75
LETTERS
O N
ICELAND:
CONTAINING
OBSERVATIONS
ON THE
Civil, Literary, Ecclefiaftical, and Natural Hiftory; Anti quities, Volcanos,  Bafaltcs,  Hot Springs; Cufton Drefs, Manners of the Inhabitants, &c. &c.
MADE,
During a Voyage undertaken in the Year 1772» By JOSEPH   BANKS,  Esq, P. K. S
AlT.ftcd by
Dr. SOUNDER,  F. R. S.   Dr. J. L I N D, F. 11 Dr. UNO VON T R O I L, And fc verat other Literary and Ingenious Gentle mi; m.
Written by UNO VON TROIL, D D. Firft Chaplain, to his Swedifh Mujcfiy, Almoner of the Swedifh Orders of Knighthood, and Member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm.
TO   WHICH   ark added
The LETTERS of Dr. I H R E and Dr. H AC H ta the Author, concerning the Eddu and the Eiephaniiaiis of Iceland :
A   I.   S O
Profrflor BERGMAN's Curious Qbfervaticns and Chemical Examination of the Lava and other Subltances produced on the liland.
Wjth a new Map of the Ifland, and a Reprdimt:ation of the remarkable Boiling Fountain called by the Inhabitant* Ga "hr.
LONDON: Printed hy and for W. Richardson, in the Strand; also
For J. ROBSON, in New BondStreet, and N. CONANT, in Fleet Street.
m DCC i, * x x,
CONTENTS.
Introduction.
letter I.
On   the   Effects of Fire in Iceland
page t
letter ii.
Of Iceland in general * 1 8
L ETTE fl Itf.
On the Confiitution of the Country 36
letter iv,
Of the Arrival of the Norwegians, the Government and Laws in Iceland 50
letter v.
Concerning Ecclefiaftical Affairs in tee-land * - 74
letter vi.
Of the Character and Manner of Life of the Icelanders 83 a 2
letter vil
Of the Drefs of the Icelanders page 94
letter viii.
Of the Hon fe s and Buildings of the Icelanders       -        -        - 09
letter ix.
Of the Food of the Icelanders     - 103
letter x,
Of the Employment of the Icelanders* and their Chronology        - 113
letter xi.
Of the Difeafes of Iceland     -       11 o.
letter xii.
Of Fifhing and Fowling, and the Breed of Cattle in Iceland       -        124
letter xiii.
Of the "trade of Iceland       - 148
.  letter xiv. Of Icelandic Literature      - 153
letter xv.
Of F rint ing in heland page i8l
letter xvi.
Of the Remains of Antiquity in Ice-land       -       -       -       - 187
letter xvii.
Of Icelandic Poetry - 195
letter xviii.
Of the Volcanos in Iceland       - 220
letter xix.
The f abject continued - 231
letter xx.
Of Mount Heckla - 239
letter xxi.
Of the hot fpouting Water Springs in Iceland      -      -      - 245
letter xxii.
0/ the Pillars of Bafalt ; to which is fubjoined Mr. Banks's curious account of the ifland of Staffa - 266
[ vi 1
Letter xxiii*
From Cliev. Ihre to Dr. Tro i Concerning the Edda .    -      page 289
LETTER xxiv.
From Chev. Bach to Dn Troil—Of
the Icelandic Elephant i afis   * 319
LETTER xxv. From   Profeflbr   Bergman   to Dr. Troi l.—Of the Efeäs of Fire both at the Volcanos and the Hot Springs ; and alfo of the Ba faltes      * 338
INTRODUCTION.
INTRODUCTION.
HE accounts of Iceland, which
X have hitherto made their appearance in the Englifli language, are of fuch nature, that it would betray ignorance or partiality to recommend them to the public as iatisfaclory and faithful.
The firft writer of any known hif-tory of Iceland in the prefent century, was John AnderiTbn, afterwards Bur-gömäfter of Hamburgh, who undertook a voyage to this Hot much-frequented ifland in a Greenland fhip ; but the authenticity of his performance is far from being fuch as may be relied on with confidence.
Niels Horrebow, a Danifli aflrono-mcr, was lent to Iceland by the court of Denmark, on purpofe to contradicr, Anderflbn's account; he published fome obfervations on Iceland, but from a too great aefiré to pieåie his employers, he iell into the oppoiitc
b
error,
error, anti paints ali his objects with a glow of colouring, that does not exactly correspond with the truth.
In Richer's Continuation of Rollln's Hiftory is a hiflory of Iceland, a mofl pitiful compilation, and full of the grofleft errors that ever difgraced the hiftorical page.
Under the authority of the Royal Society of Sciences at Copenhagen, Eilert Olafsen and Biar n e Po velie n» two men of learning, natives of Iceland, and re fid ing in the country, travelled all over that ifland, and gave, in two volumes in quarto, a faithful and ample account of all that deferves the attention of the learned and curious, illuflrated by numerous engravings: but though the performance is accurate and circumftantial, yet it is unfortunately clogged with repetitions, and the facts are recounted in lb tedious and uninterefling a manner, that it requires a mofl phlegmatic temper, and a large fund of patience, to go through the whole of this work, for it is filled with a long and dull recital of events, methodized in the
mofl
mofl formal manner poffible. It can therefore by no means bethought fupcr-flu ous, that Dr. Von Troil has favoured the literary world with his intcrefting Letters on Iceland ; a work which on account of its varied matter, and the great learning dilplayed every where for the inftruction of the curious reader, deferves the warmefl approbation of the public.
Men of talents and learning will, we flatter ourfelves, think highly of this prefent performance by Dr. Von Troil, though perhaps it may be fome-times a little deficient in point of language.
The prefent tranflation has been made from the laft German edition, publifhcd by Meflrs. Troil and Bergman, with numerous additions and corrections ; and though it is not oflen-tatioufly recommended to the public for any elegance or accuracy of flyle, it may however be fafely ftated as a faithful tranflation from the original, and a work of real merit and utility.
We
reader to form fl judgment of this performance, which is replete with variety of matter, treated on in an inflructive and iatisfactory manner ; and like wife on the great learning relative to natural hiilory, hiftorical, antiquarian, and philological fubjccls, which are every where blended in the context of the following letters ; and we are of opinion, that in refpect: to thefe points, this work requires no apology for offering it to the impartial
As to its utility, it will not be nnneceflary to prefix a few obfer various on the importance of Icelandic literature*
The Englifh language was originally fo nearly related to that of Iceland, that we need only caft our eyes on a gloiTary, to fee the affinity of both languages, and the great light the one receives from the other.
The Normans and Danes, who were during a confidcrable time matters of England, introduced into it many
r
cuftoms,
[ xi }
cuftoms, laws, and manners, which would remain inexplicable ; but the Icelanders being originally deicended from the fame Normans, and liviuf on an ifland which has very little in-tercourfe with the reii of the world, have preferved their language, manners, and laws in their primitive fim-plicity ; nay, all the hiftorical accounts of the North are contained in the hiftorical fayings (fagas) of the Icelanders, which are very numerous, and and would be of very important fcrvicc in the inveftigation of the origin of the language, manners, and laws of England. Nor can it be advanced that this kind of fhuly could not be purfued amongft us for want of thefe hiitorical monuments of the Icelanders ; fince by the known indefatigable zeal for the promotion of all branches of literature, and the molt cUfinterefled generoi! ty of Jofeph Banks, Ef ]. P. R. S. one hundred and fixty-two Icelandic manufcripts have been prefented to and are depofited in the Britifh Mufeum.
b 3 Th*
The hiflory of the northern nations, their divinities, religion, principles, and tenets, together with their poetry, prefent the philofophic reader with lubjccts worthy of his fpeculation; they at the fame time account for many hiftorical events, and for many a curious cuftom preferved by fome one or other of the nations tlefcended from the fame root with thefe inhabitants of the north.
The fubjeft of volcanos, and of the origin of certain kinds of ftones and folfils, have of late attracted the attention of philofophers ; but in my opinion, they are no where treated with fo much candour, truth, and philofophical precifion as in thole remarks which the Chevalier Torbern Bergman fent to our author in form of a letter, and which he has here communicated ^ctthe public.
The whole ifland of Iceland is a chain of volcanos, the foil almoft every where formed of decayed cinders, lava, and flags ; and the numerous hot fprings, efpecially that called Gcyfir, give full fcope to the mofl
curious
curious remarks on thefe fubjects, fince they are here obvious in fo many varied fhapes, and for that reafon become inftrucYive. Lava and fome other productions of nature have not been hitherto fubjected to chemical proceiTes : profcffor Bergman therefore deferves the thanks of the public for his excellent letter, giving a very interefting account of his experiments on all the various follils and natural productions of Iceland. The origin of bafaltic pillars, fuch as form the Giant's Cauieway in Ireland, the whole ifland of Staffa, and more efpecially flttgal s Cave, has of late been much f poken of by travellers and learned mineralogifts. Some afcribe their regular configuration to crystallization : others pretend the fubterraneous fire t-6 be the caufe of their regular columnar fhape ; but the ingenious Chevalier Torbern Bergman proves, by the mofl folid arguments, that the bafalt pillars are no lava, or any ways related to volcanic fubflan-ces, and that their regular columnar fhape, he fiiggefts, is owing to ano-b 4 thcr,
ther GAufc, and by his reafoning ren-r ders it highly probable.
We are at the fame time prefentcd with a view of the primitive earths, that originally compound all earthy and ftony bodies hitherto difcovercd on the furface of our globe ; and their characters are here alio fet forth in the mod: cafy and obvious manner by experiments.
This great and interefting circum-ftance alone would be fufficient to recommend the prefent performance to the perufal of chemifls, mineralogifts, and philofophers.
The letter of the Archiater Bach^to Dr. Troil on the difeafes of Iceland, contains the mofl curious and interefting obfervationsfor the ufe of medical gentlemen. In f hort, there is fcarcely a clafs of readers who will not find in-* ItrucYion and entertainment in the ingenious performance of Dr. Uno Von Troil, the author of this book.
He is a Swede by birth, and de* feendeel of a noble family : his father, Samuel Von Troil, was archbifhop of Upfah
After
After having ftudied divinity", the oriental and northern languages and antiquities, together with the various branches of natural philofophy, he travelled, and vjfited Germany, France, England, and Holland.
During his Hay in England he was introduced to Mr. Banks, who was then returned from his voyage round the world, and preparing to go on a fecond ; hut that not taking place, he was prompted to make a (hort exem-lion towards the Weftern Iflands and Iceland; and cafily prevailed upon Dr. Von Troil to accompany him on this literary voyage.
After the return of Dr. Von Troil, he wrote letters to feveral learned men in his own country, eminent in the various pro fei lion s and branches of literature and icience, on the different matters he had obferved in Iceland during his voyage ; they were at firft only intended to fatisfy the folicitations and curiofity of his friends, whowifhcd to be made acquainted with whatever he had difcovered worthy the notice of a
literary
literary man, and that might likewife bid fair to afford amufement.
The fenator Charles Count Schetfer, a man of a benevolent character, and who patronizes learning in all its branches, together with its profeffors, folicited our author to communicate them to the public: in compliance with which, they were publifhed at Upfal in 1777 in octavo ; and the next year after they appeared at the fame place tranflated into German, very much enlarged with additions of the author and alio of Chevalier Bergman.
Dr. Von Troil has for his talents, learning, and character been promoted in his native country to feveral places of honour and emolument, lb that he may now be confidered as the firft man in Sweden in point of eminence in the ecclefiaftical line, and in point of learning inferior to none : he has taken his degree of doctor of divinity, is principal chaplain to the king, prefident of the confiftory, rector of the great church of Stockholm,
holm, and prelate of all the Swedifh orders of knighthood.
Thefe curfory hints were thought neceflary for ufhering his Letters on Iceland into the literary world; the public will, no doubt, be curious to know the particular obfervations made by a learned man on an ifland that Mr. Banks, one of the firft characters of this country, thought deferving a nearer inflection by a voyage he undertook at a great expence, accompanied by feveral learned and ingenious men.
For the information of thoie who wifli to be acquainted with all the publications that have appeared, to treat either at large of Iceland, or examine fome of its particular objects, we have here fubjoined a very curious and complete catalogue of them.
CATALOGUE
CATALOGUE of Writers on Iceland.
I TOACHIM Leo wrote fome verfeson Iceland in JJ the German language, full of errors. There are four editions of them. Arngrim Jonæ, in his Comroentario de Iflandia, quotes the edition of ifoi.
3 Jacobi Ziegleri Scondiafeu DefcriptioGroenlandiæ, Iflandiae, Norvegiæ, & Sueciæ. Francofurti 1575.
3 Jonlbogen (i. e. Jonfbook, an old book of laws) Hoolum (in Iceland.) 1578. 8vo. and feveral editions fubfequent to it.
4 Arogrim Jonae brevis commentarius de Iflandia. Hoolum 1592. 8vo. and Hafn 1593. 8vo.
5 Ejufd. Crymogasa feu rer urn Iflandic.uum libri ties. Hamburg. 1609, iöio, 1614, 1618, i6?o, and 1 630.
6 Blefkenii Iflandia f. populorum et mirabilium, qua: ineainfula reperiuntur, accurata defcriptio. Ludg. Batav. 1607. 8vo.
7 Angrim Jonæ Anatome Blefkeniana. Hoolum 10J2. 8vo. and Hamburg 1613. 4to.
8 Dan Fabritius de Iflandia &c Groenlandia. Roftocl: 1616. 8vo.
9 Arngrim Jonæ epiftola pro patria defenforia. Hamburg 1618. 410. written in oppofition to the preceding book.
10 Arngrim Jonæ Apotribe calumniæ. Hamburg. 1622.
11 De regno Daniæ & Norvegiæ infulifque adjacen-tibus, traftatus varii colletti a Stcphano Stephanio. Ludg. Batav. 1629. i2mo. from whence the part concerning Iceland is taken out, and printed fepa-rately with the title.
12 Iflandicæ gentis primordia 8r vetus republica. Ludg. Bat. 1629. i2mo.
13 Arngrim Jonae Athanafia Gudbrandiana. Hamburg 1630, .
j 4 Peder
14 Peder ClaufTon's Norriges og omliggende öars Beflc* rifvelfc. Kiöb, 1632. 4ro. and Kiöb 1637. 8vo.
15 Arngrim Jonæ fpecimen Klandia: hift. & magna ex parte chorographieum. A mli. 1643.
lö La Peyrere Relation de l' Mande, in a letter to Mr. de Ia Motte Vayer, dated 18 Dec. 1644. Is inferted in the Rcceuil des Voyages au Nord, tom. I. Amft. 17' 5. 8vo.
17 WoMii Nonigia iUuftrata. Hafn. 1651. 8vo. and 4to.
18 WolfEi Norriges, Ifknds og Grönlands Beflcrif-velfc. KiÖ','haf:i. 1^51. 4to.
19 Hieianym Mefefrcri S-pu.ntrio Nov-antiquus, fiv« die n. i-- !;. liland, Groenland, &c. Leipz.
16^3. i 2it:o,
20 K'    i,!   Jorum  A. C. 1215, per Snorronem
SturTae iil.mdice confcripra, iflandu~e, danice & latino edita, opera 1\ J Rcfenii. Hafn 1665. 4to. together with
21 Piiilofbphia antiquiflima Norve^o-dnnica difta Volufpa, øuæ eft pars F.ddæ S&fctmift, primum publlci juris fafta a P. J. Refenio. Hafn. 1665. together with
22 Ethica Odini,. pars Eddæ Sæmundi, vocata Haara-mal, edita per P. J. Refenium. Hafn 1665.
23 Theod. Thorlacci clifT. chorographica hiftorica de Iflandia, præs. Ægid. Strauch. Wittcnt 1606 and 1670. 4to. item 1690. 4:0.
24 F.rici Bartholin! expcrimenta ChrifraU; Iflandici difdiaclaftici. Hafn. 1669. 4fo.
25 Volufpa. Kiöbenhavn. 1673. 4to.
26 Martiniere neue Reife in die nordifchen Landfchaf-ten. Hamb. 1675. 4to. Tranflatcd from the English. There is likewife a French edition. Paris 1682.
27 Arae Multiftii Schedae. Skalholt i638. 4to. Oxford 1696. Kiob. »733. 4to.
28 Landnåma Bok. Skalholt 1688. 4m. Is likewife publifhed at Copenhagen, with a Latin tranflaiion,
notes,
[     sk ]
notes, and feveral indexes. Iflands Landnama-Bok, h. e. Liber originum lflandiae. Editio novif-fima, ex manufcriptis Magnæanis fumptibus perill. Suhmii.   Havn. 1774. 4to.
29 Gahm de ratione atrni folaris npud veteres Iflandos. This memoir is printed at the end of Aræ Schedæ, in the Copenhagen edition.
30 Thordr Thorlaks Dili, de ultimo montis Hecklae in Iflandia incendio.   Hafn. 1694.
31 Gahm de prima religionis in Iflandia fundatione. Hafn. 1696.
32 Defcription du Nord. 1698. 1 2mo.
33 Niewe befchryvinge van Spitlbergen, Ifland, Groenland end de beygelegen Eylanden.
34 Einar Thorft. vita. Hafn. 1700.
35 Reife nach Norden, worinneu die fitten, Lebenf-arten and Aberglauben der Norwegcr-^——and Iflandcr accurat befchrieben werden. Leipz. 1711. i2mo.
36 Blefkenii Hiftorie van Lap-and Finland, hier is by-gevoegt de befchryving van Is-en Groenland. Leu-varden 1716. 8vo.
37 Vetterften de Poefi Scaldorum Septentrionalium. Upfal. 1717. 8vo.
38 Relation om det foerfkrckkelige Vandfall og exun-dation af Bierget Katlegiaa paa Ifland 1721. Copenhagen 1727. 4to.
39 Kort beraettelfe on berget Krabla paa Ifland, famt andre Dernefs Intil grantfande Berg, Hwilka nyligen begynt at infpruta eld och brinna. This account of the burning of the mount Krabla was printed probably in the year 1 727, at Stockolm, on four pages in 8vo.
40 Benedict Thorftenfon effterrettning om den jord-brand fom 1724 og folgende Aar i Bierget Krafla og de dar omkring liggende Herreder har grafleret. Kiobenhafn 1726. 8vo.
41 Olavi O. Nording DhT. de Eddis Iflandicis. Upfal. 1735. 4to. Mr, Oelrichs at Bremen has reprinted
this
[ ™ ]
this DifT. in his Opufculis Daniæ & Sueciæ litterat», tom. h 1774.
42 Joh. Dav. Koehler proltifio de Scaldis feu poetis gentium arftoarum. Altdorf 1738. 4to.
43 Er. Jul. Biörner, Inledning til de Hfwerborna Goeters gamla Hafder far deles gotifka fprakets Forman och Sagornas Kanned om. feu, Intro-dudtio inAntiquitatesHypeiboreo-Gothicas. Stockholm 1738. fol.
44 Ejufd. tra&atus de Vuregis heroibus Scandianis. Stockholm 1743- 4t0-
45 Lackmannus de computationeannorum per hyemcs prifcis gcntibus hyperboreis ufitata. Kiel 1744. 4 to.
46 De Yfverborna Atlingars Lara—-Hyperboreormfi Atlandiorum fen Siiiogotorum et Nordmandorura Edda, hoc ed Atavia, feu fons gcntilis illorum & Theologiæ & Philofophiae, lam demum veriionc Suinonica donata accedente latina—ad MS. quod poflidet Bibliothcca rjpfalienfis—opera Joh. Gordon. Upf. 1746. 4to. This edition of the Edda was not finifhed.
47 lflanika taxan.   Hoolum 1746. 4to.
48 John Anderflbn Nachrichten von Ifland, Groen-anländ, und der S tralle David. Hamb. 1746. It appeared likewife tranflated into the Danifh language. Copenh. 1748. A French tranflation has likewife been publifhed by Mr. Sellius, 1751. i2mo, 2 vols.
49 O&roy foer detlflandfke Societet. Kiöb. 1747. 8vo. »
50 Avertiffement om Anderflbns Traftat om Ifland. Kiöb. 1748. 8vo.
51 Joh. Thorkelflbns tillgift til Anderflbn om Ifland. Kiöb. 1748. 8vo.
52 Eggerhard Olavius F.narrationes hiftorjcæ de lflandiae natura & conftitutione.  Hafn. 1749. 8vo.
53 Ejufd. DifT. de ortu Sc progreflu circa iguem Iflandia: fubterraneum. Hafn. 1749. 4to.
Biarne
54 Biarni Pauli Obfervationes de niga faccharifera maris Iflandici. Hafn. 1749. Svo.
55 Arnae Oddef. vita, inferted in the Nova literaria. Hafn. an ni 1750.
56 De Gamla Normanners Patriarkalifka Lara pa Swcntka och Lat. at Joh. Gooranlfon. Stockholm 1750. 410.
-57 Ola-i Wormii Epiftolæ, Hafn. r751. 2 vols. 8vo.
