COBISS: 1.01 CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy RAZVOJ JAM IN KRASA V ALPAH V LUCI PALEOKLIME IN PALEOTOPOGRAFIJE Philippe AUDRA1, Alfredo BINI2, Franci GABROVŠEK3, Philipp HäUSELMANN4, Fabien HOBLéA5, Pierre-yves JEANNIN6, Jurij KUNAVER7, Michel MONBARON8, France ŠUŠTERŠIC9, Paola TOGNINI10, Hubert TRIMMEL11 & Andres wILDBERGER12 Abstract UDC 551.435.84(234.3) Philippe Audra, Alfredo Bini, Franci Gabrovšek, Philipp Häuselmann, Fabien Hobléa, Pierre-Yves Jeannin, Jurij Ku-naver, Michel Monbaron, France Šušteršic, Paola Tognini, Hubert Trimmel & Andres Wildberger: Cave and Karst evolution in the Alps and their relation to paleoclimate and paleo-topography Progress in the understanding of cave genesis processes, as well as the intensive research carried out in the Alps during the last decades, permit to summarize the latest knowledge about Alpine caves. Te phreatic parts of cave systems develop close to the karst water table, which depends on the spring position, which in turn is generally related to the valley bottom. Tus, caves are directly linked with the geomorphic evolution of the surface and refect valley deepening. Te sediments deposited in the caves help to reconstruct the morphologic succession and the paleoclimatic evolution. Moreover, they are the only means to date the caves and thus the landscape evolution. Caves appear as soon as there is an emersion of limestone from the sea and a water table gradient. Mesozoic and early tertiary paleokarsts within the alpine range prove of these ancient emersions. Hydrothermal karst seems to be more widespread than previously Izvlecek UDK 551.435.84(234.3) Philippe Audra, Alfredo Bini, Franci Gabrovšek, Philipp Häuselmann, Fabien Hobléa, Pierre-Yves Jeannin, Jurij Ku-naver, Michel Monbaron, France Šušteršic, Paola Tognini, Hubert Trimmel & Andres Wildberger: Razvoj krasa in jam v Alpah v luci paleoklime in paleotopografje V clanku predstavimo nova spoznanja o razvoju alpskih jam. Ta temeljijo na sintezi novih dognanj o procesih speleogeneze in rezultatih intenzivnih terenskih raziskav v Alpah v zadnjih desetletjih. Razvoj freaticnih delov jamskih sistemov poteka v bližini freaticne površine, ki je vezana na položaj izvirov, ti pa so vezani na dno alpskih dolin. Torej je razvoj jam neposredno vezan na geomorfološki razvoj terena in poglabljanje dolin. Jamski sedimenti nosijo informacijo o zaporedju morfoloških in klimatskih dogodkov. Še vec, dolocanje starosti jam in poteka razvoja površja, je možno edino z datacijo jamskih sedimen-tov. Razvoj jam se zacne ob emerziji apnenca in vzpostavitvi hidravlicnega gradienta. Mezocojski in zgodnje terciarni pa-leokras v obmocju Alp so dokaz starih emerzij. Hidrotermalni kras je ocitno bolj razširjen, kot so domnevali v preteklosti. Te jame so bile pozneje preoblikovane z meteorno vodo, ki je zabrisala sledi zgodnjega hipogenega zakrasevanja. Ledeniki zavi- 1 équipe Gestion et valorisation de l’environnement, UMR 6012 “ESPACE” CNRS, University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis, 98 boulevard édouard Herriot, BP 209, 06204 Nice cedex, France (audra@unice.fr). 2 Dipartimento di Scienze della terra, Università di Milano, via Mangiagalli 34, 20133 Milano, Italy (alfredo.bini@unimi.it) 3 Karst research Institute ZRC SAZU, Titov trg 2, 66230 Postojna, Slovenia (gabrovsek@zrc-sazu.si) 4 Institut suisse de spéléologie et de karstologie (ISSKA), CP 818, 2301 La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (praezis@speleo.ch) 5 EDyTEM, Université de Savoie, 73376 Le Bourget cédex (Fabien.Hoblea @ univ-savoie.fr) 6 Institut suisse de spéléologie et de karstologie (ISSKA), CP 818, 2301 La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (info@isska.ch) 7 Hubadova ulica 16, 61000 Ljubljana, Slovenia (jurij.kunaver@siol.net) 8 Département de géosciences/géographie, ch. du Musée 4, Université de Fribourg, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland (michel.monbaron@unifr.ch) 9 Dept. of Geology NTF, University of Ljubljana, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia (france.sustersic@ntfgeo.uni-lj.si) 10 via Santuario inferiore, 33/D, 23890 Barzago (LC), Italy (paolatognini@iol.it) 11 Draschestrasse 77, 1230 wien, Austria (Hubert.Trimmel@refex.at) 12 Dr. von Moos AG, Engineering Geology, 8037 Zürich, Switzerland (wildfsch@bluewin.ch) Received/Prejeto: 01.12.2006 TIME in KARST, POSTOJNA 2007, 53–67 PHILIPPE AUDRA, ALFREDO BINI, FRANCI GABROVŠEK, PHILIPP HäUSELMANN, FABIEN HOBLéA, PIERRE-yVES JEANNIN, ... presumed. Tis is mostly due to the fact that usually, hydrothermal caves are later reused (and reshaped) by meteoric waters. Rock-ghost weathering is described as a new cave genesis agent. On the contrary, glaciers hinder cave genesis processes and fll caves. Tey mainly infuence cave genesis indirectly by valley deepening and abrasion of the caprock. All present dat-ings suggest that many alpine caves (excluding paleokarst) are of Pliocene or even Miocene age. Progress in dating methods (mainly the recent evolution with cosmogenic nuclides) should permit, in the near future, to date not only Pleistocene, but also Pliocene cave sediments absolutely. Key Words: Karst, Cave genesis, Alps, Glaciations, Messinian event, Paleoclimate, Paleotopography. rajo procese speleogeneze in zapolnjujejo jame. Na razvoj jam vplivajo posredno, preko poglabljanja dolin in brušenja površja. Novejše datacije kažejo, da so številne jame v Alpah pliocenske ali celo miocenske starosti. Nove datacijske metode - predvsem metoda kozmogenih nuklidov - bodo omogocile absolutno datacijo sedimentov do pliocenske starosti. Kljucne besede: kras, geneza jam, Alpe, poledenitve, mesinska stopnja. INTRODUCTION Progress in cave exploration and cave genesis studies (Audra 1994, Jeannin 1996, Palmer 2000) permitted to recognize the potential of caves for the study of landscape evolution, valley deepening and thus erosion rates and climate changes (Häuselmann et al. 2002; Bini et al. 1997). Most of the information that is sheltered within the cave’s morphology and sediments is no more avail- and timing of the landscape: Part I presents the latest results concerning cave genesis and their link with the landscape. Part II deals with new concepts about early cave genesis, including pre-existing karst systems (paleo-karst), hydrothermal karst, and pseudokarst. Many caves are older than the glaciations and