_UDK 551.583.7:911.52(439)"63":902.67_
Documenta PraehistoricaXXXV (2008)
Holocene paleoclimatic and paleohydrological changes
in Lake Balaton as inferred from a complex quantitative
environmental historical study of a lacustrine
sequence of the Szigliget embayment
Pal Sümegi1, Sandor Gulyas1, Gusztav Jakab2
1 University of Szeged, Department of Geology and Paleontology, Szeged, sumegi@geo.u-szeged.hu
2 Samuel Tessedik College of Agriculture, Szarvas, Hungary
ABSTRACT - The present paper discusses the findings of a complex quantitative paleoecological in-
vestigation implemented for capturing the Upper Weichselian, Late Glacial and Postglacial develop-
ment of Lake Balaton in western Hungary, in the heart of Transdanubia. The studied Late Pleisto-
cene and Holocene lacustrine marl and peat sequence preserved the complete evolutionary history
of the catchment basin of the Szigliget Embayment from the time of its birth. The inferred palaeo-
hydrological changes, along with that of the hydroseries, were compared to those observable coevally
in the terrestrial vegetation. According to the available data, the birth of the studied embayment can
be put to the Late Glacial/Upper Weichselian transition. A wide array of hydrophyte vegetation and
habitat types emerged in the embayment depending on the actual water supply and geomorphologic
position. Based on a collective quantitative evaluation of the observed sedimentary features and fos-
sil assemblages retrieved from the sequence, a record of paleohydrological transformations in the lit-
toral part of the lake was drawn.
IZVLEČEK - Članek predstavlja rezultate kompleksne kvantitativnepelookoljske raziskave, katere cilj
je ugotavljanje pleniglacialnega, poznoglacialnega in postglacialnega razvoja Blatnega jezera v za-
hodni Madžarski. V zaporedju poznopleistocenskih in holocenskih jezerskih sedimentov in šote je oh-
ranjena celotna zgodovina porečja zaliva Szigliget od njegovega nastanka naprej. Ugotovljene paleo-
hidrološke spremembe skupaj s premenami jezera smo primerjali s spremembami v kopenski vegeta-
ciji. Na podlagi raziskav lahko nastanek zaliva umestimo v prehod med pleniglacialom in začetkom
kasnega glaciala. Količina vode in geomorfološki položaj je pogojeval nastanku velikega spektra vod-
ne vegetacije in habitatnih tipov. Skupna kvantitativna analiza sedimentacijskih značilnosti in fosil-
nih zbirov nam omogoča, da lahko opišemo zaporedje paleohidroloških premen v obalnem delu
zaliva.
KEY WORDS - paleohydrological changes; complex quantitative environmental historical approach;
Lake Balaton; Holocene
Introduction
The primary aim of our investigations, funded by a
grant from the National Research and Development
Programme (NKFP), was to find and retrieve sedi-
mentary sequences which capture as much of the
geohistory of Lake Balaton as possible. Thus in addi-
tion to sampling the sediments accumulated in meri-
dional valleys, an additional sampling location was
chosen for detailed analysis along Lake Balaton's
northern shoreline, in the Balatonederics Embay-
ment in the Tapolca Basin (Fig. 1). According to our
preliminary findings, one of the subsidence centres
in the Tapolca Basin, covering an area with a diame-
ter of 1-2km, must have been
located in the centre of the
roughly 3 km-long basin at the
transect of the Balatonederics
railway line and the castle hill
at Szigliget. Sediment accumu-
lation must have started in
this basin at the terminal part
of the Upper Weichselian.
Our investigation results poin-
ted to the evolution of a
brown moss peat in this area
at the terminal part of the Ple-
istocene. The fringes of this
peatland must have been co-
vered by pebbly, gravelly de-
posits of mass wasting during
the Late Glacial, with a com-
plete lacustrine sediment se-
quence overlying the peat la-
yers. Earlier cores were only
taken to a depth of the gravel mat redeposited from
the piedmonts, and it was therefore believed that
this formation was the bedrock of the lacustrine se-
diment sequence. However, according to our find-
ings, the Holocene lacustrine sediments and Pleisto-
cene peat sequence are found under these redeposi-
ted gravel mats, meaning that the most promising
sequences for palaeo-environmental reconstructions
could be extracted from this area, which is why this
area was selected for further analysis.
Preliminaries
Fig. 1. The location of the studied borehole in the Balatonederics Embay-
ment depicted on a map of the First Austrian Military Survey (1782), re-
cording conditions preceding the hydrological regulations of the 19th cen-
tury.