58 Tilforladeliga efterretningar om Ifland med ett nytt Landkorr, og 2 Aars metereologifka Obftrva-vationer af Niels Horrebow. Kiöb. 1750. 8vo. This performance is likewife tranflated into German 1752. 8vo. and into Knglifh.
eg Specimen Iflandiæ non barbaræ, in nouvellis lite-ranis Hafnienfibus 1752.
fio Nachrichten von Ifland, a (hort abftract of Horre-bow's book inferted in a periodical paper called Beytragen zum Nutzen und Vergimgen. Greifs-wald 1753. 41O.
61 Etici tentamen de nominibus & cognominibus Scp-tentrionalium. Hafn, 1753. 8vo.
62 Th.  Nicolai  de commeatu Iflandonim navali.
1753. 8vo.
63 Svein Solvefen Tyro  Juris Iflandicus. Kiöb.
1754. 8vo.
64 Vidalins Bref til Jon Arnefen de jure patronatus Iflandorum, tranflated into Danifh, and publifhed by Magnus Ketil fon.
65 DifTertatiuncula de montibus Iflandiafe cryfkllinis, auet Theodr Torkelli I. Vidalino, fcholæ Skalhol-tenfis eo tempore Rettore. Tranflated from the Latin MS. into German, and publifhed in the Hamburg Magazine, volume XIII. Ny I. and II. 1754. 8vo.
66 Difquifitiones duæ hifloricæ antiquariæ. Prior de veterum Septentrionalium, imprimiä Iflandorum peregi inåtionibus ; poflerior de Philippia feu amo-ris equini apud prifcos boreales caufls——-per Joh. Erici. Lipf. 1755. 8vo.   The nrft. is tranflated
into
[    Xxiii ]
into German, and inferted into Schlozer's Northern Hiftory. 1771. p. 556. 'O7 Ejufd. Specimen Obfervationum ad antiquitates Septentrional. ■
68 Ejufd, Commentarius de expofitione infantum ad Veteres Septentrionales.
69 Introduction a l'Hifroire de Dannemark, par Mr. Mallet, å Copenh. 1755. 4to. to which a uanfla-tion of the Edda is prefixed. The fame is tranflated into Englifh, 2 vols. 8vo. and into German. Greifswald 1765. 4to.
70 Joh. Snorronis de Agricultura Klandorum. Hafn. 1757. 8vo.
71 Hald Jacobfens eftcrretningar om dc i Ifland ildfprudeode Bierge. Kiöb. 1757. 8vo.
.72 OI. Eigilfon's Bcrettnelfe o m de tyrkiflce Soeroverc i. Ifland. Kioeb. 1757. 8vo.
73 Nie. Pet. Sibbern idea hiftoriæ litteran;;: iflandorum in Dreyer's Monumenta anecdota. 1 Tom. Lubecae 1760. 4to.
74 Balle oekonomifka Tanker ofwer Ifland til hoyerc betankning. Kiöb. 1760, 1761. 2 vols. 8vo.
7 % Joh. Finnæus tentamen hillorico-philologicum circa Norvegiæ jus ecclefiaflicum prifcum, and
■76 Ejufd. Curæ pofteriores in hoc jus. Hafn. T7Ö2 ;md 1765. 4to.
77 Thorften Nicol. de commeatu veterum Iflandorum reflituendo. Hafn. 1762. Åvp»
78 Joh. Atnefon luledning til den gamle og nya Ifhndfke Rattegaang, udriven af I. Ertchfen. Kiöb. 1762. 4to.
79 loach. Stechau de fide hiftoiica monumentor. Iflandic. Lund. 1763.
80 Five pieces of Runic poetry, tranflated from the Icelandic langings. London 1763. 8vo.
81 M. Olafsen's fiäerföcg til Landraiecets forbediing t Ifland. Kiöb. 176;. 8vo,
82 Ejufd. Anmaikniiigar tilt Jons boks Dan/ka of-werfatrehc. Kiob. 1765. 8vo.
c i Egil
#3 Egil Thorhallfens forfwar for fm ofwerfattelfe. Kiöb. 1765. 8vo.
84 H. F'mnfen efterettning om tilgragclferne vid Bierget Hekla udi Uland i April og foljende månader.
.   Kioeb. 1767.
85 Olavii Syntagma de Baptifmo veterum. Hafn 1769. ■ 4to.
86 Breve om Agerdyrknings muelighed i Ifland fra Hans Finnien 1769 and 1772.
87 Joh. Pctcrfen om den faa Kallade Iflandfke flcior-biugg. Sorte 1769. 8vo.
S3 Erichfen om Uland» up Komft. Kioebenhhafn 1770   4 to.
89 Skuli Magnuflbn um thann Iflen/ka Carnfpuna. Kiob. 8vo.
90 Ol. Olaisens Iflanfk Urtagaards bok. Kioeb. 177©. 8vo.
pi Thor Oddefons tanker om akurdyrkin p*a Ifland. Kiöb. 177». 8vo.
92 Iuel Norrlands Trompet.
93 Martefeld om Iflands Huufholding med fedhevahrc og Hamborgs Kiodrogning. Kiöb. 1771. 8vo.
94 Ol. Olfon um fifki-veidar og rilki-nettan. Kiöb. 1771. i2mo.
95 Upartifke tanker om det Iflandflce Handels-Kom-pagnie og dets farende Kiobmand. Kiöb. 1771.
96 Anmerkningar æver Compagniets Handel paa lf-fland. Kiöb. 1 771.
97 Lud, Harboe Tuende of handlingar om reformationen i Ifland.
98 Eiufd. Iliftory of the Iflandic tranflation of the Bible.
99 Finnei Johannasi, Epifcopi Diocefeos Skalholtinæ ia Iflandia, HiAoria Kccleftaftica Iflaudiæ, T- I. II. IH. Hafn. 1772 & 177^.
100 :Ion Olffon om den JfLndfke Handel. Kiöb. 1772,
8vo.
ICI Bref til Hr. CanccIIic Radet Lagerbring rörande then Iflandska Edda (by Chevalier Ihre). Stock. .     j772, B\o.
Jö2 Relation d'un Voyage dans la Mer du Nord par
de Kerguelen de Tremarec. Amftcidam 1772. 4to.
I63 I'-ggcrt Olatens og Biarne Povelfens Reife igienem Bland, 2 vols. Soroe 1772. 4to. It appeared likewife tranflated into German. Leipz. 1774 & 1775. 4to. 2vols.
104 Steph. Thorafens de homieidis fecundum leges Iflandorum antiquas. P. I. Hafn. 1773.
105 Kriftni Saga, S- Hiftoria Religionls Chriftianæ in Iflandiam introdu&æ, nee non : Thattr af Ifleif Bifkupi, f. narratio de Ifleifo Epifcopo—cum iu-terpretatione latina, notis, fye. Hafn. 1773, 8 vo.
106 Iflandifche Literatur und Gefchichete. Erfter Theil. Goettingen 1773. 8vo. The ingenious Prof. Schlozer at Gottingen is the author.
107 Iflandifche Zeirungen. Thefe newfpapers were publifhed in Iceland in the year 1775.
108 Bualngen.   Ilrappfej. 177 5.
109 Biörn a Skardzaa Annalar Hrappfej. 1774 and 1775. 4to. 2 vols. Thefe annals contain the hi (lory from t 400 to 1645; and are publifhed with a Latin tranflation: Annates Biörnis a Skardfa. Ex manufcriptis inter fc collatjs cum interpretatione Latina, variantibus ledlionibuu, nods & indice.
110 Kriftin-rettr hinn gamli—JusEcclefiafticum vetus f. Thorlacco-Kettilianum conftitutum, A. C. 1123, Ifland'ice & Latine, edit Grimus Joh. Thorkelin.  Hafn. 1775.
in Berattelfe om den Iflandfke farfkiot fel n, upfatt af Theod. Thoroddi. Thefe obfervations ap* peared tranflated into Swedifh by Mr, Barchans, in the Journal of hufbandry 1776, the month of November. Stockh.
112 Vorlaqfender Bericht und zugleich die Vorrcdc von der alten und raren Iflandiiehcn Edda, lo uber 700 Jahr und daruber in Norden biflier i uner-
[r    XXVI ]
r tiivri klarbär vcrfleckt gelegen. 'Stettin 177^. 4to. Its author is Mr. bchimmdmann of Stettin, who likewife had printed in 1774 ; Abbandlung abgefalTt in einem Schi eiben an einen CJekhrten von der «hen Iflandifchen Edda. 410. IT} Sven Sölvefén lilandifke Jus crim'male. Kiöb.
1776. 8vO.
I i.\ iflandifche Merkwurdigkeiten, in a periodical " paper called Mannichfaltigkeiten, firfl year fecond quarter. Herlin 1777. Svo.
i 15 Sciagiapliii Iliitoria: lluerariæ Illandiæ, aufrorum $ Icriptorum tuni editorun) tum ineditorum in-dicem txibens, cnivis deliueandæ periculum fecit Baiaäntis Einari, Ph. Mag. & Rciftor Scholæ Ca-I   thedr. Holcufis.  ilolmiæ 1777. 8vo.
i ,o Modern Hiflory of the Polar Regions. The firll part is to be met with in Rtchers's Modern Hif-tory or Continuation to Rollins's Antient hiflory, Vol. XXVII.  Berlin 1778. 8vo.
117 DifT. ifiauguralis de Lichene Illandico, Pra:f. I .   .TLommfdorfT. Rclp. Reille. Erfurth. 1778.
118 Die Klandifchc Edda. Das ill: die geheimc CJottellehre der ælreften Hyperboraer—im Jahr. 1070—1075, aus alten 1 iinilthen Schriften edirt von Samund Froden, hicrnæchft im Jahr 1664, durch Refcn, und nun in die hochtentfche Sprache mit einera Verfuch /ur rechteo Erklarung uber-fezt und cdirt von J. Schhr.melmaun. Stettin. 1778. 4to.
Lao Ordf ti'rande en Rcfa til Uland 1772. Upfala.
1777. 8vo. aud tranflated into German by Joh. George Pet, Mocllcr. Upfala and Leipz. 1777. 8vo. The work which is now here appears tranflated into Euglifli.
120 Joh. Thcod. Phil. Cbrift. Ebeling de QualTia & Lichene Iflandico.   Glafgoæ. 1779. 8vo.
'1 his Catalogue contains all the writers of any con-fequence on Iceland, or on matters any way relativ1* to, or concerning that country.
Aii
accurate Sc cørivct M jf or
TC EL AIO)
_ from A'//s v\'r.v and ,/////>r////r\\v mo i rs by Moil''."' Krir klive n ,v Nrliooiiuino-
'    *   .1   i   J   i  7   &   fi   0   " '*
_»■"-"'■__uimnau_jiwimii-ramm» /r. Auu/tM /.<ttt,S l///i.> //•„> /<■• </ /Ky/i;J
t 'i ■irrini ii-"....."""" nimninin
*    i    &    4   J    ^   7    # S
Z0        30        40       J° 99
m_n„M-,i,i,i,.,„iiT. -......„itrrn..ini.- /;»,///,,// S,,T J Mi' /tv      1/ /^i/fivj
3 to
•4
35
;s.>i,i
36
3S
.V>\t>'
3SV
AS
36
.y'!"
I
LETTERS on ICELAND,
* L  E  T  T  E  K b
To Profetior Bergman. On the Ejfetis of Firt in Iceland,
SIR,
SINCE I am happily returned from 3 very plcafant fu miner's excurfion through the weftern Hlands of Scotland, to Iceland and the Orkneys, it is with peculiar pleafure that I take this opportunity of alluring you of my elleem and friendfliip. It is probably not unknown to you, that Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander have been diiagreeably ciifappointed when they were on the point of fetting out on a new voyage round the world laft fummer. How-
* This letter was firft publifhed in the year 1773» in the Upfala newfpapers, N° 3, 4, 6, and 8.
A ever,
ever, in order to keep together and employ the draughttmcn and other perfons - whom they had engaged for their voyage to the South-Sea, they re-folved upon another excuriion. It was inipollible to ehufe a better one than that to Iceland ; and you may eafdy conceive, Sir, that though I was ready to let out on my return to Sweden, I did not helkate a moment in accepting their offer to accompany them. To fay the truth,  I was glad  to  vifit a, country where I could not alone hope to find many remains of our ancient language, but where I was certain to fee naturein a new point of view.
I have not been difappointed in either of my expectations ; and I could never have found a happier opportunity than that of making this voyage in the company of Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander, or" whom it would be vinnecefTary to fay one word more, as they are both known fo well to you, and to the learned and ingenious throughout Europe.
I know, Sir, that every information will be welcome to you, which concerns
Cl ]
Cerns thofe objects that attracl.ee! my attention tliere ; and there is no one who would communicate this information to you with more pleafure than Iriyfelf j but as it would require too much prolixity to mention every thing, I mall only in this letter fpeak of the principal operations of fire in Iceland, a fubjeel which, I am convinced, is one of the molt important.
On our arrival in Iceland on the 28th of Augull 1772, we directly fa w a profpecl: before us, which, though not pleating* was uncommon and furpriz-ing. Whatever prefented itfelf to our view bore the marks of devaluation • and our eyes, accuftomed to behold the pleafing coafts of England, now law nothing but the vefUges of the operation of a fire, heaven knows how ancient !
The description of a country, where quite clofe to the fea you perceive al* moft nothing but fharp cliffs vitrified by lire, and where the eye lofés itfelf in high rocky mountains covered with eternal fnow, cannot poilibly produce fuch emotions as at firfl fight might A 2 entirely
entirely prepoflefs the thinking fpecla-tor. It is true, beauty is pleafing both to our eyes and our thoughts ; but gigantic nature often makes the molt killing imprellions.
We caft anchor not far from BeiTef-tcdr, the d welling-place ofthe celebrated Steurlelbn, where we found two tracts of Java, called Gurdc and Hualcyc-ilraun (for what we and the Italians call Lava, is called in Iceland llraun, from liriuna, to flow ) of which particularly the laft was remarkable, iince we found there befidcs a whole field covered with lava, which muft have been liquid in the higheft degree, and whole mountains of turf. Chance had directed us exactly to a fpot on which we could better, than on any other part of Iceland, confider the operations of a fire which had laid w alte a ftrctch often or twelve miles*.
* The miles mentioned by Dr. Troil are always Swedifh, ten and an half of which are equal to a degree on one of the great circles of the globe ; and therefore one Swedifh mile is nearly equal to fix Englifh ftatute miles. Ten or twelve miles are 60 or 72 Englifh miles.
We
We fpent feveral clays here, in examining every thing with lb much the more pleaiurc, fince wc found ourfelves, as it were, in a new world.
We had now feen almofl: all the effects of a volcano, except the crater, from which the fire had proceeded: in order therefore to examine this like-wife, we undertook a journey of twelve days to mount Heckla itfelf; we travelled fifty or fixty miles* over an uninterrupted track of lava, and had at laft the pleafure of being the firfl who ever reached the fummit of this celebrated volcano. The caufe that no one has been there before, is partly founded in fupcritition, and partly in the extreme difficulty of the afcent, before the lad difcharge of fire. There was not one in our company who did not willi to have his cloaths a little finged, only for the fake of feeing Heckla in a blaze ; and we ahnoft flattered ourfelves with this hope, fince the bifliop of Skalholt had informed us
* Three hundred or three hundred nnd fixty Eng-lifli miles.
A 3 by
■hy letter, in the night between the 5th and 6th of September, the day before our arrival, flames had proceeded from it ; but now the mountain was more quiet than we willied.    We however palled our time very agreeably, from one o'clock in the night till two next day, in vifiting the mountain. We were even fo happy, that the clouds which covered the greateft part of it difperfed towards evening, and procured us the mod exteniive profpecl: imaginable.    The mountain is fome-thing above five thoufand feet high, and feparates at the top into three points, of which that in the middle is the higheft.    The mod inconfiderable part of the mountain confifls of lava, the reft are allies, with hard, folid (tones thrown from the craters, together with fome pumice-ftones, of which wc found only a fmall piece, with a little native fulphur.   A defcription of the various kinds of ftoncs that are to be found here, would be too prolix, and partly unintelligible ; and 1 fo much the more willingly omit it, us I hope to fatisfy your curiofity, as
foon
foori as the collection I made of them arrives in Sweden.
Amongft many other openings, four were peculiarly remarkable ; the firft, the lava of which had taken the form of chimney-flacks half broken down; another, from which water had ftream-ed ; a third, all the ftones of which were red as brick; and laftly, one from which the lava had burft forth in a ftream, which was divided at fome difrance into three arms. I have laid before, that we were not fo happy to fee Heckla throw up fire ; but there were fufficient traces of its burning in-Avardly ; for on the upper half of it, covered over with four or five inches deep of fnow, we frequently obferved fpots without any fnow ; and on the higheft point, where Fahrenheit's thermometer was at 240 in the air, it rofe to 1530 when it was letdown on the ground ; and in fome little holes it was i b hot that we could no longer obferve the heat with a fmall pocket thermometer. It is not known whether, fince the year 1693, Heckla has been burning till 1766, when it began to throw up A 4 flames
ti ames on the firft of April, and was burning for a long while, and dc ilroycd the country many miles around. Laft December lome flames likewife proceeded from it ; and the people in the neighbourhood believe it will begin to burn again veryfoon,as they pretend to have obferved, that the rivers thereabouts are drying up. It is believed that this proceeds from the mountain's attracting the water, and is confidered as a certain fign of an impending erupr tion. Befides this, the mountains of IViyvatn and Katclegia are known in this century, on account of the violent inflammations of the former, between the years 1730 and 1740, and the latter in 1756.
But permit me, Sir, to omit a farther account of the volcano at this time*, in order to fpeak of another effect of the fire, which is much finer, and as wonderful as the firfi, and fo m uit be the more remarkable, as there is not in
* Dr. Troil treats more at large of the Icelandic volcanoes in his 18th and iQtli letters; and in the iöth, he fpeaks more particularly of mount i I rkla.
auy
I   9 I
any part of the known world any thing which refcmbles it ; I mean the hot fprings of water which abound in Ice^-land f.
They  have   different  degrees of warmth, and are on that account divided by the inhabitants thcmfelves into laugar, warm baths, and hucrer, or jets d'eaux; the firft are found in feveral other parts of Europe, though I do not believe that they are even employed to the fame purpofes in any other place: that is to fay, the inhabitants do not bathe in them here merely for their health, but they are likewife the occafion for a fcenc of gallantry.   Poverty prevents here the lover from making prefents to his fair one, and nature prefents no flowers of which elfewhere garlands are made : it is therefore cultomary, that inftead of all this, the fwain perfectly cleanfes one of thefe baths, which is afterwards honoured with the vifits of his bride. The other kind of fprings mentioned above deferves more attention. I
t The 21 ft letter treats more fully of the hot fprings in Iceland,
have
[    lo ]
have feen a great: number of them ; but will only fay fomething of three of the mofl: remarkable. Near Lau-gervatn, a fmall lake of about a mile in circumference, which is about two clays journey diftant from Heckla, I faw the firft hot jet d'eau ; and I muft confefsthatit was one of the mofl beau ti-ful lights I ever beheld. The morning was uncommonly clear, and the fun had already begun to gild the tops of the neighbouring mountains ; it was fo perfect a calm, that the lake on which fome Twans were fw immin g was as linooth as a looking-glafs ; and round about it arofe, in eight different places, the fleam of the hot lprings, which loft itfelf high in the air.
Water was fpouting from all thefe fprings ; but one in particular continually threw up a column from i 8 to 24 feet high, and from 6 to 8 feet diameter the water was extremely hot. A piece of mutton, and fome falmon trouts, we boiled in it; as likewife a ptarmigan, which was almoft boiled to pieces in fix minutes, and taftcd excellently.   I wifh it was in my power,
Sir,
Sir, to give you fuch a defcription of this place as it deferves ; but I fear mine would always remain inferior in point of expreffion. So much is certain, at leaif, nature never drew from any one a more cheerful homage to her great Creator than I here paid him.
AtReikum was another fpout of the fame fort; the water of which, I was allured, rofe to 60 or 70 feet perpendicular height fome years ago ; but a fall of earth having almofl covered the whole opening, it now only fpouted between 54 and 60 feet fideways. We found a great many petrefied leaves in this place, as likewife fome native ful-phur, of which too the water had a much ftronger tafle than any where elfe.
I have referved the mofl remarkable water-fpout for the end ; the defcription of which will appear as incredible to you as it did to me, could I not allure you that it is all perfectly true, as I would not aver any thing but what I have feen myfelf. At Geyfer, not far from Skallholt, one of the epif-copal fees in Iceland, a mofl extraor-i dinary
dinary large jet d'eau is to be feen, with which the celebrated water-works at Marley and St. Cloud, and at Gal1 lei, and Herrenhaufen, near Hanover, can hardly be compared. One fees here, within the circumference of half a mile *, forty or fifty boiling fprings together, which, I believe, all proceed from one and the fame refervoir. In fome the water is perfectly clear, in others thick and clayey ; in fome, where it paffes through a fine ochre, it is tinged red as fcarlet; and in others, where it flows over a paler clay, it is white as milk.
