always provide the type of texts and activities that a teacher is seeking for a given class (Ibid: 420). This situation yielded a number of textbooks for the courses mentioned in the first part of the article, such as border police, gendarmerie courses, as well as more recently various English for Police Purposes courses at the University. One of the biggest chal enges teachers face today is the problem related to use of authentic texts. Authentic materials are found to be a rich source of teaching and learning activities by many language teachers. They can help us achieve the aim of enriching students’ experience in learning and practicing English, they can acclimatize them to the use of English in the real world and help them generate a strategy for learning English and other subjects too (Wong et al., 1995). Although the internet has made more authentic materials available than ever before, it must be said that the majority (if not al ) of them are protected by some kind of copyright. This is fair and intel ectual property should be protected. However, from the perspective of an English language teacher, this means that your work on any textbook will be made more difficult. It is practically impossible for any of us to be familiar with al copyright laws in the countries from which these authentic materials may originate, and it is very difficult to know the procedures to obtain relevant agreements and licenses to use these materials in textbooks. So, other ways to create our materials must be found, which then cannot be said to be authentic. 92 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Despite al the difficulties, teachers at the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies in Serbia are not discouraged and continue to work on improving their teaching materials. 3.3 Reduced number of classes vs increased requirements Another issue and chal enge currently faced is something happening at other universities in Serbia as well – continued reduction of the number of classes as wel as the English-only policy. Here we have a discrepancy between the students’ needs and what they get from their respective curricula. As noticed by Anđelić-Nikolendžić et al. (2017) whenever education of law enforcement personnel is discussed, the focus tends to be on theoretical, mostly legal subjects, such as criminal law, criminal procedural law, international law and other areas of law that underline all policing and crime investigation activities. Instruction in foreign languages never seems to be given due attention, but is rather tolerated as part of general-education subjects. In society today higher education has become more global than ever and this has resulted in students becoming more mobile than ever. Labour markets al over the world have also become available to the students worldwide. This leads to the main question: are our students prepared for this? As much as it is important for students to acquire various professional skills, one big requirement and a prerequisite to everything else is foreign language knowledge. English remains number one, and other languages being an additional benefit as wel . Bearing this in mind, teachers of English for Police Purposes are faced with quite a chal enge here attempting to deliver knowledge required by the students in an increasingly shorter period of time. It should also be pointed out that although there are a multitude of commercial courses available in the foreign language learning market, there is no commercially available course of English for Police Purposes. Therefore, the only opportunity and possibility for our students to learn this specific profession-related language is at courses prepared and taught at the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies. It is clear that more work needs to be done to try to increase the number of classes, to offer more courses and to reintroduce other foreign languages, alongside English. D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 93 4 Conclusion In order to give an overview of the situation and chal enges regarding English for Police Purposes, we have also reviewed police education in general and higher police education from its origins until today. Although the primary focus is foreign language learning, it is obvious that it is not possible to talk about it separately from police education. Foreign language learning within police education started a century ago with the first police school in Serbia founded by dr Archibald Reiss and ended with the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies as the only institution of higher police education in the Republic of Serbia today. Police education has come a long way and has been changing over time for the better, but when it comes to foreign language learning it has fol owed the path of other institutions of higher education in Serbia. Paradoxically, the adoption of 1999 Bologna Declaration, promoting mobility of both students and teachers, has had a negative impact on foreign language learning at (primarily) state universities in the Republic in Serbia. Consequently, this process has not circumvented police education either. The negative trend, when it comes to state universities, mostly reflected a reduced number of classes and its English-only policy. Private universities seem to recognize the requirements of the new era and they offer a variety of foreign languages as wel as more years of respective learning. Focusing on the situation at the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies, after a step forward in terms of English language learning and introduction of an English course at the Master Studies of Criminal Investigation, the latest accreditation has further reduced the number of classes of English language at undergraduate studies of criminal investigation. However, there is hope that the need for reform wil be recognized for the situation to change in the future. Bearing al the above in mind, recommendations for police education and other universities to consider would be including other languages in the curriculum which were traditionally learned in previous education in Serbia, such as German, Russian and French. This would make it possible for students to continue to learn and improve their knowledge of the languages they have already learned. In addition to this, in order to achieve better results English language should be included in the curriculum of the third year of undergraduate vocational studies, and in the curricula of the third and fourth year of undergraduate academic studies respectively, at least 94 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. as an optional course. This would mean a step forward towards the goals of the Bologna declaration which were adopted a long time ago, which include enabling mobility to students in Europe, thus contributing to the competitiveness of European higher education in the world scene. It would also encourage institutions of higher education to get interconnected, as wel as fulfil contemporary requirements of all professions, including thsmajla e police. References Anđelić-Nikolendžić, V., Stojov, M., & Pavlović, I. (2017). The Policy of Teaching Foreign Languages in Serbian Institutions of Tertiary Education for Law Enforcement Officers. In Proceeds from the International Scientific Conference Security Concepts and Policies – New Generation of Risks and Threats, Skopje, 4–5 June 2017, (pp. 128 – 133). Univerzitet “Sv. Kliment Ohridski” Bitola, Fakultet za bezbednost Skopje. Božović, B. (2004). Tri decenije časopisa „Policija“ 1910–1940. Viša škola unutrašnjih poslova. Danilović, J. R., & Grujić, T. S. (2014). Vocabulary growth at tertiary level: how much progress can Serbian EFL learners make in a year? Зборник Института за педагошка истраживања, 46 (1), 200–218. Danilović-Jeremić, J. (2015). Lexical knowledge of Serbian L1 English L2 learners: reception vs. production, Nastava i vaspitanje, 64(1), 87–100. Ignjačević, A., Perović, S., & Svetlin, P. (2009). Strani jezik struke u bolonjskom procesu, In J. Vučo, A. Ignjačević & M. Mirić (Eds.), Zbornik radova Jezik struke – teorija i praksa (pp. 721–737). Univerzitet u Beogradu. Ignjačević, A. (2014). Strani jezik struke i obrazovna politika, In: J. Filipović, & O. Durbaba (Eds.), Jezici u obrazovanju i jezičke obrazovne politike, (pp. 187–217). Filološki fakultet. Izveštaj sa tribine o položaju stranih jezika struke u visokoškolskom obrazovanju, Sekcija univerzitetski nastavnika stranih jezika struke, Filološki fakultet u Beogradu, 23 February 2017. Jaćimovski, S., Mijalković, S., Krstić-Mistridželović, I., Milašinović, N., Spasović, O., Košanin, M., Matović, D., Kostić, D., & Jovanović, N. (Eds.) (2021) 100 years of the University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies (2021). Belgrade. Jovanović, M. K. (1912). Naša žandarmska škola (sa slikom). Policija, 10–11/1912, 324–331. Mićović, D., & Stojov, M. (2011.) Tailor-made course book for English for Police Purposes. Languages for Specific Purposes: Chal enges and Prospects. Book of Proceedings, Foreign Language and Literature Association of Serbia, 416–424. Mićović, D. (2014). Subjektivni podaci kao deo analize potreba pri izradi nastavnog plana i programa, NBP – Žurnal za kriminalistiku i pravo, 1, 129–141. Kriminalističko-policijska akademija. Mićović, D. (2017). Žene policajci kroz jezik srpske policijske periodike (1910–2016). Zadužbina Andrejević. Mićović, D., & Anđelić-Nikolendžić, V. (2019). Jezička obrazovna politika u oblasti stranih jezika u visokom policijskom obrazovanju u Republici Srbiji. In Međunarodni naučni skup “Socijalna politika u Srbiji na raskršću vekova”, Beograd, 22 and 23 November 2018 (pp. 297–309): Visoka škola socijalnog rada. Mićović, D. N. (2020). Uticaj fonda usvojenih reči na razumevanje pročitanog stručnog teksta na engleskom jeziku — pilot istraživanje, Анали Филолошког факултета, 32(1), 207–220. Ministarstvo i ministri policije u Srbiji 1811–2001. (2002), Perišić M. (Ed.), Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije. D. Mićović: English for Police Purposes at University Level in Serbia – Current Situation and Challenges 95 Monk, R. (2001) OSCE Study on Policing in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, https://www.osce.org/spmu/16296?download=true Monk, R. (2001) Studija o radu policije u Saveznoj republici Jugoslaviji, OEBS-Misija pri SRJ, https://www.osce.org/sr/secretariat/17677?download=true Nation, I.S.P., & Beglar, D. (2007) A vocabulary size test. The Language Teacher, 31(7), 9 – 13. Policija, 3, 1910, Beograd, 63–64. Policija, 3, 1912, Beograd. Policija, 10–11, 1922, Beograd Policija, 4–5, 1919, Beograd. Policija, 1–2, 1921, Beograd. (n/a) Policijska škola u Beogradu, Policija 11-12/1921, 571–574. Prosvetni glasnik, 1921, Beograd. Rajs, A. (1919). Principi moderne policije, Policija 4-5, 5–60. Sercu, L. (2004). The introduction of English-medium instruction in universities. An investigation of some factors crucial to its success, Research News, The Newslet er of the IATEFL Research SIG, 15– 19. (n/a) Svečano otvaranje policijske škole u Beogradu, Policija, 1-2, 1921, Beograd. Šević, M. (1921). Nastava živih jezika, Prosvetni glasnik, 4, 229–235. Wong V., Kwon P., & Choi N. (1995). The Use of Authentic Materials at Tertiary Level, ELT Journal, 49(4). 96 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC: DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS' ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE ONLINE LSP COURSE. THE CASE OF THE FACULTY OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY EVA PODOVŠOVNIK,1 TILEN SMAJLA2 1 University of, Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Portorož, Slovenia eva.podovsovnik@fts.upr.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia tilen.smajla@guest.arnes.si Abstract This paper presents the results of an analysis of the attitudes of students of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security at the University of Maribor (FVV UM) towards the use of distance learning tools in their language for specific purposes (LSP) course. Our aim was to investigate the students' experience with LSP distance learning tools by focusing on the impact of different language teaching methods on the respondents' attitudes towards LSP distance learning tools, on the students' and professors' perceptions regarding the use of digital tools for online learning and the professors' ability to adapt their teaching methods to online learning. The results were as follows: there were no major differences in attitudes regarding the students' gender, the students have proven to have sufficient knowledge Keywords: of the use of digital tools, the professors have proven to have attitudes towards the use of digital sufficient knowledge of the use of digital tools and are able to tools, distance or adapt them accordingly, although the perceptions of students online learning, regarding the adaptations made by the professors differed Language for specific purposes significantly from those of the professors. Consequently, a more (LSP), informed choice of teaching methods and approaches should be university students, made that would ensure better learning outcomes also in the case teaching methods of online teaching. and approaches DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.5 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 98 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction On Friday 13 March 2020, Slovenia went into a soft lockdown1, and a ban on social gatherings was announced, which came into effect on Monday 16 March 2020. The term »lockdown« was and is widely used in al countries, not only in predominantly Anglo-Saxon ones, and would normal y start with the closure of public life and in-presence work, which triggers the onset of distance work or working from home (Florjančič, 2021, p.12). Subsequently, teaching in schools, colleges and universities switched to online teaching, and restrictions on leisure activities, entertainment and religious activities were imposed. The effect of the global pandemic was that suddenly, more than 850 mil ion people were forced to learn outside the classroom as of March 2020 (Johnson, Veletsianos & Seaman 2020). Although this kind of education was up until 2020 reserved only for institutions which conduct their teaching online, this kind of teaching did not occur for the first time. Johnson et al. (2020) reminded us of other instances in which pedagogical activities were conducted by means of distance teaching, mostly due to natural disasters or different political issues. That was the case of the hurricane Catrina, which struck the south of the USA in August 2005, the earthquake in New Zealand in 2011, or students’ demonstrations in South Africa in 2015. Responses to such emergency conditions were nevertheless limited to a narrow geographical area, whereas the effect of the Covid-19 pandemic was such as to trigger a global switch from in-presence teaching and working to online work or some other distance work, a situation never to be seen in the history of mankind (Johnson et al., 2020). Emergency conditions are unpredictable and so is the response to them, sudden and ill prepared. Although the teaching was conducted distantly, it could hardly be called distance teaching (or eLearning), for such form of teaching was not planned and prepared in advance. Hence the term »emergency remote teaching« was coined in the English-speaking countries, whereas at the same time in Slovenia, the term »šola/študij na daljavo« (English: distance teaching or distance schooling) appeared, some experts even called it »crisis education« (Univerza v Mariboru, 2020)2, or crisis 1 The expression »go into lockdown« is used to describe a ban on social gathering and social distancing, when the term fits the context. Slovenia did not go into a complete lockdown, as groceries, for example, remained opened (with restrictions) and people could still go outside their homes (but were temporarily limited to their municipalities at the beginning). 2For further information check https://it.um.si/novice/Strani/Podrobnosti-novice.aspx?nID=218. E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 99 Criminal Justice and Security distance teaching. The University of Primorska on, the other hand, set up a crisis teaching in emergency conditions and prepared an array of measures. Regardless of how the distance teaching was named, the fact remains that it was neither planned not wel -prepared, with a lot of experimenting and many adjustments. This form of educations is, of course, a long way from a wel -planned online education (Hodges et al., 2020). What this meant for the entire pedagogical sector: stakeholders in the field had to abruptly (some more and some less) organise to operate in a mode that was significantly different from what teachers3 had known before. The imposed restrictions and the subsequent school closure placed teachers in unprecedented situation, both in terms of working conditions and uncertainty about the potential personal risk of infection. This study was prepared and conducted after the first wave of the Covid-194 pandemic was over and in the winter months of 2021, during the second wave, which was officially over by 17 April 2021. 2 The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on foreign language (FL) distance learning and teaching The World Health Organization (henceforth WHO) declared COVID-19 as a global public health emergency of international concern on 30 January 2020 as wel as a pandemic on March 11, 2020 (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020). Consequently, as of March 13, 61 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, North America, and South America have announced or implemented school and university closures and most of universities have enforced localized closures (UNESCO, 2020). On 15 March 2020 the Government of the Republic of Slovenia issued a decree 5 on the nation-wide banning of the gathering of people in the educational and pedagogical facilities from preschool to higher education. The decree was extended to al organisations, including those, which offered informal education services. The 3 The term »teacher« is used generically and represents every person who works in the field of education, be it preschool, elementary, and secondary level as wel as higher education and it refers to teaching staff of both sexes. 