glaciers generally are rather hindering cave genesis processes. Part III conse- able at the surface, mainly due to the intensive erosion, quently presents evidences supporting a high age of many especially during the glaciations. cave systems. In Part I V, ages obtained by diferent dating Tis article gives information about cave genesis methods prove that karst genesis in the Alps started far and its potential for the reconstruction of the evolution before the quaternary, as far as the Cretaceous. SETTING Te Alpine belt extends from Nice (France) to Vienna Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany and Slovenia). Karsts (Austria) into seven countries (France, Switzerland, Italy, and caves are found in each country, the largest karst ar-eas being located in periphery (Fig. 1). All massifs are dissected by deep-ly entrenched valleys which divide continuous structures into diferent physiographic units. Annual pre-cipitation range from 1500 to more than 3000 mm. Te French western Prealps consist of folded and thrusted mas-sifs of mainly Cretaceous rocks. Te elevation ranges generally between Fig. 1: map of the alpine karsts (dark color) with location of the mentioned massifs (karst areas afer: buzio & Faverjon 1996; mihevc 1998; Stummer & Pavuza 2001; Wildberger & Preiswerk 1997. map: d. Cardis). 54 TIME in KARST – 2007 CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy 1000 and 2000 m. Te Vercors displays a landscape of ridges and valleys, whereas the Chartreuse presents a steep, inverted relief. Te Central Swiss Alps harbors the highest alpine karst areas at Jungfrau (3470 m ASL). Te Siebenhengste (2000 m ASL) and the Hölloch-Silberen (2450 m ASL) consist of nappes of Cretaceous and Eocene rocks. Te Italian Southern Alps are located to the south of the Insubric Line. Te carbonate rocks range in age from Carboniferous to Cretaceous-Eocene. Tey are deformed and displaced by S-vergent thrusting and large scale fold-ing. Te elevation ranges from 200 m to 2400 m ASL. Te basics of cave genesis are beyond the scope of this paper. Te reader can refer to the most comprehen-sive and up-to-date work Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers (Klimchouk et al. 2000). GENESIS OF CAVES AND MORPHOLOGy OF PASSAGES RELATED TO wATER TABLE POSITION water fowing into limestone corrodes and erodes the rock. Driven by gravity and geological structure, it fows down more or less vertically, until it reaches either the karst water table or impermeable strata. Ten it continues fowing more or less horizontally towards the spring, col-lecting water from other lateral passages. water fowing in the vadose (unsaturated) zone can only erode the foor of a gallery creating a meandering canyon. On the other hand, water fowing within the phreatic (saturated) zone corrodes over its whole cross-section, giving a rounded cross-section (Fig. 2). Te morphologies that are pre-served once the watercourses have been abandoned give information about the prevailing position of the phreatic zone during the genesis of the galleries. ~\s meander ^--' V floodwater level tube Fig. 2: An undulating phreatic tube is co-fed by a vadose meandering canyon, whose shape turns into a tube below the foodwater table. Te arrow marks the transition from vadose to phreatic. Te Northern Calcareous Alps in Austria are com-posed of a slightly folded succession of Trias limestones and dolomites with a thickness of more than 1000 m. Large plateaus extend from 1800 to 2200 m ASL. In the Slovenian Alps, the Julian and the Kamnik Alps correspond to the roots of the Austrian nappes. Tus the landscape is ofen similar, with plateaus and narrow steep ridges dominated by high peaks reaching more than 2800 m ASL. RECOGNITION OF CAVE GENESIS PHASES AND RELATION TO THE SPRING within the saturated zone, two geometric types of con-duits prevail (Ford 1977, 2000): 1) the water table caves, represented by horizontal conduits located at the top of the saturated zone; 2) the looping caves, represented by vertically lowering and rising conduits, whose amplitude may reach as much as 300 m, or even more. A “phase of cave genesis” corresponds to the network of active conduits related to a given (paleo)spring. As springs move together with valley bottoms, we usually fnd many diferent “phases of cave genesis” in a given karst region. As described on fgure 2 the transition between phreatic conduits (elliptical shape) and vadose ones occurs at the top of the epiphreatic zone, i.e. more or less at the top level reached by water during highwater stages. Due to headlosses, highwater level is inclined to-wards the outlet of the system, namely the karst spring (Jeannin 2001, Häuselmann 2003). Most of the time conduits are located within a given range of altitudes (sometimes more than 300 m) below the (inclined) water table limit. Tese conduits go up and down (hence their name: “loops”) within this range and towards the spring. Sometimes main conduits of a given phase can be followed for kilometers and display a phreatic morphology all along. Sometimes the highest passages clearly show vadose entrenchment because they were located higher than the top of the epiphreatic zone, at least most of the time. Reality is a little more complicated that exposed here (see Häuselmann et al. 2003 for instance), but the principle is the same. Te main exceptions to this model, linking quite directly the phases of cave genesis to the (paleo)spring positions, i.e. valley bottom, occur when GENERAL CONCEPTS OF CAVE GENESIS TIME in KARST – 2007 55 PHILIPPE AUDRA, ALFREDO BINI, FRANCI GABROVŠEK, PHILIPP HäUSELMANN, FABIEN HOBLéA, PIERRE-yVES JEANNIN, ... impervious barriers dam water somewhere inside the aquifer. SUCCESSION OF CAVE GENESIS PHASES, CAVE LEVELS RECORDING BASE LEVEL CHANGES If the spring lowers gradually, the cave system behind also adapts gradually by entrenchment to the new situation: no distinct phases exist. If the spring lowers in a stepwise manner, followed by a time of relative stability, the fowpath readjustment in the cave also occurs rap-idly and a new cave genesis phase develops. Calculations show that, once a proto-conduit has been formed, caves may evolve very rapidly, in the order of 10’000 years, to reach penetrable size (Palmer 2000). Terefore, afer a new entrenchment of a valley, pre-existing or newly cre-ated soutirages (Häuselmann et al. 2003) allow for the