LeadershipCompetenciesforManagingDiversity JanVisagie HermanLinde Werner Havenga The new understanding of diversity involves more than increasing the number of different identitygroupson the payroll. Animportant pro- posal is that the experience ofdiversity in an organisation results from pervasive styles of management. This article dealt with the specific paradigmsofdiversitymanagementandleadershipstyletheoryusedto addresstheresearchproblemintheempiricalstudy,namely‘Isdiversity managementexperience relatedtoleadership stylesorcompetencies?’The modelsofdiversityandinclusionindicatorsareusedtoexaminetheex- perienceofdiversitymanagement.Thepopulationofthisstudyintothe experience of diversity management is two thousand six hundred and sixty nine (2669 ) respondents. Leadership styles were obtained from fourhundredand forty (440 )leaders.The Cronbachalphavalueswere determinedinordertoindicateinternalvalidityand reliability. Key Words: diversitymanagement,engaging leadershipstyle, experience,heroicleadership style,management,symbolic interactionism jel Classification:d740 ,l290 ,m120 ,j53 Introduction Diversityis asubject that canbeverypowerfulandemotionalforevery- one who deals with it, either directly or indirectly. Diversity topics deal withissuesofbeingdifferentandalike,inspirationandperspiration,sad- nessandgladness, privilege andlackthereof, culture andreligion, toler- anceandjustice,andhatredandanimosity.Diversitychallengesandop- portunitiesimpactallnationsaroundtheworldtooneextentoranother (BahaudinandJatuporn2009 ). The question could be asked, what exactly is ‘diversity management,’ why does management include it in their organisation objectives, and DrJanVisagie isanAssociateProfessorattheSchoolofHuman ResourceSciences,North-West University, SouthAfrica. DrHermanLinde isProgramLeader LaborRelations attheSchool of HumanResourceSciences,North-West University, SouthAfrica. DrWerner HavengaisaSeniorLecturer intheDepartment ofHuman ResourceManagement,University ofJohannesburg, SouthAfrica. Managing GlobalTransitions9 (3 ):225 –247 226 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga how will it be measured? It may be takingthe issue too far to claim that diversity is the most talked about but the least implemented corporate objective.However,thefactremainsthatasastrategicobjective,diversity oftenconstitutesthe‘poor relations’ andrankslowonmanagers’listsof priorities (Human2005 ,1 ). It is well documented that diversity and diversity management have any number of definitions, interpretations, applications and implica- tions. Is diversity management, as some might say, becoming a cliché, reformed affirmativeaction,adefiningmatterorsomething else? Inany event, diversity management remains a question of what rather than if (BledsoeandOatsvall2008 ,7 ). The existential present, the ‘now,’ on which we act, is dynamic and implies a past and future (Mead1936 ). Having presented the contextual realities for leadership and diversity management, arising from the past and present, the specific interactive leadership style and diversity man- agementtheorieswereusedtoaddresstheaimofthisarticle(‘Whatkind ofleadershipstyledoorganisationsneedtodevelopedtoestablishapos- itiveexperienceofdiversitymanagementinordertocontinuetobesuc- cessful?’) andtoproposeadiversityleadership competencymodel. Von Mises (1996 ,42 ) stated that all actions are performed by individ- uals:‘Acollectiveoperatesthroughtheintermediaryofoneorseveralin- dividuals whose actions are related to the collective. It is the “meaning” which the acting individual and those who are touched by the actions attributetoanactionthatdetermines itscharacter.’ Blumer places primary importance on the foundation of human be- haviourthroughinteractionwiththe‘self.’Thisspecificallyunderliesac- tions – it is interaction, real or imagined, with others and the self that is the most important determinant of the behaviour of the individual (Harris 2005 ). Mintzberg’s (2004 ) engaging leadership style is required to establish a positive experience of diversity management. This article specificallyexplainstheinteractiveleadershipstyletheoryofMcClelland and Burnham (1976 ), Burnham (2003 ) and Mintzberg (2004 ) and relies onempiricalresearch. Robertson’s(2004 )five-factormodel,inclusiveof the paradigms of Thomas and Ely (1996 ; 2002 ), is used to examine the experienceofdiversitymanagement. The aim of the study is to determine the kind of leadership compe- tencystylesformanagersinorganisationsandtodevelopandestablisha positive experience of diversity management in order to continue to be successful. ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 227 The specific objective of this articleis todetermine diversity manage- ment experience in workplaces, whether the experience of diversity dif- fered between race, gender and generational groups and whether this experiencerelated toleadership style. LeadershipCompetenciesforManagingDiversity Tobesuccessfulintoday’smarket,companiesneedanextremelycapable, flexibleanddedicatedworkforce,aflexibleandinnovativemanagement, and the capability to hold on to developed talent. To accomplish these objectives, the companyneeds a talentedhr department.In addition to hiring the right people to carry out specific jobs, hr managers have to build up dedication and allegiance among the workforce (Manna and Morris2008 ). Organisations of different sizes, structures, and purposes increase theirbreadthofsearch,learningcapabilities,andresourceaccessthereby reducing the threat of core rigidities in management. However, diverse organisations tend to have differentgoals, managementstyles, decision- making processes, and systems that cause communication and coordi- nationdifficulties(Jiang,Santoro,andTao2010 ,1138 ). Dreachlin (2007 ) claimed that new era diversity management tests leadership skills at a deep and personal level. According to Barrett and Beeson (2002 ), who undertook extensive research into developing lead- ershipcompetenciesforcompetitiveadvantage,leadershipcompetencies willchangeasthecompetitiveenvironmentchanges. Theypredictedthatfivecriticalforceswouldshapeleadershipcompe- tencies(requirements) in the future, namely(a) global competition, (b) information technology, (c) rapid and flexible organisations, (d) teams, and(e)differingemployeeneeds.Consideringthese,mostorganisations will not need the ‘Lone Ranger’ type of leader as much as a leader who can motivate and co-ordinate a team-based approach (Barrett and Bee- son2002 ). ThisisconsistentwiththeviewsofMintzberg(2004 ),whobelievesan engaginginteractiveleadershipstyleisrequired.Inthefuture,themodel ofeffective leadershipwill beoneofencouragingenvironmentsthatun- locktheentireorganisation’shumanassetpotential(Hernez-Broomeand andHughes2006 ). Barrett and Beeson (2002 ) furthermore identified four essential roles formeetingthebusinesschallengeofthefuture,andthecareer‘derailers’ who will matter most in the future. The four essential roles for meeting Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 228 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga future business challenges, include ‘master strategies,’ ‘change manager,’ ‘relationship network building’ and ‘talent developers.’ Intensified glob- alisation,theincreasinguseoftechnology, andpublicscrutinyofthein- tegrity of leaders influence the role of the leader (Hernez-Broome and Hughes2006 ). Inessence,CrossanandOlivera(2006 )opinedthat,withinthecontext where organisational boundaries have become less defined and compe- tition dictates radical change, the hierarchical leadership approach has become outdated – ‘Distributed leadership has become necessary and noonecanmanageitall’(CrossanandOlivera2006 ,4 ). The overarching interactive competencies of leaders gain further sig- nificancewhen evaluatingGentry andLeslie’s (2007 )research into lead- ership requirements. The leadership competencies most favoured in or- ganisationsincluded‘buildingandmendingrelationships,’‘bringingout the best in people’ and ‘listening.’ Vision, inspiration and communica- tionalgoalswereregardedasfurtherimportantcompetenciesforpeople inleadershippositions. GentryandLeslie(2007 )furthermoreconcludedthatenhancingbusi- ness skills and knowledge was not regarded as very important for lead- ership development. Leslie et al. (2002 ) identified five characteristics of successful global leaders, namely context, specific knowledge and skills, inquisitiveness,personalcharacter,connecting,andintegrity.Leslieetal. (2002 )regarded‘duality’(thecapacityformanaginguncertaintyandthe ability to balance) and ‘savvy’ (practical understanding of business and organisation) as important. Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee’s (2002 ,38 ) similar contention was that ‘leadership operates best through emotion- allyintelligentleaderswhocreateresonance.’ Kets de Vries and Mead (1992 ) submitted that the influences on lead- ershipqualitiesaswellastheabilitytoadaptculturallyresultfromchild- hood backgroundandpsychological development.Inthisstudy, Kets de Vries and Mead (1992 ) indicated that in addition to standard technical competenceandbusinessexperience,globalmanagerswouldneedtoin- teract effectively with people ‘who are different.’ This could be learnt through developmental factors, such as cultural diversity in the family, early international experience, bilingualism, self-confidence, hardiness, envisioning,culturalstudies andinternationalenvironmentalstudies. ChangandThorenou(2004 )commentedthatcurrentliteraturerefers to cognitive factors that may affect the ability of managers to manage across cultures. These cognitive factors include the ability of leaders to ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 229 managestereotypes. Human(1996 ,49 ) commented that cognitive com- plexitycouldbedevelopedinapersoniffrequentlypresentedwithclear, directedinformationabouttheexistenceofmanyindividualdimensions. Goleman,Boyatzis,andMcKee’s(2002 ,38 )similarcontentionwasthat ‘leadership operates best through emotionally intelligent leaders who create resonance.’ A cognitive, complex person would be able to man- age better in situations in which the conditions for multi-dimensional dynamicsarepresented. Chang and Thorenou (2004 ) established five key leadership compe- tenciesformanagerswhomanagemulticulturalgroups,namelycultural empathy, learning of the job, communication competence, managerial skills,andpersonalstyle. Amongothers,the themes relatedtothese competencieswere: Cultural empathy: Cultural awareness, cultural understanding, re- spect for values, treating people as individuals, using different per- spectives andexperience inothercultures. Learningofthejob:Adaptingtothecontext,curiosity,willingnessto learn,toleranceforambiguityandbeingobservant. Communication competence: Listening, open-door policy, clear ex- pression,non-verbalnuances,knowingotherlanguages. Generic managerial skills: Motivating, consulting, human resource factions, conflictresolution,planning,goalandtaskfocus, budget- ing. Personal style: Emotionalstability. Gudykunst (1988 ) furthermore suggested a number of competencies for effective interpersonal and inter-group communication, including, amongothers,toleranceforambiguity,abilitytoempathiseandtheabil- itytogatheranduseappropriateinformation. Lockwood (2005 ) adapted the competencies for diversity manage- ment: Active,non-judgmentlistening; Willingnesstochangeone’sownconceptsaboutdiversity; Collaborationskills; Experiencewithconflictresolutionandchangemanagement; Sensitivity towardstermslabellinggroupsregardingdiversity; Abilitytoidentifydiversityissues andunderstandrelated tensions; Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 230 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga Interculturalteambuilding–abilitytoexpressrespectandappreci- ation; Opennesstolearningaboutotherswhoaredifferent; Abilityto educateothersonhowtobuilddiversepeopleskills;and Abilityto provideappropriateresponses. Human(2005 ,45 ),referringtoMintzberg’s(2004 )competencymodel, described similarcompetenciesofcognitivelycomplexindividuals. Against this background, requisite leadership competencies inherent to leadership styles are addressed, inviewofthe overallaim,to establish the kindsofleadershipstyles required byorganisations. InteractiveLeadershipStylesTheory McClelland(1975 )tracedthedevelopmentofthe humanneedforpower and identified the various forms of expression an individual’s power orientation may take. Grobler et al. (2006 , 218 ) describe the achieve- ment motivation created by McClelland (1975 ) as almost as popular as Maslow’shierarchyofneeds. Goleman et al. (2002 ) also specifically referred to McClelland’s (1975 ) contributions. McClelland (1975 ) proposed that if an organisation wan- ted to appoint or promote the best person for a specific job, such as a leadershipposition,itshoulddiscardpreviousstandardcriteria. McClelland (1975 ) emphasised three needs, namely (a) achievements, (b)affiliationand(c)power.Theneedtoachieve(N-Ach)isdefinedasa preoccupation with focusing on goals. The need for affiliation (N-Affil) motivates people to make friends, to associate with other people and to become