The French geologist Francois Sulpice Beudant was
the first to prepare a detailed geological map of the
area. Beadant was assigned the task of travelling
around Central Europe and mapping mineral and
geological resources of economic importance (Beu-
dant 1822). He was the first to map out and describe
the peat layers of Little Balaton and those near Siö-
fok. Furthermore, he successfully separated the dilu-
vial from the alluvial layers which were deposited
before and after the Biblical flood. These are known
today as Pleistocene and Holocene sequences.
Lake Balaton is the largest freshwater lake not only
in Hungary, but the entire Central European region.
As proven by archeology, it has been continuously
populated since prehistoric times and as such rep-
resents not only a treasure of the modern Hungarian
landscape, but a witness of human history. Despite
its economic, tourism and historical importance, re-
latively little was known of its detailed evolutionary
history until the 1980s-1990s.
The first reliable portrayals of Lake Balaton can be
seen on maps by Lazarus and Martellus from the
16th century. It's interesting to note that Lazarus
marks it as a lake while Martellus uses the term
Palus, indicating a marshland for Balaton. However,
only indirect information is available for the pre-
ceding periods regarding its shape, and extent of the
shoreline, mainly derived from written records, ar-
chaeological and geological observations.
The first reliable evolutionary history of the Lake,
based on a comprehensive analysis of geological
and paleo-ecological data was given by Lajos Löczy
and colleagues during the first half of the 20th cen-
tury (Loczy 1913). They realized that the lake itself
developed as a result of neotectonic faulting and sub-
sidence, creating a system of 4 successive sub-basins,
characterized by unique sedimentary histories. By
mapping out the distribution of peat sequences along
the Lake, they pointed out that the extension of the
shoreline was a lot larger than that of the modern
Lake in prehistoric times. The highest estimated wa-
ter level was between elevations of 105-110m ASL.
The modern Balaton, with its presently known
shape, extent and shoreline, is the outcome of nu-
merous regulation efforts lasting as long as the sec-
ond half of the 19th century. Regulation works im-
plemented at the end of the 18th and the first half
of the 19th century were primarily aimed at increa-
sing area suitable for agriculture via drainage, which
fundamentally resulted in a drop in the water level
as well. The presently artificially maintained maxi-
mum water level in the basin lies at an elevation of
104.5m ASL, which is considered still very low. A
mere half-meter increase in the water level would
ultimately result in the inundation of the adjacent
meridional valleys along the southern shoreline. This
would also increase the original extent of the Lake
by about 150 percent, yielding a total water cover-
age of 900km2.
And this half-meter increase in the water level is not
even a big issue, as the allowed fluctuation limit
given by the modern strict regulations is around
0.4m. However, in order that the modern extent be
doubled, another 5m increase in the water level is
required. For the shoreline to reach an elevation of
110 m ASL, an enormous increase in the Lake's vol-
ume is required. This can happen only during an ex-
tremely long cool and humid period enjoying much
precipitation. The present study is engaged with elu-
cidating past shoreline fluctuations via the compre-
hensive environmental historical analysis of a core
sequence taken from the littoral part of the Lake,
where shoreline displacements are best preserved.
Material and methods
In accordance with the standards and general prac-
tice of Quaternary palaeo-environmental studies
(Aaby-Digerfeldt 1986), overlapping cores were ta-
ken using a Russian type corer. After transportation
to the laboratory, the cores were dissected length-
wise for various analyses; the sections for palaeobo-
tanical and geochemical analyses were stored at 4 °C,
in accordance with international standards. The sam-
ples submitted to lithological analyses were identical
with the ones used for the palaeobotanical, macro-
botanical, malacological and radiocarbon analyses.
Samples from the extracted cores were submitted
for radiocarbon analysis to determine their absolute
ages. The recent modernisation of the Light Isotope
Laboratory of the Nuclear Research Centre of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences at Debrecen made
this laboratory suitable for implementing these mea-
surements (Hertelendi et al. 1989). Charcoal re-
mains, and peat retrieved from the sections were
used, in proportions of 6-10g of peat and charcoal
respectively. Each sample was original; bulk peat
was cleaned of roots (6-10g). The results of the
measurements are depicted in Fig 2.
The internationally accepted Troels-Smith soft sedi-
ment classification system and symbols were adop-
ted for the lithological description of the sediment
sequence (Troels-Smith 1955). The carbonate and
organic content was determined by the loss-on-igni-
tion procedure as described by Dean (1974). The en-
tire core sequence of Balatonederics was sub-sam-
pled at 4cm intervals for palaeobotanical and mala-
cological analyses using a plastic sampler.
For the classification of the plant macrofossil re-
mains a modified version of the QLCMA technique
(semi-quantitative quadrat and leaf-count macrofos-
sil analysis technique) was adopted (Jakab et al.