water to reach the spring level quite quickly and a new water table, i.e. phase of cave genesis is created (Fig. 3). Former conduits, perched in the vadose zone afer the deepen-ing of the karst system, are abandoned and remain dry (fossil passages). Provided that the cave genesis phases refect the deepening of the valleys through time, they give information for the reconstruction of paleorelief. Equivalent information at the surface is usually no longer present, mostly due to river or glacier erosion. In some cases, the base level may rise again afer a period of deepening (e.g. post-messinian inflling of the overdeepened canyons in the southern part of the Alps; Felber & Bini 1997). Tis caused a fooding of pre-exist-ing karst systems and a reactivation of previously vadose or abandoned passages (Tognini 2001). THE RELATION BETwEEN MORPHOLOGy, CLIMATE, AND SEDIMENTS Fig. 3: Schematic fow system. black = main (epiphreatic) gallery; light grey = soutirages (downward) and upfow (upward); dark grey = perennial phreatic conduit. Cave morphology depends on the position of the epi-phreatic water table. Te size of the passage, however, depends (among others, mostly geological factors) on time and fow rate. worthington (1991) puts forward that there is an “equilibrium size” of a phreatic passage for a given fow rate. Afer this size is reached, the passage hardly grows anymore, and a growth above this size is mainly dependent on an increase in fow rate, either by capturing another catchment, or related to an increase in precipitation. For example, in the Siebenhengste system, the size of the main conduits doubles between two phases (700 m and 660 m). Tis very probably corresponds to the capture of the Schrattenfuh catchment, which sig-nifcantly increased the size of the catchment area (Fig. 4). Conversely, a reduction in the catchment area due to valley entrenchment produces rearrangement of the cave system. Newly formed passages will be smaller than in the previous phase. Beside the size of the conduits, sediments also pro-vide direct information about the fow velocities, i.e. discharge rates in the conduits. Grainsize distribution of cave sediments and conduit size make it possible to as-sess paleodischarge rates quite precisely. 56 Fig. 4: N-S-projection of bärenschacht and St. beatus Cave with the recognized phases. Te numbers are the elevations ( in m ASL) of the corresponding spring. Phase 558 is the present one. TIME in KARST – 2007 CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy NEw CONCEPTS ABOUT CAVE GENESIS THE INFLUENCE OF EARLy PHASES: PRE-ExISTING KARST SySTEMS (PALEOKARST), HyPOGENIC KARST AND PSEUDOKARST Syn- and post-sedimentary paleokarsts “Paleokarst” are features that are not related to any present water circulation and completely obstructed. Since most of the caves (including fossil tubes) are related to present rivers and valleys, they are not considered as paleokarst. Some paleokarsts have been formed during or im-mediately afer the sedimentation of carbonate platforms (Upper Triassic, for example Calcare di Esino/Grigna; Dachsteinkalk/Northern Limestone Alps). Dolines, pock-ets and red paleosoils interfere within the cyclic sedimentation of the so-called loferitic succession. Under a pre-mature diagenesis, dissolution and concretion produced evinosponges (Bini & Pellegrini 1998) and dolomite-flled fractures that contain iron oxides from paleosoils. In the Julian Alps, paleokarstic conduits have been flled with carbonate mud and later lithifed, so that – presently – a paleoconduit is just a portion of somehow diferently col-ored solid rock. Other paleokarst had been set up afer the emersion of the limestone strata. Tey are fossilized by Jurassic sediments (Swiss Prealps, Julian Alps), Up-per Cretaceous sandstone (Siebenhengste), Eocene sands (Vercors), or Miocene conglomerates (Chartreuse). Tose paleokarsts features may form highly porous discontinuities that may have guided the placement of later cave systems. • Hydrothermal caves related to tectonic build-up Some caves have a hydrothermal origin, which can be recognized afer their typical corrosional cupolas originating from convection cells and their sediments like large calcite spar (Audra et al. 2002a; Audra & Hofmann 2004; Bini & Pellegrini 1998; Sustersic 2001; wild-berger & Preiswerk 1997). Tose hydrothermal upfows are usually located near huge thrust and strike-slip faults. Such karstifcations created well connected cave systems which later had generally been re-used by “normal” me-teoric water fow afer uplif above the base level. Since this change has mostly deleted the marks of their origin, they are only conserved when rapidly fossilized. • Pseudokarst creating rock-ghosts (cave phantoms) Models of apparent karst features created by pro-cesses other than pure dissolution are called pseudokarst. Te phantomisation (rock-ghost weathering) was recently described as a major agent of karstifcation in impure limestones (Vergari & quinif 1997). In such limestones fow remained guided by fractures but par-tially occurred in the matrix around the fracture. In a favorable context, warm and humid climate and long-term stability of the base level, this type of fow could dissolve the limestone cement, but impurities remained in place, in place, preserving the parent material tex- Fig. 5: Pseudoendokarst cave system in the marly-silicated moltrasio Limestone of mt. bisbino, Lake of Como (tognini 1999, 2001). 1 – Late Oligocene-Early miocene: Te tectonic structure was achieved during the neo-alpine phase. Uplif raised the area above sea level, producing a gentle relief dissected by valleys. 2-3 – middle-Late miocene: According to very long base level stability under warm and humid climate, deep soils develop. With very low gradient and water movements, weathering progressively penetrates deeply into the water-flled zone. Uplif gradually deepens the valleys. 4 – messinian: valleys dramatically entrench, water table lowers, inducing an active fow. Te weathered rock-ghosts are eroded away by piping, causing the formation of cave systems, which extend progressively in size and complexity. Steep hydraulic gradients prevent a further weathering at depth. Te present remnants of rock-ghosts mark the maximal depth (700 m) reached by weathering that corresponds to the present 500-600 m altitude. With a continuous entrenchment, pseudoendokarsts become perched and only “classical” cave system develop below. 