The water fpouts up from all, from fome continually, from others only at intervals. The largeft fpring, which is in the middle, engaged our attetV tion particularly the whole day, which we fpent here from fix in the morning-till feven at night. The aperture through which the water arofe, and the depth of which I cannot determine, was nineteen feet in diameter ; round the top of it is a bafon, which,
* About three Englifli miles.
together
together with the pipe, has the form of a cauldron ; the margin of the bafon! is upwards of nine feet one inch higher than the conduit, and its diameter is of fifty-fix feet. Here the water does not fpout continually, but only by intervals feveral times a clay ; and as I was informed by the people in the neighbourhood, in bad rainy weather, higher than at other times.
On the day that we were there, the water fpoutecl at ten different times, from fix in the morning till eleven A. M. each time,  to the height of between five and ten fathoms ; till then the water had not rifen above the margin of the pipe, but now it began by degrees to fill the upper bafon, and at laft ran over. The people who were with us told us, that the water would fbon fpout up much higher than it had till then done, and this appeared very credible to us.   To determine its height therefore, with the utmoft accuracy, Dr. Lind, who had accompanied us on this voyage in the capacity of an aflronomer, fet up his quadrant.
Soon
[   H ]
Soon after four o'clock we obferved that the earth began to tremble in three different places, as likewife the top of a mountain, which was about three hundred fathoms diftant from the mouth of the fpring. We alfo frequently heard a fubterraneous noife like the dilcharge of a cannon ; and immediately after a column of water ipouted from the opening, which at a great height divided itfelf into feveral rays, and according to the observations made with the quadrant, was ninety-two feet high. Our great furprize at this uncommon force of the air and fire was yet increafed, when many itones, which we had thrown into the aperture, were thrown up with the fpouting water. You can eafily conceive, Sir, with how much pleafure we fpent the day here ; and indeed I am not much furprized, that a people fo much inclined to fuperflition as the Icelanders are, imagine this to be the entrance of hell ; for this reafon they ieldom pafs one of thefe openings without fpitting into it; and, as they fay, uti fandens mun, into the devil's mouth.
But
[   W ]
But I think it is time to finifh my long letter, and I will only try your patience with one thing more, which like wile deferves to be better known. Natural hiflorians always obferved thole large remarkable pillars,   which, the hand of nature has prepared in Iceland, and in fome other places, with the greateft attention.   The Giant's Caufeway has,   till now, been con-fidered as the largeft and mofl regular aflemblage of thefe columns ; but we have difcovered one on our expedition through the weftern ill ands of Scotland,   which   infinitely furpaffes it. The whole ifland of Staffa* confifls almofl entirely of thefe pillars, which are as regular as can be imagined; they feem to be of the fame fubltance as the Irifti ones, and have from three to feven fides j   each   pillar is fur-rounded by others, that join lb clofely
* See the account of Staffa, by Jofeph Banks Eftj. inferted in Pennant's Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides, 1772, page 299, 3C9, and the fine reprefentations of thefe buialts, executed after the accurate drawings executed by Mr. John Frederick Miller, employed by Ml". Banks, and communicated by the laft mentioned gentleman, for the adorning of Mr. Pennant's Scots Tour.
to
to it, as to have a very fmall fpace be-* tween them, wlpich is frequently filled up with a cry flail ized incruftation. In molt places the pillars are perpendicular ; in others they are a little inclined, and yet in others they have the configuration of the timber-work in the infidc of a (hip. The higheft pillar was 55 feet one inch long; and each joint, from one to two feet. There is a cavern here which confifls entirely of thefe pillars; it is 367 feet long; 53,7 broad, and 117,6 high. There are three fathoms of water in it, fo that it is eafy to enter into it with a boat.
It is difficult to determine the quef* tion, how thefe pillars have been formed; but it is more than probable, nay almolt certain, that they are the remains of an antient volcano, many indifputable tracts of which are found in many parts of Scotland. You muft not in this place apply to me the ftory Helvetius tells of a clergyman and a fine lady, who together obferved the ipots in the moon, which the former took far church fteeples, and the latter
for
[   17 1
for a pair of happy lovers. I know that we frequently imagine to have really found what we moft think of, or mofl: wilh for ; but I fincerely allure yon, that I do not {peak of fuch fires without the moft decilive opinions. I will, however, referve a further account of thefe extraordinary productions till my return home, when I flatter my fel f I fliall be able to give you entire fatisfaétion.
[   1B ]
LETTER II.
To the Royal Librarian Mr. Gjor well. Of Iceland In general*
Utrecht, Jan. 22, 1773.
S I R,
YO U are, no doubt, informed of the voyage Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander undertook laft fummer to Iceland, as well as of my having accompanied thefe gentlemen on that expedition. I need not tell you what rea-fons determined me to become one of their company. You can eafily conceive how many different circumftances might have perfuaded a curious Swede to vifit a country remarkable in fo many refpefts ; I am perfectly fatisfied with my voyage, and can eafily convince you of it, by communicating to you fome little account of what principally attracted our attention during its courfé.
We
We fet fail from London on the I 2th of July laft in a fliip, for which one hundred pounds fterling were paid every month.    Bclides Mr. Banks, Dr. Solander, and myfelf, we had on board an allronomer*,  a lieutenant of the navy (a very worthy man, his name is Gore, and deferves to be mentioned, as he is,  as far as we know, the firll who has failed three times round the world t) together with a lieutenant, three draughtfmen, and two writers, who, with the feamen and fcrvants, made about forty people.
We firft landed on the Ifle of Wight, which is a little paradile, where we fpent two days. Nature feems to have fpared none of her favours in embellifhing it; and I know no place in it which does not prefent a pleafing
* Dr. James Lind of Edinburgh, who is well known by many memoirs inferted in the Philofophical Transactions, and other ingenious publications.
f Captain Dampier did it a long time before Mr. Gore, viz. Cowley and Dampier, 1683, 1684; Dam-pier and Funnel, 1689, 169 i; Woodes, Rogers, and Dampier, 1 708, 1711. If lieutenant Gore and captain Charles Clerk return fare home from the voyage they are now engaged in, they both will have failed four 'lines round the world.
[   tB ]
LETTER IL
To the Royal Librarian Mr. Gjorweli., Of Iceland in general,
Utrecht, Jan. 22, 1773.
S I R,
YO U are, no doubt, informed of the voyage Mr. Banks and Dr, Solander undertook lafl: fummer to Iceland, as well as of my having accompanied thefe gentlemen on that expedition. I need not tell you what rea-ibns determined me to become one of their company. You can eafily conceive how many different circumftances might have perfuaded a curious Swede to vifit a country remarkable in fo many refpects ; I am perfectly fatisfied with my voyage, and can eafily convince you of it, by communicating to you fome little account of what principally attracted our attention during Us courfé.
Wc
We fet Tail from London on the 12th of July laft in a fliip, for which one hundred pounds ftcrliiig were paid every month.   Bolides Mr. Banks, Dr. Solander, and myfclf, we had on board an altronomer*,  a lieutenant of the navy  (a very worthy man, his name is Gore, and deferves to be mentioned, as he is,  as far as we know, the firlt who has failed three times round the world f) together with a lieutenant, three draughtfmen, and two writers, who, with the feamen and fervants, made about forty people.
We firft: landed on the Hie of Wight, which is a little paradife, where we ipent two days. Nature feems to have fpared none of her favours in embellifiiing it; and I know no place in it which does not prefent a pleafing
* Dr. James Lind of Edinburgh, who is well known by many memoirs inferted in the Philofophical Tranf-adtions, and other ingenious publications.
f Captain Dampier did it a long time before Mr. Gore, viz. Cowley and Dampier, 1683, 1 684 ; Dampier and Funnel, 1689, 1691; Woodes, Rogers, and Dampier, 1708, 1711. If lieutenant Gore and captain Charles Clerk return fafe home from the voyage they arc now engaged in, they both will have foiled four times round the world.
[ äo 3
view to the obferver. The inhabitants refemble their ifland ; they live in a little community among themfelves ; they are not very rich, neither have they any beggars. They are generally cheerful, cleanly, and obliging ; and there are but fewinftances among them of any one marrying a perfon who did not at that time refide or afterwards fettle on the ifland.
From thence we failed to Plymouth, where we faw the docks, magazines, and every thing belonging to them worthy of notice, and then proceeded towards St. George's channel.
We had intended to land on the Ifle of Man, as it is one of the few places where the Runic characters have been brought by the Danes, and the only one, except the north, where fome of our old Runic ftones are found ; but at fea we cannot always, act according to our pleafure ; the wind obliged us to leave the Ifle of Man on our right, and to continue our courfe to the w efter n illands of Scotland.
It is exceedingly pleafant to fail among thefe iflands, though not very fafe, without a good wind and expert pilots:
for.
for in the firft cafe you muft depend upon the ebb and flood; and in die lecond you are in continual danger on account of the great number of rocks.
The nature of the country is fuch, that I do not wonder at its having given birth to a Fingal, and an Oman. It is not the only place where we have feen heroes produced among the mountains ; and what can be more calculated to form a poet, than wild romantic and enchanting feenes of nature, which are here fo pleaflngly blended.
It would be tedious to enumerate all the ifles we have vifited. The moft remarkable are Oranfay and Colums-kill, on account of their antiquities ; Scarba, for its known water-drain, (Vatta-drag); and Staffa, on account of its natural pillars, which hitherto have been little known, and furpafs whatever has been obferved before of the kind.
You know, Sir, that the inhabitants of thefe ifles, as well as in the Highlands of Scotland, have a language of their own, which they call Erfe, and which is a remnant of the Celtic. In B 3 this
[ « ]
this language Olliun wrote his adrni-mirable poems ; and though the inhabitants cannot at prefent produce any thing comparable to them, yet I hope, on my return home, to give you proofs of their being able to write both with elegance and fentimental feelings. As it is very extraordinary that this language mould have prc-lervcd itfelf here lb long*, it will perhaps not be difagrccable to you to be
* The very little connection which the antient inhabitants of the Scots Highlands and of the Hebrides had with other nations (especially before the Union, which has in every refpect been beneficial to them) is the true caufe that the Erfe language has fo long been preferved among them. Uefides theié reafons there is another, which accounts almoft for them all; the poverty of the foil and inclemency of climate admit of very little cultivation, fo that thefe parts have very few natural productions which might tempt foreigners to vilit them: fome few gifts of nature are, no doubt, lodged in the bofom of the Scots hills j but hitherto indolence and want of induftry in the natives have neglected thefe riches : within a few years only it is that commerce has begun to raife its head, which alone induces other nations to frequent this or any country. It is therefore not fo very extraordinary, that in a mountainous country the remains of ancient nations mould be found, who long prcferve their language. In the Caucafus are ftill exifhng the pofterity of feveral nations who crorTed thefe mountains in their attempt to conquer Alia and Europe; and within a fmall compafs, more than five or fix dilferent languages are fpoken.
z more
[    23 1
more particularly acquainted of the limits within which it is confined. I will readily fketch them out to you, being able to do it with fo much the more certainty, having received my information from Mr. Macpherfon, the only man in England who has particularly Itudied this language.
It begins to be fpoken on the eaftern fide at Nairn, and extends from thence through the whole country, and all the Weftern ifles. In the north its limits are at Cathnefs, where Erfe is only fpoken in four parifhes out of ten ; in the other fix, better Englifh is fpoken than in any other part of Scotland. There is in Ireland another dialed: of it, as well as in Wales and Britany ; however, they are notfo different, but a man born in either of thefe provinces, may make himfelf underfloocl in the others. Had I been acquainted with the language of the Dali kar lians, I fhould have had an opportunity of examining how far that fimilarity *is founded which, as it appeared to my ear, fub-Jlfts between thefe two languages.
B 4 The
The country abounds with northern antiquities, fuch as caflles, ftrong-holds, burying-places, and monuments, (Bauta(leinar); and the people, who are obliging and extremely hofpitable, have a number of cuftoms relembling thofe oblerved by our country-people, fuch as the celebration of the firft of May *, and many others.
We now left thefe iflands, and continuing our voyage arrived at laft, on the 28th of Augull, at Iceland, where we caft anchor at BeHefledr, formerly ■the dwelling-place of the famous Stur-lefon. We feemed here to be in another world ; in Head of the fine profpccts with which we had fed our eyes, we now only law the horrid remains of many
* It is called in Sweden war Fruday; lejour de notre Dame, our Lady's Day. The witches are fuppofed to take, in the night preceding that day, their flight to Blakulla, a famous mountain; but it was formerly believed in Germany, that the witches travelled to the Bloxberg or Broeken, a high mountain contiguous to the Hartz forefl. in Sweden the fpring comes on about this time, and of confequence the hard labour of ploughing, mowing, and reaping follow one another frum that time, and require the beft exertion of the rtrength of the hufbandmen, to which they prepare themfelves on this day by frequent libations of their ftrong ale, and they ufually fay, Ma fie man dricka marg i hmm j You muft drink marrow in your bones.
devaf-
devaluations. Imagine to yourfelf a country, which from one end to the other prefents to your view only barren mountains, whole fumrnits are covered with eternal fnow, and between them fields divided by vitrified cliffs, whole high and fliarp points feem to vie with each other, to deprive you of the fight of a little grafs which fcantily fprings up among them. Thefe fame dreary rocks likewife conceal the few fcat-tered habitations of the natives ; and no where a fingle tree appears, which might afford fhelter to friendfliip and innocence. I fuppofe, Sir, this will not infpire yon with any great inclination of becoming an inhabitant of Iceland ; and indeed at firfl fight or fuch a country one is tempted to believe that it is impoffible it fhould be inhabited by any human creature, if one did not fee the fea, near the fhores, every where covered with boats.
Though there is fcarcely any country fo little favoured by nature, and where (lie appears throughout in lb dreadful a form, yet Iceland contains about 60,000 people, who cannot properly
[     26 ]
petty be called unhappy, though they are unacquainted with what in other places conflitntes happinefs. I {pent there above fix weeks with the greateft pleafure, partly in ftudying one of the molt extraordinary lituations of nature, and partly in collecting information from the natives, concerning their language, manners, &c. ccc. As to the former, 1 have treated of it in a letter to profetior Bergman, which I doubt not he will communicate to you with pleafure, if you defire it. Of the latter I will here mention fome particulars.
You know, Sir, that Iceland firft began to be cultivated in the eleventh ' century by a Norwegian colony, among which were many Swedes. They remained perfectly free in this corner of the world for a long time ; but were, however, at laft obliged tofubmit to the Norwegian kings, and afterwards became fubjeCt, together with Norway, to the kings of Denmark. They were at firft governed by an admiral, who was fent thither every year to make the necefTary regulations ;
[   =7 I
lations; but that mode has been changed many years, and a governor * appointed, who conftantly reiides in the country. This pofl is, at prefent, occupied by Mr. Larr Thodal, who has formerly been Danifli plenipotentiary in the commilfion for fettling the limits between Sweden and Norway, and has tpeut feveral years at Stockholm.
The Icelanders are of a good honefl difpofition; but they are, at the fame time, fo ferious and fullen, that I hardly remember to have feen any one of them laugh : they are by no means fo ftrong as might be fuppofed, and much lefs handfome. Their chief amufement, in their leifure hours, is to recount to one another the hiflory of former times ; fo that to this day you do not meet with an Icelander who is not well acquainted with the hiflory of his own country : they alio play at cards.
Their houfes are built   of lava, thatched with turf, and fo f m all, that you lind hardly room to turn yourfelf in them.   They have no floors ; and
* Stiftfamtmann,
their
their windows, inftead of glafs, are com* pofed of thin membranes of certain animals. They make no ufe of chimneys, as they never light a fire, except to drefs their victuals, when they on ly lay the turf on the ground. You will not therefore think it flrange, when I inform you, that we faw no houfes, except (hops and warehoules; and on our journey to Heckla we were obliged to take up our lodgings in the churches.
Their food principally confifts of dried fifti, four butter, which they confider as a great dainty, milk mixed with water and whey, and a little meat. They receive fo little bread from the Danifh company, that there is hardly any peafant who eats it above three or four months in the year. They likewife boil groats, of a kind of mofs (Lichen Iflandicus) which has an agreeable talle. The principal occupation of the men is fifliing, which they follow both winter and fummer. The women take care of the cattle, knit /lockings, &c. They likewife drefs, gut, and dry the fifties brought
home
home by the men, and otherwife aflifi in preparing this ftaple commodity of the country.
Befides this, the company who yearly fend fifteen or twenty fhips hither, and who pofiefs a monopoly which is very burthen fome to the country, export from hence fome meat, edder-down, and fome falcons, which are fold in the country for f e ven, ten, and fifteen rix-dollars a-piece. Money is very rare, which is the reafon that all the trade is carried on by fillies and ells of coarfe n n (horn cloth, called here Wadmal; one ell of wadmal is worth two fillies; and forty-eight fifties are worth a rix-dollar in fpecie. With gold they were better acquainted at our departure, than on our arrival.
They are well provided with cattle, which are generally without horns : they have likewife flieep, and very good horles; both the laft are the whole winter in the fields: dogs and cats they have in abundance. Of wild and undomefticated animals they have only rats and foxes, and
fome
fome bears*, which come every year from Greenland with the floating ice: thefe, however, are killed as loon as they appear, partly on account of the reward of ten dollars, which the king pays for every bear, and partly to prevent them from deftroying their cat-tic. The prefent governor has introduced rein-deer into the ifland; but out of thirteen, ten died on their paf-fage, the other three are alive with their young.
It is extraordinary that no wood grows fuccefsfully in Iceland; nay, there is fcarcely a fingle tree to be found on the whole illand, though there are certain proofs of wood having formerly grown there in great abundance. Corn cannot be cultivated here to any advantage; though I have met with cabbages, parfley, turnips, peafe, ckc. ckc. in five or lix gardens, which were the only ones in the whole ifland.
* The bears here mentioned arc the white polar or arctic carnivorous bears, abfolutely forming a fpecies widely diftinét from our brown and black bears -y though the celebrated Linneus only fufpected them to be a new fpecies, not having feen and examined any of thefe animals.
I muft
I muft now beg leave to add a few words about the Icelandic literature.   Four or five centuries ago the Icelanders were celebrated on account of their poetry and knowledge in hiflory.   I could name many of their poets, who celebrated in fongs the warlike deeds   of the northern kings ; and the famous Snorre Sturlefon is the man to whom even the Swedes are indebted for the firft illuflration of their hiflory.   We for this reafon fet fo high a value upon the antient Icelandic records and writings, that they have almoft all been drawn out of the country: fo exceedinglyfcarce they are become, that, notwithflanding the pains I took during the whole time of my flay there, I got a fight of only four or five   Icelandic  manufcripts.    In the inland parts of the country, our old language has been preferved almoft quite pure; but on the coafls, where the natives have an intercourfe with the Danifli merchants, it has been fome-what altered.   Some fpeak the Danifli language very well; but thofe who did not, could fooner make themfelves intelligible
telligible to us Swedes, than to the Danes. We likewife found three or four Runic infcriptions, but they were all modern, and confequently of no value. I have faid before that the Icelanders took pleafure in liftening to their old traditional fayings and itories; and this is almofl the only thing that remains among them of the fpirit of their anceftors ; for they have at prefent but few poets ; and their clergy know little belides fome Latin, which they pick up in the fchools eltablilhed in the epifcopal fees at Skallhok and Hoolum. Some of them, however, have ftudied at the univerflty of Copenhagen; and I became acquainted with three men of great learning among them, who were particularly well verfed in the northern antiquities. One of them is thebilhop of Skallholt Finnur Jonlon, who is compiling an eccleiiaitical hiftory of Iceland ; the two others are the provoffc Gunnar Paulfon, and Halfdan Ginar-fon, rector at Hoolum.
That there is a printing-office in Iceland cannot be unknown, as we are acquainted with the rare editions of
Olof
Olof Try ggwaflbns, Landnåma, Greenland, and Chriflondoms Sagas, or Traditions, printed at Skallholt ;  but I did not expect to find  the art of printing fo antient here,   as it was represented to be.     A Swede, whole name was John Mathiefon, brought hither the firft printing-prefs, between the years 1520 and 1530; and published in the year 1531  the Breviarium Nidarofienfe.    I have collected as many   Icelandic books as I have been  able  to difeover ;   among the rarefl is the Icelandic bible, printed in folio at Hoolum in the year 1584. I hope likewife, that fifteen (till now unknown) traditional hiftories or fagas will be no unwelcome acquifition.
You may judge, Sir, how agreeably I fpent my time here in thefe occupations, which I applied to with lb much the more pleafure, as they all related to objects entirely new : added to which, I was in fociety with Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander ; the latter of whom is a mofl worthy difciple oi our Linnæus, and unites a lively temper to the moft excellent heart ; and C the
the former is a young gentleman of an unbounded thiril after knowledge, re-iblute, and indefatigable in all his puriuits, frank, fond of focial conver-fation, and at the lame time a friend of the fine arts and literature : in fuch company you will confefs it was im-pollible I (hould have the leaf! rcaibn for regretting the time fpent in this voyage.