2004). Organic remains from peat and lacustrine se-
diments rich in organic matter can be divided into
two major groups. Some remains can be identified
with lower ranking taxa (specific peat components),
while others cannot be identified using this approach
(non-specific peat components).
The exterior of the cores was removed and sub-sam-
ples were taken from the core interior to avoid er-
rors arising from recent pollen contamination. Pollen
grains are counted until a sum of at least three hun-
dred pollen grains from terrestrial plants are coun-
ted (aquatic species are discounted) - statistical stu-
dies have shown that higher counts do not yield sub-
stantially more information. Lycopodium spore tab-
lets were added for the determination of pollen con-
centrations. The pollen diagrams in this volume
show relative frequencies calculated from the pollen
sums of the various arboreal (AP) and non-arboreal
(NAP) taxa, excluding the values of aquatic species,
spores, ferns, mosses and sedges (AP + NAP = 100%).
Sediment samples were washed through a fine mesh
screen (0.5mm). The retrieved mollusc remains were
taxonomically identified using standard reference
works (Kerney et al. 1983; Ložek 1964). The core
was sampled for mollusc remains at 4cm intervals
and evaluated at 8cm intervals. The identified taxa
were assigned to palaeo-ecological groups for evalu-
ation (Sümegi-Krolopp 2002).
Paleo-ecological results
The base of the sequence at 520cm was given by
sandy silts mixed with gravel, grading into homo-
genous peat containing brown moss fragments. This
refers to considerable fluctuations in the water le-
vel in the infant neotectonic basin, which must have
been reached by streams flowing from the Bakony
Mountains, because the sediment contained typical
Fig. 2. The palaeoecological results from the core sequence of the Balatonederics.
stream inwashed particles (small pebbles). The in-
washed sediment horizon was overlain by a dark
brown, homogenous peat layer containing brown
moss fragments, which gradually decreased upwards.
Above the peat layer containing brown moss, we
have come across a typical lacustrine sequence with
peat intercalations containing reed, reed-mace and
sedge. The Holocene sediment sequence is made up
of alternating lacustrine marls containing organic
matter and alternating peat layers, reflecting the
fluctuating, cyclic changes in the water cover during
the past ten thousand years. The sediment sequence
and the radiocarbon dates suggest that the water le-
vel in the Balatonederics Embayment must have
changed cyclically, reflecting the influences of alter-
nating wetter and drier climatic periods.
As is observable on the geological profile of the bore-
hole, the sequence starts with coarse-grained, pebbly,
sandy deposits corresponding to the infant lacus-
trine basin. This is overlain by periodically alterna-
ting horizons of grayish lacustrine marls and inter-
calated peat layers, marking the individual stages
in the evolutionary history of the Lake, when either
a highstand developed, representing open-water la-
custrine conditions resulting in a transgression to
the shoreline; or a lowstand, creating marshland
conditions. This fluctuating pattern is also discer-
nible in the individual parameters of inorganic/orga-
nic and carbonate content of the studied deposits.
The horizons with a higher carbonate and lower or-
ganic content, and an estimated slow deposition of
0.3 mm/year correspond to the Lake's phases, while
those of a higher organic content represent marsh-
land conditions.
Above the bottom of the core, 8 peaks could have
been identified in the parameters of inorganic and
carbonate content, representing a highstand due to
probably less evaporation and greater rainfall. Simi-
larly, 8 peaks in the organic content could have been
identified, representing drier periods and an accom-
panying lowstand. Here, it is worth noticing the peak
marking an all-time lowstand at 7000 calBP years.
The results of the macrofossil analyses on Fig. 2. are
presented from a depth of 515cm, marking the tran-
sition zone of the Weichselian/Late-Glacial (Jakab
et al. 2004; Jakab 2007; Jakab-Sümegi 2007). On
the basis of the observed features of plant macrofos-
sil remains, 11 zones could have been identified in
the core sequence.
BEM-1 zone (515-485cm)
The extension of Phragmites and Typha cover was
maximal in the catchment basin in this phase. Seeds
of Cyperus fusus indicate seasonal dessication of
the catchment basin. A mat of Chara green algae de-
veloped at the bottom of the catchment basin during
this phase. The concentration of the ostracoda was
vey high, and the charcoal concentration increased
permanently in this layer. The seeds of Dryas occto-
petala, Betula humilis, Betula pubescens and the
remains of Pinus indicate the development of cold
and wet microclimatic conditions. This was the first
time that remains of white dryas and elements of the
Dryas flora were identified from the central part
of the Carpathian Basin in this part of the section.