5 – Early-middle Pliocene: Pseudoendokarstic caves systems stopped developing. 6 – Late Pliocene-Quaternary: Sequences of erosion and deposition are developing (e.g. lacustrine caves sediments recording the presence of the Adda glacier close to the caves entrances; speleothem deposition is enhanced during interglacials). TIME in KARST – 2007 57 PHILIPPE AUDRA, ALFREDO BINI, FRANCI GABROVŠEK, PHILIPP HäUSELMANN, FABIEN HOBLéA, PIERRE-yVES JEANNIN, ... tures and structures. Rock porosity increased up to 35%, causing a dramatic increase in hydraulic conduc-tivity. Tis weathered material is called rock-ghosts, or phantoms. Te downstream part of such systems, close to the surface, can be eroded by piping because of the absence of cement. Tis may produce caves (Tognini 2001). Some peculiar features may point out their dif-ferent origin (weathered walls, regularly spaced 3D network, brisk change in passage morphology, dead-end at gallery terminations with conservation of the ghost of the weathered host-rock). Afer the piping event, the rock-ghosts remained perched on an unweathered rock, in which only “classical” karst processes adapted to the new base level began to be active. COMPLEx RELATIONSHIPS TO GLACIERS Some older theories supported a direct relationship be-tween glaciations and genesis of cave systems through glacial meltwater. However, recent datings (U/T, paleo-magnetism) and feldwork has clearly proven that many caves are older than the glaciations. Te role of the gla-ciers seems to be mostly limited to valley deepening, base level rising during glacial periods and related sedimentation in the conduits (Audra 1994, 2004; Bini 1994; Häuselmann 2002). Te genesis of new caves only takes place in certain contexts, where the glacial infuence of-ten is only indirect. Glacial processes mainly fll caves In the Alps, glaciers were temperate with fowing water. As valley bottoms were flled by ice, base levels raised all along the valleys. Furthermore, tills obstructed the pre-existing springs. Terefore, a large glacier body may have raised karstwater level by several hundreds of meters, for instance 500 to 600 m in the Bergerhöhle/Tennengebirge (fg. 6). Such a rising karstwater level reactivated many older conduits, increasing drastically fow cross-sections and leaving only restricted fow velocities in each con-duit. Fine-grained carbonate-rich sediments found in very many caves are good indicators of these stages. Since this carbonate four could obviously not be dissolved by the natural aggressivity of the water, it implies that a chemical erosion of cave walls was very probably neg-ligible. Tis is confrmed by old speleothems, preceding such phases, that are hardly dissolved (Bini et al. 1998). Mechanical abrasion in the fooded zone is also improbable because of the small fow velocity. Terefore, it must be postulated that the genesis of deep-seated cave con-duits is not favored by glaciations (Audra 1994, 2001a; Bini et al. 1998; Maire 1990). In contrast, interglacials induce the presence of vegetation and soil at the surface. Both elements greatly enhance the CO2 content of the water (Bögli 1978), and reduce the amount of debris washed into the cave. So, water has a much higher initial acidity and can therefore enlarge caves (Audra 2004). During the same time, water from the fne fssures and matrix, which entered the system below the soil and epikarst, where pCO2 is high, is oversaturated with respect to calcite when it reached a (ventilated) cave passage. Terefore many speleothems formed. In some low valleys with fat bottoms, lakes flled the previously overdeepened valley and kept the water table high. Terefore, in spite of the sometimes consid-erable valley deepening by glaciers, the karst water table could never reach the total depth of the valley, blocking thus the genesis of deeper cave levels (Kanin). Neverthe-less, in the South Alpine domain, the fuvial valley deep-ening may have allowed deep (and today submerged) karstifcation. Fig. 6: Te Cosa Nostra-bergerhöhle system/tennengebirge, Salzburg Alps (Audra et al. 2002b). to the lef (3), relationship between cave passage altitude and old karst levels. Karst development began during the Oligocene beneath the Augensteine (1). during the miocene, horizontal systems developed with alpine water inputs (2), showing diferent levels (3) related to successive phases of stability: Ruinenhöhlen (4) and Riesenhöhlen (e.g. Eisriesenwelt – 5). Following Pliocene uplif, alpine systems developed (e.g. Cosa Nostra-bergerhöhle – 6). horizontal tubes at the entrance correspond to a miocene level (7). A shaf series (6) connect to horizontal tubes from bergerhöhle-bierloch (8), corresponding to a Pliocene base level (9). Te present water table at 700 m (10) pours into brunnecker Cave, which connects to the Salzach base level (11). 58 TIME in KARST – 2007 CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy Cave system Massif Difference in heigh, horizontal cave levels / present base level (m ASL) Dating Allogenic fluvial pebbles Old sediments - weathered soils - presently removed covers Partly eroded catchment, large dimensions not related to present topography, truncated by erosion Presumed age of the system References Ch. du Goutourier Dévoluy 2300 / 875 m > 780 ka (paleomag.) Tertiary weathered soils Upper Miocene? Audra 1996 Gr. Vallier Vercors 1500 / 200 m Tertiary, Lower Pleistocene glacial varves (paleomag.) Tertiary weathered soils yes Upper Miocene Audra & Rochette 1993 Réseau de la Dent de Crolles Chartreuse 1700 / 250 m > 400 ka (U/Th) Cretac. sandstones yes Upper Miocene? Audra 1994 Gr. Théophile Gdes Rousses 1900 / 1850 m 95 ka (U/Th) Middle Pleistocene Audra & Quinif 1997 Gr. de l’Adaouste Provence Stratigraphic correlation Miocene pebbles Artesian Tortonian Audra & al. 2002 Système du Granier Chartreuse 1500 / 1000 m > 1-1,5 Ma (234U / 238U equilibr., paleomag.) 