members of a group. The need for power (N-Pow) refers to the need to obtain and exercise control over others. McClelland contended thatagoodmanagerhasagreater needforpowerthanforachievement. McClelland and Burnham (1976 ) found that good managers appreciate anddesireinfluenceandimpact(HallandHawker1988 ,12 ).McClelland (1975 ) regarded management’sbehaviour as a function of the character- istics of managers in interaction with the situation in which managers findthemselves.Managerswillinteractinamannerthattheyfindintrin- sically satisfying because of their unconsciousbeliefs. McClelland (1975 ) explainedsixmanagerialstylesandmatchingbehaviouralpatternswhich managersapplytosituationstheyencounter: Cohesion –immediatecompliance; Authoritarian–firmbutfair; Affiliative–peoplefirst; ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 231 Democratic –commitmentthroughparticipation; Pacesetting–achievementtoahigh levelofexcellence;and Coaching –developinguniquestrengthsforthefuture. According to McClelland (1975 ), the most effective style depends on thepeople,thetaskandthesituationthatneedstobemanaged. DavidBurnhamandInteractiveLeadership In2003 ,Burnham(2003 )extendedthestudyheconductedwithMcClel- land in the late 1990 s and studied the performance of 140 leaders in 18 organisations. He found that the high performers continued to fall in thepowermotive,butthattheirorientationtowardpowerhadchanged. Inthe1970 s, he said institutionalleaderssawthemselvesasthe source of power, whereas ‘today the interactive leaders tend to derive power from others, the team, groups and organizations’ (Burnham 2003 , 39 ). Lead- ership ‘was nowsomething to be donewith others, whereas in the1970 s itwassomethingdonetoothers’ (Burnham2003 ,40 ). Burnham (2003 )believestheageoftheinstitutionalleaderhasended. He referred to the social, psychological, technological and economic trends that have converged to demand this change, which influence the assumptions that motivate leadership. According to him, few Baby Boomers, late Generation X’ers and some women bring with them the assumptionsoftheold-styleheromodelofleadership.Burnham’s(2003 ) research showed that almost60 %ofsuperiorperforming groups are led by people with interactive profiles. The interactive leadership approach relies on communication skills. Viewed from a symbolic interactionist perspective, it is concluded that, in interaction with leaders, individuals rely on meaningful reflexive interaction and thus on personally signifi- cant and emotional connections through communication. Referring to the leader competency areas of Mintzberg’s (2004 ) model and the di- versitymanagementcomponentsfoundbyChangandThorenou(2004 ) and suggested by Human (2005 ), the following model is illustrated in figure1 . Symbolicinteractiveengagingleadershipcompetencymodelinclusive of diversity management, adapted from Mintzberg (2004 ), Chang and Thorenou(2004 )andHuman(2005 ) Mintzberg’sLeadershipCompetencyModel The work of Mintzberg (2004 ) supports the aforementioned work and applicationofMcClellandandBurnham(1976 ).Theapproachsuggested Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 232 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga Personal manage- mentcompetence Introspection and self- management(theI andtheme);Emo- tionalintelligence Leadershipcompetence Developing,coachingand mentoring;Teambuilding; Organisationalculture; Changemanagement; Workstreammanagement Interpersonal man- agementcompetence Gestures;Communication: verbalandnon-verbal; Symbolicandnon symbolicinteraction Actionalmanage- mentcompetence Schedulingandplanning; Administration;Decision- making;Mobilisation Diversitymanage- mentcompetence Adaptability to in- ternalandexternal contextual factors, Opennesstodiversity Symbolic interaction inthediverse andinclusive workplace figure1 Interactive engagingleadershipcompetency model by McClelland (1975 ) and Burnham (2003 ) forms the basis of the lead- ership style instrumentandMintzberg’s model used inthe empirical re- search of this article. Leadership styles are interactive by nature. Of the- oreticalinterestisMintzberg’s (2004 )conceptualisationofvariousinter- personal,informationprocessinganddecision-makingrolesthataman- ager may perform, since it relates to the process of managing (Parker et al.1997 ,121 ). theheroicandaffiliativemanager Mintzberg (2004 , 119 ) boldly suggested that contemporary leadership training leads to the placement of managers in senior positions ‘who are too smart, too confident, too self-serving and too disconnected.’ He termed this style ‘heroic,’ which is directly comparablewith McClelland andBurnham’s(1976 )‘personalachievement.’ engagingmanagers Mintzberg (2004 ) opined further that ‘engaging managers’ should re- place ‘heroic’ managers in organisations. To manage is to bring out the positive energy that exists naturally within people. Managing therefore ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 233 meansengaging,basedonjudgment,rootedincontext.Leadershipissa- cred trust, earned from the respect of others. It seems that an engaging leader is directly comparable with the socialised manager described by Burnham (2003 ). ‘An understanding of the role of culture in the practical management ofdiversityrequiresthecognitivecomplexitytomanagebothsimultane- ously’ (Human 1996 , 19 ). Human linked Mintzberg’s (2004 )‘engaging leadership’ with McClelland and Burnham’s (1976 ) institutional man- ager. Although it is suggested that all individual leaders are a unique combinationofthestyles described byMcClelland andBurnham (1976 ) – personalised, socialised, affiliation – it is suggested that management stylesarenotrandomlydistributedwithinnaturalworkgroupsandthat apervasivestylewouldbefoundinorganisations. Mintzberg’sTypologyofLeadershipStylesAlignedwith McClellandandBurnham Mintzberg’sleadershipstylesarecomparablewithMcClellandandBurn- ham’s (1976 )leadership motivesandcouldbepresented asa typologyof leadership styles, ranging frompredominantly‘personalised’ (heroic) at oneextremetohighly affiliativeonthe other, withtwo‘outliers,’ namely fight/flightleadershipstyleandevenleadership.Thetypology,originated byHuman(1996 ),is illustratedinfigure2 . It is conceivable that the heroic leadership style could be experienced asacknowledging andevenvaluingdiversity, but that an engaging lead- ership style could be experienced as actively managing diversity. Lead- ership styles in the workplace will be determined referring to McClel- land and Burnman’s (1976 ) leadership styles, comparable to Mintzberg (2004 ), as presented in the typology of leadership styles. The character- istics of each of these types, according to the seven-point typology (x axis),areillustratedasmeasuredonascalefromzero to100 (yaxis),and couldincludethefollowing: Heroic management style: Obtain performance or delivery at the ex- pense of relationship; Is perceived as autocratic; Create ‘parent-child re- lationships;’Disempoweredsubordinates;Tellratherthanaskandlisten; Are perceived as poor managers of diversity; Damage the dignity, self- respect andself-confidenceofothers. Inviewofthehighachievementdriveassociatedwithleadershipstyle, itisassumedthattheheroicleadershipstylewouldobtaindiversityman- agementdeliveryasdirected andmotivated bylegislation. Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 234 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga Highlypersonalised Heroic ⇒Highpersonalisedpower Heroictendencies ⇒ Tends to pull towards the heroic Engaging ⇒Engagingleadership Affiliativetendencies ⇒Tendstoputrelationshipsbeforeoutput/performance Affiliative ⇒Stress relationships at the expense of performance Fight/flight ⇒Highpersonalised;highaffiliation;lowsocialised No trends ⇒Nosignificantstatisticaldifferences Highlyaffiliative figure2 TypologyofMintzberg’sleadershipstyle Heroic tendencies management style: The social power level is higher than in the heroic style. However,there is no statistically significant dif- ference (less than 25 points) between the socialised and personalised power levels. These mangers are more likely to: Tend towards heroic management,particularlyintimesofstressorpressure;Getthejobdone; however,someteammembersmayfeeldisempoweredintheprocess;Be perceivedbythosewithlowerlevelsofpersonalisedpowerastendingto- wards being autocraticandas communicatingin a parent-child way; Be perceivedbysomeasnotaparticularlygoodmanagerofdiversity. Engaging leadership style: These people are high in socialised power, slightly lower in personalised power (±25 points) and low in affiliation. Engaging leaders tend to: Get the job done through others; Be very as- sertivebutneveraggressive;Berespected fortheircommitment;Provide open, honest, constructivefeedback on performance; Be non-defensive, can give and receive; Be builders of systems and people; Be sources of strength; Promote adult-adult relationships; Be perceived as effective managersofdiversity Affiliative tendencies leadership style: These people tend to be high in socialised power, but have a higher level of affiliation than personalised power. Managers with affiliative tendencies will tend to: Deliver, but place relationship before delivery especially in time of stress or crisis; Avoidconflict;Besomewhat laissezfairandsometimes not insist onthe achievement of high and challenging goals; Sometimes be perceived as inconsistentandoccasionallyunfair;Bedefensive,especiallywhenbeing criticised; Not sure ofthe strength of otherpeople; Create some frustra- tionamongheroicmanagers. Affiliativeleadershipstyle:Theaffiliativeissignificantlyhigherthanthe ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 235 personalisedandsocialisedpower(morethan25 points).Affiliativeman- agers tend to: Put relationship before performance; Have a need for ap- proval; Lack self-confidence; Avoid conflict; Make ad hoc decisions that canlead to them beingperceived as inconsistentor unfair; Be defensive; Notprovideeffectiveleadershipanddirection;Createfrustrationamong colleagues; Create a‘nice atmosphere.’ Thomas and Ely (2002 ) described the effect of their diversity man- agement paradigms on work group functioning in a qualitative study ofthreeprofessionalorganisations,withtheaimoftheorydevelopment. Theyfoundthreeunderlyingperceptionsofdiversity,namelyintegration andlearning,accessandlegitimacy,anddiscriminationandfairnessper- ceptions. These perceptions, they claimed, ‘are governed by how mem- bers of work groups create and respond to diversity’ (Ely and Thomas 2001 ,239 ). Viewed from the discrimination and fairness paradigm, managerial processes aim to ensure that employees are treated equally and that no oneisgivenanunfairadvantageoverothers(ElyandThomas2001 ).The more diverse the business becomes, the more it would become legiti- mate. It needs employees with multilingual skills to serve clients better and so gain legitimacy with them (Thomas and Ely 1996 , 25 ). Thomas and Ely (2002 ) were of the view that assimilation pushes ‘sameness’ too much, anddifferentiation‘overshoots’ inthe otherdirection. ThomasandEly(2002 )concludedthatallthreeparadigmapproaches to diversity managementcouldsucceed to some extent, butonly the in- tegrationandlearningperspectivescontainarationalethatwillmotivate management and employees in a sustained manner to ensure the long- termsuccessofadiversityprogramme. EmpiricalAnalysisandDiscussion The aim of this article is to determine the kind of competency leader- ship styles that organisations need to develop to establish a positive ex- perience of diversity management in order to continue to be successful. The specific objective was to determine what the experience of diversity management is in selected workplaces – whether this experience differs alongrace,genderandgenerationallines;whatthepredominantleader- ship styles in organisations are; and more particularly, whether the ex- perience of diversity management is related to the prevalent leadership style. To address the research question, two instruments are used and the Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 236 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga results thereof analysed.A diversity managementquestionnaire,aligned withthediversitymanagementfactormodelofRobertson(2004 ),isused to determine the experience of diversity managementin selected organ- isations. The leadership styles in these selected businesses were deter- mined using the Hall and Hawker Power Managementand Style Inven- tory (Hall and Hawker 1988 ). In order to achieve the objectives of the study,theexperienceofdiversitymanagementisinvestigatedandthere- sults arepresented.Thereafter, prevalentleadership styles inthe selected organisations are determined and the results discussed. Havingassessed these tworesearch constructs,theresults oftheleadershipstylesandex- perience of diversity management are correlated in order to achieve the aimofthis study. Experience of diversity management is considered to be the develop- ment variable, and leadership style as the independent variable in the research model. Race, gender and generational differences are regarded asexplanatorymoderators. The empirical study