4 The first wave of the pandemic was officially terminated 15 May 2020. The second wave was declared 18 October 2022 and was official y terminated 17 April 2021. (https:// www.gov.si/novice/2020-10-19-vlada-razglasila-epidemijo-nalezljive-bolezni-covid-19-na-obmocju-republike-slovenije) 5 For further information go to https://www.gov.si/novice/2020-03-15-posebno-obvestilo-ministrice-dr-simone-kustec-o-varstvu-otrok/ 100 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. outbreak of the pandemic has had, like many other aspects of everyday life, a serious impact on students, teachers, and educational organizations around the globe (Mailizar et al., 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has caused schools, colleges, and universities across the globe to shut down so that students could follow social distancing measures (Toquero, 2020). The move from an environment of conventional pre-pandemic education to distance and virtual learning could of course not happen overnight. This rapid transformation has encountered various obstacles and challenges on the way (Crawford et al., 2020). With no quick end of the pandemic in sight, educational institutions across the globe decided to use the already available technical resources to create online learning material for students of all academic fields (Kaur, 2020). The outbreak of Covid-19 compel ed academics and practitioners alike to reconsider the traditional way of in-presence teaching and learning. Consequently, they started considering distance online learning as a feasible option to fil the classroom void for duration of school closure, thus reducing the risk of infection for students before conventional activities could resume (Kaur, 2020). Hundreds of educational institutions provide for online courses, yet some problems exist. Firstly, from a macro point of view, not enough evidence has been established regarding the effects and efficacy of online education (McPherson & Bacow, 2015). Secondly, the capacity to successfully teach digitally is likely to differ based on the wide range of learning goals that guide our instructional and educational priorities (Liguori & Winkler, 2020). Thirdly, the distribution of learning tools such as computers or tablets are uneven in the population, and what is more, due to the closure of universities many students had to return home. Being reintroduced to a new form of family life, where there may have been other siblings who learnt online and in some cases parents, too, worked from home office, has not favoured positive learning outcomes. Fourthly, not all households are provided with broadband internet, hence many families had to resort to creative measures such as wireless internet, which has its limitations of range, the reason for which many families were cramped together in one room, because everybody either worked from home or learnt online. Consequently, lack of access to fast, affordable, and reliable internet connection hindered the process of distance learning especificly for those who are living in underprivileged or rural as well as marginalized communities of low-income families. And lastly, distance learning can be effective in digitally advanced countries (Basilaia & Kvavadze, 2020). Nevertheless, students who access the internet via smartphones were often unable to take advantage of distance E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 101 Criminal Justice and Security learning because a significant amount of online content is not accessible via smartphones, for example not al Zoom features, a platform widely used in Slovenia for distance learning as of March 2020, are accessible to tablet or smartphone users. The sudden transfer from in-presence learning and teaching to distance learning became an issue of organizational agility (Wu, 2020), all elementary and secondary schools as wel as academic organisations in Slovenia consequently focused on the transfer of the pedagogical process to the digital world while not primarily focusing on online teaching and delivery methods as wel as content. There was also a general perception of under preparedness among teachers in Slovenia at al levels and many felt undertrained for distance teaching. Besides, there was a feeling of unpreparedness and insufficient access and availability of the internet and the lack of latest technology on the students' side as wel , which, along with organizational unresponsiveness undermined students' capacity to participate in digital learning (Zhong, 2020). Moreover, absence of proper interaction with instructors is another major concern associated with distance teaching and learning. Additional y, issues arising from content of the online course would normal y be discussed with the relevant course instructor by e-mail or on one of the online platforms such as Zoom, Skype, Microsoft Teams and the like, which requires response time (Zhong, 2020). It is highly unlikely for students to be genuinely interested in virtual classes, which is specifical y true for younger students who are tactile learners. Another major issue of distance learning is the absence of conventional classroom socialization. Students namely only communicate with their peers digital y and never actual y see them in person, and thus the real-time sharing of ideas, knowledge and information is heavily hindered and partially missing from the digital learning world (Britt, 2006). Consequently, some recent research studies have aimed at exploring the chal enges on one hand and opportunities on the other associated with distance learning during pandemics (Florjančič, 2021; Mailizar et al., 2020; Smajla & Podovšovnik, 2021). The authors of the studies suggested that students’ voices are important on this issue; hence, the future research should investigate students’ opinions regarding online learning to examine the chal enges faced by students. 102 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. It is important to note that during the Covid-19 pandemic a great body of research has focused on students’ perspectives about the implementation of distance education in various educational settings. In the follow up, we turn the focus on the specificity of online foreign language learning in higher education and its chal enges during the Covid-19 pandemic. The last decade has seen a significant expansion of online language courses, offered by educational institutions or by specificized platforms such as Mondly, Duolingo, Livemocha, Rosetta Stone and similar (Lin & Warschauer, 2015). In higher education, the benefits of implementing online FL teaching regarding both distance education and in-presence language teaching and learning have proven to be significant, specifically after the introduction of ICT-based synchronous or asynchronous activities (Maican & Cocoradã, 2021). Some researchers who have focused on full-time in-presence education have sustained that the online teaching makes language teaching and learning more flexible and individualized, based on authentic materials, which according to them may trigger an increase in attendance and student engagement (Gacs et al., 2020; Felix, 2008). While the benefits of online language education seem to be obvious, some studies showed that its positive effects may be hindered by technical and personal problems, such as students’ and teachers’ low self-efficacy for online learning or computer use (Artino, 2010), and by students’ low active participation or dominant interventions (Hampel, 2003). On one hand, other recent research conducted on online education shows that during the pandemic students preferred teaching materials which could easily be found on the e-learning platforms for longer periods of time (such as pre-recorded video lectures) and which students can use on their own and whenever it suits them, thus meeting individual needs (Islam et al., 2020). Other recent studies (vanOostveen et al., 2018) have emphasised that online teaching is based on knowledge transmission and that teachers more or less consciously try to replicate the old teaching and learning, may not have the desired effect in the conditions triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic, since the use of this approach in FL teaching may facilitate the compliance with the planned curriculum, but not overcome the students’ mixed feelings towards the new learning environment or the difficulties encountered (Egbert, 2020). There are other aspects of distance or online teaching affecting students’ learning. It has been pointed out that distance teaching offers positive opportunities for students to improve their knowledge and skills (Riggs, 2020). Further, it has also been reported E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 103 Criminal Justice and Security that students have more time to do their tasks and assignments (Evisen et al., 2020). The students are taught to become self-directed learners and take responsibility for their learning progress (Maison et al., 2021). Third, students learning at home feel safe from the spread of Covid-19 (Evisen et al., 2020). The pandemic has also enabled students to gain certain digital literacy skills and thus boosted their self-learning development (Boelens et al., 2017; Dziuban et al., 2018). Technology offers other benefits to education because of its flexibility in implementation (Bozkurt, 2019; Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Mohammed et al., 2020). There have also been problems that have hampered online or distance learning, such as unstable internet connectivity and the lack of networking technology support (Agung et al., 2020; Alim et al., 2019; Pokhre & Chhetri, 2021). Some researchers (Nartiningrum & Nughoro, 2020) have reported a lack of students’ motivation and engagement, students were even not wil ing to switch on their cameras so that teachers would face just blank screen with students’ initials, which makes teachers’ work slightly uncomfortable (Klimová, 2021). Other researchers (Smajla & Podovšovnik, 2021) have reported issues with the perceived access (or lack of it) of students with specific needs to the digital tools for online LSP course and the perceived adaptation of teaching methods by the lecturers in the LSP online course. Based on the premises outlined above, the research objective focused on the attitudes of university students of criminal justice and security in the Republic of Slovenia towards the online FL learning. The following part of the paper deals with the research methodology. Our study aimed to explore the differences in attitudes towards the online teaching methods of LSP during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown regarding the respondents' age and teaching method or approach in the LSP online course, hence, the fol owing research questions were explored. 3 Research methodology 3.1 Research design A quantitative research paradigm has been applied in this study, which employed a survey design in order to measure the university students’ attitudes regarding online teaching and learning of languages for specific purposes during the Covid-19 pandemic. The research paradigm consists of a descriptive and causal-non- 104 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. experimental method of empirical pedagogical research, for which the appropriate research method is descriptive. Sagadin (1991, p. 29) described this method as an “investigation of the pedagogical field”. To order to elicit data for the study, the students were asked to respond to a 17-item online questionnaire, of which 5 variables were nominal, 11 ordinal, and 1 proportional. According to the literature review, the fol owing research hypotheses were developed: Hypothesis 1. The gender of respondents influences their attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes. Hypothesis 2. Students’ self-evaluation of knowledge of technologies used for teaching online influences respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes. Hypothesis 3. Students’ perception of teachers’ knowledge of technologies used for online teaching influences respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of foreign language for specific purposes. Hypothesis 4. Students’ perception of adaptation of online teaching (compared to non-online teaching) influences respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes. First, basic statistics (mean and standard deviation) were calculated and skewness and kurtosis coefficients were calculated to examine the normality of the distribution. Subsequently, linear regression was used to test research hypotheses. 3.2 Gathering of data and research sample The questionnaire was drawn by Associate Professor Eva Podovšovnik, PhD, from the Faculty of Tourism Studies-Turistica, Portorož, in 2020. Great importance was given to the anonymity and confidentiality of the research, hence no personal data such as date and place of birth, name or last name was elicited. It was remodel ed and published by the co-author Tilen Smajla, PhD, on 22 February 2021 and made E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 105 Criminal Justice and Security available on the online service provider Arnes for three following months. The survey was distributed exclusively online in order to avoid crowded lecture rooms and the potential spread of the Sars-Cov-2 virus. University teachers of foreign language who teach an LSP course at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security were encouraged to motivate their students to click on the survey and finish it. The sample of the university students from the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security amounted to 87. See Table 1 for the presentation of the gender of the respondents participating in the study. Table 1: Gender of respondents. Gender f f% Male 43 50.0 Female 43 50.0 Source: own data. In the sample, 43 were male (50 %) and 43 were female (50 %) students of criminal justice and security. 1 respondent did not report the gender and it was excluded from further statistical analysis. In figure 1, the age of respondents is presented. Figure 1: Age of respondents. Source: own data. 2 respondents did not report their age. They were excluded from further statistical analysis. From figure 1 there can be seen that more than half (56.5 %) of respondents were aged 20 or 21. The mean age of respondents was 24.28 years, with standard deviation of 6.34 years. 106 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 3.3 Research instrument An online questionnaire was used as a research instrument in this study. It is comprised of 17 items, five of which are nominal variables, 11 are ordinal, and one is a relational variable. The research instrument applied to measure the attitudes of university students of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security was originally designed by Assoc. Prof. Eva Podovšovnik, PhD, in the Slovenian language, and remodel ed by Tilen Smajla, PhD, for the purposes of the underlying study. The online questionnaire contained both closed-ended and open-ended questions as wel as a relational scale. The closed-ended questions required students to answer by assigning a Likert-type (Arnold, McCroskey & Prichard, 1967) scale quantifier (from 1-10), whereas the open-ended questions referred to the students’ opinions about the advantages and disadvantages of language learning online during the nationwide lockdown and subsequent schools’ closure due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Consequently, a 16-item instrument (see Table 3 for the list of items) was drawn up and used in the online survey which aimed at university students' attitudes towards their technological know-how, perceived foreign language teaching methods and approaches used in the LSP online course. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient is at α = 0.8, which confirms the reliability of the research instrument. Pearsons' correlational coefficient (see Appendix 1) among pairs of statements about the attitudes towards LSP teaching methods show no multicollinearity (r < 0.8). 3.4 Data analysis The data were statistical y analysed by means of descriptive statistics (frequency distributions, mean values and standard deviation of mean) and processed using SPSS IBM Statistical Package version 26. The frequency distribution of the variables and their parameters were examined, and in order to test the normality of the distribution, skewness and kurtosis coefficient were determined. The factor analysis was used for the purpose of reducing the number of variables for the perception of the usefulness of the tools for distance education. Research hypotheses were tested using linear regression and the t-test. Results are presented in the fol ow up. E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 107 Criminal Justice and Security 4 Results In this section, results and testing of research hypotheses is presented. First, basic statistics of students’ self-evaluation of technologies used for teaching online, students’ perception of teachers’ knowledge of technologies used for teaching online and students’ perception of adaptation of online teaching (compared to non-online teaching) were calculated (see table 2). In al 3 cases, respondents were asked to evaluate their self-evaluation and perceptions on a scale from 1 (not at al true) to 10 (completely true). Table 2: Self-evaluation and perception of knowledge and adaptation of online teaching. Students’ self- Students’ perception of Students’ evaluation of teachers’ knowledge of perception of technologies used for technologies used for adaptation of teaching online teaching online online teaching N 84 82 82 Mean 7.20 8.39 7.43 Standard deviation 2.27 1.75 2.33 Skewness -0.68 -1.08 -1.22 Kurtosis -0.42 0.71 1.01 Source: own data. The students of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security who participated in the study perceive their knowledge of technologies used for online teaching as good (M = 7.2, SD = 2.27) but not as good as they perceive teachers' knowledge of technologies used for online teaching (M = 8.39, SD = 1.75). Respondents perceive the adaptation of online teaching (compared to non-online teaching) as good (M = 7.43, SD = 2.33). In all 3 cases, skewness (-1.22, -1.08, -0.68) and kurtosis (-0.42, 0,71, 1.01) show a distribution close to a normal one. In order to measure respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes, the following statements were included in the questionnaire: 108 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Table 3: Labeling statements about respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes. Statement Label LSP online teaching tools can be adapted to any particular form, regardless of the typology A1 and number of students. LSP online teaching tools' users are provided with help in case they run into trouble. A2 LSP online teaching tools enable users to access different communication channels (audio, A3 video, text). LSP online teaching tools enable a flexible use of their functions (the possibility of multiple A4 tasking, access to different functions based on diversification). In my opinion al users can make use of LSP online teaching tools. A5 In my opinion LSP teaching tools are accessible to students with specific needs. A6 Even when offline, LSP online teaching tools retain their functionality as wel as content. A7 LSP online teaching tools have the capability of integrating learners by using synchronous A8 and asynchronous communication. LSP online teaching tools are used by university professors to check upon their students' A9 attendance. Most university professors seem familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools. A10 Most university professors seem to have basic knowledge of LSP online teaching tools. A11 By using LSP online teaching tools university professors are able to actively control the A12 learning process. Online teaching of LSP has modified my attitude towards my university professor. A13 The choice of LSP online teaching methods and approaches has had a significant impact A14 on my learning outcome. I am familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools. A15 I have basic technical/digital competencies with regard to dealing with LSP online teaching A16 tools. Source: own. In the following, basic statistics for respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes are presented (see table 4). Al statements were evaluated on a scale from 1 (do not agree at al ) to 10 (completely agree). E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 109 Table 4: Respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes. A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 N 75 77 77 73 73 75 76 77 75 76 74 74 76 77 75 77 Mean 7.44 7.10 7.18 7.19 5.92 4.84 5.42 5.77 7.32 7.12 6.22 6.99 5.51 5.81 6.31 6.30 Standard deviation 1.85 2.09 2.04 1.83 2.54 2.55 2.06 1.95 2.33 2.11 2.17 2.06 2.74 2.57 2.39 2.35 Skewness -0.41 -0.68 -0.61 -0.11 -0.10 0.36 0.16 0.21 -0.64 -0.38 -0.20 -0.30 -0.10 -0.01 -0.03 -0.01 Kurtosis -0.66 -0.17 0.16 -0.71 -1.02 -0.84 0.46 0.23 -0.74 -0.83 -0.27 -0.68 -1.03 -1.18 -1.23 -1.11 Source: own data. The students of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security who participated in our study agree mostly with the statement that LSP online teaching tools can be adapted to any particular form, regardless of the typology and number of students (M = 7.44, SD = 1.85) and that LSP online teaching tools are used by university professors to check upon their students' attendance (M = 7.32, SD = 2.33). They also agree that LSP online teaching tools enable a flexible use of their functions (the possibility of multiple tasking, access to different functions based on diversification) (M = 7.19, SD = 1.83), that LSP online teaching tools enable users to access different communication channels (audio, video, text) (M = 7.18, SD = 2.04), that most university professors seem familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools (M = 7.12, SD = 2.11), that LSP online teaching tools' users are provided with help in case they run into trouble (M = 7.1, SD = 2.09), and that by using LSP online teaching tools university professors are able to actively control the learning process (M = 6.99, SD = 2.06). They agree less that they are familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools (M = 6.31, SD = 2.39), that they have basic technical/digital competencies with regard to dealing with LSP online teaching tools (M = 6.3, SD = 2.35), that most university professors seem to have basic knowledge of LSP online teaching tools (M = 6.22, SD = 2.17), that all users can make use of LSP online teaching tools (M = 5.92, SD = 2.54), that the choice of LSP online teaching methods and approaches has had a significant impact on my learning outcome (M = 5.81, SD = 2.57), and that LSP online teaching tools have the capability of integrating learners by using synchronous and asynchronous communication (M = 5.77, SD = 1.95). 