1,8-5,3 Ma (cosmonucleides) Upper cretac. and oligo. limest. - Cretac. sandstones - weathered soils yes Upper Miocene? Hobléa 1999; Hobléa & Häuselmann 2007 Beatushöhle - Bärenschacht Siebenhengste 890 / 558 m > 350 ka (U/Th) Pleistocene Häuselmann 2002 Siebenhengste Siebenhengste 1900 / 558 m 4.4 Ma (cosmonucleides) Pliocene Häuselmann & Granger 2005 Jochloch Jungfrau 3470 m Lower Pleistocene? (palynology) practically no catchment today Lower Pleistocene Wildberger & Preiswerk 1997 Ofenloch Churfisten 655 / 419 m > 780 ka (paleomag.) Pliocene Müller 1995 Hölloch-Silberensystem Silberen 1650 / 640 m >350 ka (U/Th), <780 (paleomag) Lower Pleistocene? Battisti Paganella 1600 m > 1-1,5 Ma (234U / 238U equilibr.) Cherts from Eocene limestones yes Oligo-Miocene Conturines Dolomite 2775 m > 1-1,5 Ma (234U / 238U equilibr.) yes Oligo-Miocene Frisia & al. 1994 Capana Stoppani, Tacchi-Zelbio Pian del Tivano 900 / 200 m > 350 ka (U/Th) Boulders from glacial sinkholes yes Oligo-Miocene Tognini 1999, 2001 Gr. dell’Alpe Madrona Mte Bisbino 1000 / 200 m > 350 ka (U/Th) Miocene Tognini 1999, 2001 Covoli di Velo Ponte di Veia Mte Lessini 33-38 Ma (K/Ar) yes Eocene and Oligocene Rossi & Zorzin 1993 Gr. Masera Lario 200 / 361 m ˜ 2.6 to 7.2 Ma (cosmonucleides) Fluvial pebbles Pliocene or older Häuselmann unpub. Bini & Zuccoli 2004 Gr. On the Road Campo dei Fiori 805 / 300 m > 1-1,5 Ma (234U / 238U equilibr) Oligo-Miocene Uggeri 1992 Gr. Via col Vento Campo dei Fiori 1015 / 300 m > 350 ka (U/Th) Upper Plio. glacial sediments Oligo-Miocene Uggeri 1992 Gta. sopra Fontana Marella Campo dei Fiori 1040 / 300 m Middle Pleistocene (micro-fauna) Conglomerate with crystalline pebbles Ferralitic soils yes Oligo-Miocene Zanalda 1994 Ciota Ciara – Cuitarun caves Mte Fenara Large miocene f uvial pebbles yes Oligo-Miocene Fantoni & Fantoni 1991 Cosa Nostra-Bergerhöhle Tennengebirge 1600-1000 / 500 m > 780 ka (paleomag) yes Augensteine yes Miocene - Upper Pliocene Audra & al. 2002 Mammuthöhle Dachstein 1500-1300 / 500 m yes Augensteine yes Miocene Trimmel 1961, 1992; Frisch & al. 2002 Eisriesenwelt Tennengebirge 1500 / 600 m yes yes Lower Pliocene? Audra 1994 Feichtnerschacht Kitzsteinhorn 2000 / 1000 m 118 ka (U/Th) Pliocene? Audra 2001, Ciszewski & Recielski 2001 Poloska jama Mt Osojnica 750 / 500 m yes Crnelsko brezno Kanin 1400 / 400 m > 780 ka (paleomag) Glacial varves Audra 2000 Snezna jama Kamnik Alps 1600 / 600 m 1.8 to 3.6 or 5 Ma (paleomag) yes yes yes Miocene? Bosak & al. 2002 tab. 1: Synthesis of information about the quoted caves systems TIME in KARST – 2007 59 PHILIPPE AUDRA, ALFREDO BINI, FRANCI GABROVŠEK, PHILIPP HäUSELMANN, FABIEN HOBLéA, PIERRE-yVES JEANNIN, ... As a conclusion, a warm climate induces passage growth and speleothem deposition, whereas a cold cli-mate generally tends to obstruct the lower passages by sediments. Glacial sediments covering older speleothems: cave systems may predate glaciations Some cave sediments correspond to very old glaciations, according to paleomagnetic measurements that show inverse polarity: Ofenloch/Churfrsten (Müller 1995), grotte Vallier/Vercors (Audra & Rochette 1993), Crnel-sko brezno/Kanin (Audra 2000). Tese sediments ofen overlie successions of alterites or massive fowstone de-posits, which in turn prove the existence of a warm and humid climate, thus showing that the cave systems predate those glaciations. Some of the old speleothems are more or less intensely corroded by fowing water postdat-ing their deposition. Cave development and glacial activity - Glacial abrasion at the surface and erosion in the va-dose zone. At the surface, the glacial activity is without doubt responsible for the abrasion of a variable amount of bedrock (50-250 m), which has surfaced old conduits that previously were deeply buried. Tis is manifested by wide open shafs, cut galleries and arches. During gla-cial melt, meltwater disappeared into distinct sectors. As soon as fractures were connected to preexisting con-duits, they enlarged quickly and thus formed the “invasion vadose shafs” (Ford 1977), which can reach several hundred meters of depth: Granier, Silberen, Kanin (Ku-naver 1983, 1996). Te efectiveness of such meltwater is mainly due to its velocity in the vertical cascades as well as their abrasive mineral load originating from bedrock and till material. - Some new cave systems appeared in the intra-Al-pine karst area due to glacial erosion. Tin limestone belts or marbles intercalated with metamorphic series were freed from their impervious cover by glacial erosion. Some caves are still in direct relationship with the peri-glacial fow, and act as swallowholes. Teir morphology refects the cascading waterfow and has a juvenile form: Perte du Grand Marchet/Vanoise, Sur Crap/Graubün-den (wildberger et al. 2001). At the Grotte Téophile/ Grandes Rousses, U/T datings evidenced that the cave was active at least along the two glacial-interglacial cycles that are marked by the sequence of passage-forming/fll-ing with gravel/sinter deposition (Audra & quinif 1997). Since cave development mainly occurred during inter-glacial, the efect of the glacier is only indirect, by eroding the impervious covers (Audra 2004). - Te lower phases of huge cave systems are indi-rectly generated by glacial valley-deepening. while the uppermost cave systems are ofen older than the glacia-tions (infra), the lower passages are ofen of quaternary age, since they are related to valleys evidently deepened by glaciers. In this respect, glaciers are indirectly respon-sible for the creation of new cave passages (Siebenhengste, Chartreuse, Vercors). Tis strongly contrasts with the South Alpine domain, where valleys were deepened dur-ing the Messinian event. Here, glaciations contributed merely to the inflling of the preexisting valleys. Tus, most of the South Alpine cave systems are thought to be older than the glaciations. MORPHOLOGIC AND TOPOGRAPHIC EVIDENCES FOR A HIGH AGE OF CAVE SySTEMS Some existing caves and karst features clearly correspond to a strongly diferent topography than today. Tey are therefore supposed to be older. In the following para-graphs, the position and morphology of caves are com-pared to today’s landscape. Ten cave sediment charac-teristics are presented and discussed. In a third part, links between caves and well-recognized paleotopographies are explained. All those indications are clear evidences for a high age of cave systems. CAVE SySTEMS VS. PRESENT TOPOGRAPHy Perched phreatic tubes Conduits with an elliptical morphology are sometimes perched considerably above the present base level (Tab. 1, 60 TIME in KARST – 2007 3rd column). Tey developed close to a paleo base level, long before today’s valley deepening. At the Siebenhengste, the highest phases even show a fow direction oppo-site to the present one. Caves intersected by current