includes two main components, namely leader- ship style and experience of diversity management. The research ques- tions are studied through an intensive, focused examination of the em- pirical context for the purpose of analysis, in accordance with symbolic interactionmethodology. The populationof this study into theexperience of diversity manage- ment is2669 (N = 2669 ) respondents from 11 (N = 11 )di fferent work- places nationally. Leadership styles were obtained from 440 (N = 440 ) leaders in the same11 workplaces. The population of this study into the correlationbetweenleadershipstyleandexperienceofdiversitymanage- ment is the 11 (N = 11 ) participating workplaces. The Cronbach alpha valuesweredeterminedinordertoindicateinternalvalidityandreliabil- ity. An acceptable Cronbach value of0 .5 was used. The Cronbach alpha valuesforthequestionnaireitemsvariedbetween0 .61 and0 .81 . surveyinstrument Robertson’s (2004 ) final five-factor model indicted factors comparable to and inclusive of the three paradigms of Thomas and Ely (2002 )– Robertson’s factor 1 (the fairness factor) aligns with Thomas and Ely’s discrimination and fairness paradigm; Robertson’s factor2 (representa- tion of diverse groups) aligns with the access and legitimacy paradigm; andRobertson’sfactor3 (leadership’s commitment)wasthesameasthe learningandeffectivenessparadigm.Robertsonfoundthesethreefactors ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 237 to be conceptually distinct. The remaining two factors (4 and 5)(em- ployeeinvolvementinworksystemsanddiversity-relatedoutcomessuch aslearning,growthandflexibility) areindicatorsofinclusionasdefined atthe outset ofthe theoretical study.The lasttwofactors,although sim- ilar, were separated. The results of Roberston’s study suggest that factor 4 characterises organisations that are diverse, and factor 5 characterises organisationsthatareinclusive. The questionnaires were designed as assessment tools for measuring the degree to which employees experience attributes of diversity man- agement, ranging from practices to increase the representation of des- ignated groups to the broader people management initiatives intended to facilitate employee participation and engagement, learning and de- velopment in the organisation. The three main sections of the instru- ment include Robertson’s factors (2004 ) and Thomas and Ely’s (2002 ) paradigms.QuestionsweregroupedintermsofRobertson’sthree-factor model. The remaining factors (4 and 5 ) were incorporated in the three sectionsofthequestionnaire. Tocommentonthepracticalsignificanceofgroups, standardiseddif- ferencesbetweenthemeansofthepopulationareused.Cohen(1988 ),as referred to by Ellis and Steyn (2003 ), provided guidelines for the inter- pretation of effect size as: small effect: d = 0 .2 , medium effect d = 0 .5 and large effect: d ≥ 0 .8 .Inthisarticle,datawithd larger than and equal to 0 .8 are considered practically significant. It is furthermore im- portant to know whether a relationship between age, gender and race andthefactorondiversitymanagementispracticallysignificant.Thear- ticle seeks to determine whether the relationship is large enough to be important. In this article, the guideline by Cohen (1988 ), as referred to byEllisandSteyn(2003 ),isusedasfollows:smalleffectw= 0 .1 ,medium effectw= 0 .3 andlargeeffect:w= 0 .5 .Arelationshipwithw largerthan andequalto0 .5 isconsideredpracticallysignificant.TheSpearmanrank order correlation coefficient is used, and also serves as an effect size to indicate the strength of the relationship. Steyn (2005 ) provides guide- lines for the interpretation of correlation coefficients’ practical signifi- cance with r = 0 .1 small, r = 0 .3 medium and r = 0 .5 large. A parallel between the results of the diversity audit and leadership styles obtained fromthePowerManagementInventory (pmi ),aspresentedonthetypol- ogy of leadership, is drawn using these guidelines. The unit of analysis for the correlation between leadership style and the experience of diver- sity managementis the11 organisations. The analysisincludes data pre- Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 238 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga sentedinfrequenciesandmeans,usingthesas systemandspss system. The data are analysed by means of various appropriate statistical analy- sestoinfermeaning.Constructreliabilityandvalidationofthediversity management questionnaires were originally assessed and confirmed in pilot studies in a South African beverage enterprise from2004 to 2006 . The questionnaire was found suitable for this article. The Cronbach al- pha values were determined for each of the subscales included in the diversitymanagementquestionnaireusedinthisarticle.Theaveragein- terim correlation withthe total wasdetermined in orderto establish the strength of factor items. The ideal value between 0 .15 and0 .5 was used. The Cronbachalpha valuesof allsubscaleswere foundto fallwithin the required criteria (between0 .65 and0 .87 ). The general reliability and validation of leadership styles pmi (Hall and Hawker 1988 ) were assessed and confirmed with the motivational scales of the Edwards Preference Schedule (eps ). The report reliability of this inventory was assessed by coefficient alphas of 0 .77 for person- alised power (heroic leadership style), 0 .67 for socialised power (engag- ing leadership style) and 0 .74 for affiliative power, respectively. The di- versitymanagementquestionnairewassubjectedtotheinterrelationship analysisamongthenumberofvariables,andtoexplainthesevariablesin terms of their common underlying dimensions (factor), an exploratory factor analysis with principal component extraction and Varimax rota- tion(table1 )wasconducted. statistical analysisandtreatmentofthedata Construct reliability and validation of the diversity management ques- tionnaire were originally assessed and confirmed in pilot studies in a South African enterprise from 2004 to 2006 . The questionnaire was foundsuitableforthisstudy. The Cronbach alpha values (table2 ) were determined for each of the subscales included in the diversity management questionnaire used in this article. The average interim correlation with the total was deter- mined to establish the strength of factor items. The ideal value between 0 .15 and0 .5 wasused. The Cronbach alpha values of all subscales were found to fall within the required criteria (between 0 .65 and 0 .87 ), except for one question (‘People generally make racist comments’), which presented a negative correlationof–.007 withthetotalstandardisedvariables. The specific