I had ahnoft flattered myfelf with the hopes of feeing Mr. Banks and Dr. Solander in Sweden ; but I learn that they will be detained in England for fome time. I much fear Dr. Solander will be for ever loft to his native country, as well on account of the univerfrtl efteem in which he is held in England, as of his being preferred to a more beneficial place at the Britifh Mu-feum than that which he formerly polTefled.
Their voyage to the South Seas will probably make its appearance in April or May next. They have already begun to engrave the collections of animals and plants they have made on their voyage, which will employ them
fever a 1
fevcral years, as they mild confifl, I {hould apprehend, of near 2000 plates* It would be writing a natural hif-tory were I to attempt to give a proper defcription of thefe admirable collections. They have alone above 3000 fifties and other animals pre-fervecl in fpirits, molt of which are new: Linnæus might find among their plants, of which they have feveral fets, (one of which, I flatter myfelf, will find its way into Sweden) iubjects for a new mantilla.
I propofe, when I have feen Holland, to make a little excurfion to Germany to fee Mr. Michaelis, and foon afterwards return to my native country, where I fliall have the honour of alTuriug you pcrfonally of the affectionate regard, &c. ccc.
LET-
[   3* ]
L ETTE R UT. To  Chevalier   I h r e.
On   the   phyfical  Conjlitution  of the Country,
Stockholm, June 20, 1773.
S I R,
' B U1ERE is no duty more agree-JL able to me, than that of obeying your commands, in tranfmitting to you fome account of Iceland, its antiquities, and what clfe relates to it. As I have happily had an occafion of feeing the country myfelf, it may with juflice be required of me, that I (hould willingly communicate to others the informations I have been able to procure ; and it would give me peculiar pleafure if they enabled me latif-faelorily to anfwer thofc queftions which you kindly propofed to me.
Iceland
Iceland is juflly reckoned amongft the largefl iflands in the known world. It is lixty miles in length, and its breadth exceeds forty Swedifh miles "\
The mofl uieful among many maps of this country is that which has been made by Mellrs. Erickflen and Schoon-ning in the year 1771, though it might be further improved.
Beflefledr, in the fouthern part of the ifland, not far from Hafnefiord, lies, according to Horrcbow's account of Iceland, in 64 degrees 6 minutes of north latitude, and in 41 degrees of longitude, from the meridian of Stockholm ; lb that it is almofl in the latitude of Hern6fand"f-
The country docs not afford a pleafing profpect to the eye of the traveller, though it prefents him with objects worthy of attention in many refpecls : for befides innumerable ridges of mountains that crufs it in fevcral directions,   and fome  of which, on
* About 360 Britifh fea-miles in length, and about 24-0 in breadth.
t A town in Sweden.
C 3 account
account of their height, are covered with continual ice and fnow, you only fee barren fields between them, entirely deflitutc of wood, and covered with lava for the fpace of many sniles. This is certainly as incapable of giving the eye pleafure, as it is unfit for any other ufe. On the other lide, however, it caufes the greateft furprize in the attentive fpeclator, to fee fo many fpeaking proofs of the dreadful effects of volcanoes.
Though the coafts are better inhabited, the inland parts of the country do not lie wafte and neglected ; and one finds every where, fbmetimes clofer together, and fome times at greater diflances, farms with fome land belonging to theqi, which generally confilts of meadow-land, and fometimes of hills thick fpread with low fhrubs and bullies, and which they honour with the appellation of Woods.
In the whole ifland there are no towns,   nor even villages; nothing but tingle farms are to be feen, fome of which, however, confifl of feveral 2 dwelling-
dwelling-houfes, deflined for the owner of the fana and his tenants (bid hygtt* mann) who procure from the proprietor a houfeand paflure foras many cows, horfes, and fheep as they ehufe to agree for. On the eftates of lom e peaiants who are better circumftanced, there are even fometimes dwellings for labourers (Lunnaan) who work for daily hire. All thefe larms belong either to the king, the church, or the peafants them fél ves *. I will mark the price of two of thefe farms, which were fold a little before our arrival, that you may judge of their value. The one farm, whereon ten cows, ten horfes, and four hundred fheep mig ht be kept, was fold for one hundred and twenty rix-dollars; and the other, which had fufficient pafiure for twelve cows, eighteen heads of young cattle, above a year old, that had not yet calved (ungnötJt eight oxen, fourteen
* In order to (hew at once in what proportion the farms are diftributcd between the king, the dunc\ and the farmers, I will here annex an abftracl taken from the Icelandic ViUariom, or Land-book of the year 1695, which came into my polTellion.
C 4 horfes,
Abstract frcra the Icelandic Lakd-book of 1695.
Or'thefe farm; in  each iyllVj belong	cr -1 3 r*	3' JO*	1 0 [jorgarfiords. "	to 3 m ET M	Hnappadals.	Ö EL e»	» T P &.		Q. J»	K 3 < U 3	c/: ?i aa 3% O -t Ci.	1 *! B b. rs	r»	c:	fr ju rs ai pj	n» n -s	> •i ro	Sfcjgg O " "1 O C- „ T1 fl	r cr 0 >n 0 ■*«
To the king.	9°	40		22	2 c	2	6		2 1		40	82	51 43		102	6	4		718
To the bifnop's fee of ikalhok.	6	*	3/				4		3				i| 4			32	202		304 345
To the bifliop't. fee of Hoolum.										39	196	6l	49j						
Church glebe.	14	9		4J	18	24	33	6 +		46	M	33	55' ;<		8	64			640
Glebe of clergy	3	2	9	4	*l     Si 4			IO	3	14	10	15	H	-i	6	6	' 4		140
Glebe of fuper-annuatedclergy	I	2	4	2	I 2		3	1	3		]			12	41 7		3		45
For maintaining the poor.	i		i	j				2		t	1		t	S	2				16
For maintaining hafpirals.				i							__	i			1		i		184
To farmers.	11		216	59		149; 132		161	66	!4>		533	il»	*«7   47| T53			91		47
Total fum.	i 26J   91		344* l99		68: 180! 187			259	1 *5	529;	•566	323! 306		3571 »83! 268			347		40<,8l
horfes, and three hundred fheep, for one hundred and fixty dollars.
In fome few places they have fmall fenced fpots near their houfes, in which they cultivate cabbage, parfley, fpinach, turnips, patientia, potatoes, and fome other roots and vegetables, together with flax and hemp. Fruit trees are looked for in vain, which is not to be wondered at, fince dorms and hurricanes are here very frequent. Thefe have given rile to the name of (Wcclrakifia) Storm-coaft, which has been given to fome places in Iceland.
They have likewife prevented the growth of fir-trees, and Norway pitch-firs *, which governor Thodal had planted here, whole tops fecmed to wither as foon as they were about two feet high, when they then ceafed growing.
That wood has formerly grown in Iceland, can be proved from the Sagas or tradition (lories of Landnåma, Ki-alncfmga, Svarldala, and Egill Skalla-grimfonare.    It is likewife proved by
* Pinus picca, Linn, and pinus abics, Linn,
pieces
r 4^ ]
pieces which are frequently dug up in marines and fens, where not a fin-gle bufli is to be feen at prefent. The iiibflance, called by the natives futurbrand, is likewife a clear proof of it.
This futurbrand is evidently wood, not quite petrified, but indurated, which drops afunder as foon as it comes into the air, but keeps well in water, and never rots: it gives a bright though weak flame, and a great deal of heat, and yields a fourifli though not unwholefome fmell. The fmiths prefer it to fea-coal, becaufe it does not fo foon wafte the iron. The Icelanders make a powder of it, which they make ufe of to preferve their cloaths from moths; they likewife apply it externally againfl the cholick. I have (een tea-cups, plates, &c. in Copenhagen made of futurbrand, which takes a fine polifh. It is found in many parts of Iceland, generally in the mountains in horizontal beds; fometimes more than one is to be met with, as in the mountain of Lack in Bardeflrand, where four ftrata
of
of futurbrand are found alternately With different kinds of (tone.
I have brought a large piece of it with me to Sweden, in which there are evident marks of branches, the circles of the annual growth of the wood, leaves, and bark, in the furrounding clay : and there is fome rcafon to believe, that thefe trees have been mixed in the thrown-up lava in fome eruption of fire or an earthquake.
I am almofl inclined to believe that fome ftrcams of lava, which at the depth of fifteen feet, according to ob-fervations that have been made, can advance twelve thou land Swedifh ells, of two feet each, in eight hours, by a declivity of forty-live degrees, have fwept away thefe trees, which fee m to have been of a conliderable fize, and buried them ; and this is fo much the more   probable,   as the futurbrand frequently has the appearance of coal. But as I donot know whether this opinion has ever been, advanced before, and having had no opportunity of making fufficient observations upon this conjecture, and as there is. even fome reaion
to
[   44 I
to fiippofe, that a tree would in fo violent a fire directly be con finned to allies, though the contrary may alio be poffible, when it is in the fame inllant over-turned, covered, and in a moment fmotherccl ; yet I will not even venture to offer this opinion as a probable conception.
There is flIII another probable iiippo-fition. The trees may have been overturned by an earthquake, and then covered beneath the hot allies of a volcano, in the fame manner as happened at Hcrculanum, and other places, where whole towns have (liared the fame fate.
That there have been formerly con-fidcrable woods in Iceland, can fcarcely be doubted ; nay, there are at this time fome fmall fpots covered with trees, as at Hallarmflad, Hunfefeld, and Aa, and in feveral other places. However, there are no fir nor pine-trees ; and the birch-trees now exifting never exceed the height of eight or twelve feet, and are not above three or four inches thick, which is partly o wing-to bad management, partly to the devaluations caufed by fire or hurricanes,
and
T 45 ] and the Greenland floating jce : t]ie laft is the caufe that at Stadar-hrauns, Eyry, and Kiolfield, whole fpots of land are feen covered with withered birch-trees. But thefe being found infufficient to fupply the inhabitants with fuel, they likewife make life of turf, fern, juniper, and black crow-berry bufhes [empetrum nigrum); in other places they burn the bones of cattle killed for butchers meat, and fillies moiflened with train-oil; alfo dried cow-dung that has been the whole winter in the meadow ; and laft of all floating wood. This floating-wood is obtained in great abundance every year, particularly at Langanas on the north-eaft coaft, at Hornflrand on the north-weft fide, and every where on the northern coaft of the country *. There are feveral different
* Theimmcnfe quantity of wood floating down the Miffiffippi, the St. Lawrence, and other rivers of North America, are probably thofe which are carried to the northern regions. From the gulph of Mexico a ftrong current fets acrofs the Atlantic in a fouth-weft to north-eaft direction, or nearly, and carries many tropical fruits on the coaft of Norway, the Ferois, and Iceland ; which remarkable circumfhnce has been noticed by
that
rent kinds of wood among it, the greater!: part is Norway pitch-fir *; but befides this, one finds common fir, linder, willow +, cork-wood, and two
that curious obfcrvcr and delineator of nature George Edwards. But the wood coming down the Mifliflippi is remarked by Boflu, in his Travels through North America, vol. i. pag. 19. The coaft of Greenland is benefited by drift-wood, in the fame manner as Iceland. See Crantz's Hift. of Greenland, vol. i. pag. 37. The northern coaft of Siberia is often covered with wood in a moft aff«ni(liiug manner. See John George. Erne-lin's Travels through Siberia, vol. ii. pag. 415. Nor is the coaft of Kamfxhatka deftitutc of floating-wood. See J. F. Miller's collection of Ruffian Tranfaclions, vol. iii. pag. 67. The great rivers of Siberia, fuch as the Lena, Kolyma, Yenifea, and others, carry chiefly in fpting many wood trees along with their waters into the ocean, where it is often floating in various directions, fet by winds and currents, and checked by the immenfe ma fibs of ice, till, after many months and years, it is thrown up and left on the coaft, for the benefit of the inhabitants of thefe frigid regions, which are too cold for the growth of trees. Iceland receives its drift-wood by ftrong weftcrly and north-wefterly gales, varying with foutherly winds, which feems to confirm the opinion, that the drift-wood comes from North America: it conflfts chiefly of pinus abies, picea, Umbra, and larix, tilia curopea, betula alba, and lalix caprea, and fome unknown kinds of wood : and according to Catefby's Nat. Hift. of Carolina, great quantities of thefe enumerated woods are Morning down the rivers of Virginia and Carolina ; and another part feems to come round the north of Europe from the Siberian rivers.
* Pinus abies, Linn.      % Salix caprca, Linn.
forts
lorts of red-wood, which are called rauda grene and flaffalejk in Iceland, and on account of their colour and hardnefs are employed in various kinds of neat work. It conies mofl probably from the northern parts of Tartary, and partly from Virginia and Carolina. As to what relates to agriculture, it may be difcovered by many paflages of the antient Icelandic accounts, that corn formerly grew in Iceland. In later times fever ral trials have been made with it, but they have been attended witli little fuccefs.
Governor Thodal fowed a little barley in 1772, which grew very brilkly; but a fliort time before it was to be reaped, a violent ftorm fo utterly de-ftroyed it, that only a few grains were found fcattered about.
If we conlider, befides thefe flrong winds, or rather hurricanes, the frofts which frequently fet in during May and June, we (hall difcover a number of difficulties which check the rife and growth of agriculture in Iceland. If, notwithstanding thefe obflacles, it
can
[   48 1
can ever be brought to a thriving condition, it mufl certainly be under the prefent indefatigable governor, who has the welfare of the country much at heart, and, in conjunction with the government, ftudies every polfiblc means to promote it.
I conllder thefe violent winds, and the Greenland floating-ice, which every year does great damage to the country, as the chief caufe of the diminution of the growth of wood, as well as of the ill fuccefs in the late attempts for introducing agriculture.
This ice comes on by degrees, always with an eafterly wind, and frequently in fuch quantities, as to fill up all the gulphs on the north-weft fide of tii e ifland, and even covers the fea as fir as the eye can reach ; it alfb fometimes drives to other fliores. It generally comes in January, and goes away in March. Sometimes it only reaches the land in April, and, remaining there a long time, does an incredible deal of mifchief. It con lifts partly of mountains of ice (fiall-jakar) which  are fometimes fixty fathoms
high
high above water, and announce their arrival by a great noiie, and partly of field-ice (hellu-is) of the depth of one or even two fathoms* Of this lafb fome parts foon melt, and other parts remain undiffblved many months, often producing very dangerous effecls to the country*.
The ice caufed fo violent a cold in 1753 and 1754, that horfes and fheep dropped down dead on account of it, as well as for want of food ; horfes
* The immenfe mafles of ice, which are fo dreadful, affecting the climate of the country along the northern and northweft coaft of Iceland, arrive commonly with a N W or N N W wind from Greenland. Field-ice is of two or three fathoms thicknefs, and is feparated by the winds, and lefs dreaded than the rock or mountain ice, which is often feen fifty and more feet above water, and is at leaft nine times the fame height below water : thefe immenfe manes of ice arc frequently Jcft in fhoal water, fixed, as it were, to the ground, and in that ftate remain many months, nay years un-diflblved, chilling all the ambient part of the atmof-phere for many miles round. When many fuch lofty and bulky ice-maffes are floating together, the woodi ^hich is often drifting along between them, is fomuch chafed, and prcfled with fuch violence together, that it takes fire; which circumftancc has occasioned fabulous accounts of the ice being in flames: of the bulk of fuch ice-mafles, fee Forfter's Obfervations made during a voyage round the world, pag. 69, 1773 and 1774.
D were
t "ff* ]
were obferved to feed upon dead cattle, and the fheep cat of each others wool. In the year 1755, towards the end of the month of May, in one night the ice was one inch and five lines thick. In the year 1756, on the 26th of June, fnow fell to the depth of a yard, and continued falling through the whole months of July and Augult. In the year following it froze very hard towards the end of May and the beginning of June in the fonth part of the ifland, which occafioned a great fcarcity of grafs, infomuch that the inhabitants had little or no fodder the enfuing winter for their cattle : thefe frofts are generally followed by a famine, many examples of which are to be found in the Icelandic chronicles*.
Befides
* The cold feems to have become more intenfe in Iceland fince the time when thefe here-before-mentioned fir-trees were growing, and before the ocean was fo very much covered with floating ice.
Thefe facts feem to confirm very much the opinion of count Bufton in his Epoques de la Nature j in confequence of which he believes that the country towards the poles was formerly more habitable than it is at prefent: he is of opinion, that the fkelctons of elephants found far north in Siberia, are almoft irrefragable
proofs
t  ii 1
Befides thefe calamities, a number" of bears yearly arrive with the ice, which commit great ravages, particularly among the fheep. The Icelanders attempt to deftroy thefe intruders as foon as they get fight of them ; and fometimes they aflcmble together, and drive them back to the ice, with which they often float off again. For want of lire-arms they are obliged to make nfe of fpears on thefe occafions. The government itfelf tiikes every polfible method to encourage the natives to deftroy thefe animals, by paying a premium of ten dollars
proofs of the formerly milder temperature of the air j iince they could fcarcely be found in Siberia in fuch numbers unlefs they had exiiled there. Buffoti Epoques de la Nature, p, 165, & feq. The Eaftem fhores of Greenland were formerly inhabited by a colony of Norwegians, and they had there a bifhop's fee, called Gardar, to which belonged farms, woods, paftures for cattle, granges, and tillage-land. See Crantz's Hiftory of Greenland, vol. I. p. 215, which evidently proves the mildnefs of thefe now inhofpi-tabie regions. Ships failed formerly to theEaftern coaft; whereas for a great number of years paft it has been inacceftible, on account of the immenfe mafles of ice found there. Are Erode in Sehéda de Iclan-diu, Oxon. 1716, cap. 2, p. 10, fays, That at the firft landing of the Norwegian colonifts, Iceland was covered with woods and forefts in the fpace between the fhores and mountains.
D 2 for
[   5* 1
for every bear that is killed, and by puixhafing the fluh of him who killed it. Thefe lkins are a prerogative of the king, and are not allowed to be fold to any other perfon.
It is as abfurd to fuppofe that this floating ice conlills principally of falt-petre, as that it might be employed in making gun-powder; and yet there are fome perfons who pretend to fup-port this opinion, but they are certainly nndeferving the trouble of refutation.
I muft mention two other inconveniences to which Iceland is lubjecr, the Skrida and Snioflodi : the name of the firft imports large pieces of a mountain tumbling down, and deftroying the lands and houfes which lie at the foot of it. This happened in 1554, when the whole farm of Skideftedr in Vatndal was ruined, and thirteen people buried alive. The other word fignifies the effects of a prodigious quantity of fnow, which covers the tops of the mountains, rolling down in immenfe tnafles, and doing a great deal of damage.
mage. There was an inftance of this in the year 1699, during the night, when two farms, in the fyllel of Kiofar, were buried in the fnow, with all their inhabitants and cattle*.
The climate is not unwholfome, as the ufual heat is not extreme, nor the cold in general very rigorous. Plow-ever, there are examples of the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer falling quite down into the bulb, which is 24 degrees under the freezing-point; when at other times it has rofe to r 04 degrees.
It cannot be determined with any degree of certainty how much the cold has increafed or decreafed prior to 1749, the year when Horrebow began his obfervations on the weather ; which were afterwards continued by the provort Gudlaug Thorgeirflbn to the year 1769: fince which period obfervations have been made by Mr.
* Snioflod, or Snowflood, is a very exprcffive word for this dreadful accident, which is not uncommon in all alpine countries, efpecially Switzerland. The Italians call fuch a rolling down of mafles of fnow, Lavine ; the French, Laivaches $ and the Germans, Lauihnen.
D 3 Eyolfs
Eyolfs Jonfon, who was formerly alBft-tant at the Round Tower at Copenhagen, and receives a falary as firft ob-ferver in Iceland*. His obfervatory is at Arnarhol near Rcykarwicjc ; and, what is remarkable, he makes ufe of a telefcope of his own conftruction, made of the black Iceland agate, in-ftead of coloured glafs.
Lightening and thunder ftorms are rare, and both infummer and winterfel-dom happen any where elfe but in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. North-ern lights frequently appear uncommonly ftrongt- Sometimes a kind of the ignis fatuus is obferved (Snoc-lios and hrævas-ehlur) which attaches itfelf to men and bealls.
Amongfl other aerial phenomena, the   lunar   halo (rofabaugu) which
* This ingenious gentleman clied in 1775, not many months fince the writing of this letter,
+ The northern lights appear in Iceland in all the different quarters of the compafs, efpecially on the foutheily horizon, where a dark fegment appears, from whence ftrong columns of light dart forth They are mo\\ frequently feen in dry weather, though there are infbnces of their appearance before, during, and after a fhower of rain. The lights are often feen tinged with yellow, green, and purple. See Oggert Olaffen's $z JSiarne Paullen's Travels through Iceland, fee. 855.
prog-
prognofticatcs bad weather, likewife deferves a place here, as well as par-helions (hiafolar) which appear fometimes from one to nine in number*. Fire-balls (called Viga Knottur) are likewife obferved, and when they are oval are named Wiigabr andur ; and laft of all comets, or Hale flier nor, which are often mentioned in their chronicles.