topography Old perched caves are ofen segmented by a subsequent lowering of the surface. Two situations are usually found in the feld: - Old phreatic caves at the surface of karst plateaus, which have been eroded by glacial abrasion (Grigna, Dolomites, Triglav, Kanin, Tennengebirge…) - Old phreatic caves along valley fanks, obviously cut by the lowering of the topography (Adda, Adige, Salzach, Isère): Pian del Tivano, Mt. Bisbino, Mt. Tremez- CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy zo, Campo dei Fiori (Southern Alps), Paganella (Dolomites). Dimensions too large with respect to the present catch-ment and climate Te dimensions of some conduits are far too large com-pared to the present catchment area, thus proving that the older catchment areas had been much larger, but are now truncated by erosion (Eisriesenwelt/Tennengebirge (fg. 6); Antre de Vénus/Vercors; Snezna jama na Raduhi/ Kamnik Alps, caves at Pokljuka and Jelovica plateaus at Julian Alps, Siebenhengste, Pian del Tivano, Campo dei Fiori/Southern Alps). Spring location vs. present base level If the position of a spring is not due to a geologic perch-ing above an impervious layer, it has to be close to base level (see part I). However, in some cases springs did not lowered down to today’s base level. In other cases springs are obviously located far below the base level. Tis can be explained by the following hypotheses: - Some springs are perched, because the valley inci-sion is very recent and rapid (Pis del Pesio/Marguareis). - Others are presently submerged below the base level and hidden by alluvial fll or till (Emergence du Tour/Ara-vis; Campo dei Fiori). Tey were set into their place before the base level raised and they continue to function due to the high transmissivity of the sediment fll. A specialty is given when old vertical vadose caves are suddenly stopped by the present water table, proving that the horizontal drains are at much greater depth and completely drowned. Typical vadose morphologies (spe-leothems, karren) are known in some drowned conduits (Grotta Masera, Grotta di Fiumelatte/Lake of Como; Fontaine de Vaucluse/Provence). Here, the spring loca-tion is adapted to the present base level, but the caves are proof that the base level may, in some cases, also rise. Tis is especially true for areas afected by the Messinian crisis (Bini 1994; Audra & al. 2004). CAVE SEDIMENTS SHOwING EVIDENCE OF A REMOTE ORIGIN, DIFFERENT CLIMATE AND OLD AGE (tab. 1) Old fuvial material Te presence of some caves sediments is inexplicable with the present waterpaths. Big rounded pebbles found in caves perched high up on top of clifs mean that a valley bottom had to exist at this level. Aferwards, the valleys deepened so much that they are far below such perched massifs (Salzach/Salzburg Alps; Granier/Char-treuse). Ofen, gravels found in these caves have a petrog- raphy and mineralogy that is not found in the present rocks. Tey are issued either from caprock that has dis-appeared a long time ago (Fontana Marella, Campo dei Fiori) or from distant catchments, as proven by fuvial pebbles (Augensteine/Northern Limestone Alps in Aus-tria), quartz sandstones (Slovenian Alps), fuvioglacial sediments (Lake of Como). Dating of fuvial pebbles by cosmogenic nuclides from the Grotta Masera (Como), yielded a probable age comprised between 2.6 to 7.2 Ma, showing a pliocene age, or maybe older (Häuselmann unpub.; Bini & Zuccoli 2004). In the Granier system, this method yields ages comprised between 1.8 to 5.3 Ma (Hobléa & Häuselmann 2007). Record of climatic changes in subterranean sediments Ofen, the analysis of the sediments evidences climate changes, with a change from biostatic conditions, marked by the rarity of allogenic sediments, towards rhexistatic conditions, with lots of allogenic sediments. Tese sediments come from the erosion of soils in a con-text of climate degradation and general cooling. Tey usually are interpreted to refect the climatic change in the Pliocene, before the onset of the glaciations. Such sediments are present in most of the old cave phases, which therefore should be older than the end of the Pliocene: Grotte Vallier/Vercors; Tennengebirge (Audra 1994, 1995), Campo dei Fiori (Bini et al. 1997), Monte Bisbino (Tognini 1999, 2001). In the Dachstein-Mammuthöhle, which dates back to the Tertiary and shows a phreatic tube perched 1000 m above the Traun valley, fowstones grown during the interglacials interfn-ger with a series of debris-fow conglomerates of glacial origin (Trimmel 1992). In the Grotta di Conturines/Do-lomites (2775 m ASL), the mean annual temperatures deduced from the 18O of speleothems were between 15 and 25°, which implies that speleothemes deposited in a warmer climate within the Tertiary, probably also at a lower altitude than it is found today (Frisia et al. 1994). Furthermore, in many caves, either conduits or fowstones have been deformed by late Alpine tectonic movements: Grotta Marelli, Grotta Frassino/Campo dei Fiori (Uggeri 1992; Bini et al. 1992, 1993). Dating results prove the antiquity of cave systems Te calculated age of old speleothems are regularly above the U/T limits (700 ka, even 1.5 Ma according to the 234U/238U equilibrium (Bini et al. 1997); Tab. 1). Te pale-omagnetic measurements ofen show inverse magnetism, sometimes with multiple inversion sequences, proving of a very old age of the cave sediments (Audra 1996, 2000; Audra & Rochette 1993; Audra et al. 2002b). Te use of the new cosmonucleide method to date old quartz sediments also confrms this trend and yield ages reaching TIME in KARST – 2007 61 PHILIPPE AUDRA, ALFREDO BINI, FRANCI GABROVŠEK, PHILIPP HäUSELMANN, FABIEN HOBLéA, PIERRE-yVES JEANNIN, ... back to about 5 Ma (see the details for Siebenhengste ex-ample in this volume). RELATIONS TO AN OLD TOPOGRAPHy Te geomorphologic approach, which uses external markers of old base levels (paleovalleys, paleoshelves with associated sediments) that are well dated, ofers pre-cious possibilities for the dating of karst systems. Sadly, correlations are almost impossible up-to-date due to the scarcity of such information. In the northern fank of the Alps, the glaciations ofen caused the remnants of an old topography to disappear. Te southern Alps, less glaci-ated and better studied in this context, ofer more pos-sibilities, also thanks to the presence of guiding events like the Messinian