110 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. They tend to slightly disagree that online teaching of LSP has modified my attitude towards my university professor (M = 5.51, SD = 2.4), that even when offline, LSP online teaching tools retain their functionality as well as content (M = 5.42, SD = 2.06), and that LSP teaching tools are accessible to students with specific needs (M = 4.84, SD = 2.55). In all cases, skewness (-0.68 < skewness < 0.36) and kurtosis (- 1.23 < kurtosis < 0.46) show a distribution close to a normal one. Al mentioned statements about respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of an LSP course can be used in further statistical analysis. Table 5 presents the differences in respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of an LSP course, by students’ gender, their self-evaluation of knowledge of technologies used for online teaching, their perception of teachers’ knowledge of technologies used for online teaching and their perception of adaptation of online teaching. Linear regression (with ENTER method) was used in order to test our research hypotheses. In the proposed research models, respondents’ gender, their self-evaluation of knowledge of technologies used for online teaching, their perception of teachers’ knowledge of technologies used for online teaching and their perception of adaptation of online teaching, were used as independent variables, while statements about the respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of an LSP course were, separately, used as dependent variables. Statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level are marked with bold. E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security 111 Table 5: Respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of an LSP course by students' gender, their self-evaluation of their knowledge of technologies used for online teaching, their perception of teachers’ knowledge of technologies used for online teaching, and their perception of adaptation of online teaching. S. R2 F-test Gender Self-evaluation of Perception of teachers' knowledge knowledge Adaptation of teaching Constant F p B T p B t P B T p B t p B t p A1 0.49 30.64 < 0.01 0.09 0.28 0.78 -0.02 -0.26 0.80 0.58 5.21 < 0.01 0.18 2.13 0.04 1.19 1.09 0.28 A2 0.39 31.18 < 0.01 0.33 0.82 0.42 0.16 1.88 0.06 0.40 2.97 < 0.01 0.29 2.73 0.01 -0.10 -0.08 0.94 A3 0.16 3.35 0.01 0.41 0.89 0.38 0.17 1.71 0.09 0.06 0.36 0.72 0.25 2.06 0.04 2.99 1.95 0.06 A4 0.22 4.60 < 0.01 0.39 0.96 0.34 0.20 2.28 0.03 0.26 1.92 0.06 0.11 1.06 0.29 2.12 1.58 0.12 A5 0.17 3.49 0.01 0.65 1.10 0.27 0.34 2.66 0.01 0.04 0.19 0.85 0.25 1.54 0.13 0.35 0.18 0.86 A6 0.12 2.29 0.07 0.61 1.01 0.31 0.24 1.85 0.07 -0.28 -1.38 0.17 0.21 1.32 0.19 3.06 1.54 0.13 A7 0.24 5.36 < 0.01 0.93 2.04 < 0.05 0.19 1.95 0.06 -0.15 -0.96 0.34 0.34 2.91 0.01 1.42 0.95 0.35 A8 0.18 3.77 0.01 0.19 0.43 0.67 0.17 1.83 0.07 -0.09 -0.64 0.53 0.32 2.74 0.01 2.69 1.85 0.07 A9 0.24 5.53 < 0.01 0.75 1.45 0.15 0.21 1.91 0.06 0.22 1.31 0.20 0.29 2.20 0.03 0.68 0.40 0.69 A10 0.39 11.01 < 0.01 0.50 1.21 0.23 0.16 1.79 0.08 0.57 4.12 < 0.01 0.16 1.44 0.15 -0.74 -0.55 0.59 A11 0.08 1.43 0.23 1.07 2.03 < 0.05 0.07 0.59 0.56 0.22 1.25 0.22 -0.01 -0.10 0.92 2.41 1.39 0.17 A12 0.28 6.71 < 0.01 0.15 0.35 0.73 0.17 1.72 0.09 0.43 2.92 0.01 0.15 1.31 0.20 0.87 0.61 0.55 A13 0.02 0.39 0.82 0.01 0.01 0.99 -0.12 -0.81 0.42 -0.18 -0.81 0.42 0.17 1.00 0.32 6.60 3.01 < 0.01 A14 0.06 1.06 0.38 -0.03 -0.05 0.96 0.15 1.10 0.28 -0.04 -0.18 0.86 0.21 1.32 0.19 3.59 1.78 0.08 A15 0.47 15.46 < 0.01 0.34 0.79 0.43 0.60 6.20 < 0.01 -0.17 -1.14 0.26 0.37 3.26 < 0.01 0.14 0.10 0.92 A16 0.32 8.27 < 0.01 0.34 0.70 0.48 0.35 3.34 < 0.01 -0.20 -1.24 0.22 0.46 3.66 < 0.01 1.62 1.02 0.31 Legend: S.= statement; R2 = determination coefficient Source: own data. Results shown in Table 5 al ow a few interesting conclusions regarding the formulated research hypotheses. Firstly, the determination coefficient is lower than 0.2 (showing that less than 20 % of total variance explained using the included independent variables in the research model) in the cases of agreement with statements that online teaching of language for specific purposes has modified the students’ attitude towards their university professor (R2 = 0.02), that the choice of LSP online teaching methods and approaches has had a significant impact on their learning outcome (R2 = 0.06), that most university professors seem to have 112 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. basic knowledge of LSP online teaching tools (R2 = 0.08), that LSP teaching tools are accessible to students with specific needs (R2 = 0.12), that LSP online teaching tools enable users to access different communication channels (R2 = 0.16), that al users can make use of LSP online teaching tools (R2 = 0.17), and that LSP online teaching tools have the capability of integrating learners by using synchronous and asynchronous communication (R2 = 0.18). In all other research models, the determination coefficient is higher than 0.2; for agreement with the statement that LSP online teaching tools can be adapted to any particular form, regardless of the typology and number of students (R2 = 0.49), and that they are familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools (R2 = 0.47), the included independent variables explain up to almost half of the variance of the research model. Secondly, in most cases, the regression model is statistically significant at the 0.05 level, showing adequately included independent variables for the explaining of respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of LSP. The exceptions are agreements with regard to statements that online teaching of LSP has modified the students’ attitude towards their university professor (p = 0.82), that the choice of LSP online teaching methods and approaches has had a significant impact on their learning outcome (p = 0.38), that most university professors seem to have basic knowledge of LSP online teaching tools (p = 0.23), and that LSP teaching tools are accessible to students with specific needs (p = 0.07). In these cases, more appropriate independent variables should be included in the regression model. Regarding agreements with the statements about respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of LSP, the following conclusions can be made. The students of the Faculty for Criminal Justice and Security who participated in the study and who perceive their teachers as having appropriate knowledge of technologies used for online teaching and those who perceive that their teachers have adapted more to online teaching, agree more that LSP online teaching tools can be adapted to any particular form, regardless of the typology and number of students, and that LSP online teaching tools' users are provided with help in case they run into trouble. Further, the students whose perception of their teachers having adapted more to online teaching, agree more with the statement that LSP online teaching tools enable users to access different communication channels, that LSP online teaching tools have the capability of integrating learners by using E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 113 Criminal Justice and Security synchronous and asynchronous communication, and that LSP online teaching tools are used by university professors to check upon their students' attendance. The students whose perception of their teachers having appropriate knowledge of technologies used for online teaching, agree more with the statement that most university professors seem familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools, and that by using LSP online teaching tools university professors can actively control the learning process. The students who evaluate their knowledge of technologies used for online teaching as more appropriate, agree more with the statement that LSP online teaching tools enable a flexible use of their functions, and that all users can make use of LSP online teaching tools. The students who evaluate their knowledge of technologies used for online teaching as more appropriate and who agree more that teachers have adapted to online teaching, agree more with the statement that they are familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools, and that they have basic technical/digital competencies regarding the dealing with LSP online teaching tools. The female students of the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security (henceforth female students) who agree more that teachers have adapted to online teaching, agree more with the statement that even when offline, LSP online teaching tools retain their functionality as wel as content. The female students agree more with the statement that most university professors seem to have basic knowledge of LSP online teaching tools, compared to the male students of the same faculty who participated in the study. 5 Discussion and conclusions Distance education (or e-learning, online learning) has proven to be one of the fastest developing educational methods of the last two decades. Developments in information technologies like satellite, television, optic fibre, computer, radio, internet, and others affect the structure and form of education. As Köprülü and Öznacar (2019) pointed out, online learning is regarded as an ideal system for education, because it fosters the student’s active participation in the learning process. Theoretically speaking, all students can therefore have access to education under the same conditions and at the same level, which was unfortunately debunked during the lockdown months of the first pandemic year in Slovenia (in 2020) and elsewhere in the world. The technology was there, but the chal enge of how to use it adequately and purposeful y remained very much present. 114 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Another issue is the acceptance of online teaching tools by the university lecturers. Back in 2011, Hu and McGrath reported that while at the beginning of the introduction of ICT into teaching, the lecturers seemed to be very keen on using those tools, but a combination of inadequate ICT skil s along with the at the time stil traditional pedagogical expertise proved to be a hindrance to the effort of a successful introduction of ICT tools into the classroom. As far as RH1 is concerned, the results do not show a clear male or female divide among the attitudes towards technologies used for teaching online a foreign language for specific purposes based on their gender, which has some leverage only with regard to three statements, namely that university lecturers have adapted to online teaching, and they agree more with the statement that even when offline, LSP online teaching tools retain their functionality as wel as content, the third statement being the female students agreeing more with the statement that most university professors seem to have basic knowledge of LSP online teaching tools, compared to the male students of the same faculty who participated in the study. Similarly, the results in the Köprülü and Öznacar study (2019) carried out in Turkey regarding the attitudes of university students towards distance learning in foreign language education report statistical y significant differences in attitudes along the gender divide, with female students’ attitudes towards distance learning being more positive compared to the male students’ ones. On the other hand, other studies reported no gender differences in impacting learners’ attitudes (Mahfouz & Salam, 2021). Based on the results from our study we cannot entirely reject RH1, which can be accepted merely regarding general attitudes to distance learning. As far as RH2 concerning the students’ self-evaluation of knowledge of technologies used for online teaching and how it influences respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of an LSP course our study has come up with the fol owing results: the hypothesis can only be confirmed with regard to four items, namely item 4 (LSP online teaching tools enable a flexible use of their functions (the possibility of multiple tasking, access to different functions based on diversification.), item 5 (In my opinion all users can make use of LSP online teaching tools.), item 15 (I am familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools.), and item 16 (I have basic technical/digital competencies with regard to dealing with LSP online teaching tools.). For the remaining items RH2 could not be confirmed, which E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 115 Criminal Justice and Security in ‘practice means that the students’ attitudes regarding their knowledge of technologies used in online teaching of LSP they might have previously formed toward technologies used in online teaching do not influence the way they valuate the technologies used in online LSP teaching. Regarding RH3 that dealt with the students’ perception of their university teachers’ knowledge of technologies used for online teaching and how it influenced the respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for the online teaching of a language for specific purposes course the results of our study show that only in cases of four statements the attitudes are statistically significant at the level lower than 0.05, namely in the case of the statement A1 (LSP online teaching tools can be adapted to any particular form, regardless of the typology and number of students.), A2 (LSP online teaching tools' users are provided with help in case they run into trouble.), A10 (Most university professors seem familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools.), and lastly, A12 (By using LSP online teaching tools university professors are able to actively control the learning process.). Ever since the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic researchers worldwide have been actively and diligently trying to get into the minds of teachers and students alike, they have been studying the effects of the rapid switch to online or distance teaching and learning. What has been brought to our specific attention is the study carried out by Virtič et al. (2021) who have investigated the attitudes of university students toward online learning and into the concept of the perceived ease of use. We al agree that more positive attitude toward ICT would result in a more efficient learning outcomes, which has been confirmed by Piccoli et al. (2001). One of the more important takeouts of the Virtič et al. (2021) research which has implications for our research as well is the finding regarding the students’ attitudes toward online learning; it namely does not have statistical y significant impact on satisfaction with distance online learning on one hand. On the other hand, Khoshima et al. (2018) suggested in their study of teachers’ and learners’ attitudes toward online teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) that poor internet connection, absence of a fix syl abus and filtered internet pages may have influences the attitudes toward online teaching of EFL. Nevertheless, the results regarding RH3, which can be only partly confirmed with four items, are somewhat discouraging, because they point to the fact that higher education teachers’ ought to have been better trained in using distance teaching tools and that 116 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. they should place greater importance on the issue of adequate adaptation of teaching tools to the situation at hand. As far as RH4 that investigated the students’ perception of adaptation of online teaching (compared to non-online teaching) and how it influences the respondents’ attitudes towards technologies used for online teaching of foreign language for specific purposes came up with interesting results. Namely, statistically significant differences at the level lower than 0.05 were reported with regard to 8 statements, i.e. in case of the statement A1 (LSP online teaching tools can be adapted to any particular form, regardless of the typology and number of students.), A2 (LSP online teaching tools' users are provided with help in case they run into trouble.), A3 (LSP online teaching tools enable users to access different communication channels (audio, video, text), A7 (Even when offline, LSP online teaching tools retain their functionality as wel as content.), A8 (LSP online teaching tools have the capability of integrating learners by using synchronous and asynchronous communication.), A9 (LSP online teaching tools are used by university professors to check upon their students' attendance.), A15 (I am familiar with the use of LSP online teaching tools.), and lastly, with regard to A16 (I have basic technical/digital competencies with regard to dealing with LSP online teaching tools.). Students regard the adaptation of online teaching compared to non-online teaching in line with their expectations, which differ merely regarding the abovementioned items. We can therefore partly confirm RH4. Compared to our study, Sumardi and Nugrahani (2021) reported good adaptation of teachers and their teaching approaches to the emergency remote learning as they’ve cal ed it, which in contrast was not the case with students’ motivation and engagement, especificly in case of low-achievement students. Consequently, it has been suggested to teachers to find suitable approaches and ways of integrating al students into the pedagogical process, so that no one is left behind. In the case of our study and based on the abovementioned results LSP teachers seem to have made the right choices regarding their teaching approaches, but they might have done more in the field to educating their students on how LSP teaching methods and approaches function online, besides, it could also be suggested to try to engage the students more, specifically those with specific needs, low-achieving students and in general., better prepare the field for the next potential threat and eventual return to distance teaching on the national scale. E. Podovšovnik, T. Smajla: Foreign Language Teaching During the Covid-19 Pandemic: Dif erences in Students' Attitudes Towards the Online LSP Course. The Case of the Faculty of 117 Criminal Justice and Security The outcome of most online-learning studies that dealt with attitudes conducted worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic has been largely positive (Agung et al., 2020; Coolican et al., 2020; Kalloo et al., 2020). Students and lecturers have, of course, encountered numerous obstacles, yet working on MS Teams, Zoom and some other platforms rather to face-to-face has been largely regarded as beneficial both globally (Agung et al., 2020; Coolican et al., 2020; Kalloo et al., 2020; König et al., 2020), but less positively nationally (Gradišek & Polak, 2021; Kodelja, 2020; Krecenbaher Mernik & Ploj Virtič, 2020; Kroflič, 2020; Medveš, 2020) to name just a few more relevant ones important for this study, which has focused mainly on students from The Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security. That might be considered a limitation, since the results obtained in the study cannot be generalised. Nevertheless, they offer an instructive insight into the attitudes regarding the online learning of language for specific purposes of one portion of the student body of Slovenia. Judging from the results of our study, more work should be done in the field of consolidating and explaining of the tools for distance teaching and learning of language for specific purposes. Besides, there ought to be a strategy of the appropriate usage of tools for distance teaching established at the national level for lecturers of languages for specific purpose on one hand, and a national strategy of enforcement of internet services in case of another lockdown and subsequent work from home. Acknowledgement The first author, Mrs. Eva Podovšovnik, PhD, is credited for a part of the abstract, statistical analyses, interpretation of results and part of the methodology, whereas the leading author, Mr. Tilen Smajla, PhD, is credited for a part of the abstract, the introduction, background of the study, discussion and final remarks as wel as for the references. The authors wish to thank Mr. Alexander Guy Bristow for the proofreading of the paper. 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The coronavirus exposes education’s digital divide. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/17/technology/china-schools-coronavirus.html 122 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Appendix 1. Correlations among agreement with statements about respondents' attitudes towards LSP teaching methods. A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 A1 1 .51** .07 -.15 -.20* -.08 -.05 .09 .08 .17 .05 .19 -.04 -.02 -.19 -.06 A2 .51** 1 .44** -.08 .01 .12 .09 .25** .22* .23* .19* .20* .04 .16 .18 .20* A3 .07 .44** 1 .31** .39** .37** .19 .22* .11 -.05 .27** .08 .14 .17 .47** .49** A$ -.15 -.08 .31** 1 .49** .35** .32** .33** .07 -.10 .18 .22* .24* .07 .33** .28** A5 -.20* .01 .39** .49** 1 .63** .24* .33** .14 -.18 .47** .04 .18 .16 .46** .45** A6 -.08 .12 .37** .35** .63** 1 .37** .38** .08 -.10 .42** .08 .13 .14 .41** .42** A7 -.05 .09 .19 .32** .24* .37** 1 .61** .19* .14 .15 .32** .09 .07 .48** .47** A8 .09 .25** .22* .33** .33** .38** .61** 1 .31** .15 .05 .22* .08 .14 .40** .38** A9 .08 .22* .11 .07 .14 .08 .19* .31** 1 .46** -.17 .46** .03 .08 .25* .25** A1 .17 .23* -.05 -.10 -.18 -.10 .14 ,15 .46** 1 -.04 .21* -.02 .10 -.06 -.06 A1 .05 .19* .27** .18 .47** .42** ,15 .05 -,17 -.04 1 -.01 .00 .09 .17 ,25** A1 .19 .20* .08 .22* .04 .08 .32** .22* .46** .21* -.01 1 .01 -.12 .32** .26** A1 -.04 .04 .14 .24* .18 .13 .09 .08 .03 -.02 .00 .01 1 .36** .03 .08 A1 -.02 .16 .17 .07 .16 .14 .07 .14 .08 .10 .09 -.12 .36** 1 .24* .24* A1 -.19 .18 .47** .33** .46** .41** .48** .40** .25* -.06 .17 .32** .03 .24* 1 .80** A1 -.06 .20* .49** .28** .45** .42** .47** .38** .25** -.06 .25** .26** .08 .24* .80** 1 COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ESP: THE CASE OF TOURISM STUDENTS AND STUDENTS OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY IN SLOVENIA JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER,1 MOJCA KOMPARA LUKANČIČ2 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Cesta Brežice, Slovenia jasna.potocnik1@um.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Ljubljana, Slovenia mojca.kompara@um.si Abstract This paper examines the communication skil s in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) of tourism students and students of criminal justice and security in Slovenia. For tourism students and those of criminal justice and security, speaking foreign languages and mastering rhetoric skills in the English language is essential. In this survey, students’ speaking skills during their oral presentations in English were analysed. The survey, carried out in the academic years 2019/20, 2020/21 and 2021/22, has shown that the majority of students of tourism enrolled at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor and students of criminal justice and security enrol ed at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security of the same university, make pronunciation and grammar mistakes and that vocabulary Keywords: is the language feature that is used most appropriately. The speaking skils, students’ most common mistakes are the following: incorrect tourism, pronunciation of some nouns, verbs, and proper names, criminal justice and security, pronouncing the wrong syl able, and the incorrect usage of English language, tenses. communication DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.6 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 124 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction In many professions, oral communication skil s are essential for successful accomplishments of work objectives and individual’s career development. Because they predominate at all levels of various activities at the workplace (Crosling & Ward, 2002), they are considered as fundamental in many different professions and fields. Communicative competence has, in fact, “become the cornerstone of an employee’s curriculum” (González Ardeo, 2010, 59; Brumfit & Johnson, 1989; Ravesteijn et al., 2006; Riemer, 2007). Field-specific knowledge is important for every profession, but “technical know-how” should be upgraded with “an aptitude for communication” (González Ardeo, 2010, 60). It has been proven, in fact, that communication skills contribute to vocational skills in era 4.0 (Putro et. al., 2022), and Rus (2020, 2) emphasises that this is especially important in Industry 4.0 and Education 4.0, “where the utilization of technology relies heavily on the English language knowledge”. Communication skil s help to overcome language barriers, as the disruption of the flow of information between speakers is called by Łuczaj et al. (2022, 3) and others. In this article, the communication skills of future professionals working in the fields of tourism, and criminal justice and security, are analysed. More specifical y, the fol owing research questions wil be addressed: 1) What are the most common mistakes in the pre-prepared spoken language of students of tourism at the Faculty of Tourism, University of Maribor? And 2) What are the most common mistakes in the pre-prepared spoken language of students of criminal justice and security at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, University of Maribor? The tourism sector is picked because it is one of the most important sectors of the Slovene economy. In the period between 2015 and 2019 it represented around 13% of the country’s GDP, and 2019 itself marked a record year with more than 6.2 million tourists (there were more than 440.000 tourism arrivals from anglophone countries to Slovenia) and over 15.7 million overnight stays (stat.si). However, in 2020, tourism in Slovenia saw a 50% decline in international arrivals and overnight stays due to the wel -known reason – the COVID-19 pandemic. As far as the competitiveness of destinations is concerned, according to Gomezelj Omerzel (2006, 174), Slovenia is considered as “above average in all attributes on this dimension”. Unspoiled nature, favourable climate, and traditional arts were accorded J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 125 the highest ratings in Gomezelj Omerzel’s research (2006, 174), and since then to these attributes gastronomy was added. Since 2007, the country has been branding itself with the slogan “I feel Slovenia”, which was created to improve the destination’s visibility and competitiveness. As tourism is becoming increasingly important, especially heritage and culinary tourism (Poljak Istenič & Fakin Bajec, 2021), education and research into the tourism sector are gaining importance in Slovenia. In recent years, significant efforts have been made not only in the tourism industry, but also in upgrading tourism programmes at universities to educate and train the necessary personnel as the sector suffers due to its shortcomings. Al this contributes to the successful and visible communication of the destination of Slovenia, and to the quality of tourism and tourism-related services. Graduate and post-graduate programmes together with teaching tourism specific subjects, including language and communication modules, have been improved, revised and some of them newly created at different universities, faculties and col eges in Slovenia. In addition, the language knowledge and education that are gained in the field of criminal justice and security, as argued by De Silva Joyce and Thomson (2015), are important in managing domestic and international roles that require proficiency in more than one language. As the fields of law enforcement and security also touch on tourism and other international activities, language knowledge and education, especial y with regard to English, are becoming vital for career success (Joyce & Thomson, 2015). The present survey concentrates on analysing the English communication skil s of tourism students and students of criminal justice and security in Slovenia in order to detect the actual weaknesses of these students, and then to work on addressing these issues. Communication, and especial y in English, is of great importance for students who are studying for the tourism or criminal justice and security sectors. In Slovenia, there are more than 10 bachelor’s and master’s programmes of tourism studies, available at many private colleges and at three Slovene universities, i.e. University of Ljubljana, University of Maribor and University of Primorska (www.nakvis.si). Despite the crisis in tourism due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic crisis because of the war in Ukraine, the forecasts for the future of this sector are very positive, and tourism courses remain among the most popular ones in Slovenia. With regard to the field of criminal justice and security, in Slovenia there is just one bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral programme in security and justice studies, and this is available at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, University of Maribor. 126 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Picture 1: A tourism student delivering an oral presentation. Source: Photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler Picture 2: A tourism student delivering an oral presentation. Source: Photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 127 2 A theoretical overview of linguistic concepts To communicate and activate our communicational skills, the first prerequisite is the knowledge of a language, regardless of being it our mother tongue or a foreign language. Language is the basic means of communication, but also of mediation and the process of exchanging thoughts among different cultures. In today’s globalised times international mobility is promoted (Schnek & Schmidt, 2018), as is – at the European level – greater intercultural understanding and the acquisition of a second or third language (Jaekel, Schurig, Florian, & Ritter, 2017). According to Gass and Selinker (2008), the Native Language (NL), also known as the primary language, mother tongue or simply L1, is the first language a child learns, while the Target Language (TL) is the language that is being learned. In relation to the TL, Gass and Selinker (2008) define Second Language Acquisition (SLA) as the process of learning another language after learning one’s native language, which implies learning more non-native languages. In reference to the second language, or simply L2, we talk about any language learned after learning the L1. Gass and Selinker (2008) define another term, namely Foreign Language Learning, which comprises learning a nonnative language in the environment of the learner’s native language (e.g., Slovene speakers learning English in Slovenia). In relation to Gass and Selinker’s (2008) classification we add some further definitions, namely Garcia Laborda\s (2011) and Basturkmen and Elder’s (2004) Language for Specific Purposes (LSP), which they define as the teaching a language as a second or foreign language in line to the communicative needs of speakers facing specific work-oriented contexts and a range of communicative events. In relation to LSP we define another linguistic concept that is crucial for the focus of our paper, namely English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Rahman (2015) and Gonzalez Ramirez (2015) prepared an extensive historical overview of the concept. As a single field, English for Specific Purposes or ESP emerged in the 1960s (Rahman, 2015), and has been an especially fruitful field over the last three decades (González Ramírez, 2015). Rahman (2015) argues that ESP emerged due to many factors, such as the Second World War, the growth of science and technology, the increased use of English in science, technology, and business, but also the increase in international students. The early origins of ESP were traced by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) to the end of Second World War, when English became considered as an international language, or the new lingua franca. In simple terms, the greater use 128 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. of English was a response to the needs of the commercial and business world, as wel as those for cross-cultural communication and information sharing (Teodorescu, 2010). Dudley Evans (2001) argue that the importance of English was recognised by the international community not only for transmitting knowledge, but also as a neutral language in international communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) argue that people across the globe wanted to learn English because it was considered the key language of science, technology, and commerce. As argued by González Ramírez (2015), economic changes from the 1960s resulted in the rise of ESP as a discipline and, as argued by Rahman (2015), the ESP teaching movement arose from the needs of the learners, who had specific reasons for learning the language in line with their professional needs. ESP thus functions as a learner-centred approach, and its main purpose is to fulfil the specific needs of target learners so that they can satisfy their professional needs (González Ramírez, 2015; Howatt 1984; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). ESP as an approach to language learning it is based on learners’ needs and does not involve a specific language, teaching material or methodology, but it primarily involves the learners, the focal language, and the learning contexts (Howatt 1984; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Rahman (2015) provides an outline of definitions of ESP according to different authors, and notes that Strevens (1980) makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable characteristics of ESP, while Robinson (1991) emphasises the use of needs analysis in defining ESP and is oriented towards two key defining criteria and a number of important aspects. Among the criteria she argues that ESP is goal-directed, an ESP course develops from a needs analysis which specifies students’ involvement, and within the characteristics of ESP courses she talks about time limitations, homogeneous classes of adults, and the involvement of students from specialist subject areas. Robinson (1991) sees ESP as an enterprise of education, training, and practice, one that is oriented towards language, pedagogy and the specialist areas of students’ interest. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) define ESP within absolute and variable characteristics, following Strevens (1980). Among the absolute characteristics, ESP meets specific students’ needs, uses the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves, and is focused on the language, skills, discourse and genres suitable for the activities. Among the variable characteristics, ESP is related to or designed for specific disciplines, it can be done using various methodologies, is designed for adult learners and general y for intermediate or advanced students. As argued by Hošková-Mayerová (2013), the ability to communicate and use a foreign language it is not limited just to grammar, J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 129 which is often abstract, but the use of a language implies the mastering various situations where it is used. This refers to things like customs and the cultural and social competencies which are al integral parts of teaching a foreign language, and are essential pillars of learning one. Both specialised language and professional communication are essential for communication and understanding in many contexts (Hošková-Mayerová, 2013). 2.2 English for Specific Purposes The “ultimate goal” of ESP is to enhance the communicative competence of students (Rus, 2018, 150). Research into this specific field of English, which is influenced by ethnography, intercultural rhetoric, critical approaches, social constructionism, and discourse analysis (Hyland, 2019), helps researchers and teachers to better understand various specific purposes of English and to plan the future development of this area. And what exactly is ESP? Paltridge and Starfield (2013, 2) define it as “the teaching and learning of English as a second or foreign language, where the goal of the learners is to use English in a particular domain”. It is also described as “a field of practice and scholarly inquiry” (Liu & Hu, 2021, 113), which aims to meet the specific needs of learners of English (Tsao, 2011). A similar description of ESP is provided by Hyland and Jiang (2021, 13), who point out that is “based around the simple idea of researching and delivering specific, learner-centred language instruction”. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) emphasise that learning based on purposes and intentions is the right approach to teaching and learning English. Among the various uses of ESP, tourism is definitely one of the most widespread, and English as a Lingua Franca contributes a lot to the tourist context (Wilson, 2018). Especially in non-English speaking countries, such as Slovenia, for tourism industry professionals and also for those in the field of criminal justice and security, English proficiency is of great importance “for the ethos of a globalised industry” (Hsu, 2014, 50). It is, in fact, essential for getting the messages across, and also, as Arnó-Macià and Mancho-Barés (2015, 63) point out, important in the process of “the internationalization of universities worldwide”. Therefore, it is significant that the experts in the field of tourism, especial y in the field of tourism promotion and branding, and those in the field of criminal justice and security, are capable of utilising language as a fundamental tool in the tourism and criminal justice and security industries. In this 130 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. respect, teaching English for tourism and criminal justice and security, and, to be more precise, teaching speaking for tourism and criminal justice and security, is crucial. 3 Methods The methods of participant observation and pronunciation assessment by listening have been employed for the purpose of this study that analyses oral presentations in an ESP Class of 101 tourism students enrol ed at the Faculty of Tourism and 56 students enrolled at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security. Participant observation is “the process of learning through exposure to or involvement in the day-to-day or routine activities of participants in the researcher setting” (Schensul et al., 1999, 91). It is a method that is used in a variety of disciplines for gathering data, and it enables researchers to learn about the activities of the people under study in the natural setting through observing and participating in those activities. It also provides a context for the development of sampling guidelines (DeWalt & DeWalt, 2002 in Kawulich, 2005). Listening, according to Worthington and Bodie (2019), involves many skil s, not only perceiving sound. According to the International Listening Association (ILA; 2012), it is defined as “the process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages”. Weger et al. (2014, 14) point out the following three characteristics of active listening, noting that it: “1) demonstrates moderate to high nonverbal involvement, 2) reflects the speaker's message using verbal paraphrasing, and 3) may include asking questions that encourage speakers to elaborate on his or her experiences.” In the current survey, 101 students of tourism delivering their presentations in the English language were observed using active listening. The sample consisted of 72 female and 29 male students, aged between 18 and 56, of Slovene, Croatian, Serbian, Russian, and Bosnian nationalities. Female students prevail in tourism studies in Slovenia, as reflected in the sample. Participant observation took place during the ESP obligatory students’ oral presentations (face-to-face lessons) from October 2018 until November of 2021. Students were told that their speaking skills were being observed and graded. In the survey where 56 students of criminal justice and security delivered their presentations of a linguistic analysis of a scientific paper in the English language, the presentations were observed by the instructor. The sample consisted of 32 female and 24 male students, aged between 18 and 29, of Slovene, J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 131 Croatian, Serbian, Iranian, and Macedonian nationalities. The observation took place during the winter semester of 2021 and 2022, within the obligatory course Terminology in the English Language, where students presented the results of their seminar papers that included the linguistic analysis of a scientific article from the field of criminal justice and security. In their seminar papers the students had to prepare a linguistic analysis of noun-noun collocation by filtering the scientific article using the Sketch Engine tool (https://www.sketchengine.eu/). After the preparation of the seminar paper the students were asked to deliver a presentation, one composed of a summary of the paper, their opinion on the topic discussed, and the results of the analysis and presentation of some representative examples of collocations. The presentation lasted about 15 minutes per candidate. 