BEM-2 zone (485-420cm)
This zone yielded the richest Late Glacial macrofos-
sil community from the entire Carpathian Basin. This
macrofossil community consists of tundra- and peat-
habitant moss species such as Scorpidium scorpioi-
des, Calliergon richardsonii, C. giganteum, Warn-
storfia sarmentosa, Hamatocaulis vernicosus, Dre-
panocladus lycopodioides, D. sendtnerii, D. adun-
cus, Tomenthypnum nitens. According to the ma-
crofossil data, these moss species must have lived
together with small tundra vegetation willows like
Betula nana and Betula humilis in the Balatonede-
rics embayment during the referred period. On the
other hand, the presence of the remains of Pinus
sylvestris, with a maximum of charred wood frag-
ments of the species, indicate that this basin was a
brown moss peatland covered by coniferous stands
of Scots pine during the transition phase of the Up-
per Weichselian and Late Glacial, rather than a tun-
dra-like environment. Brown moss carpets are one
of the most typical vegetation communities of the
Subarctic region today. It was also one of the most
pervading vegetation types in the Carpathian Basin
during the Upper Weichselian and Late Glacial peri-
ods.
BEM-3 zone (420-390cm)
There is an abrupt change in the composition of the
macrobotanical remains at a depth of 430cm, cha-
racterized by a uniform decline in peat and the de-
position of lacustrine silts on top of the brown moss
peat horizon. There is a major decline in the amount
of charcoal here, accompanied by an upward incre-
ase in the proportion of Chara oogonia, ostracod
and mollusk remains. These transformations indi-
cate a gradual increase in the water level, which ul-
timately led to the decline of the littoral reedy vege-
tation. Plus, with the expansion of open water sur-
faces in the Balatonederics Embayment during this
zone, a relatively deep, oligo-mesotrophic lake must
have emerged during the last phase of the Late Gla-
cial period. According to the available radiocarbon
data, this high water level horizon and palaeoecolo-
gical stage can be dated to the first half of the Meso-
lithic or Epipalaeolithic (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEM-4 zone (390-360cm)
A new peat formation and accumulation started at
390cm at the time of the Pleistocene/Holocene tran-
sition due to the gradually declining water level. An
increase in the macro-charcoal concentration refers
to the development of drier climatic conditions. This
macrofossil zone can be dated to the Pleistocene/
Holocene transition and must represent the second
half of the Mesolithic (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEM-5 zone (360-320cm)
The elevated macro-charcoal concentrations and the
expansion of Phragmites and Typha in this zone re-
fer to drier conditions resulting in a lowstand. There
is a decline of Chara oogonia along with the expan-
sion of eutrophic, warmth-loving pondweeds (Poly-
gonum lapathifolium, Myriophyllum verticillatum)
in this zone, indicating the development of shallow,
eutrophic lacustrine conditions. The BEM-5 macro-
fossil zone can be assigned to the Pre-Boreal/Boreal
transition phase based on the available radiocarbon
data. As a result of the mentioned environmental
changes, the neotectonic basin of Lake Balaton was
dissected into smaller subbasins harboring paludify-
ing smaller water bodies. The emergence and trans-
formations of these smaller lacustrine basins must
have fundamentally influenced the movement and
settlement strategies of Mesolithic communities in-
habiting the area, similarly to what has been obser-
ved in connection with the subsidence of the Sarret
(Marosi 1935; 1936; Makkay 1972; Sümegi 2003),
where the presence of Mesolithic fishers was confir-
med by the archaeological record.
Former studies assumed a complete desiccation of
the basin of Lake Balaton for the Early Holocene.
However, according to our findings, the accumula-
tion of lacustrine sediments must have been conti-
nuous in the area of the Balatonederics Embayment
during the referred period. As shown by the macro-
fossil data available from our studied sequence, the
lowstand recorded for the Early Holocene was a re-
latively short event culminating around 10 300 calBP.
This peak lowstand must have been preceded by a
gradually decreasing water level in the basin, follo-
wed by an increase in average water levels. Conver-
sely, no such signal indicating a major drop followed
by a rise in the water level was found in the macro-
botanical remains for the referred period. Rather,
they refer to uninterrupted lacustrine conditions in
the study area (Jakab 2007).
BEM-6 zone (320-270cm)
The accumulation of peat continued in this zone,
although there are signs of peat alteration and de-
composition between the depths of 315 and 305cm.
This cannot be attributed to a drop in the water le-
vel, because the macrofossil record shows a conti-
nuous increase in pondweeds (Chara, Nymphaea
alba) within the referred section. We may assume
the development of special conditions here, where
the inferred increase in precipitation could not com-
pensate for the increasing continentality of the cli-
mate ultimately changing the proportion of wetter
and drier days during the year. The presumably hi-
gher precipitation during the winter period must
have created a general highstand, with minor fluctu-
ations on the one hand; on the other hand, the pos-
sibility that the near-shore areas dried out at regular
intervals can not be excluded either during the year.