incision and the following Pliocene marine highstand. Old erosion surfaces Te identifcation of old erosion surfaces is a precious tool in geomorphology. Large surfaces ofen top the relief and cut across very old caves that are difcult to link to an old drainage system because of their fragmented character. Te cave systems developing below those high surfaces are more recent, such as the stacked surfaces in the Vercors, of Eocene, infra-Miocene and Pliocene age (Delannoy 1997). Shelves along slopes, created by lateral corrosion of the rim of ancient depressions, have the same signifcance as perched valley bottoms. In Vercors, Pliocene caves could be associated on them, such as the Antre de Vénus and the Grotte Vallier (Delannoy 1997). In the area of Varese (Lombardy), the Oligo-Miocene surface that cuts across limestone, porphyritic rocks and granites, is dissected by the late Miocene valleys that had been deepened during the Messinian (Bini et al. 1978, 1994; Cita & Corselli 1990; Finckh 1978; Finckh et al. 1984). Morphological and sedimentological evidences of pre-pliocene paleovalleys A fuvial drainage pattern of Oligo-Miocene age, incised in the relief, predated the Alpine tectonic events of the late Miocene. Te drainage originated in the internal massifs, cut through the calcareous border chains, and ended in alluvial fans in the molasse basins. In the border chains, perched paleovalleys are found more than 1500 m above the present ones (Salzburg Alps), as well as fu-vial deposits coming from siliceous rocks (Augensteine/ Northern Calcareous Alps; siliceous sands/Julian Alps (Habic 1992)), sometimes buried in caves near the valley slopes (Grotta di Monte Fenera/Piemont, Grotta Fontana Marella/Campo dei Fiori). In the northern fank of the Alps, these valleys have been destroyed by the deepening of the hydrographic network, aided by the action of the glaciers. In the South, the old valleys have been deepened by the Messinian incision and flled by Pliocene sediments (Lake of Como/Adda, Varese, Tessin, Adige, Durance). As a consequence, the horizontal karstic drains that were linked to the old valleys had been truncated by slope recession, and are pres-ently perched (Grotta Battisti/Paganella; Grotte Vallier/ Vercors; Pian del Tivano, Monte Bisbino (Tognini 2001); Campo dei Fiori (Uggeri 1992)). Te almost generally observed input of allogenic waters coming from impermeable rocks upstream, combined with a tropical humid climate with considerable foods, explains the giant di-mensions of those caves. AGE OF ALPINE KARSTIFICATION: FROM PALEOKARSTS TO RECENT MOUNTAIN DyNAMICS PALEOKARST, A MILESTONE FOR OLD KARSTS Te study of paleokarsts is a separate domain. No cave system has survived in its integrality from the periods predating the Miocene. In the Northern Limestone Alps of Austria, the possibility that caves of the highest level (Ruinenhöhlen) may be relicts of an oligocene karstif-cation has been discussed (Frisch et al. 2002). However, Paleogene paleokarsts are frequent, as evidenced by nat-ural or artifcial removal of their flling: - In Siebenhengste, upper Cretaceous paleotubes and fractures are found in Lower Cretaceous limestone, 62 TIME in KARST – 2007 flled with Upper Cretaceous Sandstone (Häuselmann et al. 1999). - In many places, (Switzerland, Vercors, Chartreuse) vast pockets covering a karst relief and flling up some conduits can be observed. - In Southern Alps, upper Eocene and lower Oli-gocene sediments have been found into large cavities inflled by basaltic intrusions (Covoli di Velo, Ponte di Veia/Monte Lessini) Teir age could be determined by K/Ar datings (Rossi & Zorzin 1993). In several regions (Vercors and Chartreuse, Monte Lessini), karstifcation is more or less continuous from the Eocene onwards. However, the tectonic and paleo- CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy geographic changes have only lef dispersed paleokarsts. Since the Miocene on, several massifs emerged from the molasse basins, thus allowing a karstifcation that con-tinues today. ESTIMATION OF THE FIRST ExPOSURE ACCORDING TO MOLASSE PETROGRAPHy Te main phase of karstifcation begins when suitable rocks are exposed at land surface. Since the oldest rem-nants of karst are ofen eroded, it is possible to calibrate the beginning of the karstifcation by the foreland sediments (mainly the Molasse), which contain limestone pebbles eroded away at the surface. However, absence of evidence is not evidence of absence: sedimentary gaps are frequent, and a karst in biostatic conditions does not spread detritic elements towards the foreland. As a general rule, the Miocene molasse registered the beginning of the last big karstifcation phase, earlier in Italy, later in Switzerland: - Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene (30 to 20 Ma) in the Southern Molasse, based on dated fuvial sediments located in paleovalleys (Gelati et al. 1988). - Lower Miocene (20 Ma) in the molasse south of Grenoble, corresponding to the erosion of the emerged anticlines of the Vercors and Chartreuse (Delannoy 1997). - Lower Miocene (20 Ma) in the Austrian Nord-Alpine molasse, corresponding to the erosion of the Augensteine cover, which is of Upper and Middle Oligocene age (Lemke 1984; Frisch et al. 2000). - Upper Freshwater Molasse in the Eastern Swiss basin (Hörnli fan, Middle Miocene 17-11 Ma) which contains pebbles of the frst erosion of Helvetic nappes (Siebenhengste, Silberen, Speck 1953; Bürgisser 1980). DATING THE yOUNGEST PHASES AND ExTRAPOLATION Te most generally applied dating method for cave sediments is U/T. It makes it possible to date speleothems. In best cases, it allows for going back to as far as 700 ka – dating only the sediment contained within the cave and not the cave itself. Te use of paleomagnetic dating makes it possible, in some scarce cases, to push back the datable range to 2.5 Ma. Te use of cosmogenic isotopes (Granger et al. 2001) is the only recent method that opens new possibilities, having a dating range between 300 ka and 5 Ma. Another solution consists in dating lower cave phas-es that are supposed to be younger, and in progressively going up the phases towards the oldest cave systems, un-til reaching the limits of the used methods. From the cal-culated rate of valley deepening, one can then extrapolate the age of the uppermost phases. Of course, such an ap-proach can only give a general idea