4 Teaching Speaking Skills in English for Tourism and English for Criminal Justice and Security Communication skills are crucial, especially in the light of professionalism of the tourism sector (Mak et al., 2011; Weiler & Black, 2014), and also in the sector of criminal justice and security. Moreover, contemporary education should adequately address the challenges of Industry 4.0 and even 5.0. With regard to this Rus (2020) mentions hybrid teaching, combining online and on-site instruction, blended learning, flipped courses, “bring your own device” (BYOD) to the classroom, online activities, personalised (teaching objectives are tailor-made) and project-based learning, and points out that the English language teachers should reconsider their roles in this context: “We are no longer providers of information; this is so easily accessible nowadays. English grammar or technical vocabulary and the discrete point exercises practicing them in the language class are now rendered obsolete by the new realities: endless glossaries of extremely specific terminology, grammar explanations, and online translation tools at the tip of anyone’s little finger. The traditional ‘handout-based’ approach is useless when there are huge resources of online material of the most diverse types. The once-fashionable emphasis on the traditional language skills and the adjacent subskills is only a good starting point, and a means to a higher end.” (Rus, 2020, 3). 132 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. In English for tourism, speaking skills are essential (Ardiyansah, 2019). They are, in fact, “one of the core elements of ESP” (Dzięcioł-Pędich & Dudzik, 2021, 58). And at the same time often regarded as “the most chal enging to develop” in the process of foreign language acquisition (Dzięcioł-Pędich & Dudzik, 2021, 57). Thus, training a future tourism worker and provide them with all the proper skills is a significant and at the same time challenging task. Weiler and Walker (2014) also point out the importance of public speaking skills in the tourism sector, the quality of voice, diction. Moreover, good communication skil s, especial y oriented towards the knowledge of field specific terminology for the field of criminal justice and security (Kompara, Lukančič, 2020; Potparič and Dvoršek, 2012), are also crucial in the working environment of future police officers and inspectors. This article focuses on presentation skil s, which represent a significant part of teaching speaking skil s. Borisova et al. (2019, 218) define presentation competency as “the personal ability to deliver an effective, engaging and persuasive message to various audiences through verbal and non-verbal communication in order to achieve specific objectives”. In addition, research also shows that presentation skills are vital as they increase employment opportunities (Borisova et al., 2019). According to Dzięcioł-Pędich and Dudzik (2021, 58), ESP courses should involve tasks that enable students to practise speaking for various activities, including the following: communicating in typical situations in a workplace or educational context, discussing research data, giving presentations or talks, participating in seminars, lectures, discussions, communicating specialised knowledge to non-professionals, and communicating in culturally diverse contexts. In the present research the oral presentations of students from the Faculty of Tourism and the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security (both of the University of Maribor) are observed and analysed in the frame of linguistic correctness. The two fields, namely tourism and criminal justice and security, were selected and analysed because the language instructors teach the English language at the related faculties. ORAL PRESENTATIONS At the Faculty of Tourism, students of English in Tourism 1 are expected to deliver 10-minute presentations, students of English in Tourism 2 and English in Tourism 3 15-minute presentations, and MA students of English in Tourism should be able to make a 20-minute presentation. J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 133 Before preparing and delivering their presentations, students are taught that good public speaking and presenting skil s are very important in many professional and private areas of our lives. Since stage fright is common among students, they are encouraged and told that speaking in public can be taught, and also that overcoming stage fright is possible. Good preparation and focusing on the material being presented and the purpose of the presentation are essential. For learners of English, it is necessary to prepare thoroughly and to focus on the vocabulary of the oral language that will be used during the presentation. Practising the pronunciation of the vocabulary used in the presentation is also recommended. In addition, breathing exercises are introduced to the students to help them relax. Making a good oral presentation involves paying attention to the needs of the audience, careful planning, and attention to delivery. Some basic questions to ask about an audience are (Potočnik Topler, 2015): Who will I be speaking to? (Age, sex, education, economic status etc.) What do they already know about my topic? What would they want to know about my topic? What do I want them to know by the end of my talk? By answering these questions, the presentation can be in tune with the audience. Of course, the presentation needs to be wel organised and structured. It should have introductory, main and concluding parts. Some useful phrases that help students divide their presentations in parts are presented to them. Further on, they are advised to incorporate humour into their speeches, and to pay attention to their posture, eye contact with the audience, facial expressions, gestures with hands and arms, and tone of voice. When the language skills of tourism students are observed, one aspect of their knowledge of languages is the level to which their speech corresponds to the norms of the received pronunciation of English and the standard English language as suggested by grammar books and dictionaries. The so-cal ed speech culture is an important component of speaking and presentation skil s in English, and it was observed as an essential part of students’ presentations. 134 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 5 Results and discussion of the analysis of tourism students’ oral skills In the current survey, observing 101 students of tourism, a lot of linguistic mistakes occurred, and incorrect pronunciation of certain words was found with many of the students. Due to space limitations, however, only mistakes made by more than 40% of the students wil be described to answer the first research question. One of the most common mistakes students make during their oral presentations was the failure to distinguish between oral and written language. Some of them read whole paragraphs instead of delivering a talk in conversational and simple language. Reading instead of talking was thus very common, despite detailed instructions by the teacher who had warned the students about making this mistake. Many of the students also made mistakes when it came to subject-verb agreement, for example: “The list of attractions are on the desk” instead of the correct “The list of attractions is on the desk”. Another common mistake was the usage of two comparatives or superlatives together: “more colder”, “more closer”, “more better”. The students commonly made mistakes in the usage of irregular verbs, for example: “He had went to the hotel before they arrived” instead of “He had gone to the hotel before they arrived”. The wrong use of tenses was another common mistake. Very often the students mixed the present perfect, past perfect and past simple tenses, as in the following examples: “I was employed as a receptionist since 2018”, “The town has been bombed in 1944”, “She had worked from home in 2020”. For some of the first-year students another chal enge was the correct usage of the present simple tense, with incorrect uses of “does” and “do”. Some students tended to use too much colloquial language, and a typical mistake was “I’m gonna …”, which is too casual for a formal presentation, instead of the correct “I’m going to …”. The students often confused the meanings of the verbs “see”, “look” and “watch”. J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 135 All of the observed tourism students (101, or 100%) used filler words, such as “like”, “basically”, “well”, “hmmm”, etc, and although this is common in practice, even by some native speakers, it is usual y considered a sign of bad speech culture. Despite the fact that pronunciation is not at the forefront in ESP (Quesada Vázquez, 2019), it is very often a chal enge for learners, and this was the case for the English for Tourism students. Among the commonly mispronounced words were the following: “leisure”, “inclusive”, “foreign”, “revenue”, “indulgence”, “scenic”, “heritage”, “tangible”, “architecture”, “itinerary”, “hierarchy”, “vineyard”, “concierge”, and “valet”. Proper names, such as the names of people and places (geographical proper names) were also often pronounced incorrectly. Among the participating students, al of them pronounced at least one of the following words incorrectly: “Worcester”, “Leicester”, “Gloucester”, “Ian”, “Yosemite”, “Arkansas”, and “Plymouth”. 5.1 Discussion The survey showed that the knowledge of standard spoken English among tourism students is very weak, and that the mistakes the students made reduced the effectiveness of their presentations. Some of the mistakes are elementary (such as mixing tenses, not knowing English irregular verbs), some are related to specific tourism vocabulary and the incorrect pronunciation of certain words, incorrect usage of collocations, phrases and prepositions. The students, who al received feedback (that aims to be feedforward) after their presentations, agreed that presentation skil s are very important, and presenting in front of their classmates was a very demanding task. However, some of them did not devote enough time to preparing their presentations, which is essential when it comes to successful presenting. Experience shows that devoting time to presenting skills in ESP is important and worthwhile, since these skil s are essential for the students’ future professional and personal development. A culturally informed speaker tries to avoid filler words – any use of language in speech without a real need, which does not affect the informative, persuasive, argumentative or aesthetic level of the speech – because they are distracting. Fil ers tend to be used while thinking what to say, how to answer a question. The following 136 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. were among the most common filers among the students: “basicaly”; “like”; “Mhmm”. There are also words that individual speakers use often or even several times in one sentence. These are personal fil ers, and among the most common were “well”, “actually”, “definitely”, “absolutely”, “ok”, and these should also be avoided, if possible. 6 Results and discussion of the analysis of criminal justice and security students’ oral skills At the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security at the University of Maribor, students of the course Criminal Justice and Security Terminology in English delivered 15-minute presentations based on the results of a lexical analysis of a scientific paper related to their field of study. As part of the course assignment they prepared a seminar paper, and then delivered a related presentation. For the preparation of the seminar paper the students worked with Sketch Engine (2022), a text analysis software that enables users to study language behaviours and search large corpora. The software also enables users also to build their own corpus. For the preparation of the seminar paper the students of criminal justice and security selected a scientific article of their choice and uploaded it into the Sketch Engine software as their own corpus. In such way they were able to start their linguistic analysis, and extract 100 examples of noun-noun collocations with the filtration of their corpus. The seminar paper then consisted of the presentation of the scientific article, preparation of an abstract in Slovene and English, preparation of a text with their own opinion, and the presentation of 100 examples of noun-noun collocations that the students themselves translated into Slovene. Before preparing and delivering their presentations, the students were instructed on how to prepare a good public speech and given some tips for making a successful presentation. The 56 students who delivered their presentations during the course of Criminal Justice and Security Terminology in English were observed by the language instructor, who noted the most common linguistic mistakes that were made, and which are also presented here. Even if the students were instructed not to read during their presentations, but to prepare well in advance and master their oral skills, some of them read whole paragraphs and used complicated linguistic structures J. Potočnik Topler, M. Kompara Lukančič: Communication Skills in ESP: The Case of Tourism Students and Students of Criminal Justice and Security in Slovenia 137 instead of delivering their presentations in simple language they could produce without the aid of a written text. The mistakes made by the students are subdivided into the categories of grammatical mistakes, level of formality and, pronunciation of general words and terminology. The answer to the second research question is a bit more extensive. Among the most common grammatical mistakes we noticed the use of the wrong grammatical tenses, such as the past simple tense, e.g. “They didn’t told the truth” instead of “They didn’t tel the truth”; present perfect tense, e.g. “The police officer has completed the report yesterday” instead of “The police officer completed the report yesterday”; and past perfect tense, e.g. “When the officer saw the perpetrator, he noticed that he kil ed someone” instead of “When the officer saw the perpetrator, he noticed that he had killed someone”. Among the other mistakes present in the students’ oral presentations was the use of the incorrect level of formality. When delivering their presentations, the students often used colloquial and informal expressions, such as “Are you kidding?”, “No worries”, “Take it easy”, “Cool”, “I’m a bit stressed out”, “I’m gonna, and “I wanna”, along with filler words – “basically”, “like”, “so”, “well”, “uh”, “um”, “hm”, “actual y”, “right” – which are considered inappropriate when delivering a presentation or communicating with the public. The most common among the mistakes were found in the pronunciation of general vocabulary and terminology. Among the commonly mispronounced general words were: “towards”, “behaviour”, “multiple”, “opportunity”, “consecutive”, “typical”, “occur”, “chance”, “mode”, and “child”. meanwhile, the list of commonly mispronounced terminology included: “perpetration”, “perpetrator”, “adolescent”, “intergenerational”, “psychological burden”, “autochthonous national minorities”, and “inviolability”. 6.1 Discussion The observation of the language used by the security and justice students during their presentations shows a weak command of the spoken language. Among the most common linguistic issues are the inappropriate use of tenses, but also an inappropriate level of formality along with the incorrect pronunciation of general 138 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. vocabulary and terminology. While the selection of vocabulary was appropriate, the pronunciation was a major problem for the students. However, the students themselves are wel aware that language acquisition is a complex issue that needs time and diligence. After delivering their presentations they received feedback from the instructor, who gathered al the representative mistakes and discussed them during a lecture. In this the students were not individually exposed but were still able to find their own errors among the most common mistakes. Most importantly, they were also instructed on how to improve their communicative skil s based on the results of the analysis of their work. A structured overview of the usage of English tenses was prepared for them, as wel as exercises in language formality and pronunciation. 7 Conclusion and implications The survey carried out in this study showed that students in the field of tourism and that of criminal justice and security lack knowledge and confidence in spoken English, something that presents a chal enge for ESP teachers. Among the most common linguistic issues that the students had were the inappropriate usage of tenses, but also an inappropriate level of formality along with the incorrect pronunciation of general vocabulary and terminology. The issue of the low level of oral communication skil s in English is and can be addressed by providing more lessons for developing oral communication and presentation skil s. The authors of this chapter also suggest developing special modules focused on teaching presentation skills and designing curricula for such modules. Teachers in an ESP classroom can help to address the weak command of spoken English by preparing more tasks to practice presenting skil s, and then providing quality and encouraging feedback on the results. 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Wil iams (Eds.), SAGE Research Methods Foundations. Sage Publications. https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781526421036805735 142 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. INTRODUCING CALL INTO THE ESP CLASSROOM – STUDENTS’ VIEWS AND ATTITUDES VANJA SLAVUJ University of Rijeka, Faculty of Informatics and Digital Technologies, Rijeka, Croatia vslavuj@uniri.hr Abstract Digital technology has long been part of people’s daily lives. In addition to its use for leisure, it has been employed successful y in more formal contexts, education being one of the prime examples thereof. Language teaching and learning, either for general or specific purposes, is no exception. This research focuses on the CALL experiences, digital skills, and attitudes towards CALL of administrative law students (n=24) from the University of Rijeka. Data were collected using an original 39- item questionnaire. The results indicate that the students have significant experience, possess certain CALL-related digital skills, Keywords: and have largely positive attitudes towards using digital computer assisted language learning, technology for language learning in the context of ESP. The digital results may be indicative of the future success in introducing competencies, technology to this particular ESP environment, provided certain digital technology, English for issues (e.g., lack of confidence in digital skills) are addressed from specific purposes, the onset of the educational intervention. learner attitudes DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.fvv.6.2022.7 ISBN 978-961-286-674-7 144 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 1 Introduction Rapid advances in the development of information and communication technology (ICT) and the digital devices that are associated with it have led to their wider use in al areas of people’s lives. This trend has become so pervasive that there is currently almost no area of human activity that does not involve at least marginal or minimal use of digital technology in order to make day-to-day operations easier, more efficient, and/or more effective. Even though most of the use of digital technology is still focused on leisure and entertainment, there is substantial evidence from both practice and research that reveals more formal contexts in which technology is employed. One of the areas in which the use of digital technology is the most prolific, varied, and successful is certainly education, either formal or informal. Language teaching and learning is no exception in that respect, and digital technology has already become an integral part of many language classrooms (and beyond). In language teaching and learning, the term digital technology is a rather broad one and may encompass an array of usages, ranging from a simple CD-player or a TV set used to reproduce sounds and images, to more sophisticated uses represented by mobile language learning applications or intel igent software. Given the state of today’s digital devices, most of them however have some sort of interface to computers enabling them to be controlled by a computer device (Bateson & Daniels, 2018) or have inbuilt a computer chip or a programmable processor governing their operation, which essential y makes them computers. Furthermore, modern computers (both mobile and desktop devices) are multifunctional, and they have taken over the capabilities once performed by a number of separate devices and now offer them in a single device. Using digital technology in the context of language learning constitutes what is referred to as computer assisted language learning (CALL), a broad term covering al the usages of technology mentioned above. Thus, both “use of digital technology” and CALL are employed throughout the rest of this paper to signify any instance of technology use in the language classroom involving a computer device or associated programs, applications, and tools used to obtain language-related services for educational purposes, in order to achieve the set goals and learning outcomes. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 145 Most notable advances in digital technology have to do with the core capabilities of such technologies (e.g., better processing capabilities, larger storage capacity, or increased multimedia support), their general availability (regarding both opportunities to obtain them as well as their financial accessibility), and the opportunities for accessing the global communication network (e.g., faster data transfer or cheaper data plans). These improvements have led to a diversification of computer assisted language learning environments (for a broader discussion, see Stockwell & Tanaka-El is, 2018). Thus, based on the context of the use of digital technology, language teaching and learning needs no longer to be tied to a classroom or a computer room in order to facilitate performing language-related tasks with technology, as learners may use their digital (communication) devices to perform (communicative) language tasks at a distance, at their preferred time and place. The latter, for example, came into the particular focus of the public during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, when most educational practitioners had to abandon their preferred face-to-face modalities for completely online ones, enabled by the use of digital technology. The mere use of technology, however, is not enough on its own to achieve success in language learning (Chun, 2011). This was aptly (re)confirmed by the already mentioned example of technology use during the pandemic when, even though technology was employed to carry out learning activities, both teachers and students encountered a number of chal enges caused by limited resources and general unpreparedness for the use of technology in language teaching and learning contexts (Tao & Gao, 2022; Tomczyk & Walker, 2021). Therefore, it needs to be pointed out that the affordances of technology become relevant only if the choices and use of technology are careful y planned and backed by sound pedagogical approaches and decisions stemming from knowledge, experience, and relevant research, which contribute to the set learning outcomes (Goertler, 2019) and the creation of new learning opportunities (Chapelle, 2008). Not all applications of technology as part of language teaching and learning follow the same general approach or methodology. Although there are quite a few similarities between them, including the way they are planned and prepared for implementation into the classroom, the use of digital technology in the context of languages for specific purposes (LSP) differs from the use of technology in the context of learning languages for general purposes. Besides linguistic variability 146 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. between different languages, additional complexity in the use of CALL in LSP is brought on by the distinct and unique requirements of the discipline in which technology is employed (Li, 2018), combined with the specific needs of each group of learners, appropriate underlying methodologies, and learning activities (Lesiak-Bielawska, 2015; Rodgers & Dhonnchadha, 2018), as well as more specialised software to meet the requirements of a specific field, which may be difficult to find. Such differences are crucial when executing CALL environments, and both teachers and learners need to be aware of them in order to achieve educational success. The paper at hand has two main goals. Firstly, it aims at drawing attention to the intricacies of teaching and learning English for specific purposes (ESP) in general, and English for legal purposes in particular, and their relationships to the proper implementation of CALL (e.g., choice of tools and resources, or setting up learning tasks and activities). Secondly, it aims to examine ESP students’ experiences with CALL, their perceived digital skills and knowledge, as well as their attitudes towards learning languages with digital technology, al of which may have influence on the implementation of CALL activities and students’ overall success in CALL. Based on these aims, three research questions are formulated: − RQ1: What is (if any) the experience of ESP (administrative law) students regarding CALL applications and environments? − RQ2: Do ESP (administrative law) students feel ready and capable to use digital technology necessary for the CALL context? − RQ3: What are the opinions and attitudes of ESP (administrative law) students regarding the use of digital technology for language learning? The rest of this paper is structured as fol ows. Section 2 of the paper offers an overview of CALL and its applications within LSP contexts, emphasising the area of English for legal purposes. Section 3 describes the research methodology applied and the questionnaire employed in data collection, and puts forward the results of questionnaire analysis. Section 4 discusses the findings and addresses the implications for teaching and learning practice. Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper and provides guidelines for future work. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 147 2 Theoretical background: CALL, ESP, and legal English This section of the paper examines the theoretical background of CALL and describes its application within different ESP contexts. Where relevant, it discusses the application of CALL within the context of English for legal purposes, which is of particular interest to the research at hand. 2.1 CALL technology and environments Computer assisted language learning is a multidisciplinary field of research and practice which has long been shaped both by second language acquisition (SLA) theories and the state of technology (Davies et al., 2014). According to Warschauer (2004), there are three distinct phases in the historical development of CALL, which he defines in terms of the dominant teaching paradigm of the period, general view of the language, as wel as the technology used to implement them. In the first stage of structural CALL (roughly 1970s – 1980s), language was viewed as a formal and structured system taught using mainly grammar translation and audiolingual teaching approaches, while the technology part of it relied on using mainframe computers that were not widely accessible and were restricted to the environments of educational institutions. The stage of communicative CALL (roughly 1980s – 1990s) saw the rise of communicative language teaching based on constructivist principles. This period coincided with the appearance of PCs, which made computer technology more accessible for learners at home, no longer tying them to the confines of the language classroom. The final stage, integrative CALL (2000s – present), is grounded in socio-cognitive dimensions of language learning, which place an emphasis on social interaction in language learning environments and focus on content-based learning (which includes learning languages for specific purposes) and integration of the four main language skills (Thomas et al., 2014). From the viewpoint of technology, integrative CALL is enabled by the rise of the global communication network, corresponding communication software, and multimedia. Given its main characteristics, CALL has long been identified a niche area of practice and research (Thomas et al., 2014), often labelled by language teachers as overly technical and not enough pedagogical y informed on the one hand, and as not technical y complex by the computing community on the other. However, the availability of technology, its widespread use in everyday activities, and a surge in its 148 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. capabilities, compeled language teachers to consider technology’s potentials in the language classroom, which in turn prompted researchers and practitioners from the computing community to (continue) working on the development of language-dedicated applications and tools. Based on the characteristics of the hardware, Bateson and Daniels (2018) identify four distinct categories of technology used in CALL, namely (1) multi-server technologies, (2) single-server technologies, (3) personal computer (PC) technologies, and (4) mobile technologies. Multi-server technologies al ow teachers and learners to access learning resources (e.g., software or materials hosted on a server) at a distance using communication networks. They give way to setting up and managing different forms of CMC contexts in which learners engage in authentic communication, either synchronous or asynchronous, with other native or nonnative speakers of the language being learned (Bateson & Daniels, 2018; Son, 2018). Furthermore, they enable sharing of online learning resources within the community, online collaborative activities, courses and course activity management, and access to game-based learning activities and virtual worlds. Single-server technologies are very similar to multi-server ones, the only difference being that resources are not stored on third-party servers (“in the cloud”) but on own servers, belonging to and maintained by the institution in charge of language education. Single PC technologies cover the use of only one PC and al the resources it has to offer, including file editing software, software for creating language materials, self-study programs (e.g., on CDs or DVDs), and other peripheral hardware that may be used by the teacher or the learner (e.g., cameras, microphones, speakers, or scanners) (Bateson & Daniels, 2018). Such technologies may or may not offer connection to the communication network. Finally, mobile technologies allow for the delivery and creation of mobile content using smal portable devices (e.g., mobile phones, tablet computers, MP4 players, game consoles, e-readers, etc.), which al ow for personalised, situated, and authentic language learning opportunities even outside formal education contexts and locations and at a time of personal convenience (Arvanitis & Krystalli, 2021; Çakmak, 2019). Diversity in technologies brings about diversity in the ways they are applied in the language teaching and learning process in order to create or conform to a learning environment. Stockwell and Tanaka-Ellis (2018) define learning “environment” as a complex notion, comprising the technology, the curriculum, the classroom (or place V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 149 for learning), the learners and teachers, and their skils and backgrounds invested in the educational process. Each environment is thus the result of the intricate interplay of a number of variables and related decisions, and represents a unique language teaching and learning context. There are four main types of learning environments usual y found in relevant literature: (1) face-to-face environments, (2) blended environments, (3) distance environments, and (4) virtual environments. Within face-to-face environments, technology is employed on the premises (in the language classroom) and students interact with the technology in order to complete individual or group tasks (Stockwell & Tanaka-Ellis, 2018). The teacher is responsible for selecting the most suitable digital technology (including software) based on learning outcomes, for deciding on the level of guidance employed during task execution (Slavuj et al., 2015), as well as for keeping track of the progress students are making by directly observing their interactions with the technology or each other (Stockwel & Tanaka-Ellis, 2018). In terms of distance learning environments, the bulk of learning takes place in a context in which the teacher is not immediately present (he or she is distant and communicates with the learners using digital technology) and/or readily available to the learner during learning activities (Lamy, 2014). Such environments are divided between contexts focusing on distance delivery and management of the course content (in which the technology is used simply to facilitate communication between learners and teachers at a distance) (Stockwel & Tanaka-Ellis, 2018) and those in which the technology (e.g., intel igent software) takes charge and assumes the responsibilities of the teacher onto itself (Slavuj et al., 2017). Distance environments rely heavily on the notions of learner autonomy, engagement, and motivation in order to achieve learning success (Hsu et al., 2019). Blended learning environments represent any combination of a face-to-face approach with synchronous (Bower et al., 2015) or asynchronous (Güneş & Alagözlü, 2021) distance learning at the levels of activity/task, class/meeting, and course/subject (Stockwell & Tanaka-Ellis, 2018). Based on this approach, learning technology at times plays a more dominant role, while becoming peripheral to learning at others (Stockwell & Tanaka-Ellis, 2018). As is the case with distance learning, students’ cognitive and emotional engagement in learning, facilitated by their individual characteristics and previous learning experience, play a crucial role in achieving the desired language outcomes (Halverson & Graham, 2019). Finally, virtual environments refer mostly to ful y online 3D environments in which individuals, in 150 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. form of dedicated avatars, communicate with others using basic input and output devices (e.g., speakers, microphones, headsets, or keyboards). Such environments have proven to be engaging for students even outside of formal educational environments, but are now being increasingly adapted for in-class use (Egbert & Borysenko, 2018; Sadler & Dooly, 2014). The variety of technologies language teachers have at their disposal today, the increased capabilities thereof, as wel as the various environments in which they are employed, contribute to reaching what Bax (2003) cal ed the normalisation of technology in CALL: a state characterised by the seamless integration of technology into everyday language learning, both in and outside the classroom environment. To aid such ultimate integration, teachers should not use technology for its own sake, but careful y plan its use for reaching and promoting the defined learning goals as part of students’ everyday language learning activities. 2.2 CALL and ESP (in English for legal purposes) Teaching and learning ESP has some notable differences if compared to teaching and learning general English. These lie mostly in two broad aspects (Rahman, 2015): the characteristics of language learners and the main purpose of language learning. ESP learners are mostly mature learners (adults) who have previous knowledge of the English language and learn ESP in order to be able to perform their professional activities in English. If we take the example of public administration bachelors, who are the primary focus of this research, their professional activities would include the following: general management in the public sector, performing administrative activities in state administration and/or local and regional governments, dealing with public finances, and working with legal content as well as taking care of political and economic issues related to it. The organisation of an ESP course for their benefit should tackle al or any subset of these, so that the students are able to perform them effectively in English, as well as in their first language. Thus, most ESP courses are intended for learners at the intermediate or even advanced level of proficiency rather than for novice learners, and are most commonly conducted in the context of tertiary education rather than elementary or even secondary education contexts (they may be found within the latter two as wel , but not as often). V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 151 In terms of the purpose of language learning, ESP is a competence-oriented approach (Vahabdjanovna, 2022). It is based on the set of professional (language) skil s identified as necessary for normal functioning and communication within a specific professional context and adheres to the requirements of the specific discipline to which it is applied (Li, 2018). In order to establish such learner needs, teachers and other decision-makers have at their disposal a number of approaches, such as Target Situation Analysis, Learning Situation Analysis, or Means Analysis (see e.g., Rahman (2015) for further details), which enable them to take into consideration a significant number of aspects that shape the teaching and learning context when planning their educational interventions. The currently dominant ESP pedagogy emphasising learner-centeredness and language use in context (Li, 2018) has come a long way from the early approaches that focused merely on the acquisition of specialised vocabulary and the grammar-translation method. This change towards socio-constructivism is also reflected in the use of CALL approaches in ESP instruction. Due to its increasing possibilities, technology no longer plays the role of a rigid tutor (trying to completely replace the language teacher), but is instead employed by teachers to design specialised learning materials, to promote learner engagement in relevant target situations (Arnó-Macía, 2012), and to enable authentic communication opportunities similar to those found in real life situations (Li, 2018). However, this does not mean that vocabulary learning in ESP should be abandoned altogether. For example, in the context of legal language, which is the focus of this paper, the experts in the field see the lexis as playing one of the most prominent roles in effective communication (Schauer, 2015). There are reports corroborating this view even among language learners, who consider vocabulary learning in a legal English course to be the crucial communication-enabling element (see e.g., Sierocka et al., 2018). Other characteristics of English as it is used in this field, including its specific syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic features (Starostina & Horytska, 2021), as well as the discourse of the field (Charrow et al., 2015; Gémar, 2001), are to be included in a comprehensive ESP legal context and should permeate communicative language learning activities. As previously mentioned, the choice and extent of the learning activities aimed at a particular language skill have to depend on the identified needs of the learners, therefore a different emphasis is expected in different contexts (regarding study levels, study programmes, or even individual courses). 152 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. A review of reports on using CALL in the context of English for legal purposes reveals a preference for blended environments. As already pointed out, blended CALL environments complement usual classroom-based face-to-face instruction (dominated by the teacher) with the use of digital technology and mostly independent activities (without the direct involvement of the language teacher). Breeze (2014) describes a case in which law students received initial briefing on technology use in the classroom, and then used a wiki environment to collaboratively create a glossary of relevant legal terms in their own time (outside usual class time). Similarly, Đorđević and Blagojević (2017) report on an online webquest activity for which the students received initial instruction and preparation during their English class (how a claim is written, what the purpose of a claim is, etc.), and then drafted a legal claim at home, basing their work on the materials previously prepared for them by the teacher and made available online. Lamiri (2019) outlines a teacher-directed blended approach at the level of the course (combining ful y face-to-face classes with ful y online/distance ones), which focused on reading comprehension activities within ESP. Zhang and Wang (2017) also combined independent online learning and face-to-face teaching in their reading class, aiming to encourage self-exploration and collaborative learning among language students beyond class time. Đorđević (2020), on the other hand, used the blended approach, but within the face-to-face environment (at the level of a single class/meeting). This was achieved by mixing traditional instruction with online activities performed using computers in the language classroom. In addition to blended environment examples, there are also cases of activities being done completely online and outside the classroom, such as the online journal writing reported by García-Sánchez (2022), which aimed at improving both the writing and vocabulary skills of the students. 