question was therefore removed from the section and ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 239 table 1 Varimaxrotatedfactorforrepresentation ofdiverse groups– staffingand peoplemanagement Representation ofdiverse groups (1)( 2 ) Receiving openandhonestfeedback onperformance 0 .76 — Performanceisregularly appraised 0 .72 — Enoughpressure onmanagerstodevelopdiversityofstaff0 .68 — Satisfiedwiththewaytalentandpotentialhavebeen assessed 0 .67 0 .34 Trainingisbasedonindividualneeds 0 .65 — Defined targetstoimprove diversity 0 .64 — Peoplewhodeservepromotionsgetthem 0 .59 0 .45 Recruitment andselection policiesarefair 0 .58 0 .41 Individual career plansare inplace 0 .58 — Employees are regularly consultedaboutdiversity 0 .51 — Whatyouknowandhowyouperformgetapromotion — 0 .81 Increasingdiversitydoes notlowerstandards 0 .30 0 .62 notes Column headings are as follows: (1 ) performance management – factor 1,( 2 ) standardofwork–factor2 . table 2 Cronbachalphacoefficientvaluesfordiversitymanagementsubscales Factor Alpha value Section2 :Leadershipcommitment–strategicalignment 0 .82 Section3 :Representation ofdiverse groups – staffingandpeoplemanagement 0 .87 Section4 :Treatmentfairness–diversitymanagement* 0 .65 notes *Question2 has been removed from this subscale treated as a separate entity in analysis. The discrimination values in- dicated by the individual Cronbach alpha values for deleted questions (sections 2 to 4 ) are presented in table 2 . To answer the research ques- tions, which arose from the objectives of the research towards the over- all aim of this article, a survey was undertaken in 11 organisations from selected companies. The diversity management questionnaire used was found to be inclusive of the five-factor diversity and inclusion manage- ment model of Robertson (2004 ) and paradigms of Thomas and Ely (1996 ;2001 ;2002 ). researchfindings What is the experience of employees with regard to diversity manage- mentinallselectedorganisations? Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 240 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga The mean scores of the items included in each of the three factors (factor scores) were determined for each respondent so that the factor scores are interpretable on the original Likert scale (1 = very negative; 2 = negative;3 =neutral;4 = positive;5 = very positive). Throughout the descriptive results,referencetothemeanofthefactorscoresisindicated usingthesymbolm and‘sd ’toindicatestandarddeviation. Most of the mean scores for the experience of diversity management for all three main factors were somewhat neutral, with a tendency to- wardsthenegativeforFactors1 and2 .Respondentsleanedmoretowards the positive forFactor3 . An interesting aspect isthat the meanscore for Factor 3 (diversity treatment fairness), was visibly more positive (m = 3 .19 ) compared to the meanscoresforFactor1 (leadership commitment to diversity strategic alignment)–m =2 .85 (d =0 .41 )andFactor2 (rep- resentation of diverse groups – staffing and people management)– m = 2 .85 (d=0 .47 ).Thisimpliesthatemployeesarevisiblylesspositiveinas- sessingthatleadersaregenuinelycommittedtothestrategicalignmentof diversity management and the people management process than about social interaction between race, gender and age groups and that work processesarefair. Themeanscoresforeachitemincludedinthethreemainfactorswere regarded as significant in understanding the specific diversity manage- mentexperience. Because the majority ofthe organisationswere in the production sec- tor, by far the largest number of respondents (63 %) was designated in termsoftheEmploymentEquityAct(No661998 ),beingblackAfricans, colouredandIndian,while37 %werewhiterespondents.Themajorityof the respondents were traditionally male (78 .7 %), while only21 .3 %were females. The results show that respondents are mostly neutral to positive in their belief that managers are genuinely committed to racial andgender equality, while they seem negative about senior management’s commit- menttoemployingpeoplewithdisabilities.Respondentstendtoremain neutral to positive in the belief that communication on diversity issues is not experienced as effective. The mean scores for factor 2 items indi- cated a more negative experience related to diversity representation and thepeoplemanagementprocesses. In general, respondents indicated a somewhat negative experience for factor 2 . While respondents were neutral about whether clearly de- fined targets exist, they tend to be somewhat more negative in their ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 241 response that people management and staffing practices are fair. Re- spondents disagreed (m =2 .9 ) that individual career plans are in place, or that recruitment and selection practices are fair (m = 2 .8 ). Similarly, they did not experience promotion practices as fair (m = 2 .7 ). Respon- dents were also negative in their response to ‘it is who you know’rather than ‘what you know and how you perform’ that results in promotions (m =2 .9 ). While respondents were neutral (m = 3 .0 ) in their view that they re- ceiveopenandhonest feedback,they were morenegative aboutthe skill ofmanagerstodevelopsubordinates(m =2 .7 )orthatenoughpressureis put on managers to develop subordinates (m =2 .7 ). Moreover, respon- dentstended to be negative about regular performance appraisal occur- rences (m =2 .9 )orthattrainingisbasedonindividualneeds. Respondents specifically appear relatively neutral to positive in their experienceofgreetingeachotherregardless ofrace(m =3 .08 ),mixingat social functions (m =3 .0 ) and being willing to learn about each other’s cultures(m =3 .0 ). This might indicate a degree of intercultural sensitivity and a sense of appropriate social behaviourism. Although social interaction scores for the experience of treatment fairness (Factor3 ) are mostly neutral to positive, it is interesting to note that the experience of racist and sexist commentsis somewhatmore negative. Itwouldappear asif sexist com- mentsmightberegardedasslightlymoreprevalent(m =2 .68 )compared toracistcommentsmade(m =2 .99 ). Respondents indicated that ‘Black people accuse white people of racismwhencriticised’(m =3 .4 ),whiletheywereslightlynegativeabout women accusing men of sexism when they are criticised (m = 2 .8 ). Of note is that respondents generally disagreed that ‘White people believe reversediscriminationexists’ intheworkplace(m =3 .4 ). Generally,theseresultscouldindicatethat overtdiscriminationisnot experienced.Theexperienceofstaffing,peopledevelopmentandleader- shipcommitmentpractices