about the age. Te lowermost phases of the Siebenhengste cave system, St. Beatus Cave and Bärenschacht, have been dated by U/T. Te following ages have been obtained: Phase 558 (youngest) began at 39 ka (max. 114 ka) and is still active today; Phase 660 was active between 135 and 114 ka; Phase 700 was active between 180 and 135 ka; and Phase 760 started before 350 ka and ended at 235 ka (Fig. 4). Tese age values indicate a general valley incision rate of 0.5 to 0.8 mm/a, with a tendency to slow down as the age gets higher. Extrapolation indicated an age of about 2.6 Ma for the oldest cave systems, at 1850 m ASL. Absolute cosmogenic dating yielded an age of 4.4 Ma for the oldest sediment, contained in the second-highest cave phase at 1800 m, showing a slower entrenchment in the older phases (Häuselmann & Granger 2005; see also this volume). Dating of the cave systems at Hölloch/Sil-beren gave maximal rates of valley incision in the range of about 1.5 to 3.5 mm/a. RELATIVE UPLIFT RATES AND EROSION VOLUMES IN FORELAND SEDIMENTS Uplif rates are generally calculated for long periods of time, taking the average of variable rhythms and inte-grating vast parts of the area, without taking into account block tectonics which can difer considerably from one massif to the other. In the same range, the estimated volume of the foreland basins only gives a global approach. Such results only may give a general frame for a valida-tion. Modeling the fssion-track measurements of the Swiss Central Alps (Reuss valley) give an average uplif of 0.55 mm/a (Kohl, oral comm. 2000) comparable to cal-culations of recent uplif (0.5 mm/a; Labhart 1992) and consistent with the rates inferred from dating in caves. Uplif is maximal in the central parts of the mountain chains, therefore the rocks are more deeply eroded in this area. As a consequence, the oldest caves had to have dis-appeared from the central zones, compared to the border chains where they are better preserved due to the slower erosion. TIME in KARST – 2007 63 PHILIPPE AUDRA, ALFREDO BINI, FRANCI GABROVŠEK, PHILIPP HäUSELMANN, FABIEN HOBLéA, PIERRE-yVES JEANNIN, ... CONCLUSION Te examples mentioned above are distributed through-out the Alpine belt. Terefore, the conclusions drawn here are valid for Alpine Caves at least, but they may be applied to other cave systems also. Te main following conclusions can be drawn from the above synthesis: - In contrast to some earlier views, caves are not directly linked to glaciations. On the contrary, there is evidence that during glaciations caves are mainly flled with sediments, while they are enlarged during the inter-glacials. Te main infuence of glaciers upon cave genesis is the deepening of the base level valley, thus inducing a new cave genesis phase to be formed. - U/T datings, coupled with paleomagnetism, in-ferred a Lower Pleistocene to Pliocene age for several cave sediments. Fossil or radiometric datings of solidifed cave flls (sandstone, volcanic rocks) gave ages reaching back to the Upper Cretaceous. It follows that caves are not inherent to the quaternary period, but are created whenever karstifable rocks are exposed to weathering. Due to later infll, however, most explorable caves range from Miocene to present age. - we have shown that caves are related to their spring, which is controlled by a base level that usually consists of a valley bottom. So, the study of caves gives very valuable information about valley deepening pro-cesses and therefore about landscape evolution. - Caves constitute real archives, where sediments are preserved despite the openness of the system. Te study of cave sediments gives information about paleo-climates. Moreover, the combination of cave morphology and datable sediments allow to reconstruct the timing of both paleoclimatic changes as well as landscape evolu- tion between the Tertiary and today. Diferential erosion rates and valley deepenings can be retraced. Information of this density and completeness has disappeared at the surface due to the erosion of the last glacial cycles and the present vegetation. - Correlations between well-dated cave systems can signifcantly contribute to the geodynamic understand-ing of the Alpine belt as a whole. Te location of most cave systems at the Alpine border chains is very lucky: since they are dependent on base level (in the foreland), recharge and topography (towards the central Alps). Tey inevitably registered changes in both domains. Caves are therefore not only a tool of local importance, but may have a wide regional/interregional signifcance. - Te dating method by cosmogenic nuclides was recently applied in some French, Italian and Swiss alpine cave systems which partially contain pre-glacial fuvial deposits. Te dated sediments yielded ages ranging be-tween 0.18 and 5 Ma, which are consistent with other approaches. Advances in modern dating techniques (cosmogenic isotopes, U/Pb in speleothems) therefore open a huge feld of investigations that will very signif-cantly contribute to the reconstruction of paleoclimates and topography evolution along the last 5, possibly 15 to 20 Ma. - Te messinian event infuenced cave genesis over the whole southern and western sides of the Alps by overdeepening valleys. However, the subsequent base level rising fooded those deep systems creating huge deep phreatic aquifers and vauclusian springs (Audra et al. 2004). ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS PH, PyJ and MM acknowledge the Swiss National Sci- (Grant No. 21-62451.00) and for research support (Grant ence Foundation for support of the Habkern workshop No. 2100-053990.98/1). REFERENCES Te reader will fnd a complete bibliography, compiled by the authors of this paper, in: Häuselmann, P. & Monbaron, M., Editors (2001): Cave Genesis in the Alpine Belt. - Rapports de recherche, Institut de Géographie Université de Fribourg, 156 p. Audra, P. 1994: Karsts alpins, genèse de grands réseaux souterrains. Exemples: le tennengebirge (Autriche), l’Ile de Crémieu, la Chartreuse et le vercors (France).-PhD Tesis, University of Grenoble. Karstologia Mémoires 5, 280 p. 64 TIME in KARST – 2007 CAVE AND KARST EVOLUTION IN THE ALPS AND THEIR RELATION TO PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOTOPOGRAPHy Audra, P. 1995: Signifcation des remplissages des karsts de montagne.- Karstologia, 25, 13-20. 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