The ebb and flood here, which the Icelanders call flod and far a, are perfectly the fame as at other places : they are ftronger during the new and full moon than at other times, and ftrongeft of all about the equinoxes.
As I am here {peeking of the nature of the country, I cannot pafs over in filence the earthquakes which often happen, particularly before volcanic eruptions. In September, in the year 1755, fifteen violent {hocks were ob-
* The parhcllons arc obferved in Iceland chiefly 31 the approach of the Greenland ice, when an jfltenle degree of cold is produced, and the frozen vapours till the air ; there are many inflances proving, that under fuch circumfhnces, the fun never appears without (hewing one or feveral parhelions, and often a rainbow on ihe oppofite fide.
D 4 ferved
ferved within a few days; and it is not uncommon to fee whole farms overturned by them, and large mountains burit afunder, as will be remarked hereafter, in tlie letter which treats of the conflagrations in Iceland.
In fo mountainous a country, where there is no agriculture, and no commerce, except that carried on by bartering of the various commodities on the arrival of the Danilh (hips, no good roads can be expected: they therefore make ufe of neither carts nor fledges ; and there are many places in which it is both difficult and dangerous even to ride on horfeback, which have caufed the names of Ofoerur, Hal-favegur, Uofdabrccka Illaxlif to bq given to fome roads. Their length is not reckoned by the number of miles, but that of thingmanna-leid, that Ut as faras a man, who is travelling to a place where juftice is adminiflered, can go in one day, which is about three and a half Swedifh, or four Icelandic miles*.   Formerly houfes were
* About twenty-one or twenty Englifh miles.
built,
L   57 I
built in fome particular places for the uCc of travellers, which were called Tbiod-brautar-fkaala ; but now the churches are every where made ufe of for this pur pole.
When the Icelanders travel to fea-ports to exchange their fifh, ccc, they have twenty, thirty, and fometimes a greater number of horfes with them, which carry a load of 300 or 400 pounds weight each; but they have always fome fpare horfes along with them to relieve thofe that arc fatigued: this cavalcade is called Left ; and the man who guides them is called Lefl am a dur : he rides on before, accompanied with a dog, that, by uttering a certain word, drives the ftrayed or draggling horfes into the right road. They never carry any food for their horfes, as paflure is plenty every where.
The number of the inhabitants is by no means adequate to the extent of the country. It has been much larger in former times ; but befides what is called the Diper death, and other con-tagious difeafes, among which the plague carried off great numbers from
1402
1402 to 1404, many places have been entirely depopulated by famine. In the years 1707 and 1708, the fmall-pox deflroyed 16,000 perfons ; fo that the number of inhabitants cannot exceed 60,000.
LETTER
[   59 3
LETTER IV.
To Chevalier Ihre.
Of the Arrival of the Norwegians, the Government, and Laivs in Iceland.
Stockholm, June 13, 1774.
AS I have treated in my former letter of the nature of the country in Iceland, an enquiry how, and when it was firft peopled, might not perhaps be difagrceable to you.
We know little or nothing of the firft inhabitants of Iceland, who nofléfled the country when the Norwegians firft arrived there. We are informed by fome, that they were Cbriftians, who, according to the moft probable conjectures, arrived there from England and Ireland, and were called Papa by the Norwegians *.   They pretend
to
* The ancient Norwegians, who firff landed in Iceland, found there inhabitants who were Chriftians, and were called by the Norwegians Papas, which is conjectured to fignify priefts. This is confirmed by the preface of the Landnåma Bok, or Book of Colonization,
[   6o ]
to affirm with the greateft certainty, that this Engliih colony fettled there in the beginning of the fifth century ; but I look upon it as the fafeft way not to enter at all upon an affair wrapped up in fuch obfcurity. There is notwithstanding reafon to fuppofe that the Englifh and Irilli were acquainted with this country under another name
tion, written by various authors, the firft of whom was Are Frode, born io63 ; and he exprefsly fays, in the firft chapter of the book, that Iceland was fettled by the Norwegians in the time of Alfred king of England, and of Edward his fon. The fame preface mentions, that Beda fpeaks of Iceland, under the name of Thylc, more than a hundred years before the arrival of the Norwegians in Iceland ; and that the Norwegians found there Irifh books, bells, and crolicrs, which proved that thefe people came from the Weft. And it is added, that the Englifti books mention an intercourfe of navigation between thofe lands about thofe times. King Alfred certainly mentions in his tranflation of Orofius, the utmoft land to the N W of Iceland, called Thila ; and that it is known to few on account of its great diftance. See Alfred's Orofius, p. 31. The Landnåma Bok was publifhed at Copenhagen, 1774, in 4to- The circumftance of the Irifh books left in Iceland is likewife mentioned by the fame Are Frode, in Ara Multifcii Schedis de Iflandia. Oxonke, 1716, 8vo. cap. ii. pag. 10. who fays, they chofe not to live with the Heathens, and for that reafon went away, leaving behind Irifh. books, bells, and crofieis.
long
t   6i ]
long before the arrival of the Norwegians; for the celebrated Beda in his time pretty accurately defcribes it. But I will not dwell upon thefe ancient inhabitants of Iceland, but proceed to examine how the Norwegians came to fettle there. Of this we have fe-veral accounts in the Icelandic Sagas*. I fhall particularly follow Landnåma Bok, which treats of the arrival of thefe new colonifts.
Naddoddr, a famous pirate, was driven by the winds on the coalt of Iceland, on his return from Norway to the Ferro Gales, in 86 r, and named the country Snio-land (Snow-land) on account of the great quantity of fnow with which he law the mountains covered. He did not remain there long ; but however extolled the country lb much after his return, that one Gardar Suafarfon, an enterprizing Swede, was encouraged by his account to
* The word Saga fignifies the ancient hiftorical monuments in Iceland ; fome of them are the hiftorical relations, others are fabulous (lories in the ftyle of the Arabian Nights, The diftin&ion between them requires a nice critical judgment. As the word occurs often, wc once for all explain it here.
go in fearch of it in 864. He* failed quite round the ifland, and then called it Gardarfjjolmur (Gardar's Ifland). He remained the whole winter in Iceland, and in fpring returned to Norway, where he defcribed the new-difcovered ifland as a pleafant, well-wooded country. This excited a defire in Floke, another Swede, and the greateft navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither. As the com-pafs (in Icelandic hciiharflein *) was not then known, he took three ravens on board, to employ them on the discovery. By the way he vifited his friends at Ferro ; and after having failed farther to the northward, he let fly one of his ravens, which returned to Ferro. Sometime after he dilinillcd the fecond, which returned
* The word Lcltharjleln U certainly equivalent to the l.nglifh word Loadftonc, and probably has the fame origin. The Anglo Saxon word Lædan fignifies to lead; and the magnet being the leader of the navigator, it is very evident that the loadftonc is the leading ftone of the fliip. The hiltory of the three ravens is moft evidently copied from the hiftory of the deluge in Gcuefis. However it proves an uncommon faga-city in the navigator, who made nfe of birds for the firft difcovery of land,
2 tO
[ H 3
to the fnip again, as lie could find no laud. The laft trial proved more liiccefsful, fince the third raven took his flight to Iceland ; foon after they difcovered land, and in a few days really arrived there. Floke flayed here the whole winter with his company ; and becaufe he found a great deal of floating ice on the north fide, he gave the name of Iceland to the country, which it has ever fince retained.
When they returned to Norway in the following fpring, Floke and thofe that had been with him, made a very different defcription of the country. If on the one fide Floke defcribed it as a wretched place, Thorulfr (one of his companions in the voyage) on the other fide fo highly praifed it, that he affirmed butter dropped from every plant, which gained hi in the nick-name of Thorulfr Smior, or Butter Thorulfr *.
* The expreffion which Thorulfr made ufc of in de-fcribing the fertility and richncfs of the country, characterizes the genius and manners of the age he lived in, and is therefore not to be over-looked in this account. Thefe minute ftrokes paint the character and Simplicity of the age, and, when compared with our manners, fet them off in the faireft point ot view.
After
After what I have related, there are no traces of any voyage to Iceland, till In-golfr and his friend Leifr undertook one in 874. They found on their arrival that the country had not been mifreprefent-ed; and refolved, after having fpent the winter on the ifland, to fettle there entirely for the future.    Ingolfr returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be neceffary to accomplifh a new and comfortable eflabliflmient in an unfertilized and dreary country ; and Leifr in the meanwhile went to affiff in the war in England.    After an interval of four years, they met again in  Iceland,   the one bringing with him a confiderable number of people, with the necefTary tools and implements for making the country habitable ; and the other imported his acquired treafures.    Since this period many  people went  there  to fettle, and in fixty  years time the whole ifland was inhabited ; and king Harold, who did not contribute a little towards it by his tyrannical treatment of the petty kings and lords in Normandy, was at laft obliged to ilTue an
order,'.'
order, that no one {hould fail from Norway to Iceland, without paying four ounces of fine filver to the king, in order to put a Hop, in fome mea-iiire, to thofe continual emigrations which weakened his kingdom.
Though the greateft part of the inhabitants came from Norway, there are however many Danes and Swedes among them. Of the latter I will only mention the following, from that edition of Landnåma Bok, which was printed at Skallholt. Ingimundur, an carl in the Gothic empire, one of the defcendants of Bore, Gore's brother, p. op j with his friends Jorun dr, Ej-yindr Sorkver, Afmundr, and Hvate-fridleifr ; and his flaves Fridmundr, Bodvar, Thorer Reffkegg, and Ulf-keil, p. 00 : Thordur, defcended by the father's fide in the fifth degree from Ragnar Lodbrock, p. 102: Thordur Knappur, natural fbn of Biorns of Haga ; and Nafar Hdgc, p. 104: Bruni Hin Hviti, fon of Ha-reks, earl of Upland, p. 104: Thor-modur Hin Rami, p. 105 : Bicrn Jrjolflfon of the blood royal, p. 105 ;
E Helgi
Helgi Hin Magri, p. 107: Thorir Snepill, a fon of Joruns, daughter of the Lagman Thorgnys, p. 117; and Gardar Suafarfon. Befides thefe, Are Frode mentions one of the name of Olafr, wHo was of the fame family as king Harold ; another of the name of Hrollangur, brother of Rolfs firft duke of Normandy, who drew his origin from the Swedifh king Gore, grandfather of Gyl fe.
Torfseus mentions one Bodvar, a Swede, who fettled in Iceland, and w as a defccndant of the princefs G oja, lifter of Gore : Floke, who gave to the ifland its prefent name of Iceland, was defcended from the fame family. Dalin, in his preface to the firft volume of his Swedifh hiflory, likewife mentions, out of Peringfkold and Björner, the following : Snobjorn, Bjorn Of Irane, Grim, Orm Wedorm, Bjorn, and Grimkill, with their mother Helga, daughter of Harold, Barder Snefallfas, Barder Wiking. Brimle, Hjelm, Gote, Skokler Svcnfke, Glåmer, Wafur Helge, and Slktubjorn.
As
[   67 J
As often as a new colony arrived there,   the  principal perfon in the company appropriated to himfelf as large a part of the country as he was able to occupy, and gave up as much of it as he thought fit to his companions, whofe chief he was, bearing the title of Godi.   But in a period when robberies and violence,  by lea and land, were confidered as valour and merit, peace could not long ftibfift between   the   neighbouring leaders. There arc every where initances to be met with in the Icelandic Sagas of battles between the new and original fettlers. To prevent thefe conflicts in future, a  perfon  was   chofen  in the year 928, with the title of Lang-fauguma-dur, and great  power and dignity conferred upon him.    This man was the fpeaker in all their public deliberations, pronounced fentence in difficult and intricate cafes, decided all disputes, and publifhed new laws after they had been received and approved of by the people at large ; but he had no power to make laws without the approbation   and confent of the reft.
E 2 He
He therefore affembled the chiefs whenever the circuinftances feeined to require it ; and after they had deliberated among themfelves, he re-prcfented the opinion of the majority to the people, whofe aden t was ne-ceffary before it could be confidcred as a law. His authority among the chiefs and leaders was however in-con h* der able, as he was chofen by them, and retained his place no longer than w hi 111 he had the good fortune to prcferve their confidence.
Their firft form of government was confequently a mixture of ari-ftocrary and democracy : but all the regulations made by it were infuf-iicicnt to maintain order among lb many chiefs, who, though all of the fame rank, were differently inclined, and unequal in power. Nothing was therefore more frequent than rapine and violation of the laws. They openly made war againft one another, examples of which arc to be met with in the Sturlunga Saga, where, it is laid, 20 veffels, carrying 1300 men, had a bloody engagement,
which
which fo weakened the contending parties, that their whole power at lall became an eafy prey to a few arbitrary and enterpriling men, who, -as is too generally the cafe, wantonly abuled it, to the opprellion of their countrymen, and the difgrace of humanity %
Notwithstanding all thefe intcftine troubles, they remained entirely free from the Norwegian yoke ; though the kings of that country, iincc the time of Harold Hårfagers, viewed this new and powerful republic with envious eyes, which, though now feparated, owed its origin to them ; but at lall they experienced that late, which is almoll always inevitable, wherever liberty degenerates into licentioufnefs, and public f pirit into felfilh views ; that is, they w er e oh li ge d t o fubmi 11 o o n e c h i e f. Th e greater!: part of the inhabitants in 1261, put themfelves under the protection of ki ng Ha kan s, a n d promi fed t o pay t r i bu te
* The account of the origin of the Icelandic republic is a curious and in'-ereftingcircumftancc for the hiftory of humanity j the fame muft be faid of the inteftine feuds which gave aji opportunity to the Norwegian kings to eftablUh their authority over this once free nation.
E 3 ta
[   7° J
to him on certain condition s agreed upon between them, and thereft folio wed their example in 1264. Afterwards Iceland, together with Norway, became i object to the crown of Denmark, which intruded the care of it to a governor, who commonly went there only once a year to examine every thing, though, according to hisinftruc-t.ions, he ought to have refided there. As the country fuffered incredibly through the able nee of its commanders, it was refolved a few years ago, that the governor mould refide there continually, and have his feat at JBef-feltedr, one of the roynl domains, where old Snorre Sturlcfon formerly dwelt. He has under him a bailiff, two laymen, a liierhT, and twenty-one fyffelmen*.     Formerly  the country
was
* The place of Jmtman is here tranflated Bai-Hit, and is to be taken in the fenfe in which the French receive the word Bailif, i. e. the head of a Bailiwick. The word Lagmann fignifies properly a Lawman 5 i. e. a perfon who adminifters juftice, and might be tranflated Judge or Juftice. The Landvogt is the perfon who adminifters the executive power of juftice and the criminal law; and he may be compared to a fhetiff. The Syjfelmen are the magiftrates of the fmaller diftriefs in Iceland (called the Syjpl) who not only act as juftices of the peace, but alfo as
receivers
Was divided into quarters (Fior~ dungar J each having its own court of juftice, of which one was formed of their public affemblies, under die denomination of F ior dungs-do erne*. But as the public fecurity fecmed to require a fu peri or court of judicature, to which the fuffering party might appeal; a Fimtar-doeme was eftab-lifhed foon after the introduclion of the Chriflian religion, which tribunal confifletl of the four above-mentioned courts, and fome clergymen.
receivers of the land-tax. The governor is called in Iceland Stifts-amtmann, which is the farfie as a bailiff of theepifcopal diocefej i. e. the chief maglftrati of the ifland. This place was occupied in 1772 by Mr. Thodal, counfellor of juftice, who had been employed in the final adjuftmcnt of the limits between Sweden and Norway ; his falary amounts to 1500 rix-doilars. Travellers praife his abilities, patriotifm, and hof-pitality. The bailiff at the time of our arrival in Iceland, was Mr. Olafr StephanfTon, a native of Iceland, whofe parts and abilities we admired, and whofe hofpitality wc experienced : his falary is 4CO rix-doilars ; and the fame appointment is given to the fhcriff (Landvogt) Mr. Skule Magnufen, who is fuid to deferve weli of hia country by his patriotifm and eminent fcrviees.
* The words Fiorduugi-docme and Flmtar-docme are ftill in part preierved in the language. For Doatnf-dayh the day of judgment, from the Gothic word Deem, to judge, With which the Englifh word Doom correfponds.
E 4 A
[   7- ]
At prefent all caufes are firft decided at theH<erads-thing, or county court, from which the parties concerned may appeal to the Æ-thing, or common court of juftice, which is kept every year on the 8th of July at Thingvalla. Here there are two courts, the one before which the caufe in appeal is firft brought, and confifls entirely of lagmen* ; the other to which recourfe may be had for a new hearing the following year, and more accurate examination ; and this is compofed of the governor, who pre-fides, and twelve affeffors, who are the moft refpeclable men in the country, moftly lagmen and fyjfelmea. From this court the parties may again appeal to the fupreme court of judicature at Copenhagen, which is final.
The Norwegians, on their firft arrival in Iceland, made their own laws j but thefe proving inefficient, when the number of people increaléd, Ul-fliotr undertook, in the year 087, a voyage to Norway, and compofed an ac~
* At the fame time and at the fame place the fpi-ritual court called Prefta-jhfna is held,wherein the governor and bifhop prefide : the pri efts arc the afleflbrs.
curate
curate code of laws from the regulations eft ablifhed there. He made ufe of the Gulotbing law on this occafion, and returned to his native country after an abfence of three years.
In 1118, the Gragas, a famous ancient code of laws, was received there ; and in 1280, that called the Jonjbok *, according to which fen-tence is ftill pronounced in fome cafes ; but at prefent moft matters are decided after the Danifli law, and fome more recent regulations.
* The Jonjbok was received in 1272, according to an Icelandic Chronicle, publifhed by Langebeck in (he fecond volume of the Scriptores Hifi. Dan,
LETTER
LETTER V.
To Chevalier Ihre,
Concerning Ecclefiaftical Affairs in Ice^ land,
Stockholm, June 22, 1772.
T T is known from Landnåma Bok, Jl and the Shedas of Are, that the Norwegians found fome traces of Chriflianity on their arrival in Iceland, There were alfo fome few Chriftians among thefe new coloniils, who, however, foon apoflatized to the heathen religion, fo that it became general there. It is not known whether any attempts had been made to introduce the Chrillian religion before the year 981, when a certain biiliop Frie-dric arrived there from Saxony, and was obliged to return, after a Hay of five years, without having made any great progrefs.
However, a church was built; n 984, by Thorvard Bodvarfon,   and lbme 5 perfon s
pciTons received baptifm; but others, though they had no objection to the Chriilian doctrine, could not be prevailed upon to luffer themfelves to be baptized, as they pretended it would be indecent to go naked into the water like little boys to receive baptifm, which, according to the c into m of thofe times, could only be done by liibmerflon. Some, however, to flic w their deteftation of pnganifm, fuffercd themfelves to be figned with the crofs, which they called Primfigniug. Thefe were not confidered either as Chrif-tians or Heathens; however, they were allowed to eat with the former, and to be buried dole to the church-yard.
Olof Tryggvallan afterwards fent them Stcfr ThorgilJIbn, and after him his chaplainThangbrand, a German by birth; but they were both received with (tones and abuiive language, as they attempted to couvert them, which happened to be at the very fpot where the common court of juftice was held: nor were they fparcd by the poets of the country, who, being bribed for the purpoie, poured
forth
forth in their poetical productions the keenefl invecYives and fatire upon thefe champions of the Chriflian religion.
However, the Icelanders obtained fome knowledge ol the Chriflian doctrine, which by degrees operated upon their minds. Some of them refufecl to contribute any more towards the idolatrous facrifices, and wifhed to enjoy more circumflantial and certain inftrucYion in the Chriflian religion ; fo that on the arrival of Giffur and Hyalti in the year 1000, the whole country was converted without blood-ihed, though not without oppofition. They alfo obtained a jus canonicum from bifliop Grimkell, drawn up by himfelf, which was as valid as a law till 1123, when it was again revifed by bifhops Thorlak and Ketillf-
After this time monks and convents abounded in the country. Many monks of the order of St. Benedict and St. Auliin fettled there, and the people paid a tribute to the Roman fee,
* See Kriilnis Saga, printed at Copenhagen, 1776, in 8vo. p. 57.
+ The canon law was printed at Copenhagen, 1776, in Svo.
as
as well as other European nations, which confifted in one nagli, ten of which were equal to one ell of two feet f.
That Rome did not lofe fight of Iceland, though ever fb diflant, can be proved by the bifhop of Skallhok, Arne Therlakfon, keeping his own agent, Sighvatr Lande, canon of Dron-theim, at the fecond council of Lyons, which was convened by Gregory I. in the year 1274 ; and that the Icelanders did not yield in zeal to their fellow Chriflians, appears by the willingnefs with which they contributed both men and money to the crufades, which were then in faflilon.