isless positive. For the purpose of analysing the relationship between the experience of diversity management and leadership style, the respondent leaders were considered as a proportion of the leaders in each workplace with certainleadershipstyles.Mintzberg’s(2004 )leadershipstylesarecompa- rablewithMcClellandandBurnham’s(1976 )leadershipmotivesandare referred to as a typology of the leadership styles, ranging from predom- inantly ‘personalised’ (heroic) at one extreme, engaging at midpoint, to Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 242 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga table 3 Correlationbetween leadership styleanddiversity managementfactors (1)( 2)( 3)( 4)( 5)( 6)( 7)( 8 ) Factor1 –0 .35 0 .15 0 .35 –0 .17 0 .10 –0 .47 0 .02 Factor2 –0 .41 0 .04 0 .44 –0 .05 0 .19 –0 .36 0 .19 Factor3 –0 .06 0 .09 0 .22 –0 .01 –0 .09 –0 .38 –0 .01 q1 .1 –0 .26 0 .10 0 .33 –0 .08 –0 .10 –0 .51 –0 .11 q2 .1 –0 .20 0 .05 0 .38 –0 .11 0 .05 –0 .55 –0 .07 q8 .3 –0 .58 0 .17 0 .47 –0 .15 0 .31 –0 .12 0 .38 d d20 .63*– 0 .03 –0 .69 * 002 –0 .03 0 .24 –0 .07 notes Columnheadings are asfollows:(1)variable,(2 )heroic,(3 ) heroic tendencies, (4 )engaging,(5 )affiliativetendencies,(6 )affiliative,(7 )fight/flight,(8 )even.Spearman rankordercorrelations,md pair wisedeleted. *p< .05 . highlyaffiliativeattheother,withtwo‘outliers,’namelyfight/flightlead- ership style andevenleadership. TheresultsoftheSpearmanrankordercorrelationsarepresented(ta- ble3 ) next, to determine the relationship between the experience of di- versitymanagementandleadershipstyle,andmorespecificallytoestab- lish whether an engaging leadership style yields a more positive experi- enceofdiversitymanagement,assuggested bythetheoretical study. The Spearman rank order coefficient r = 0 .3 is regarded as a medium prac- tical or visible relationship and r = 0 .5 is regarded as large and a rela- tionshipimportantinpracticetodeterminetherelationshipbetweenthe two variables. The Spearman rank order correlation is indicated using the symbol ‘sr .’Spearman rankorder correlations(sr ) between leader- ship styles andthe three mainfactors were determined. For the purpose ofthesecorrelations,threespecificquestionsaboutleadershipstylefrom factors1 and3 wereincluded.Thesewere:‘seniormanagersaregenuinely committed to racial equality’ (question 1,section1 , referred to as q1 .1 hereafter), ‘Senior managers are genuinely committed to gender equal- ity’(question2 ,section1 ,referredtoasq2 .1 hereafter)and‘Mymanager generally treats me with dignity and respect’ (question 8 ,section3 ,re- ferredtoasq8 .3 hereafter). In addition, Spearman rank order correlations were determined for Dd2 ‘People generally make racist comments.’ Large significant correla- tionsareindicatedintable3 . Table 6 shows that heroic leadership style correlates visibly negatively withfactor1 andfactor2 ,aswellasbeingpracticallysignificantwithq8 .3 ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 243 (‘My managergenerally treatsme with dignity andrespect’). Consistent with the Mintzberg model (2004 ),and McClelland and Burnham’s the- ory(1976 ),theengagingleadershipstylecorrelatesvisiblypositivelywith factor 1,factor2 , q1 .1 and q2 .1 and is practically significant with q8 .3 . The fight/flight leadership style shows a practically significant negative correlationwith factor1 ,q1 .1 andq2 .1 anda visiblynegative correlation withfactors2 and3 .Itisinterestingtonotethatnopracticallysignificant positive correlations were established for leaders with heroic tendency leadershipstyles. Ontheotherhand,theengagingleadershipstyleresultedinamedium positive practically significant correlation with most of the dimensions measured in this study. As could be expected, the affiliative and even styles appear to correlate positively with the experience of being treated with dignity and respect by the manager, whereas the fight/flight style correlatesnegativelywithfactors1 ,2 and3 . Quitesignificantinthesespecific resultsisthestrongpositivecorrela- tion(sr =0 .63 )betweentheheroicstyleandDd2 (‘racistcommentsgen- erally made’), whereas a negative correlation exists between such com- ments and engaging leaders (sr =– 0 .69 ). The theoretical explanation of behaviour associated with the heroic leadership style suggested that the heroic leadership style could lead to communication that could be perceivedasundignifiedandnot‘raceandgenderfree.’ From the information above, it is clear that the predominant leader- shipstyleisaffiliativetendencyandaffiliative(43 %forthecombinedper- centage). Heroic and heroic tendencies measure36 % (for the combined percentages), as the alternative styles in the 11 workplaces. Mintzberg’s (2004 )preferredengagingleadershipstyleislesscommonlyfoundinthe workplaces(12 %). ConclusionandContributions The aim of the article was to determine the kind of leadership compe- tencystylesformanagersinorganisationsandtodevelopandestablisha positive experience of diversity management in order to continue to be successful.Thespecificobjectivewastodeterminethediversitymanage- ment experience in the workplaces, whether the experience of diversity differed between race,gender andgenerationalgroups andwhether this experience related toleadership style.The results suggest that the preva- lent leaders’ style in workplaces might be predictors of diversity man- agement experience. It appears as if cultivating an engaging leadership Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 244 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga style, asrobustlycampaignedforbyMintzberg (2004 ),couldcontribute to establishing a positive experience of diversity management. Diversity managementindeedbecomesaprocessofestablishinginteractiveengag- ingleadership. Leadershipcompetenciescentreontheabilitytoinfluenceco-operati- ve work towards achieving organisational objectives. Underlying all the competencies of Mintzberg (2004 ) is the ability to manage diversity in the ever-increasingly diverse workplace. As seen from the competency requirements of Chang and Thorenou (2004 ), these include respecting values, treating people as individuals and using different perspectives. The learning on the job competencies found in their study furthermore included tolerance for ambiguity and adapting to the context with cu- riosity andwillingnesstolearn. These competencies equally could be aligned with openness to diver- sity aspresented inthe five-factormodel of Robertson(2004 ).From the symbolic interactive perspective, this competency would in essence in- clude all