This assumption is clearly supported by the observ-
able increase in concentrations of macro-charcoal
and the appearance of Nanocyperion species (Che-
nopodium rubrum, Cyperus fuscus, Polygonum
persicaria) in this zone. This zone can be dated to
the last phase of the Mesolithic (Bänffy 2004; 2007).
BEM-7zone (270-200cm)
There is a major alteration in the sediment compo-
sition at a depth of 270cm (8450-8330 calBP). The
presence of blackish-grey, lacustrine deposits with
mollusc remains, reflect an initial highstand. This pe-
riod can be correlated with the beginning of the At-
lantic phase. From this point there is a continuous
decline in the water level, reaching a minimum at
7600 calBP, replaced by a later increase (Jakab et
al. 2005).
The open water habitat was gradually replaced by
reed-beds. Pondweeds occur in substantial amounts
here (Chara, Nymphaea alba, Potamogeton sp., Na-
jas marina, Myriophyllum verticillatum). Moreover,
Schoenoplectus lacustris has also a marked pres-
ence. There is a gradual increase in the proportion
of Phragmites rhizomes in the sediment, together
with the amount of Eupatorium cannabinum and
Utricularia vulgaris, both of which are associated
with reed-beds. All this indicates that the previously
observable fluctuations in the water level must have
diminished. Furthermore, there was a considerable
decrease in the dissolved carbonate content of the
water body.
BEM-8 zone (200-165cm)
The abrupt changes observable in this zone must be
attributed to changes in the hydrogeological condi-
tions, rather than to that of the climate. A significant
rise in the water level was inferred for the initial part
of the zone, followed by a sudden drop, which rea-
ched its absolute Holocene minimum at 7000 calBP.
This zone can be correlated with the second half of
the Atlantic.
According to the macrobotanical data, reed-beds
reached their maximum expansion during this peri-
od. The carbonate content decreased (Cladium is
not attested, Chara oogoniums and Ostracoda shells
decrease), and the bay paludified, as shown by the
peaks of Carex elata and Carex acutiformis. Ano-
ther increase in the water level can be assumed.
There was a temporary increase in the dissolved car-
bonate content of the water, shown by a peak con-
centration of Chara oogonia.
These transformations must be the outcome of geo-
logical processes acting on a larger scale than the
studied embayment. This zone coincides with the
period when the central and eastern subbasins of
Lake Balaton were reunited, resulting in an abrasion
of the shoreline and a continuous increase in the
water level. This unification process, resulting in
general abrasion along the shoreline, followed by
a highstand, seems to have been recorded in our
studied embayment in the form of a brief initial
drop in the water level, which was exchanged for
a gradual rise, as shown by the substantial increase
in Chara oogonia at 180cm, with no apparent ante-
cedents. Based on the macrofossil record, this trans-
formation must be dated to the second half of the
Atlantic (at c. 7000 calBP).
BEM-9 zone (165-140cm)
A gradual rise in the water level can be noted from
165cm to the top of the sequence. Open water spe-
cies (Chara, Mollusca, Ostracoda) expand, although
with smaller fluctuations, at the expense of reed-beds.
The composition of zone BEM-7 resembles zone
BEM-9. Cladium mariscus occurred in significant
amounts here.
BEM-10 zone (140-90cm)
Reed-beds still play a significant role in this zone. Peat
formation continues. In addition to reeds, Schoeno-
plectus lacustris and Typha latifolia have a signifi-
cant presence. The rising water level is reflected by
the disappearance of Nymphaea alba, a species less
tolerant of wave action, which prefers bays protec-
ted by reed-beds.
BEM-11 zone (90-50cm)
There is another abrupt change in the composition
of sediments here, marked by the deposition of
blackish-grey, lacustrine layers with mollusk remains,
indicating a rise in the water level. The number of
open water species (Chara, Mollusca, Ostracoda)
also increases. Conversely, there is a dramatic de-
cline in reed-beds here. This must be attributed to
the fact that reeds can form communities at a maxi-
mum water level of only 2m (Haslam 1972; Rod-
well 1995). In case of the modern Balaton, reeds
tend to form communities to a depth of 80cm Ja-
kab 2007), suggesting that the water level must have
been higher than at present, and reached its Holo-
cene maximum in this zone. The currently terrestrial
areas of the Balatonederics Embayment must have
formed a side bay during the referred period. Above
50cm, the sediment was unsuitable for macrobota-
nical analyses.