Amongft other faints, the bifhop of Hoolum, John Ogmundllbn, and the biiliop of Skallhok, Thorlax Thor-hallllbn, were worfliipped: the laft died in 11 93, and though he was not canonized by any pope, yet he found
* The value of all things is fettled in Iceland by ells of wadmal, which is a coarfc woollen fluff of their own manufacturing : the fee of Rome taxed every man in Iceland as high as the value of ten ells oiivad-maL
worfhippers
worfhippers in Iceland*, Denmark, Norway, England, Scotland, the Orkneys, the Ferro iflands, and in Greenland, and even had a church dedicated to him in Conftantinople. His Saga is full of miracles, laid to have been wrought by him. It was unani-moufly agreed, that the ioth of January, the day on which he died, and the third of Jul)/, when he was elected bilhop, fliould both be annually celebrated. His body was taken out of the grave on the 13th of Auguft, 1198, and put into a coiiiii plated with gold and filver; and it was re-folved to keep this day alio as a fefti-vab The proteftant biiliop GifTur Ej-narflbn, afterwards, from a mifiaken zeal, caufed the precious ornaments WitH which the box was adorned to be broken off, and had it covered with brafs gilt, which is flill prefer ved in
* Bifhcp Finnfenin his Ecclcfiaftical Hiftory mentions, voL i. p. 298, note b. That bifhop Thor-lax had hecn likewife worfhipped as a faint in Sweden, but there are no vettiges of this found in the old Swedifh Calendaria. The tenth of January is confecrated to Paulus Eremita. and Auguft the thirteenth to Hippolitus and Lociis Martii.
the church of Skallhok, as a piece of antiquity. In the year 1715, bifliop John Widalin ordered the pretended reliquc to be buried, and only a bit of his Ikull is (hewn, which, however, if clofely examined, will be found to be neither more nor lefs than a piece of cocoa-lhell. Arcimboidns, fo famous in the north for his fale of indulgences, was much too attentive to his interefl to have neglected Iceland. In 1517, he had his own agent there, who was, however, more coldly received by bifliop Stephen Jonflbn than he expected.
The Icelanders firft received their own bifhops in the year 1057 at Skallhok, and at Hoolum in 1107. They were originally under the jurifdicYion of the archbifliop of Bremen and Ham-borough ; but in the year 1103 or 4, they became fubordinate to Azerus*, firft archbifliop of Lund in Scania, and in 1152 to the bifliop of Dron-theim. The Icelanders prefervc the memory of their prelates both in their
* In the Icelandic annals he is commonly called Aujfur.
annual
[   8o ]
annual regifters, and in their Sagas, which particularly deferve attention, fince the actions of many worthy men are found recorded therein. I fhall mention the deplorable end of one of their bifhops, John Jerechini *, by birth a Dane, who was pro-voft and electus of Wefteras, and was appointed archbifhop of Upfala, by king Ericus Pomeranus. In this exalted fituation he behaved fo ill, that he was obliged to fly to Denmark in 1419; from whence, according to the account of the Icelandic regifters, he made the belt of his way to England, and from thence took his paflage for Iceland, where he did not arrive till the year 1430. He was received by the inhabitants with open arms, and appointed to the lee of Skallhok, which had been vacant eleven years. Here he difco-vcrcd fo much pride and felfifhnefs, that fome of the principal perfons in the country entered into a confpiracy, and when he was celebrating mats in
* The Icelandic annals call him Jon Geirreckffon.
the
[   8i 1
the cathedral church, on the thirteenth of Auguft 1433, in commemoration of St. Thorlak, they took him by force from the altar, ftripped him of all his epifcopal ornaments, and putting him into a fack, with a large ftone round his neck, threw him into the river Bruar, which flows paft Skallhok, from whence his body was afterwards drawn, and buried in the cathedral church *.
King Chriflian III. began to introduce the Lutheran religion in the year 1540 : but the zeal with which the bifhops (who were then very powerful) oppofed him, prevented him from fucceeding till the year 1551»
Since that period, the church of Iceland has enjoyed a happy tranquillity, every feed of difcord being fuppreiTed in its rife, though fome attempts were made to difleminate the evil.
Iceland is divided into 189 parilhes, of which  127 belong to the fee of Skallhok, and 62 to that of Hoolum.
* This account will ferve to correct what is erroneous in Rhyzelii Epifcopofcopia, where the typographical faults in Peringskold's Monumenta Uplan-dica, vol. I. p. 155, have been copied, Vide Finn. Hift. Eccl. Man, vol. II. p. 471.
F All
All the minifters arc native Icelanders, and receive a yearly falary of 400 or 500 rix-dollars from the king, exclu-live of what they have from their congregation.
LET-
LETTER VL
To Chevalier Ihre.
Of the Character and Manner of Life of the Icelanders*
Stockholm, Sept. I, 1774.
IN a former letter I treated of the arrival of the Norwegians in Iceland, of their firft form of government, and the changes they experienced through their own mifrnanagement and the viciffitudes of time: give me leave, Sir, to draw your attention to their character and way of life.
In like manner as their anceftors only lived by war, piracy, the chace, and agriculture, fo our new Icelandic colonifts were ftrangers to any fame but that acquired by the ftrength of their arm, and knew no exercifes but fuch as a hardened body was able to fupport.
F 2 The
To go to war, to plunder, burn and deftroy. and furmount every ob-llacle which oppofed their deligns, they deemed the fureft path to immortality; even their games gave them an opportunity of exercmng both their ftrength and agility of body.
Gliimi-lijly or the art of wreftling, was general among them ; though it is mentioned in their old hiftories, that their heroes fometimes made ufe of an artifice which was called Laufe-t6k, and is the fame as what we call tripping up one's heels.   Skylmejl, or the art of fencing, was ftill more common ; for though they treated one another pretty roughly on thefe occa-lions, yet thofe rules of art were wanting which a weaker arm may at prefent apply to his advantage upon oc-cafion.
The manjafnadur was held in the higheft efteem: a man, dextrous in that exercife, was held in the utmoft veneration by them, and was celebrated even in their fongs. This was a kind of fingle combat, to which a man might challenge any one who was de-I firous
iirous to be recorded in the annals of fame. Life or death was alike indifferent to thefe gladiators ; and it was deemed a noble art to underfland well how to fliarpen the inftruments of death, as may be feen by Rigjlbulu. The fituation in which the Icelanders , Were, in regard to the kings of Norway, who always kept a watchful eye ov.r them, and fought every opportunity to fubjugate them, obliged them to have recourfe to other flates for a knowledge in government and literature. For this purpofe, they often failed to Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England, and Scotland. The travellers, at their return, were obliged to give an account fo their chiefs of the Hate of thofe kingdoms through which they paffed. For this reafon hiflory, and what related to fcience, was held in high repute, as long as the republican form of government lafled ; and the great number of Sagas and hiflories which are to be met with in the country, if not all equally important, fliew at leafl the delire they had of being inflru&ed.
F 3 During
During this time Greenland was difcovered by an Icelander, Eyrek Rauda, in 932; and America in 1001, by BidrnHerjulfsfon and Leif Erichffon.
To fecure themfelves, therefore, againfl their powerful neighbours, they were obliged to enlarge their hiftorical knowledge ; they likewife took great pains in liudying perfectly their own laws, for the maintenance and protection of their internal fecurity. Thus Iceland, at a time when ignorance and obfcurity pervaded the reft of imrope, was enabled to produce a confiderable number of poets and biflorians. When the Chriflian religion was introduced there, more were found converfant in the law, than could have been expected, confldering the extent of the country, and the number of its inhabitants. Fifhing was followed among them ; but they devoted their attention confiderably more to agriculture*, which has fince entirely ceafed.
* Hans FinfTen, in bis letter on the feasibility of agriculture in Iceland, Copenhag. 1772, 8vo, demonstrates this by a written document during the the time of Snorre Sturlefon, pag. 64, which like-wife appears from Landnåma Bok, chap. 21.
Two tilings have principally contributed towards producing a great change both in their character and way of life, viz. the progrefs of the Chriflian religion under Olof Trygg-wafon, and the lofs of their liberty under king Harold. For if religion, on one fide, commanded them to de-lift from their ravages and warlike expeditions ; the fecular power, on the other, deprived them of the neceflary forces for the execution of them; fince this time, wc find no farther traces of their heroic deeds, except thofe which arc prefcrved in their hiftories. Our prefent Icelanders give the preference to fifliing, and the care of their cattle, to war.
The Icelanders are middle-fized and well made, though not very ftrong ; and the women are in general ill-featured. The men have left off the cul-tomof wearing beards long ago,though you find them reprelented with them in Eggert Olafsen's travels through Iceland ; a drawing which, perhaps, may reprefent an inhabitant of Sonci-F 4 moer,
moer, in Norway, but by no means an Icelander*.
Vices are indeed much lefs common among them than in other parts, where riches and luxury have corrupted the morals of the people. Theft is feldom heard of; nor are they inclined to incontinence, though there are examples of perfons having been punulled more than once on that account.
Though dieir poverty difables them from imitating the hofpitality of their anceftors in all refpects, yet the defirc of doing it ftill exills ; they cheerfully give away the little they have to fpare, and exprefs the utmoft joy and fatisfacYion if you are pleafed with their gift.   When they want to (hew
* This, however, is fubjecT: to fome exceptions: for the inhabitants of Omund Fiorden, and fome families on the north fide of the ifland, ftill wear beards; and inFniofkadul lives a man namedjKenedicf, known on account of his beard. Between 1740 and 1750 it happened, between the icy mountains of Sneefaelds Jokne, that two brethren dividing between themfelves the inheritance left them by their father, one of them, called Helge, gave his brother four rix-dollars for the exclufive right of wearing a beard, which right, in their family, was the fole prerogative of their late father,
them-
themfelves particularly afTecYionate, they kifs one another on the mouth on their vifits: they do the fame to the hufband and the wife, the mother and the daughter ; they are uncommonly obliging and faithful, and extremely attached to government *• They are very zealous in their religion f, and it muft-be owned not entirely free from fu perflation. They have an inexpreflible attachment for their native country, and are no where fo happy.   An Icelander, therefore,
* To prevent fmuggling, there is a fevere penalty for piloting a ftrange fhip into harbour. When the philofophic travellers made the coaft, they were under neceffity to force an Icelander to ftay on board, and to ferve them as a pilot. And though appeafed by good treatment and prefents, he neverthelefs carried the fhip to an unfafe place, till the governor granted his leave to bring the fhip to a fafe anchorage. When the reafon of this ftrange behaviour was alked, the Icelander anfwered, he would rather fuffer himfelf to be cut in pieces, than to acl againft the regulations of his king. It is however told, that the inhabitants on the northern coaft are not quite fo docile, and therefore lefs obfequious.
t An Icelander never paffes a river, or any other dangerous place, without previoufly taking off his hat, and imploring divine protection; and he is always thankful for the prote&ion of God, when he has parted the danger in fecurity.
rarely
[   9° ]
rarely fettles in Copenhagen, though everfo advantageous conditions mould be offered him *.
* It feems that Providence wifely inftilled into the human heart the love of that foil whereon aman is born, and probably with a view that thofe places, which are not favoured by nature with her choiceft blcffings, may not be left without inhabitants. It may be affirmed with fome degree of certainty, that the love of ones native place increafes in an inverfe ratio of its having received favours from nature. A Frenchman feldom or never feels that longing delire for his home, which all Swedes aie fenfible of. A pcafant of Scania (a rich countiy in a mild climate) eats his hafty-pud-ding (the favourite difli in Scania) with equal pleafure and enjoyment in whatever place it be; but a native of Elfredahl and Særna (places ill-favoured by nature) thinks his bread made of flour, mixed with the bark of trees in his own country, more preferable to the belt difhes he eats in the low country. The chiefeft wilh of a Switzer is to die in his own country. When a Switzcr in the French army fung-a certain fong to his countrymen in the laft war, there arofe in the breafts of all that heard him fuch a difeafe-like longing for their native country, that it became abfo-hitely necelfary to the French generals to give the llritfteff. injunctions, that this fong (hould never be heard again in the camp. This will appear incredible to thofe who are acquainted with no other happinefs than that which is produced by the enjoyment of luxury, affluence, and voluptuoulnefs. It always recalls to the memory that fine palftge in Seneca: " Ulylfés ad Ithacæ *' fuæ faxa fic pioperat, quemulmodiim Agamemnon 14 ad Myvenarem nobilcs muros; nemo enira patr.am " arr.at, quia magna, fed quia fua."
Oa the other hand, one cannot afcribe any great induftry to them ; they work on in the manner they are once ufed to, without thinking of ufeful improvements. Perhaps this defect lies more with the government, which being unacquainted with the nature of the country, did not make the necelfary difpofitions and regulations for creating and encouraging induftry. They are not cheerful in conversation, but fimple and credulous, and have no averfion to a bottle if they can find opportunity ; but it may eafily be conceived, that this is not to be undei flood of all without exception. When they meet together, their chief paftime confifls in reading their hiflory (fauguleftur) ; the mafter of the houfe makes the beginning, and the refl continue in their turns when he is tired. Some of them know thefe llories by heart, others have them in print, and thofe that have not, have them in writing. One of thefe paf-times is rumulejlur, confuting in the recitation of fome verfes, which fometimes are indifferently lung. They
beiides
t 9* ]
befides amufe themfelves in their meet^ itigs with what they call ivike-waka, where a man and woman take one another by the hand, and by turns ling flanzas, which are a kind of dialogue, and to which the company fometimes join in chorus. This however affords little amufement to a ftranger, as they generally fing very bad, without obferving time, or any other grace, particularly as they have not the leaf! knowledge of the modern improvements in mufic*.
To their diverflons likewife belongs that called glaeder, where one among them is difguifed ; ringbrud, where ten or twelve men join hands, and form a ring in dancing ; and it is reckoned a great dexterity to break through the ring, without deflroying their order ; glimu-lift, which has been mentioned before, and means wreflling; bnatt~ leikur, or playing with bowls on the
* I obferved two kinds of mufkal Inflruments in Iceland, one called laangf pi I, with fix brafs firings; the other called fidla, with two firings made of horfes hair : both are played by a bow. I likewife heard of another inftrument called fymphon, but I never could get a fight of it.
ice ; ly f tr idin, or riding races for a wager, &c. ckc.
They are famous at playing at chefs, and had formerly two forts of this game ; one of which was called jungfru  f c bach   (ladies chefs),   and the other riddare J c h ac b f (knight's chefs): at prefent only the laft is cuftomary. They alio amufe themfelves with kotra (a game at tables) they play on it togtadilla or olofstafl, when the men are ranged blindfold,   without dice, according to an old fong which muft be (aid by heart;    Befides thefe games they have others called Mylna Farin-gar-tafl, and Goda-taf.    They alio play fome games at cards, called Ah kort, Handkarrer, Tru-fpill, and Pam-pbile;  all thefe games are merely for amufement, fince they never play for money, which feems however to have been formerly cuftomary among them, fince in one of their old laws a fine is deftined for thofe who fliould play for money.
+ Vide letter of Arnus Magnaus to Widalin, communicated to me in manufcript by Mr. Thorotti.
LETTER.
LETTER VIL
To Chevalier  I h r e.
Of the Drefs of the Icelanders,
Stockholm, Sept. 6, 1774.
HE Icelanders have   made ve-
JL ry few alterations, if any, in their drefs in modern times. It is not elegant or ornamental, but yet neat, cleanly, and fuited to the climate. The men all wear a linen fhirt next to the fkin, with a fhort jacket, and wide pair of breeches over it. When they travel they wear another fhort coat (hemfa) over it. All this is made of coarfe black cloth (ivadmal) ; only the inhabitants on the north lide of Arnarfiord wear white cloaths. On the head they wear large three cornered hats, and worfled ftockings, and Icelandic (hoes on their feet.
Some of them have (hoes from Copenhagen, but as they are rather too
dear
dear for them, they generally make their own fhoes, fometimes of ox hide, but moftly of Iheep's leather: the manlier in which they make them is this ; they cut a Iquare piece of leather, rather wider than the length of the foot, this they fow up at the toes, and behind at the heel, and tie it on with leather thongs. Thefe fhoes are convenient enough where the country is level; but it would be very difficult for us, who are not ufed to them, to go with them amongft the rocks and Hones, though the Icelanders do it with great eafe. I fliall fpeak of their filhing cloaths afterwards.
The women likewife are always drcfied in black -wadmal: they wear a bodice over their 11 lifts, which are fewed up at the bofom ; and above this a jacket laced before, with long narrow fleeves reaching down to the Wrifls. In the opening on the lide of the fleeve they have buttons of chafed fil ver, with a plate fixed to each button, on which the lover, when he buys them, in order to prefent them to his miftrels, takes care to have his
name
name and hers engraved. At the top of the jacket a little black collar is fixed (Jlrutttr) of about three inches broad, of velvet or filk, and frequently trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewife of'wadmal, and reaches down to the ancles. Round the top of it is a girdle of filver, or fome other metal, to which they fallen the apron (Jwinte), which is alfo of wadmal, and ornamented at top with buttons of chafed filvér. Over this drefs they wear a hempa, or upper-drefs, nearly refembling that of the peafants at Wingaker in Sweden, with this difference, that it is wider at bottom : this is clofe at the neck and wrifls, and a hand's breadth fhorter than the petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the very bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally wove by the Icelandic women. On their lingers they wear gold, filver, or brafs rings. Their head-drefs con-fifls of feveral cloths wrapped round the head, aim oil as high again as the face ; it is tied fall with a handkerchief, and ferves more for warmth
than
than ornament: girls are not allowed to wear this head-drefs before they* are marriageable. At their wedding; they are adorned in a very particular manner : the bride wears clofe to the face, round her head-drefs a crown of filver gilt. She has two chains round her neck, one of which hangs down very low before, and the other refls on her fhoulders. Befides thefe fhe wears a lefler chain, from which a little heart generally hangs, which may be opened to put balfam or fome other kind of perfume into it.
The drefs here defcribed is worn by all the Icelandic women, high and low, without exception ; with this difference, that the poorer fort have it of coarfe wadmal, with ornaments of bra is ; and thofe that are eafier in their circumftances of broad cloth, with filver ornaments gilt. I law one of thefe drelies, which belonged to the bailiff's wife, and was worth at leaft three hundred dollars. Perhaps it would not be difagreeable to perule a lift of the different articles which compoie an Icelandic woman's drefs, G one
one of which Mr. Banks bought, in order to take to England, with his other Icelandic collections.
Rix Shi!. Dol. Dan.
Hempa (upper drefs)        - 40
Hættve (travelling hat)      - 5 o
Uppblutitr (bodice)        - 2 24
Svinta (apron)       -        - 60
Treja (jacket)       - 4 3
M allin da (girdle)       - 60
Fat (petticoat) - 80
Kjedja (chain) - 40
Lau f a prion ar (bodkins orna-1 ,
mented with filver)   - J
Koffur (lillet) - 2 o
Erma knappar (flee v e-b ut to n s) i 24.
Qtc 11 vellingar (roughgloves) o 46 ylubrcida (a cloth to wrap ?
their cJoaths in)      -      \ 4 P
53 46
LETTER
LETTER VIIL
To Chevalier Ihre,
Of the Houfes and Buildings of the Icelanders.
Stockholm, Sept. 14, 1774.
THE houfes of the Icelanders are not alike throughout the country. According to fome defcriptions, they are tolerable on the north fide of the Ifland; but on that part of Iceland which I have feen, they were all extremely bad, excepting thofe of the governor at Befleftedr, the phyflcians at Seltiarnarnes, and the fhcriffs at Wido, which were built of ftone at the king's expence. In fome parts the dwellings and other buildings of the Icelanders are made of drift-wood, in others they are raifed of lava, al-moft in the fame manner as the flone-walls we make for i n cl o fures, with mofs fluffed between the lava. In fome houfes the walls are wainfcotted G 2 on
on the inflcle. The roof is covered with fods laid over rafting, or fometimes over ribs of whales, which is both more durable and more expensive than wood. The timber-work refts on many beams laid length-ways-The walls are about three yards high, and the entrance fomewhat lower. The plan of one of thefe houfes is here annexed, to give a better idea of it.
		g		f	
		J v			
c					
				7» ^-	
		d		e	
(a) is the door or entrance of the long lobby; (bbb) is about fix feet broad, and admits the light through fome holes in the roof, upon which a hoop, with a fkin ftretched over it, is laid. At the end of the lobby is a room (c) where the women do their work, and where the mailer of the houfe generally fleeps with his
wife.
t     10! 1
wife. The walls of this room are Wainfcotted ; it has a cieling and floor, fometimes even fmall glafs windows, but no fire-place. On both fides of this long lobby are four rooms, two on each lide, of which (d) is the kitchen, (e) the room made ule of to eat in, (f) the dairy, and (g) the fervants room : thefe rooms have neither cielings nor floors, and the walls are feldom or never lined. The windows are made of the chorion (Hkndrhelgut) and amnios of fheep (yatzbelgur), or the membranes which furronnd the womb of the ewe. Thefe are ftretched over a hoop, and laid over an opening in the roof, upon which a wooden mutter is let down, if the weather be ftormy. They have not evena chimney in the kitchens, and only lay their fuel between three ftones, and the fmoke ifliies from a fquare hole in the roof. Befides this houie, they have a booth or filed to keep their fifh in (fkæmma), fometimes another for their cloaths, ccc. 6kc. and not far off the ftable for their cattle. In the poorer fort of houfes, they employ for G 3 the
C J
the windows the inner membrane of the ftomach of animals, and which they call Jkæna ; this is not fo tranf» parent as the before-mentioned mem> brane.