the dimensions of the model, in that it requires an ability to adapt to the relevant situations, the ability to show empathy, commu- nicate openly and honestly. According to Mead (1936 ), ‘the novelaction of the “I” (leader) can cause changes in the attitudes of others’ (Perin- banayagam2005 ,348 ). Although fewer women participated in this study, male respondents are more positive than female respondents, except for one workplace, where a more engaging leadership style prevails. Understanding the in- fluence of leadership style may prove instrumental in understanding someofthedynamicsofthediversitymanagementexperience.Theolder therespondents,themorelikelytheyweretofavourengagingleadership styles.Mostracesfavourtheengagingleadershipstylewithapositiveex- perience of a negative one with fight/flight, whereas white respondents favour the heroic leadership style for diversity fairness and correlate negatively with the engaging leadership style for this factor. The em- pirical results of diversity experience, as understood from the inclusion and diversity model of Robertson (2004 ) as a component of leadership style,interpretedfromthecontemporaryinteractiveleadershiptheoryof McClelland (1975 ), McClelleand and Burnham (1976 ), Burnham (2003 ) and Mintzberg (2004 ), support the leadership/diversity competence model. Generally,the results of this study contribute to the understandingof leadershipasadiversity-relateddeterminantintheworldofwork. ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 245 References Bahaudin,G.,andS.Jatuporn.2009 .‘SituationalLeadershipandDiversity Management Coaching Skills.’ Journal of Diversity Management 4 (1 ): 1 –12 . Barrett, A., and J. Beeson.2002 . Develop Leaders for 2010 . New York: The ConferenceBoard ofCanada. Bledsoe, M. T., and R. J. Oatsvall. 2008 . ‘Diversity Management: A Pre- liminary Review of Selected Non-Profit North Carolina Independent CollegesandUniversities(ncicu ).’JournalofDiversityManagement3 (1 ):7 –13 . Burnham, D. 2003 .‘PrimeMotiveAveragePerformancecanbeT urned intoStars.ButtheirLeadershipDevelopmentNeedstoFocusonWhat Motivates Them –NotHow TheyBehave.’People Management,no.9 : 37 –39 . Chang. S., and M. P. Thorenou.2004 .‘Competencies Neededfor Manag- ingaMulticulturalWorkplace.’AsiaPacificJournalofHumanResources 42 (1 ):57 –74 . Cohan,J.1988 .StatisticalPowerAnalysisfortheBehaviourSciences.2 nded. Hillsdale,nj :Erlbaum. Crossan, M., and F. Oliviera. 2006 . ‘Cross-Enterprise Leadership: A New Approachforthe21 st Century.’Ivey Business Journal70 (5 ):1 –6 . Dreachlin, J.L.2007 .‘The RoleofLeadership inCreating aDiversitySen- sitiveOrganization.’ JournalofHealthcare Management 52 (3 ):151 –5 . Ellis,S.M.,andH.S.Steyn.2003 .‘PracticalSignificance(EffectSizes)ver- sus or in Combination with Statistical Significance (P Value).’ Man- agementDynamics12 (4 ):51 –3 . Ely,R.J.andD.A.Thomas.2001 .‘CulturalDiversityatWork:The Effects of Diversity Perspectives on Work Group Processes and Outcomes.’ Administrative ScienceQuarterly46 (2 ):229 –72 . Gentry ,W .A.,andM.Leslie.2007 . ‘Competencies for Leadership De- velopment: What’s Hot and What’s Not When Assessing Leadership- Implications for Organization Development.’ Organization Develop- mentJournal25 (1 ):37 –46 . Goleman,D .,R.Boyatzis,andM.A.McK ee.2002 . Primal Leadership: Learning to Lead with Emotional Intelligence. Boston, ma :Harvard BusinessSchool. Grobler ,P .,S.W arnich,M.R.Carrell,N.F .Elbert,andR.D.Hatfield. 2006 .HumanResourcesManagementin SouthAfrica.3 rd ed. London: Thomson. Gudykunst, W. B., ed.1988 .Language and EthnicIdentity. Clevedon:Mul- tilingualMatters. Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011 246 JanVisagie, HermanLinde, andWerner Havenga Hall, J., and J. Hawker.1988 .PowerManagementInventory.Woodland,tx : Teleometrics International. Harris, C. D.2005 . ‘Symbolic Interaction as Defined by Herbert Blumer.’ Http://www.cdharris.net/text/blumer.html. Hernez-Broome, G., and R. L. Hughes. 2006 . ‘Leadership Development: Past, Present andFuture.’HumanResourcesPlanning 27 :25 –31 . Human, L.1996 .ContemporaryConversations:Understanding andManag- ingDiversity intheModernWorld.Goree:Goree Institute. ———.2005 .‘Current Issuesand Practical RealitiesforGlobalDiversity.’ Paperdeliveredatastd2005 Conference,CapeTown,2 –4 February. Jiang,R.J.,Q.T .T ao,and,M.D.Santoro.2010 . ‘Alliance Portfolio Di- versity and Firm Performance.’ Strategic Management Journal 31 (10 ): 1136 –44 . Kets de Vries, M., and C. Mead. 1992 . ‘The Development of the Global Leader Within the Multinational Corporation.’ In Globalizing Man- agement:CreatingandLeadingtheCompetitiveOrganization,editedby V .Pucik,N.M.Tichy,andC.K.Barnetts:187 –205 .NewYork:Wiley. Leselie,J.B.,D.Dalton,C.Ernst,andJ.Deal.2002 . Managerial Effective- ness in a Global Context. Greensboro,nc : Centrefor Creative Leader- ship Report. Locwood,N.R.2005 .‘WorkplaceDiversity:LeveragingthePowerofDif- ferenceforCompetitiveAdvantage. ’Http://www.shrm.org/research/ quaterly/2005 /0605rq uart_essay.asp. Manna, R., and R. Morris. 2008 . ‘Strategic Aspects of the Importance of Employee Management.’ Journalof Diversity Management 3 (1 ):3226 – 31 . McClelland,D.1975 .Power:TheInner Experience. NewYork: Irvington. McClelland,D.,andD,H.Burnham.1976 . ‘Power istheGreat Motivator.’ HarvardBusiness Review54 (2 ):100 –10 . Mead, G. H. 1936 . Movements of Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress. Mintzberg, H.2004 .Managers notmba s.London:PrenticeHall. Parker,B.,R.K.Brown,J.Child,andM.A.Smith.1997 . The Sociology of Industry. London:Allenand Unwin. Perinbanayagam, R.S.2005 .‘TheOtherintheGame:MeadandWittgen- steinonInteraction.’InStudiesinSymbolicInteraction28 ,editedbyN. K.Denzin,341 –353 .Bingley:Emerald. Robertson, Q. M.2004 . Disentangling the Meanings of Diversity and In- clusion.Working Paper04 -05 ,CentreforAdvanced HumanResource Studies,Cornell. Steyn,H.S.2005 .‘Handleiding VirdieBepaling vanEffekgrootteIndekse ManagingGlobalTransitions Leadership CompetenciesforManaging Diversity 247 enPraktieseBetekenisvolheid.’http://www.puk.ac.za/fakulteit/ natuur/skd/index.html Thomas, D. A., and R. J. Ely. 1996 . Learning for the Future: Making the CaseforTeaching Diversity.HarvardBusiness Review 74 (5 ):79 –90 . ———.2001 .‘ANewParadigmforManagingDiversity.’HarvardBusiness Review 74 (5 ):79 –94 . ———.2002 .‘MakingDifferencesMatter:ANewParadigmforManaging Diversity.’HarvardBusiness Review74 (5 ):79 –90 . Von Mises, L. 1996 . Human Action: A Treatise on Economics. 3 rd ed. New York: ContemporaryBooks. Volume 9 · Number 3 ·Fall 2011