Only a few pollen sequences spanning the entire
Late Glacial and the Holocene are known from Hun-
gary (Sümegi-Törocsik 2008). The Balatonederics
sequence will undoubtedly be one of the most im-
portant pollen profiles after the completion of the
pollen analyses, with sub-sampling at 16 intervals
in the old analysis (Juhasz 2007) and 4cm intervals
in the new analysis (Sümegi-Törocsik 2008), and
once the radiocarbon dates for another six samples
from this sequence are available. On the basis of the
observed features of pollen remains, 10 zones could
have been identified in the core sequence marked
as BEP, an abbreviation of Balatonederics (BE) and
Pollen (P).
This part of the study presents the Pleistocene and
the Holocene sections of the pollen sequence and its
interpretation, with a focus on? the vegetation chan-
ges caused by the activity of human communities set-
tling in the broader area of the sampling location.
BEP-1 (515-480cm)
The lowermost local pollen zone reflects vegetation
dominated by Pinus, Betula and Poaceae. The pol-
len assemblage reflects a dense pine-birch forest,
with Pinus cembra, Pinus sylvestris/Pinus mugo,
and high values of Picea, Quercus, Ulmus, Fagus, Al-
nus and Corylus. The herbaceous vegetation is domi-
nated by Poaceae, with Artemisia and Chenopodia-
ceae, reflecting dry grassland around the pine fo-
rests. The mean values of Pinus suggest a milder cli-
mate and open, Scots pine forest cover. According
to the radiocarbon data, this pollen horizon and pa-
laeoecological phase developed in the last phase of
the Upper Palaeolithic (Tolnai-Dobosi 2000).
BEP-2 (480-420cm)
The second local pollen zone reflects vegetation do-
minated by Pinus, Betula and Larix. The pollen as-
semblage reflects dense pine/birch forest with Pinus
cembra, Pinus sylvestris/Pinus mugo, Larix and
low values of Picea, Quercus, Ulmus, Fagus and Co-
rylus. The dominance of the herbaceous vegetation
declined. The high values of Pinus (60-80%) sug-
gest a milder climate and local, dense Scots pine co-
ver. Based on the radiocarbon data, this pollen ho-
rizon and palaeoecological phase developed in the
first half of the Mesolithic or Epipalaeolithic (Banffy
2004; 2007).
BEP-3 (420-372cm)
A local origin can be assumed for some of the pol-
len material, since the values of Pinus sylvestris/P.
cembra range between 70-90% (Peterson 1983).
These data were congruent with pollen profiles from
other locations in the Balaton region (Bodor 1987;
Nagy-Bodor-Cserny 1998a, 1998b; Nagy-Bodor-Ja-
raine 2000), which show a similar dominance maxi-
mum of over 80% of Pinus sylvestris between 9000-
11 000 uncalBP. This zone can be dated to the sec-
ond phase of the Mesolithic (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEP-4 (372-296cm)
The ratio of coniferous trees, including Pinus spe-
cies, declined dramatically, parallel to a dominance
maximum of deciduous species thriving in a milder
climate, such as Quercus, Ulmus, Tilia and Corylus,
in the Early Holocene phase. The high values of Poa-
ceae can in part be attributed to the high number of
Phragmites pollens. The changes in the values of ar-
boreal and herbaceous species allow the separation
of three phases, which can probably be associated
with fluctuations in the water level. The water level
rises, although with fluctuations probably caused by
a more continental climate during the Early Holo-
cene phase. This zone can be dated to the last phase
of the Mesolithic Age (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEP-5 (296-200cm)
The continuous curve of Fagus, whose regional pre-
sence was attested in the previous zone, and the ap-
pearance of the first Carpinus pollens and the start
of its continuous curve, characterise the Boreal/At-
lantic transition, dated to 7600 ± 70 uncalBP (6500-
6380 calBC) at 278-280cm. Poaceae/Phragmites
have higher values, and the transitional maximum
of Fraxinus and Alnus at the beginning of this zone
suggest a higher water level and the presence of a
gallery forest. Corylus thrives on the margins of the
oak forest, of which Tilia and Ulmus are the impor-
tant members. Wetter areas are dominated by Cype-
raceae together with Alnus. Typha angustifolia and
Typha latifolia/Sparganium are present with low
values at first, slightly increasing later. The water le-
vel was probably lower during the Boreal/Atlantic
transition, probably owing to a more continental cli-
mate. Later, during the Atlantic, the water level in-
creased again. Ferns with monolete spores show a
substantial decline at the beginning of the zone and
are present with relatively low, but continuous va-
lues during its second part. The difference between
the beginning and the second part of the zone was
possibly caused by fluctuations in water levels. This
zone can be dated to the transition phase of the Me-
solithic and Neolithic and the first phase of the Neo-
lithic (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEP-6 (200-160cm)
Pollens indicating human activity and trampling ap-
pear in this zone. Fagus, light-loving Betula and Co-
rylus have fluctuating values, with repeated declines
and expansions during this zone. The cyclically chan-