LET-
LETTER IX.
To  Mrs. Carlson.
Of the Food of the Icelanders,
Gothenburg, March 20.
' I ^11 O UG H it cannot afford any X great pleafure to examine the manner in which the Icelanders prepare their food, particularly after having fo lately tailed at your table all the dainties of the four parts of the globe ; I will, neverthclefs, perform my pro-mife in communicating to you a deier i ption of it. Methinks I fee you fometimes difdaining their dilhes; but, I allure you, an Icelander is not lefs happy for being unable to feafon his food with the productions of a diftant climate : he is content with what nature affords him, fV.isfies the cravings of his ftomaeh, and enjoys his health, whilfl we frequently forfeit ourfelves by feafting on delicacies, and loathe the moft wholfome food.
G 4 The
[   104 I
The larders and pantries of the Icelanders are feldom fo well ftored as to contain every one of the articles at one time, which I am going to mention ; fome of them, however, they muh: be abfolutely provided with, as their food entirely con fills of the following articles.
Bread of feveral forts, chiefly four biscuit* from Copenhagen ; but they have not much of this, as it is too dear for them ; they content themfelves therefore with providing it for weddings,
* In moft northern countries the inhabitants live On rye bread ; the flour taken to prepare it is feldom bolted, and it is commonly prepared with four ferment or leven, which gives the bread an acidulated tafte, dtfagreeable. andrefifting the ftomachs of weak perfons, but palatable and wholefome to thofe of a ftrong conftitution. The four pafte communicates an agreeable acidity to this bread j and as the northern climates, on account of their long winters, and the confinement of people in heated rooms full of noxious effluvia, as well on account of the chiefly falt-meat diet of the inhabitants, make the people inclined to the fcurvy ; this acidulated bread, the four-crout, and in Ruffia their four drink called Guafs, afford fuch powerful antifeptics, that with the diet here defcribed, the fcurvy feldom or ever gains ground among the people, Thefe four bifcuits, no doubt, are likewife made of rye-flour, or of rye and wheat mixed together, ground without bolting, and acidulated by fermentation with four levcn.
and other entertainments. Some, in-ftead of it, bake themfelves bread of flour of rye, though they likewife get lb m e from Copenhagen. The manlier in which they bake it is thus: the flour is mixed with fome fermented whey (fyra), and kneaded into dough, of which they make cakes one foot in breadth, and three inches thick ; thefe are boiled in water or whey, and then dried on a hot flone or an iron plate.
Flour of Fialgras (rock-grafs*), a calk of which well cleaned and packed colls a rix-dollar; it is firft wafhed, and then cut into fmall pieces by fome," though the greater number dry it by fire or the fun, then put it into a bag, in which it is well beaten, and laflly worked into flour byflamping.
Flour of Komfyr is prepared in the fame manner, as well as the two other forts of wild corn mdur%, by
* Lichen Iflandicus, Fl. Suec. 1085. Fl. Lap-J>on, 145.
t Polygonum Biftorta,
X 1) Arunda arenaria, 2) arundo foliorum lateri-bus convolutis.
feparating
feparating It (loin the chaff, by pounding, and laflly grinding it.
Surt fmocr (four butter). The Icelanders feldom make ule of frefh or falt butter, but let it grow four before they eat it : in this manner it may be kept twenty years, and even longer ; and the Icelanders look upon it as more wholibme and palatable than the butter nfed amongft us. It is reckoned better the older it grows, and one pound of it then is as much valued as two pounds of frelli butter.
String, or whey boiled to the confidence of four milk, and prefer ved for the winter.
Fifh of all kinds, both dried in the fun and in the air, and either faked or in winter frozen : thofe prepared in the laft manner are preferred by many.
The fiefh of bears, fheep, and birds, which is partly faked, partly hung or fmoaked, and fome preferved in cafks, with four fermented whey poured over it.
Mi f oft, or whey boiled to cheefe, which is very good. But the art of making other kinds of good cheefe is
loft,
5oft, though fome tolerably palatable is fold in the ealt quarter of Iceland.
Beina-ftriugy bones and cartilages of beef and mutton, and likewife bones of cod, boiled in whey, till they are quite diflblved; they are then left to ferment, and are eat with milk.
Skyr, the curds from which the whey is fqueezed, are prcferved in callcs, or other veflels ; they are fometimes mixed with black crow-berries, (empctrum baccis nigris), or juniper berries, and are likewife eat with new milk.
Syra is four whey, kept in cafks, and left to ferment, which, however, is not thought fit for ufe till it is a year old.
Blanda h a liquor made of water, to which a twelfth part of fyra is added. In winter it is mixed with the juice of thyme, and of the black crow-berrics, or the empctrum nigrum.
They likewife eat many vegetables*, fome of which grow wild, and others
are
* The following catalogue of plants ufed for food in Iceland is taken from the journey of Eggert Olaf. feti: Rumex
are cultivated ; as alio flicll-fifh* and mufhrooms f.
The Icelanders in general eat three meals a day, at feven in the morning, at two in the afternoon, and at nine in the evening.
Rumex acetofa, in the Icelandic language called Sura,
- -   - digynus,   -----   Olafs Sura.
- -     patientia,     - Heimis-niole. Taraxacum,   -----     -     - Aetti-fifill.
Carex Lin. pinguicula, Lifia-gras> ufed againft the
dyfentery. Trifolium pratenfe flore albo. Potentilla argentea, Mura.
Plantago maritima, Lin. foliis linearibus, Kattar-tunga.
Angelica archangelica, Huonn ; Ætte-huonn* Lichen fflandicus, Fialla-graus.
- -   - Lichenoides, Klouungur.
- -   - Coraloides, Krada,
-   - Niveus, Mariu-gras.
- -   - Leprofus, Gtitna-Jkof. Arundo Arenaria, Melur.
- -   - foliorum lateribus convolutis. Cochlearia, Skarfa-kaaL
Plantaeo anguftifolia, Stkrtft. Epiloblum tetragonum, Purpura-blomfiur. Polygonum biftorta, Kornfura. Sifymbrium, Lin. Kattar-balfam,
* Vcntrofa era fla, Ku/kel, Jkelkujkel. Domiporta, Kudungur, kufungur, kongur. My tul us, Kuiklingur.
- -    - Major, Ada.
f Agaricus caulefcens, pileo albo, Æjte-fveps,
- -   - fupra pileo piano, Ætte-fvepr.
fubconvexo, Reyde-kula,
- -   - of an unknown fort, Bleikula.
In
[   i°9 I
In the morning and evening they commonly eat curds mixed with new milk, and fometimes with juniper berries, and thofe of emfemtm nigrum. In fome parts they alio have pottage of fiålgras, which, I affure you, is very palatable; vallidrafli, or curdled milk, boiled till it becomes of a red colour; feiddmijolk, or new milk, boiled a long while. At dinner, their food confifts of dried fifh, with plenty of four butter. They alfo fometimes eat frefh fifh, and, when poflible, a little bread and cheefe with them. It is reported by fome, that they do not eat any fifh till it is quite rotten ; this report, perhaps, proceeds from their being fond of it when a little tainted: they, however, frequently eat fifh which is quite frefli, though in the fame manner as the reft of their food, often without fait.
On Sunday, and in harveft-time, they have broth made of meat, which is often boiled in Jyra, inftead of water ; and in winter they cat hung or dried meat.
Their
Their common bevericlge is milk, cither warm from the cow, or cold, and fometimes boiled : they likewife make butter-milk, with or without water. On the coalts they generally drink blanda *, and four milk ; which is fold, after it is Hummed, at two-fifths of a rix-dollar a calk: fome likewife fend for beer from Copenhagen, and fome others brew their own. A few of the principal inhabitants alfo have claret and coffee. The common people fometimes drink a kind of tea, which they make from the leaves of Holta-follyg f and SpudwcllJ.
This is the ufual manner of life in Iceland. In all countries the living of the poor differs eflentially from that of the rich; and if an Iceland gentleman can afford to eat meat, butter, fhark, and whale, the peafants are obliged to content themfelves with fifh, blanda, milk,
* In the Elfdalln of Wermeland in Sweden, the common beveridge of the country [people is milk, mixed with water, and called by them Blanda.
f Dryas odopetala,
I Veronica officinales.
I pottage
pottage of rock-grafs, and beina-jlrhig* Though the Icelanders cannot in general be fald to be in want of ne-ceffary aliment, yet the country has feveral times been vifited by great famines : thefe, however, have been chiefly owing to the Greenland floating-ice, which, when it comes in great quantities, prevents the grafs from growing, and puts an entire flop to their fiming. •
I need not acquaint you, that we were not neceffitated to fubmit to their manner of life during our flay in Iceland. Inftead of blanda we drank port, and feveral other forts of good wine ; and a French cook prepared for us fome favoury difhes, and excellent puddings.
However, as we wiflicd to try every thing, we prevailed upon the phyii-cian, Biarne Paulien, who had invited us to dinner, to entertain us after the Icelandic manner. We did not forget the good Swedifh cullom of taking a glafs of brandy before dinner, which was here genuine ; we had only once Danifli diflilled corn-brandy, which
was
t II* ]
was ferved up with bifcnit, cheefe, and four butter. In the middle of the table was placed a difli with dried fifti cut fmall; the other diflies were a piece of good roaft mutton, broth with fyra, and a difh of falmon* trouts, &c. &c. We eat with a very good appetite ; but the four butter and dried hfh were not often applied to ; on the whole, we eat a greater quantity of bread than the Icelanders generally do.
So elegant an entertainment could not be without a defert; and for this purpofe fome flefh of whale and (hark (bafkal) was ferved. This is either boiled or dried in the air, looks very much like rufty bacon, and had fo difagreeable a talte, that the final! quantity we took of it, drove us from the table long before our intention. Moft probably you already thank me for my entertainment, and are happy to fee the end of my letter.
LETTER
LETTER X.
To Chevalier Ihre.
Of the Employment of the Icelanders, and their Chronology.
Stockholm, Sept. 6, 1774*
HE Icelanders principally attend
A to lKhing, and the care of their' cattle.
On the coafts the men employ their time in fifliing, both rammer and winter ; on their return home, when they have drawn and cleaned their fifh, they give them to their wives, whofe care it is to dry them. In the winter, when the inclemency of the weather prevents them from fifhing, they are obliged to take care of their cattle, and fpin wool. In lummer they mow the grafs, dig turf, provide fuel, go in fearch of fheep and goats that were gone aflray, and kill cattle. They likewife fill their ivadmal, or coarfe cloth ; for which purpoie they
H
make
make ule of urine, which they alfo employ in warning and bucking, in-II cad of foap and pot-afiies. The men likewife prepare leather, for which they ufe maid-urt (fpiraca uimaria) inftcad of birch-rind. Some few work in uold and Ulver, and others are in-ftrucred in mechanics, in which they are tolerable proficients.
As a proof of this, I need only mention a (ledge which a peafant contrived fome years ago in the form of a fhip with fails, and large enough to contain four or five perfons,that would iiiil, in the winter feafon, in an even country. Unluckily, two of his fons, in failing home from church, overturned, and broke the whole carriage to pieces.
On the well fide of the country they make veffels of floating wood, large enough to contain from three to twelve tons, and make their charge according to the fi/.e of the veffel, from four to iix dollars.
The women prepare the fifh, take care of the cattle, manage the milk and the wool, few, i'pin, and gather eggs and down.   When they work in
the
t    115 I
the evening, they ufc, inftead of an hour-glafs, a lamp, widi a wick made of fiva (epilobium) dipt in train-oil, which is fo contrived as to burn four, fix, or eight hours.
Their work is in fome meafure determined by their b)a-lag, or by-laws* of their villages, in which the quan-
* 41 By-laws are faid to he orders made in court-leets or court-barons, by common aiient, for the good of thofe that make them, farther than the public law binds."   Atterbury.   See Johnfons D':fi. Though this may probably be the prefent meaning of the word By-law-) it is not, however,   the original meaning of the word ; for it is derived from the old Saxon word by or bye, fighifying a town, from the Gothic word bo,  to inhabit;  and agreeable to this aie many Englifh names of towns, viz. Ajh-by, JVhit-by, &c. &c.   By-law, therefore, figniriecl formerly laws made by townfhips, and by diftricts belonging to a town, or to a leet, which amounted fometimes to a third part of a fhire.   Thefe laws were made by common aflent, and for the good of thofe that made them, which is, or ought to be, the chief aim of all Jaws, and they extend farther than the public law binds ; becaufe the law of the land muft be general, and cannot provide for all particular cafes of finglc towns and t'iitrii.rs.   The fpecial regulations and re-itridtions, therefore, made by the common aiient of of the towns-people, for the common good of that particular town, beyond the law of the land, are by-laws, laws ot the bye or town.   The Icelandic word bya-lug, fignifies laws of villages or townfhips; ftttd it confirms the fignification we have given to the EngUih word by-law.
H 2 ti ty
tity of work they are bound to perform in a day is prefcribed to them : they feldom do lb much work now, fo that it is called only medelmans vark, or the work of a man of middling ffrength. According to this prescription, a man is to mow as much hay in one day, as grows on thirty fathoms fquarc of manured foil, or forty fathoms 1 qua re of land not manured, or he is obliged to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet Ions; and three broad. If fo much fnow falls as to reach to the horfes bellies, which they call quedf'nio, he is to clear away daily the fnow for a hundred fheep. A woman is to rake together as much hay as three men can mow, or to weave three yards of wadmal a-day.
The wages of a man are fixed at four dollars, and twelve yards of wadmal; and thofe of a woman at two dollars, and five yards of wadmal. When men are fent a fifliing out of the country, there is allowed to each man, by the bya-lag, from the 25th of September to the 14th of May, fix pounds of butter, and eighteen pounds of dried
r, fifh
[   »7 I
fifh every week. This may appear to be too great an allowance ; but it mull be remembered, that they have nothing befides to live upon. When they are at home, and can get milk, ccc. ccc. every man receives only five pounds of dried fifh, and three quarters of a pound of butter a-week.
As the divifion of time among the Icelanders is not determined according to the courfe of the fun, but by their work, this is perhaps the mofl proper place to fay fomething of it. Though they have, like us, four different fea-fons, they only count two ; the fu'm-mer, which begins the Thurfday before the r 6th of April; and the winter, which commences on the Friday before the i8th of October. During the firft feafon they perform their fum-mer-work, and in the latter attend to their winter amufements. Thefe two feafons are afterwards divided into twelve months, as with us, which have their common names ; but in antient records, and among the lower clafs of people, are called, i. Midfvctrar. 2. f oft ugangs m.   3. ItfndatpA w» 4.
H z Sumar
Sumar nu 5. F ar daga m. 6. Nöttley-fu nu 7. Midfumar m. 8. Bey anna nu q. Adratta nu 10. Slaatrunar nu ir. Ridt i dar nu 12. Skammdei-gis m. Day and night are not divided into a certain number of hours, but into the following divifions: Otta is with them three o'clock in the morning ; Mi dur morgon, or Herdis r if mal, live o'clock ; Dagmal, half paft eight ; Haadeye, eleven ; Noun, three in the afternoon ; Midur afton, fix in the morning ; Nattmali, eight; and Midnatt, twelve o'clock at night.
Wheii they want to know what o'clock it is, they attend to the courfe of the fun, and the flux and reflux of the lea ; but generally they make ufe of an art to diicover the fun by their fingers. Watches are very rare among them; every pea fant > however, has an hour-glafs.
L E T-
LETTER XI.
To Chevalier Bach.
Of the "Difsafes in Iceland.
Stockholm, Oct. i, 1776.
YOU require, Sir, that I (hould give you (bme account of the difeafes common in Iceland. I will obey your commands, though it is more the province of a phylician to undertake the fubjecl, as it requires fo much exact-nefs and penetration.
As I have been fo happy as to be unacquainted with any difeafe from my own experience, I have as little endeavoured to gain any knowledge by reading fuch books as treat of them ; yon will therefore pardon me if my account is not very perfect.
The climate of the country, and the purity of the air, contribute very much to make the Icelanders ftrong and healthy, though their food aud Way of life frequently produce the 11 4 con-
contrary effect. Young children, for example, are not fuckled more than two or three days, and afterwards brought up with cows milk, which, in times of dearth, is mixed with flour and water.
I remember to have heard, that this is alio cuftomary in fome parts of Finland ; but a different manner of living may render that unwholefome in Iceland, which is lefs dangerous in another place : and I think I may fafely venture to affirm, that the food and mode of living in Iceland do not at all contribute to the ftrcngth of the inhabitants. One feldom meets with any of them above 50 or 60 years of age, and the greater part are attacked in their middle age by many grievous complaints.
It is remarkable that among the fe-maleiex, who there,as almoft everywhere elfe, live to a greater age than the men, thofe particularly attain to an advanced life who have had many children. There are a great many of this clafs, as the women are commonly very fruitful ; and it is no rare thing to meet with
a mo-
a mother who has had twelve or fifteen children. .
Among the difeafes that arc mod prevalent, the fcurvy fSkyrbuigur) is the moft common. In fome, it makes its appearance in the fame manner as with us, but in others it produces the moft dreadful fymptoms, and is then called liktraad, or leprofy, which, however, differs from that horrid difeafe fo common in the Eaft. Its firft appearances are, fwellings in the hands and feet, and fometimes alfo in other parts of the body : the fkin becomes fliining and of a bluifh cafl, the hair falls off, the fight, tafte, fmell, and feeling are weakened, and often quite loft ; biles appear on the arms, legs, and face ; refpiration becomes difficult, and the breath fcetid : aching pains are felt in all the joints, a breaking-out fpreads over the whole body, and is at laft converted into wounds, which generally terminate in death.
The Icelanders make ufe of an-tifcorbntic decoclions, likewife bull is, with turnips boi!;d in   them ; but
chielly
chiefly mercurial remedies, by means of which the difeafe may be removed in its beginning. This difeafe is not contagious, but very obllinate; and it is remarkable, that two generations may be entirely free from it, when it fhall appear in the third. It does not always prove mortal, though many are tormented with it twenty or thirty years.
The gout (torvärk) moft men have in their hands who go out a-fifliing, probably becaufe they are obliged to handle and manage the wet fifh m g-tackle in cold weather.
The St. Anthony's fire, in Icelandic a ama, is pretty common. They make ufe of earth-worms (anamadkur) to cure it, which they bind alive on the wounded part ; and when they become dry, others are applied till the difeafe is removed.
The jaundice, in Icelandic gnulfot \ the fever, kvefsot; the pleurily, tak, which is fometimes infectious, and then is called landfarfot, or an infec-tiocs difeafe, is frequently got by cold ; 16'wnefs of fpirits, carcinoma infantum, \\i Icelandic krabbe,   a atnncin, the
fplecn, and obftructions, are very com* mon. In later years the rickets made their appearance ; and the venereal difeafe was not known among them till the year 1753.
Befides the antifcorbutic plants, which are to be found in plenty in Iceland, they have a number of hot baths, which are of great benefit in the cure of thefe difeales.
There is an apothecary's f hop cfla-blifhed on the ifland, and four hofpitals for the poor and leprous, the care of which is committed to their moft fkil-ful phyficians, with proper afliftants.
lei-
LETTER XII.
To Chevalier Ihre.
Of Fi/bing and Fowling, and t be Breed of Cattle in Iceland*
Stockholm, Oet. 3, 1774.
TITE inhabitants who live near the coafts employ themfelves almofl all the year in fifhing; and even thofe who live in the inland parts of the country come to the fea-lhore at certain feafons of the year. Every mailer of a family has a particular fifliing-drefs, and is obliged to furnilh one to his fervant as foon as he puts out to fea. They are made of fheep or calves {kins, which, in manufacturing, are frequently rubbed over with train-oil. They confifl of the following articles: hcijlrabrakur are breeches and {lockings all in a piece, which come up pretty high above the hips, and are jaced on very tight ; fackur, a wide
jacket
jacket fattened round the neck and the middle of the waifl; taa t illar, or coarfe fulled (lockings, or (tiff worfted ; and Jjojkor, or water-lhoes, of thick leather.
Their boats are commonly fmall, and only contain from one to four men, with thefe they (ifli near the (hore ; but with their larger boats, which ore made to contain from twelve to (ixteen men, and are provided with (ails, they frequently venture from four to eight miles from the (hore.