2.3 Research into the attitudes and experiences of CALL use within ESP contexts A review of literature on student attitudes and experiences with CALL in ESP reveals a variety of contexts and ESP usages that range from engineering and medicine to different applications within the humanities. In this subsection, a selection is taken from the ESP literature relevant for the current research and its most important findings are pointed out. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 153 Selevičienė and Burkšaitienė (2015) explored the attitudes of Lithuanian university students towards the use of Web 2.0 tools in the context of humanities by employing the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Based on TAM, they took into consideration six main variables, which included awareness, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitudes towards use, behavioural intention, and actual system usage. The study revealed a positive relationship between students’ skill in using the technology and their attitudes towards its usage, intention to use the technology, actual system usage, and their awareness, marking it as an important factor for the introduction of CALL into ESP. The same study also revealed a preference for traditional classroom-oriented ESP classes to synchronous and asynchronous online communication between students and teachers, strengthening the case for a blended approach to CALL. Similarly, Keshtiarast and Salehi (2020) investigated the attitudes of Iranian humanities students regarding the use of technology in the ESP context, their skil s with technology, potential obstacles to the use of technology in ESP, as wel as their social and cultural views on technology use. The results revealed largely positive attitudes, but also certain barriers in employing technology, such as lacking technical support and infrastructure/facilities, aversion to technology, potentially distracting features of technology, and a substandard integration of ICT-based activities in the ESP curriculum. Alizadeh’s (2018) research focused on medical students’ views regarding the use technology (computer tools and applications such as online dictionaries) for vocabulary learning. The results revealed that students considered the use of technology to be highly significant in language learning. Additionally, it showed their preference for offline mobile dictionaries and internet-based ones over traditional paper-based dictionaries. Olejarczuk (2018) examined ESP learners’ beliefs about CALL usage in a variety of blended engineering courses, including Materials Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Electronics and Communications. Semi-structured interviews were used to col ect the data, which revealed students’ general keenness to use technology for their ESP study, openness to experiment with new applications of technology for language learning, and wil ingness to change and/or adapt their learning styles as necessary. One additional important finding was the students’ view that the teacher was the most important figure in language learning, even in contexts where technology had been introduced. 154 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Although research from other ESP areas may be taken as highly indicative, research on student experiences, motivation, and attitudes towards CALL within the legal-oriented ESP contexts seems to be under-researched and harder to find in the relevant literature. As such, it represents a niche area for further research endeavours. 3 Current study In this section of the paper, the details of the current research into the experiences, attitudes, and technological skills of students learning English for legal purposes are presented, regarding the introduction of CALL to their formal education. These include demographic data on the participants, research methodology employed for data collection and analysis, and the results. 3.1 Participants A total of twenty-four (n=24) students, enrolled in the Undergraduate Professional Study Programme in Administration Studies at the Faculty of Law in Rijeka (University of Rijeka, Croatia), participated in the current study. At the time of their participation, all the participants were first-year students who had been enrol ed in two ESP courses during the previous academic year. These ESP courses, as wel as the entire study programme of administrative law, were designed to meet the needs of the labour market for personnel in state administration, regional and local government, judicial authorities, public services, and businesses in the Republic of Croatia. In addition to English, participants had no other foreign language courses organised as part of their curriculum, however, they had had previous experience with learning other foreign languages at the lower levels of education. Also, all the participants had significant experience in learning English: the lowest reported number of years spent learning English was 8 (average reported value being 12.4 years). As shown in Figure 1, most participants from the sample had previously attended some type of vocational school (18 of them or 75%). Only one quarter of them had completed a general education secondary school (“gimnazija” in Croatian) of some type, while none of the participants had completed an art school as part of their secondary education. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 155 0 Art school 6 Vocational school General education secondary school 18 (Gimnazija) Figure 1: Students’ secondary education prior to university study. Source: own The study included a significantly larger number of female participants than male participants (see Figure 2), their average age being 23.13 (SD=7.76). The age distribution of participants is given in Figure 3. 1 Male Female 23 Figure 2: Overview of participants by gender. Source: own 12 10 8 6 4 of participantsber 2 um 0 N 19 20 22 23 24 27 36 39 50 Age of participant Figure 3: Age distribution of participants. Source: own 156 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. 3.2 Methodology In order to gather data from the students, a questionnaire was devised specifically for the purpose. The questionnaire was handed out to the selected pool of ESP students at the end of June 2022 in a live (face-to-face) session. A pen-and-paper version of the questionnaire in Croatian was used for convenience purposes. Before the questionnaire was administered to the participants, it was clearly stated that participation in the study was completely anonymous and voluntary, and that the participants could withdraw from the procedure at any time. However, none of the students from the initial sample decided to withdraw, and al of them completed the questionnaire in the designated 10 to 15 minutes. The questionnaire consisted of 39 items in total, divided into four main parts (A to D). Part A of the questionnaire was aimed at collecting general and demographic data regarding the participants, the results of which were summarised in the previous subsection. This part of the questionnaire consisted mainly of multiple-choice items or short answer items, depending on the sought type of information. The rest of the questionnaire (parts B to D) was designed to answer the three previously stated research questions. In part B, which consisted of 11 items, participants’ previous experiences with technology in language learning were assessed through a series of multiple-choice (6) and short answer (4) items concerning the most frequently used types of devices, environments of CALL implementation, language aspects and skil s addressed through the use of technology, and general preparedness for CALL. Additional y, one attitude assessment item (using a 6-point Likert scale) was employed to enable participants to express general satisfaction with their experience with CALL up to that point in their education. In part C of the questionnaire, the aim was to assess the personal digital skills of each participant that are necessary for successful functioning within CALL. It consisted of 10 statements for which participants had to express their agreement or disagreement on a 6-point Likert scale, with the following meanings of each point: 0 – Cannot determine, 1 – Completely disagree, 2 – Mostly disagree, 3 – Neither agree nor disagree, 4 – Mostly agree, and 5 – Completely agree. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 157 Part D of the questionnaire was designed to determine participants’ attitudes and opinions concerning the use and appropriateness of technology for language learning. It consisted of 11 statements for which participants had to express their agreement or disagreement on a 6-point Likert scale, as explained earlier. A definition of CALL and a brief explanation of its usages was clearly stated in the introduction to the questionnaire, so as not to create confusion among the participants regarding the broadness of the concept. The definition included therein closely followed the definition of CALL given earlier in this paper. 3.3 Results This section presents a descriptive analysis of the data gathered using the previously described questionnaire. Its three subsections (3.3.1 – 3.3.3) support the answers to each of the three research questions (RQ1 – RQ3), respectively. 3.3.1 ESP students’ experience with technology When asked about their experience with CALL in the context of previous education, al of the participants confirmed having at least some such experience, either at a distance or within the language classroom. In accessing CALL-related activities, the majority of students (73%) used a mobile device as their primary way of engagement, but there were also those students who preferred to use a personal/desktop computer instead. Among those primarily using mobile devices, there was a slight preference towards mobile computers, rather than smartphones (see Figure 4). However, most of the participants (91.67%) also reported use of at least one other type of device in addition to the preferred one. Desktop computer 27% 33% Mobile computer Smartphone 40% Figure 4: Primary (preferred) type of device for accessing CALL activities. Source: own 158 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. With regard to the environment in which their experience with CALL took place, a large majority of the participants (80%) singled out distance environments as being the most common ones. The remaining 20% reported classroom-bound use of technology, with or without the direct assistance or guidance from the language teacher (Figure 5). 16% Classroom (with teacher assistance) 4% Classroom (independently) 80% Distance Figure 5: Most commonly experienced CALL environments. Source: own The results referring to the most commonly addressed language skil s during CALL interventions, as experienced by the participants, are divided across skills. However, receptive skills (listening and reading) have received the most focus (44%) in their experience, while productive skil s (speaking and writing) seem to be on the lower end of the spectrum. A more detailed breakdown of the most commonly experienced skills, including vocabulary and grammar aspects, is given in Figure 6. Reading 17% 19% Listening Writing 14% Speaking 25% Grammar 10% Vocabulary 15% Figure 6: Language skil s and aspects most commonly experienced in CALL activities. Source: own V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 159 A closer look into the type of activities included in CALL interventions experienced by the participants reveals a strong preference for individual work (86%), while working in pairs or even groups is significantly less represented (see Figure 7). 9% Individual work 5% Pair work Group work 86% Figure 7: Most commonly experienced CALL activities with regard to the number of students participating in it. Source: own In performing language activities supported by the use of technology, most of the participants (75%) did not receive instruction on how to effectively and efficiently use technology for language learning prior to the start of the activity. Moreover, half of the participants did not receive any such guidelines or advice from the teacher (see Figure 8). Before the activity 25% During the activity 50% No instructions 25% Figure 8: Received guidelines on how to effectively use technology in CALL contexts. Source: own Participants’ assessment of their overall experience(s) with CALL is given in Table 1 (item B9: General y speaking, how would you assess your experience(s) using technology in language learning up to now? ). The results reveal largely positive attitudes, as the majority of participants selected options 5 – Completely positive experience (66.67%) and 4 – Mostly 160 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. positive experience (20.83%), while only a small number of them (12.50%) could not decide whether their experiences were positive or negative ( 3). None of the respondents chose options referring to mostly ( 2) or completely ( 1) negative experiences, or 0 – Cannot determine. Table 1: Participants’ evaluation of previous experiences with CALL Answers M SD 0 1 2 3 4 5 Item 0 0 0 3 16 5 B9 4.08 0.58 n=24 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 12.50% 66.67% 20.83% source: own analysis When asked about their other experiences with technology in language learning, most participants, 58.33% of them, indicated they had never used it outside formal education settings. Others (41.67%) had employed technology to learn a foreign language in a more informal environment (e.g., using a mobile application or solving online language tasks), in order to improve their understanding of spoken or written texts, or for communication purposes (both spoken and written). 3.3.2 ESP students’ digital skills Items C1 and C4 of the questionnaire were aimed at a general self-evaluation of digital skil s necessary to operate within CALL. The majority of participants agreed with statement C1 ( I consider my digital skills to be suf icient for me to ef iciently learn languages using digital technology): 30.43% of them opted for option 5 – Completely agree, while 47.83% chose 4 – Mostly agree. Only 21.74% of the participants could neither agree nor disagree ( 3), and none of the participants expressed any level of disagreement ( 1 – Completely disagree and 2 – Mostly disagree). Similarly, there were no students who were unable to determine their (dis)agreement with the above statement (option 0). Answers to statement C4, I believe that my digital skil s could represent a problem for ef icient language learning using technology, reveal some concerns among the participants . Even though most of them (54.54%) disagreed with the statement (options 1 and 2), 22.73% of the participants confirmed they mostly agreed ( 4), while none completely agreed ( 5). In addition, two participants (9.09%) could not determine their (dis)agreement ( 0) with the statement. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 161 Items C2 and C7 of the questionnaire were intended to assess the need for additional (organised) education and tutoring in terms of CALL usage. Regarding statement C2, I believe I need additional training which would increase the level of my digital skills necessary in computer assisted language learning, the majority of participants either disagreed with the statement (47.82% of them chose options 1 or 2) or neither agreed nor disagreed ( 3) with the statement (30.43%). A smal er number of participants expressed their agreement with the statement (21.75%) by choosing options 4 or 5. When asked to confirm their assessment of the level of digital skills (item C7, I believe I do not need additional education to improve my digital skills) in a negatively-worded item, there was a strong support in favour of the statement, as 39.13% of participants strongly agreed ( 5) with the statement, and an additional 17.39% mostly agreed ( 4) with the statement. As with the previous item, there were some indecisive participants who opted for option 3 (26.09%). There was also a smaller percentage of participants who completely (option 1, 8.70%) or mostly (option 2, 8.70%) disagreed with the statement. In both items C2 and C7, no participants opted for option 0 – Cannot determine. Items C3 and C5 of the questionnaire aimed to assess the efficiency of participants’ problem-solving skills using technology. Assessments related to item C3, Using computers I am able to quickly solve problems and reach set goals, exhibit a very high degree of agreement among participants, as almost al of them (91.93%) either strongly ( 5) or mostly ( 4) agreed. Additionally, there were only two participants (8.70%) who were neutral ( 3) with respect to the statement. The participants’ confidence in their problem-solving skills was corroborated by their answers to item C5, I use digital devices (e.g., a computer or smartphone) whenever I wish to solve a problem in a simple way, with the same number of participants as in item C3 who expressed agreement. However, there was a substantial y larger number of those who strongly agreed (69.57%) with respect to those who mostly agreed (21.74%). Similarly, there were two participants (8.70%) who were neutral ( 3). These two items, with a respective mean score of 4.35 and 4.61 (out of possible 5), represent the highest overal agreement score any pair of items from the questionnaire received, confirming participants’ conviction in their digital problem-solving skills. 162 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Items C6 and C9 of the questionnaire evaluated participants’ abilities to (efficiently) communicate using digital technology. Item C6 ( By using digital technology, I am able to communicate with anyone in a simple and fast way) received the highest mean agreement score (4.87) of al the items in this part of the questionnaire. Furthermore, the same item had the highest number of participants who completely agreed ( 5) with it (91.30%), while only one participant (4.35%) mostly agreed ( 4). A single participant (4.35%) also expressed a neutral attitude ( 3) regarding the statement, and none of the participants disagreed or were not able to determine their level of agreement. Similarly, positive results were obtained regarding item C9, For me, using digital technology does not represent a significant obstacle to communication, as exactly half of the participants strongly agreed ( 5) with the statement, and 22.73% of them mostly agreed ( 4). A smaller percentage of participants (18.18%) were neutral ( 3) or mostly disagreed ( 2) (4.55%), and a single participant (4.55%) was not able to determine their level of agreement with the statement ( 0). The mean agreement score for this item was also rather high (4.05). Finally, items C8 and C10 of the questionnaire allowed the participants to assess their skills in creating digital content. The participants expressed high levels of agreement with item C8, I can use digital technology to create digital content for a variety of purposes, as the same number of participants (30.43%) strongly ( 5) or mostly ( 4) agreed with the statement. Only 13.04% of participants indicated they mostly disagreed ( 2) with the statement, and none indicated strong disagreement ( 1). A notable percentage of participants, namely 26.09%, could neither agree nor disagree with the statement ( 3). With respect to item C10, I create new content more easily in a digital environment than in an analogue environment, there was significant doubt among the participants as more than half of them (52.17%) neither agreed nor disagreed ( 3). Other responses reveal a preference towards agreement with the statement, as 39.13% of participants mostly agreed ( 4) with the statement and 4.35% strongly agreed ( 5). Only one participant (4.35%) expressed slight disagreement (option 2), while none expressed strong disagreement ( 1) or inability to determine their level of agreement ( 0). The results regarding participants’ assessment of their own digital skills are summarised in Table 2 below. Negatively worded statements are marked in the table by an asterisk next to the item’s name. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 163 Table 2: Participants’ self-assessment of digital skills necessary for operation within CALL Answers M SD 0 1 2 3 4 5 Item 0 0 0 3 16 5 C1 4.08 0.58 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 12.50% 66.67% 20.83% Item 0 7 4 7 4 1 C2* 2.48 1.24 n=23 0.00% 30.43% 17.39% 30.43% 17.39% 4.35% Item 0 0 0 2 11 10 C3 4.35 0.65 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 8.70% 47.83% 43.48% Item 2 8 4 3 5 0 C4* 2.05 1.36 n=22 9.09% 36.36% 18.18% 13.64% 22.73% 0.00% Item 0 0 0 2 5 16 C5 4.61 0.66 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 8.70% 21.73% 69.57% Item 0 0 0 1 1 21 C6 4.87 0.46 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 4.35% 91.30% Item 0 2 2 6 4 9 C7 3.70 1.33 n=23 0.00% 8.70% 8.70% 26.09% 17.39% 39.12% Item 0 0 3 6 7 7 C8 3.78 1.04 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 13.04% 26.09% 30.43% 30.43% Item 1 0 1 4 5 11 C9 4.05 1.29 n=22 4.55% 0.00% 4.55% 18.18% 23.73% 50.00% Item 0 0 1 12 9 1 C10 3.43 0.66 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 52.17% 39.13% 4.35% source: own analysis 3.3.3 ESP students’ attitudes towards CALL Detailed results regarding participants’ attitudes towards CALL are given in Table 3, below. General y, the results from the sample reveal largely positive attitudes towards introducing CALL into language learning, which can be seen in the mean agreement values (M) and the standard deviation of scores (SD). 164 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Table 3: Participants’ attitudes towards CALL – results overview Answers M SD 0 1 2 3 4 5 Item 0 0 4 3 8 8 D1 3.87 1.10 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 17.39% 13.04% 34.78% 34.78% Item 0 0 1 4 10 8 D2 4.09 0.85 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 17.39% 43.48% 34.78% Item 0 0 1 6 8 8 D3 4.00 0.90 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 26.09% 34.78% 34.78% Item 0 0 2 2 7 12 D4 4.26 0.96 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 8.70% 8.70% 30.43% 52.17% Item 0 0 2 2 9 10 D5 4.17 0.94 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 8.70% 8.70% 39.13% 43.48% Item 0 0 1 7 8 7 D6 3.91 0.90 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 30.43% 34.78% 30.43% Item 0 0 1 5 4 13 D7 4.26 0.96 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 21.74% 17.39% 56.52% Item 0 0 1 3 10 8 D8 4.14 0.83 n=22 0.00% 0.00% 4.55% 13.64% 45.45% 36.36% Item 0 2 6 5 7 3 D9 3.13 1.22 n=23 0.00% 8.70% 26.09% 21.74% 30.43% 13.04% Item 0 0 1 6 9 7 D10 3.96 0.88 n=23 0.00% 0.00% 4.35% 26.09% 39.13% 30.43% Item 0 1 2 4 9 7 D11 3.83 1.11 n=23 0.00% 4.35% 8.70% 17.39% 39.13% 30.43% source: own analysis The results for item D1, Learning a foreign language with the help of technology is an ef icient way of learning languages, exhibit general agreement with the statement as 34.78% of the participants mostly ( 4) and strongly ( 5) agreed with it. A smal er percentage of participants (17.39%) mostly disagreed ( 2) with the statement, and an even lower percentage (13.04%) took a neutral view ( 3). No participants expressed strong disagreement ( 1) or inability to determine their level of agreement ( 0). The mean agreement score for this item is 3.85 out of a possible score of 5. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 165 For item D2, Introduction of digital technology into language learning enriches the environment in which a language is being learned, and gives it additional value, participants showed a strong preference: 34.78% of them strongly agreed ( 5) with it and 43.48% mostly agreed ( 4) with it, while only 4.35% mostly disagreed ( 2). There were also participants who could neither agree nor disagree ( 3) with the statement (17.39%), but no students expressed strong disagreement ( 1) or inability to determine their level of agreement ( 0). The mean agreement score for this item is 4.09. Regarding item D3, Using digital technology in foreign language learning activities makes learning content more interesting, participants showed high levels of agreement (34.78% for both option 4 and option 5), while a significant percentage of them (26.09%) could neither agree nor disagree ( 3). Only 4.35% of participants mostly disagreed ( 2) with the statement. The mean agreement score for this item is 4.00. Item D4, By using technology, I am able to learn a foreign language at any place and any time, not only during class time and within a classroom, exhibited the highest mean agreement score of all the items (4.26), as students mostly ( 4) and strongly ( 5) agreed with it in 82.60% of cases. The same portion of the sample (8.70%) mostly disagreed ( 2) or neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement ( 3). The results for item D5, Digital technology may improve my knowledge and skills in a foreign language, again show high levels of agreement, as 39.13% of participants mostly agreed with it ( 4) and 43.48% strongly agreed ( 5). The percentage of those who mostly disagreed ( 2) and those who could neither agree nor disagree is the same: 8.70%. The mean agreement score for this item is 4.17. Positive results are noticeable for item 6 as well, as 34.78% of participants mostly agreed ( 4) and 30.43% strongly agreed ( 5) with the statement I consider that the introduction of digital technology into the language teaching and learning process can equal y contribute to the improvement of all language aspects and skil s. However, this item also exhibits a high percentage of those who could neither agree nor disagree with it ( 3), namely 30.43% of the sample. Only one participant (4.35%) stated they mostly disagreed ( 2) with the statement. The mean agreement score for this item is 3.91. 166 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. Item D7, CALL enables me to colaborate with other students more easily, is the item with which the largest number of participants, 56.52%, strongly agreed ( 5), while an additional 17.39% mostly agreed ( 4). A neutral view ( 3) was expressed by 21.74% of the participants, while only 4.35% of them mostly disagreed ( 2). No students expressed strong disagreement ( 1) or inability to determine their level of agreement ( 0). The mean agreement score for this item is 4.26, the highest of all items in this part of the questionnaire. For item D8, Applying digital technology al ows for the use of a variety of language activities during language learning, also exhibits a high mean agreement score of 4.14, as the majority of participants either mostly (45.45%) or strongly (36.36%) agreed with it. There is a lower percentage of those who could neither agree nor disagree (13.64%), and only one participant who expressed a negative attitude and mostly disagreed (4.55%). Item D9, In CALL, I need to put additional ef ort into mastering the content or completing activities, was the only item from this part of the questionnaire that used a negative orientation, which is then reflected in the results (the mean agreement score is only 3.13, lowest in Part D). Thus, there were more participants who opted for the disagreement options: 8.70% of them strongly disagreed ( 1) and 26.09% mostly disagreed ( 2). On the other hand, 30.43% of participants mostly agreed ( 4) and 13.04% completely agreed ( 5) with the statement, while 21.74% could neither agree nor disagree ( 3). Regarding item D10, I see the use of computers as a valid and useful approach in learning a foreign language for special purposes, the majority of students (69.56%) either mostly ( 4) or strongly agreed ( 5), while only 4.35% mostly disagreed ( 2). Additionally, there were 26.09% of participants who neither agreed nor disagreed ( 3). The mean agreement score for this item is 3.96. Finally, for item D11, I consider the use of computers in the process of learning a foreign language to be equal y ef ective as learning with usual or classical methods, there is a significant number of participants who agreed (39.13% mostly agreed and 30.43% completely agreed), but there were also participants who strongly (4.35%) and mostly (8.70%) disagreed. Those who expressed a neutral position ( 3) are also represented in the sample (17.39%). The mean agreement score for this item is 3.83. V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 167 4 Discussion and implications for CALL practice This smal -scale research project was undertaken as the basis for assessing the possibilities for introducing CALL into the context of learning a foreign language for specific purposes (in this case, the ESP field of law) and anticipating its success among the students. The main rationale behind it was that students who have previous experience with using technology for language learning, the appropriate digital skills to use it in an efficient way, and positive attitudes towards digital technology for educational purposes, could also have a higher chance of accepting CALL as part of their everyday formal studies. Even though the results gathered by the questionnaire are largely positive in terms of al three aspects, there are still certain details that need to be addressed prior to introducing CALL into the ESP classroom. These interventions should be performed by the teachers and other relevant decision-makers in the educational process. When analysing previous experience with learning technology, it seems a very positive circumstance that al of the participants had previous experience with technology, which enabled them to base their answers in the questionnaire on it. Furthermore, it reveals that most of the participants have already used different devices to do so (both mobile and desktop) and are familiar with them, which does not limit the ESP teacher in designing and varying learning activities in relation to the context in which they should be performed (e.g. inside or outside the language classroom). The diversity in the skills addressed by CALL activities, as well as students’ usage of technology for language learning outside formal education, also represent highly positive steps towards the overal uptake of technology. However, there also seem to be some negative trends present in the students’ previous experiences. Foremost among these is the failure to employ technology for more communicative and interactive tasks and activities (B7) (as most activities had been designed as individual tasks, rather than involving more students), which digital technology certainly permits (and enables). In line with current theories on which CALL is based, which emphasise social interaction, learner autonomy, and a socio-constructivist approach to creating knowledge (Youngs, 2019), affordances of digital technology should be put to the forefront. This may be achieved through a heavier use of collaborative tools (such as wikis or other cloud-based document editing tools appropriate for group use) and CMC tools (such as video-conferencing tools, chatrooms, or even blogs) for writing- and speaking-based activities. Given the 168 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. current state of technology, there is a wide variety of choices available to teachers, including free CMC tools and CMC tools with free educational licences, which makes them even more accessible to a wider audience of users. Additional y, using these tools may help in avoiding the problems often reported in distance-based environments, such as feelings of isolation and detachment from fel ow students and the teacher, or lack of social exchange opportunities. Thus, when introducing CALL to a group of students with similar experience as the one included in this research, special care should be taken by the course instructor to make a more detailed introduction to communicative and interactive activities that require the use of technology and to offer additional scaffolding support for the duration of the activities. This need is also mirrored in the results obtained for part B of the questionnaire, which indicate the importance of proper preparation of students for CALL (B8) so that they know what to expect even before the start of CALL activities and how to use technology efficiently and effectively in such circumstances. This issue, however, is much larger and should be addressed by proper teacher training so that teachers may be, in turn, able to train their students in the intricacies of CALL. However, even if such organised training is not available to teachers, they should still prepare their students for CALL in a timely (before the activities) and organised fashion, strengthening relevant skil s and introducing strategies for technology use. With regards to students’ digital skills, there are a few interesting and/or unexpected results. For example, even though students think of their digital skills as sufficient for CALL (C1), a significant number of them expressed concern that their digital skills might pose a problem during learning (C4). Such insecurities should be al eviated by the teacher through a systematic preparation of students. Introductory exemplary use of technology in, for example, classroom-based language activities, where students can seek immediate help from the teacher (or other students) if they experience issues related to technology, may make them more confident for when they use technology in an out-of-classroom context, and are left to rely mostly on themselves. Alternatively, teachers may organise sessions on how to use a particular technology (even outside class time) so as to improve student skil s in a targeted way, or they may start with introducing those technologies students feel more comfortable with and work their way to those in which students have less confidence (or tend to avoid them altogether). Yet another option may be to correlate the ESP and IT-related courses (if they exist in the curriculum) and dedicate some sessions V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 169 to the development of specific skils required by CALL. The need for further education in the use of digital technology is indicated by the results from items C2, C7, and C10, as a substantial number of students expressed this need or were uncertain about their digital and CMC skil s (as they opted for the neither agree nor disagree option). The results on student attitudes towards the introduction of CALL are mostly positive and encouraging for CALL introduction. Among them, however, there are also some results worth the attention of teachers. This particularly refers to the students’ expressed need for additional effort in mastering the contents or performing activities in CALL (D9), which may stem from insecurity in their own digital skil s. As already stated, this issue needs to be addressed even before the introduction of CALL so as not to deter students from participating in CALL-based activities or cause them negative feelings and attitudes about such an approach. Not addressing these concerns early on may result in a lack of success in learning a language and a failure to reach educational goals/outcomes, which should certainly be avoided. Another result indicative of the need for intervention concerns the equal possibilities of CALL to address all language skills (D3), as there seems to be a large number of students who neither agree nor disagree with such observation. This may stem from the students’ previous experience in which technology was repeatedly employed to address a single language skill, or from the lack of previous preparation and education on how technology could address their language learning needs. Introducing CALL for a variety of skills (e.g., taking a micro-teaching approach) and explaining the expected outcomes of CALL activities beforehand could be beneficial in assuring students of the usefulness of CALL for all skills. Also, the teacher should careful y design CALL activities, in the manner that they justify the use of technology and contribute to an increase in the perceived usefulness of technology for students. The same approach may be used in dealing with the CALL efficiency concerns (D1) among students. 5 Conclusion Introducing technology into the process of teaching and learning a language is not a simple one, and requires careful planning and design on the part of the teacher. Introducing CALL into ESP is no exception in that regard, and this process is further complicated by the intricacies and peculiarities of the language in a specific field. In 170 LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN THE FRAMEWORK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND SECURITY. order for the CALL intervention to succeed in the first place, there are several important aspects that require the attention of the language teacher, including prior experience of students with CALL, their digital skills, and attitudes towards using technology in the context of language learning. This paper addressed the three aspects within the context of ESP among students of administrative law. The results presented in this paper are largely positive regarding al three aspects. The results revealed students’ substantial experience with CALL (RQ1), mostly at a distance and through the use of a variety of technologies. Furthermore, CALL was reportedly employed mostly for individual work, thus neglecting to utilise the ful potentials of technology in language learning (as described by the currently dominant theories on language learning in CALL). However, even with the possible shortcomings experienced in the implementation of CALL, students gave a highly positive overal assessment regarding their satisfaction with previous experiences with CALL. ESP students’ digital skills and capabilities (RQ2) have also been (self-)evaluated as sufficient for the purposes of CALL. However, at the same time, students exhibited a certain degree of insecurity and doubt as to whether learning a language supported by technology would go smoothly and without substantial additional efforts on their part. These may and should be addressed by the language teacher before the introduction of technology into language learning. Current research also revealed that ESP students have rather positive opinions and attitudes towards CALL (RQ3), especial y concerning the flexibility of learning (both place and time), opportunities for improving their foreign language skil s, collaboration with fellow students, and the variety of language-related activities they have at their disposal. Problematic aspects identified here concerned the need for further and more systematic preparation and training of students in order to boost their confidence in technology-aided language learning and stress its benefits for the learner. Given the small sample (n=24) this research is based on, it is very difficult to generalise its results and findings. However, the results may be taken as indicative of certain issues that have the potential of arising in a CALL context. As such, this research could represent a motivation for language teachers considering the V. Slavuj: Introducing CALL into the ESP Classroom – Students’ Views and Attitudes 171 introduction of CALL into their classroom (and beyond) to search and pinpoint problematic areas among their target groups of students, and to ensure the success of their CALL venture. As part of further work, the questionnaire employed for data collection in this research wil be further refined and revised to address some of the minor issues noticed during its use. 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University of Maribor, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Ljubljana, Slovenia mojca.kompara@um.si Abstract The scientific monograph is oriented towards LSP for the field of criminal justice and security studies and also focuses on subfields, namely police, law, security, administration, etc. The monograph contains contributions from the field of criminal justice and security studies prepared by Slovenian and foreign authors, namely Jelena Gugić from the University of Pula, Mojca Kompara Lukančič from the University of Maribor, Nives Lenassi from the University of Ljubljana, Dragoslava Mićović from the University of Belgrade, Eva Podovšovnik from Keywords: the University of Primorska, Jasna Potočnik Topler from the the English language, University of Maribor, Vanja Slavuj from the University of the Italian Rijeka, and Tilen Smajla from the University of Maribor. 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Retrieved 30 April 2022 from http://www.ef.uni-lj.si/content/static_english/izobrazevanje/dodiplomsko/upes.asp School of Economics and Business (n.d.b). Professional Degree Programme in Business Administration. Retrieved 30 April 2022 from http://www.ef.uni-lj.si/content/static_english/izobrazevanje/dodiplomsko/vps.asp Serianni, L., & Castelvecchi, A. (2015). Italiano. Garzanti. 2 How did it all begin? A brief overview of police education in Serbia 2.1 Before World War II 2.2 After the World War II until today 3 Challenges 2 The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on foreign language (FL) distance learning and teaching 3 Research methodology 3.1 Research design 4 Results 2 Theoretical background: CALL, ESP, and legal English 2.1 CALL technology and environments 2.2 CALL and ESP (in English for legal purposes) 2.3 Research into the attitudes and experiences of CALL use within ESP contexts 3 Current study 3.1 Participants 3.2 Methodology 3.3 Results 3.3.1 ESP students’ experience with technology 3.3.2 ESP students’ digital skills 3.3.3 ESP students’ attitudes towards CALL 4 Discussion and implications for CALL practice 5 Conclusion