ging values of Poaceae can probably be associated
with human activity, although the changes may also
have been caused by the paludification of the bay
and peat formation, reflected by the expansion of
Cyperaceae and Typha in this zone. This phase is
characterised by the decline of all thermophilous ar-
boreal species and the expansion of herbaceous ve-
getation. Poaceae, Asteraceae, and cereals have high-
er values. The opening up of the forest canopy re-
sulted in the spread of Betula and Carpinus and an
increase in Typha/Sparganium and Poaceae/Phrag-
mites. This change suggests that the infilling process
speeded up during this time and a wide marshy zone
developed on the lake-side region of this bay. Cype-
raceae, Filicales, Myriophyllum spicatum and M. ver-
ticillatum thrive in the wetter areas, where Alnus
has a relatively low, but continuous presence. This
zone can be dated to the second phase of the Neoli-
thic Age (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEP-7 (160-120cm)
This pollen zone is characterised by the maximum of
deciduous species (Fagus, Fraxinus, Quercus, Ul-
mus, Tilia), reflecting the maximum expansion of
forests in Transdanubia and the Carpathian Basin
and the Holocene climatic optimum. According to
the radiocarbon data, this period can be dated to
between 6000 and 5000 uncalBP within the Atlan-
tic. Fagus and Fraxinus dominate the oak forest, in
which Tilia and Ulmus, as well as Corylus are also
attested. The herbaceous vegetation is relatively poor
in species. Typha angustifolia and T. latifolia and
Myriophyllum spicatum and M. verticillatum as
well as Filicales make an appearance towards the
end of the zone. The declining values of Cyperaceae
suggest a rise in the water level. This zone can be
dated to the transition zone of the Neolithic and Cop-
per Ages (Banffy 2004; 2007).
BEP-8 (120-100cm)
This zone is characterised by the decline of Tilia, Ul-
mus and Fagus, while Quercus and Alnus have con-
tinuous, significant values. Betula and Carpinus ap-
pear in open areas of oak forest, and there was also
a species-rich gallery wood nearby. Poaceae/Phrag-
mites expand, and steppe ruderals make their ap-
pearance (Artemisia, Asteraceae and Chenopodia-
ceae). The spread of herbaceous species (Chenopo-
diaceae, Poaceae, Artemisia) and the changes in the
composition of deciduous trees can be attributed to
human activity, to the improvement in subsistence
techniques, and population growth. The relatively
high values of cereals, Plantago lanceolata and Ru-
mex suggest the presence of a human population
near the sampling location. It would appear that the
activity of the Early Copper Age population had a
major impact on the forest. Pastoral activity indica-
ted by Rumex, Plantago and Urtica can be noted
from the Middle Copper Age.
BEP-9 (100-72cm)
The ratio of species preferring an open habitat de-
clines compared to the previous zone, while arbo-
real species expand. A rise in the values of most fo-
rest species (Betula, Corylus and Tilia, as well as Fa-
gus and Carpinus) reflects the closing of the forest
canopy. The gallery forest made up of Fraxinus, Sa-
lix and Alnus retreats. Nitrophilous taxa, such as
Urtica and Plantago lanceolata, are still attested.
It seems likely that the Lake's water level rose to
such an extent that reeds could hardly survive it:
Cyperaceae have a transitional maximum, while
Phragmites almost disappears. The high water level
probably forced the human population to relocate
their settlements farther from the lake, and the pre-
viously open territories were colonised by light-lov-
ing arboreal species. The earlier fields were used for
grazing livestock during the Late Copper Age.
BEP-10 (72-40cm)
The water level probably dropped around 4000
uncalBP, and the human communities living in the
broader area of the sampling location apparently
used the area for arable farming, as shown by the
presence of cereals (Secale and Triticum) and of
Centaurea. This zone is characterised by a decline
in deciduous species and expansion of herbaceous
vegetation. In addition to the substantial amount of
cereal pollens, the weed flora of tilled fields and spe-
cies tolerant of trampling are also attested.
The expansion of herbaceous species and changes in
the mix of deciduous trees can be attributed to in-
tensifying human activity, to improvements in subsi-
stence techniques, and population growth. Although
no radiocarbon dates are available for this horizon,
the changes in the vegetation are typical of the Mid-
dle Bronze Age, characterised by a dense settlement
network in the Carpathian Basin (including Transda-
nubia) and a high level of arable farming (Poroszlai
2004; Kiss 2004).
Compositional changes in the mollusk fauna add a
further piece to the history of the Lake's level and
shoreline changes. The lowermost part of the section
is dominated by cold-loving, cold-resistant boreal ele-
ments and an add-on of typical loess fauna. These fin-
dings, plus those of plant macrofossil studies refer to
the emergence of a local tundra-like cold spot at the
terminal Würmian in the infant lacustrine basin.
The appearance of Lithoglyphus naticoides in the
next zone clearly highlights the stage of the Pleisto-
cene/Holocene transition (Fig. 2). Its co-presence with
Valvata piscinalis indicate temporary moving water
conditions attributable either to the emergence of a
higher energy, wave dominated shoreline, or a grea-
ter freshwater discharge from a nearby creek.
In the next zone, recording events from the open-
ing of the Holocene, the formerly dominating cold-
resistant, cold-loving and moving water elements
disappear, giving way to elements preferring milder
conditions. A dominance of the lacustrine elements
of Bythinia tentaculata and Gyraulus albus refer
here to a lacustrine stage characterized by carbonate
mud precipitation and lush aquatic vegetation pre-
ceding the emergence of an incipient marshland.
The next zone marks the appearance of various
marshland dweller forms and those preferring dense
aquatic vegetation, reflecting a temporary lowstand.
Then in the next zone, a slight increase in the lacu-
strine elements besides the marshland dweller forms
indicates the emergence of a eutrophic lake with a
somewhat elevated water level. This process is ob-
servable from around 8200 calBP onwards, marking
a rise in the water-level somewhat balanced by the
vegetation. From about 2m upwards in the section,
the intensity of lake level fluctuations is somewhat
reduced and the eutrophic lacustrine fauna are gra-
dually replaced by littoral and marshland dweller
forms, indicating the emergence of a shoreline with
dense, closed aquatic vegetation cover.
If we compare the data expressing lake level fluctu-
ations inferred from three independent data sources
of sedimentology, malacology and plant macrofos-
sils, there seems to be a similar general trend with
slight differences in the intensity of water level fluc-
tuations. This must be attributed to the fact that,
while sediment compositional changes record fluctu-
ations over a larger scale of the open water body,
the compositional changes of the mollusk fauna and
plant macrofossils of the aquatic vegetation reflect
changes attributable to the evolution of the littoral
aquatic vegetation. However, the highstand at 8200
calBP and the all-time lowstand at 7000 calBP are
clearly visible in all three records.
Conclusion
Based on complex sedimentological, paleoecological
investigations of a continuous uninterrupted se-
quence dating from the Late Glacial to the Early Ho-
locene, the following evolutionary history could be
drawn: following the birth of the neotectonic basin
around 16 000 calBP, vegetation characteristic of
the taiga tundra interface appeared in the area due
to the emergence of a cold-spot, thanks to the local
microclimate of the basin. A rich fen, with conifers,
dwarf shrubs and mixed deciduous taiga species
evolved during the second half of the Late Glacial.
This mosaic of tundra vegetation, a rich fen and taiga
evolving side by side as a result of the micro-climate
was inhabited by a characteristic cryophilous mol-
lusk fauna. The water level was at its lowest at
around 14 000 calBP (Bölling interstadial) and high-
est around 10 000 calBP (Preboreal phase).
Several high and lowstands were recorded for the
captured period of the Holocene. The water level
probably reached its all-time low with the onset of
the period (7000 calBP). The morphological condi-
tions of the discharge area, reflected in such com-
ponents as the span of the permafrost, plus the ve-
getation cover, and the rate of evaporation, must
have been the most important components influen-
cing water level fluctuations in the basin besides the
annual rainfall.
As shown by our findings, the water level seems to
have been quite high during the Mesolithic and the
basin must have consisted of a number of adjacent
carbonate-rich lakes. The shallow ponds and sub-ba-
sins, such as the studied Szigliget Embayment, were
surrounded by an extensive marshy zone and a
closed gallery forest, with more open woodlands in
the foothills, where hazel thrived on the forest mar-
gins.
Between 8100-8200 calBP a characteristic, but short
climatic change can be reconstructed in this se-
quence, associated with a highstand in a cool and
rainy phase. After this climatic event during the Neo-
lithic Age, some major environmental changes are
discernible. Soil erosion and the infilling of the basin
accelerated, and simultaneously, the extensive wood-
land became more open, with clearings and more
open patches of vegetation at the beginning of the
Holocene.
The interpreted fluctuation of the water level and
the evolution of Lake Balaton were congruent with
that characteristic of the lakes of the Balkans in the
Late Glacial and Early Holocene part of the record.
Conversely, it followed a pathway somewhat similar
to the lakes of Northern Europe from the Middle Ho-
locene onwards, with one important exception. The
Holocene history of Lake Balaton is characterized by
several lowstands , which must be attributed to the
emergence of a Continental (Boreal) and later on a
sub-Mediterranean (Atlantic) climatic influence in
the area. The findings are comparable with those ob-
served in Slovenian and Western European profiles
of similar ages.
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