In thefe veflels they always carry a man extraordinary, whom they call formann. He lits at the helm ; and the others, who are called haafcters, obey his commands. At his call they all aflemble at an appointed time near the velfel, provided with knives, fifh-ingTmes, and other proper tackle : they make ufe of (hells, and fometimes the flcfli of qudarupeds and birds for bait.
As foon as the boat is off the fliore, they all take off their hats and caps, pray for good fuccefs, and recommend
them-
themfelves to the divine protection by* a prayer and hymn, which they call Tararjartngtfr, and then Hand out to Tea.   As foon as they are come to a place where they ex peel a good draught, two of them lit down at the helm, to prevent the boat's being moved out of its place by the current, and to take care that the fifhmg-lines are not entangled.   In this manner they continue fi filing the whole day ; and when the boat will not contain any more fifh, they cut off the heads of all the fifh they have caught, which they throw into the fea, together with their entrails.   This not only enables thern to carry a greater number  of fifli afliore, but alfo invites many infects to the place, which affords good bait.
At their return, all the fifh are brought afliore, and divided into equal (hares : one (hare belongs to the owner of the boat, though he (hould not be out at fea with them, and this is called jklplclga (jlnpflnre) ; another is given to him who fat at the helm ; a third to him who governed she fails-; in a word, every filhergei? a (hare.    But this equal di-
viGon is only made with the {mailer" fifh ; for if any one in the boat is lb fortunate as to catch a turbot or other valuable fifh, it is immediately cut into pieces, and the three belt given to him who caught it.
As foon as they have thus fharcd them, every one cuts off the heads of his full, draws them, and after cutting them up from top to bottom on the iide of the belly, take out the backbone from that part where it is fixed to the head, down to the third joint below the heart. If the weather be fuch as to give them hopes of drying their fifth next day, they lay them with the fiefliy fide facing one another ; but if the weather is unfavourable, they lay the pieces on a heap with the fkinny fide uppennofl, and this they call lagga i kafc ; if they lie too long in this pofition (one above another) they fpoil, and are then fold to the merchants at a lower price, under the denomination of hi f ad fifk. When the weather is fair, thele pieces are fpread feparately on ffones, or on the f hore, and are frequently turned by
the
the women, till they are entirely dry ; this often requires a fortnight's time, and fometimes more. The fifh prepared in this manner are called flat-fifkur (flat-fifli).
In fome parts they do not dry the fifh on flones or on the fliore ; but after they have ripped them up, place them in rows on flones which arc laid crofs-wife in a home built for that purpofe; thefe huts are called biallur in Iceland, and fomewhat referable the fheds in which fmiths fhoe horfes. Thefe fifh are called hengi-fijkur, or hung fifh.
The fifh they principally catch is cod, of which they have feveral different forts, under the names of thyrjk-liugur, uffe, ijk, langr, kerla, Sec. cic. Befides thefe they have foles, flounders, herrings, lalmon, falmon-trout, trouts, and feveral others. Of the trouts it has been obferved, that when they come up the rivers and brooks, and approach the hot fprings, they are fond of flaying in the lukewarm water, where they grow fo fat as to be fcarcclv eatable.
It
It is unneccflary to fry, that the leas, as well as the rivers and lakes, abound with fifh : I will therefore only mention the whale, of which there are feveral forts, divided by the natives into two clafTes, thofe with and thofe without tufks.
The firft are again divided into Jkidis fjkur, fmooth-bellied, and rey dnr fjkur, or wrinkle-bellied. Among the Jkidis fijkur, who have whalebone infiead of teeth, the flettbakr, whofe back is flat, is the largeft ; and fome have been caught one hundred yards in length. The hnufabakr i has a hump on his back, and is next in fize, being from feventy to eighty yards long. Of all the known whales, the Jleipereidur, which belongs to the clafs of the r q dar fijkur, is thought to be the largeft, as there are fome one hundred and twenty yards in length. Then follow the hrafn re\dut and the andanicfia; they arc all confider-cd as very dainty food ; and the Icelanders fay, the flefh has the tafle of beef.
I The
The whales which have teeth instead of whalebone, are alio divided into two claflcs, thofe that are eatable and thofe that are not. To the firft clals belong the buy fen, Bnvdingur, hundfifiur, and haahyrningur : to the laft, to which the name of illwbale (bad whales) is given, are reckoned the rodkammiugitr and naalroalur. Thefe are forbidden as food by fome ancient regulations, and particularly by the church laws. The Icelanders believe, that the firft fort are very fond of human flefh, and therefore avoid fifhing in fuch places where they appear.
The other kinds of whales are fometimes ftruck with harpoons, and fometimes caught with nets. The Icelanders, however, feldom venture to attack the larger ones, as their boats are fmall, and they unprovided with inftruments proper for that purpofe. They ftand in fo great dread of fome of them, that when out at fea, they are afraid to mention even their names, and carry dung, brimftone, juniper-wood, and fome other articles of the fame nature in their boats, in order to terrify and prevent their too near approach.
Not-
Notwithftanding, it now and then happens that they catch fome of the largeft ibrt, which is done when the fifh approach too near the (hore at high water, and are unable to return as fait as the water ebbs, where they are killed with ftones and lances. In this manner they had caught a large whale the year before our arrival at Hafne-iiord.
To their fifhery likewife may be reckoned the catching of liadogs, which is very confiderable in fome parts. They have four forts of them, rojlungur, vade-fclur, blaudu-felUr, and gran-jelur. They arc fattcft in winter, and yield three or four pounds of fat, of which eaeh pound produces feven quarts of oil : in fummer, on the contrary, they are very Ieaq. Their flefh is eaten, and their fat fold at five yards a pound. The fid n is fold by weight, at the rate of fixty yards for twenty pounds,
Though the fituation  of Iceland renders it extremely proper for fishing, the fifhery has decrcafed very much    lately ;     which   is partly I 2 owing
owing to the many foreign fliips which yearly come to lifh in thofe parts, and partly to the want of men, as the number of people has decreafed greatly. But I believe the chief caufe is the monopoly of the trading company, which very muchoppreffes the country.
If the people had more encouragement, there would be more emulation and diligence amongft them than at prefent; for they are obliged to fell a vaett, or five pounds of dried fifh to the company, at the rate of five-fixths of a dollar, which they fell in Hamborough, where the greatefl part of what is caught in Iceland is ufually fent, for five banco-dollars.
Next to fifhing the principal fup-port of the Icelanders is the breeding of cattle.
Their beeves are not large, but very fat and good. It has been reported by fome, though without foundation, that there are none among them with horns: it is true however that they feldom have any.
They keep their large cattle at home in their yards the greater part
of
of the year, though fome have places appropriated to them in the mountains, which they call fatr, where they fend their cattle during the lummer, till the hay härveli is over. They have a herdfman to attend them, and two women to milk them, and make butter and cheefé. It is common to meet with oxen running wild about the mountains, which arc however drove home in autumn, as every one knows his own by a particular mark put upon them.
The principal food of the cattle is hay, and they reckon a Hack of hay for a cow's winter proviflon ; one flack confifts of thirty cocks of hay grown on manured land, and forty cocks grown on unmanured land. When there is a fcarcity of fodder, they feed them in fome parts with fteenbitr, a kind of fifh, which, together with the heads and bones of cod, is beaten fmall, and mixed with one quarter of chopped hay. The cattle are fond of it, and yield a good deal of milk after it; but yet it is faid I 3 to
t m 1
to have a bad talte : they only make* life of this food in time of need.
Their tows yield four quarts of milk a day, though they have fome that give from eight to fourteen in four-and-twenty hours. A cow that yields fix quarts is reckoned a good one and muft not ftand dry above three weeks before fhe calves.
A young calf is fed with milk for ten days or a fortnight, afterwards the milk is mixed with water and chopped hay, and at laft they give it whey inftead of milk.
The ufual price of a Cow, as well as of a horfe, is one hundred and twenty yards, thirty of which makes a dollar. However, fometimes the better fort of horfes are fold for eight or ten dollars They have yet lefs trouble with their horfes than their cows ; for though fome faddle-horfes are kept in ftables during winter, the greater number of them are obliged to provide for their own fubfiftence, and when they cannot find this on land» they go in fearch of fea-weeds
on
on the coafts: but when a great quantity of fnow has fallen, the natives are obliged to clear it away for them.
There is no breed of cattle fo much attended to in Iceland as that of (beep. As thefe can ealily find fubiiftencc there, the Icelanders look upon it as left trouhlcfomc and lcls cx-penfive to breed them ; and there are many peafants who have between three and four hundred fheep. Before the epidemical difeafe, which raged among the fheep from I 740 to 1750, it was not uncommon to fee flocks of one thoufand or twelve hundred, the fole property of one perfon.
I will not venture to examine, whether it would be more advantageous to hufbandry to keep more cows than fheep ; but as the inhabitants feem to be more inclined to breeding of fheep, it would be well if fuch regulations were made as might enable them to cultivate it with more advantage.
This has  really been thought of by government ;   for about twenty years ago they lent baron Haft fer, a I 4 Swede
Swede by birth, to Iceland for that very purpofe. He made feveral regu* lations, and invented and prepared a kind of powder, as a cure for the difeafe s among fheep, which is very much made ufe of there, as well as in Denmark and Norway. They fpeak of him every where in Iceland, as of a man who had great knowledge in this branch of hufbandry, and a fincere defire to redrefs all defects.
I know not if the report was well founded which was fpread all over the country, that the trading company endeavoured to obflruct him in the execution of this defign : fo much however is certain, that die country has reaped little or no benefit from baron naftfers depofitions.
The Icelandic fheep differ from ours in feveral particulars ; they have (Trait cars (landing upright,a fmalltail, and it is common to meet with flieep that have four or five horns : in fome places they are kept in ftables during winter, but they are generally left to feck their food themfelves in the fields.
It
It is remarkable that they are fond of hiding themfelves in caves (of which there are a great many in Iceland) in ftormy, tempelluous weather. But when they cannot find any retreat during a heavy fall of fnow, they place themfelves all In a heap, with their heads to the middle, and bent towards the ground, which nat only prevents them from being lb eafily buried under the fnow, but facilitates the owner finding them again. In this fituation they can remain feveral days ; and there have been examples of their having been forced by hunger to gnaw off each other's wool; which forming into balls in their ftomachs, prefently deftroys them. They arc however generally foon fought for and difengaged. There are no wild fheep, as has been pretended by fome, for they all have their owners, who keep an exacl account of them ; and when they are driven to the mountains, they are fcarcely ever without a fhephcrd to attend upon them.
Their food is grafs and herbs, and the fcurvy-grafs (cochlcavla) in particular
ticular makes them lb fat, that they yield more than twenty pounds of fat. They reckon one calk of dunged hay, and two not dunged, for a fheep's winter provifion. When there is a bad crop, they are obliged to put up with fifh bones chopped, as well as the other cattle.
Good fheep give from two to fix quarts of milk a day, of which both butter and cheefe is made ; it has like-wife a good tafle when boiled.
The principal profit they have from their fheep arifes from the wool; this is not fhorn off as among us, but remains on till the end of May, when it loofens of itfelf, and is flripped off at once like a fkin, and is then called Ullafæl. The whole body is by this time covered again with new wool, which is quite fhort and fine, and of better quality than the Swedifh. It continues to grow the whole flimmer, and becomes coarfcr and ftiffer towards autumn ; it is likewife fmooth and glofly, fomewhat refembling camel's hair, but more fhaggy. This covering enables the fheep to fupport
the
the rigours of winter ; but after they have loft their wool, if the fpring proves a wet one, they take care to iow a piece of coarfe cloth round the ftomach of the weakeft, and thofe that have leaft wool.
A good fheep, again ft which no exceptions can be made, muft, according to their by-laws, at leaft afford four pounds of wool, and it is not uncommon for them to produce more.
It is not unufual for an ewe to have two lambs at a time, and fometimes even three ; they then take away one lamb from the mother, and give it to another who has loft hers. When the lambs are too week to follow the mother, they are kept at home and fed upon milk, which is done by means of a quill and a wet piece of fkin.
The price of fix ewes, from t wo to four years old, together with their lambs and wool, is four dollars in autumn, according to the land-tax : a weather of four years old is fold for one dollar; but it is the cuftom for a merchant to pay only five marks. If any body fells a lamb ready killed, it is valued according
ing to the quantity of fat which it has, at the rate of two marks for every pound. The flefh alone, without the head, feet, entrails, fat, fkin, and wool, is valued at twenty yards, and the by-laws fix the price of a pound of dried mutton at half a yard. The fkin is fold by weight, after the rate of thirty fifh for ten pounds.
They have goats in fome places, but they are few in number; and, upon enquiry, I found the reafon to be that they do not thrive in a country where there is no wood.
Befides thefe animals they have three kinds of dogs in Iceland, fiar hundar, or lumbar, fhag dogs ; and dyrhandar and dverghundar. As alfo tame and wild cats, which laft are ' called urdarkettir; rats, white and brown foxes, fome of which eat grafs, and arc on that account called gras tofur. To root out thefe animals, the king has fet a premium of a rix-dollar upon every ten fox fkins that are fold to a merchant. The natives have likewife made an agreement, that whomever deflroys a fox's hole, together
ther with the fox, the fhe fox, and their young, is to receive one rix-dollar, which the neighbours Collett among themfelves.
Rein-deers were not known here formerly; but by governor Tho-daPs order, thirteen heads were fent from Norway in 1770, by Mr. Peren fon, merchant: ten of which died before they reached Iceland, for want of proper care : the three remaining ones thrive extremely well, and had calved three times before we came there : they do not want for food, as the country abounds with mofs.
After having treated of their fifhery, and the breed of their cattle, I think this a very proper place to fiy fornedring of their birds, which, particularly in regard to thofe of the aquatic kind, are very important to them.
They are found in great abundance every where on the coaft ; but the greateft number by far are caught in the few places where they breed. The eggs the Icelanders make ufe of themfelves, as likewife of the flefh, which is eaten by agreat many of them; 2 but
r. r4* i
but with the feathers and down they carry on a very confiderable trade.
Jt would be unnecefFary to mention all the different forts of birds, efpe-cially as there is fcarcely any country where fo many kinds, and fuch great numbers of them, are to be met with as in Iceland. Among the great abundance of geefé, water-fowls, clucks, &x. £cc I will however fay fomething of the fwan and the cider-bird.
It is known that the fwan belongs to the clafs of birds of paffage ; their numbers incrcafe very much towards winter, though there is no fcarcity of them at any time, as the greater part of the young breed conflantly remain there. In fpring we may often fee an hundred of them in a flock, and frequently many more ; and it is then thought that part of them advance yet further to the north, and makes but a very fhort flay in Iceland. During fummer they refort to the lakes ; but when winter approaches, and they begin to freeze, they remove to the fea fhores. Their eggs are gathered in the beginning of fpring, which   are   large,   and fagd to be
very
very palatable. In Auguft, when they lofe their feathers, they are hunted on the lakes, where they are to be found at that time, with dogs trained to catch them alive. They are faid to fing very harmonioufly in the cold dark winter nights ; but though it was in the month of September when I was upon the ifland, i never once enjoyed the pleafure of a fingle fong. An old fwan has a fifliy tafte, but the young ones are reckoned among the belt eatable fowls.
The eider-bird is yet more ufeful to the natives, who confider it as a kind of treafure; and it is feldom heard that a prudent houfe-keeper (hoots or kills any of them.
The eider-birds generally build their nelts on little idands not far from the (hore, and fometimes even near the dwellings of the natives, who treat them with fo much kindnefs and circumfpection, as to make them quite tame. In the beginning of June they lay five or fix eggs, and it is not unufual to find from ten to fixteen eggs in one neft together, with two females, who agree remarkably
well
well together. The whole time of laying continues fix or leven weeks, and they are fond of laying three times in different places: in the two firff, both die eggs and down are taken away, but in the laft place this is feldom done. Thofe to whom one of thefe places belong, vifit it at leaft once a week.
When they come to the neft, they firft carefully remove the female, and then take away the fuperfluous down and eggs, after which they replace the female on the remaining ones, when fhe begins to lay afrefh, and covers her eggs with new down which fhe has plucked from herfelf: when fhe has no more down left, the male comes to her affiftance, and covers the eggs with his down, which is white, and eafily diftinguilhed from the female's ; where it is left till the young ones are hatched, who in an hour afterwards quit the neft together with the mother, when it is once more plundered.
The befl down and the moft eggs are got during the firft of their laying ;
and
and it has in general been obferved, that they lay the greatefl number of eggs in rainy weather. As long as the female fits, the male is on the watch near the fhore ; but as foon as the young are hatched, he leaves them. But the mother remains with them a confiderable time after; and it is curious to fee how (he leads them out of the neft as foon as they creep out of the eggs, and goes before them to the fhore, whilft they trip after her: when fhe comes to the water fide, fhe takes them on her back, and fwiins with them for the (pace of a few yards, when file dives, and the young ones, who are left floating on the water, are obliged to take care of themfelves. One feldom fees thefe birds on land afterwards, for they generally live in the damp rocks in the fea, and feed on infedts and fea-weeds.
One female, during the whole time of laying, generally gives half a pound of down, which is however reduced to one half after it is cleanfed. The down is divided into tbang-duun (lea-weed down) and gras-duun (grafs K down).
down). The laft fort is thought to be the heft, and is clean fed in the following manner ; fome "yarn is ltreak-ed in a fquare compartment round a hoop, on which the down is laid. A. pointed piece of wood is then moved backwards and forwards on the lower fide of the yarn thus ftreak-ed, which battles the coarfcr feathers to fall through, while the fine down remains on the yarn.
Down plucked from dead eider-birds is of little worth, becaufe it has then loft the greateft part of its elafiicity ; for this reafon it is of little value in Iceland. The other fort is fold at forty-five fifh a pound when cleanfed, and at fixteen fifh when not cleanfed. There are generally exported every year on the company's account 1500 or 2000 pounds of down cleanfed and not cleanfed, excluiive of what is privately exported by foreigners. In the year 1750, the Iceland company fold as much in quantity of this article, as amounted to 3745 banco-dollars, befides what was fent directly to Gluckftadt.
Among
Among the land birds that are eatable, ptarmigans are not to be forgotten, and are caught in great numbers. Falcons alio abound in the ifland, of which there are three forts: they are purchased by the royal falconers, who give fifteen dollars a-piece for the white, ten for thofe that are darker, and feven for the grey.
LET-
LETTER XIII. To Chevalier Ihre. Of the Trade in Iceland.
Stockholm, Nov. 12, 1774.
X jccfc to many revolutions. Till the year 1408 the Norwegians were almofl the only nation who failed to Iceland, and bought all the fifli the Icelanders did not confume or export in their own (hips. The Englifh afterwards had this trade till the Reformation, when it fell into the hands of the Germans, and was peculiarly advantageous to the Hamburghers. But Chriflian the Fourth, who had the improvement of the whole Danifli trade very much at heart, likewife directed his attention towards Iceland. He prohibited the trade of the Hans-towns thither in the year 1602, and bellowed it on Copenhagen, Malmö,
Iceland trade has been fub
and
and fome other towns at that time fub-jecl to the crown of Denmark.
The Iceland company at Copenhagen was, however, not eftablifhcd till the year 1620, after the king had once more prohibited the trade of the Hans-towns to Iceland in 161 o. This company continued till the year 1662, when it was fuppreflcd by a fpecial order. What contributed to this was the great damage done in Iceland by fome pirates in 1027, who carried away great number of its inhabitants ; the greater part of whom were, however, redeemed by the king nine years after. The king relented this fo much the more, as the Iceland company had not only undertaken to provide the country with all neceffary articles, but likewife to protect it. This circum-ftance produced a difagreeable effect to the company, which was, that thofe who had Chares in the flocks of 1000 dollars, only received 500 ; and thofe who had fharesol 200 dollars, received not the leaft c on fi deration. The company paid a certain fum to the king for every haven, and two rix-dollars to the K 3 governor
governor for every fhip. It was like-wife obliged to contribute fomething to the king's magazines on the Weft-man n s Ifkm ds.
The trade of every haven was after-Wards difpofed of to the higheft bidder once in every fixyears ; but fince 1734k has been in the poflelfioii of a trading company, who have a grant of it, for whieh they pay a duty of 6000 dollars a year to the king. They fend from 24 to 30 fhips thither every year, loaded with corn, bread, wine, iron, and wood, ckc. &c. and they export in return from 22 havens, fifh, flefh, butter, blubber, fkins, wool, and woollen manufactures, which they exchange again ft the merchandize they have brought thither according to a tax publifhed in the year 1702. It is difficult to determine whether the company gains much by this trade or not; fo much at leaft is certain, that the Icelanders lofe by it; for the Dutch, difregarding or evading the tax, import much better goods than the com-påny» For this reafon the Icelanders fell a confiderable quantity of fifh to
them
[   »S? ]
them privately, though feveral Dutch fhips have been confiicated on account of carrying on a fmuggling trade. The agents of the Iceland company are aware of this, by the fmall flock that remains for their purchafe, with which they are much diflhtisficd.
There is a market kept every year at Hraundals-retter, to which thofe rcfort who live up the country: they exchange butter, cloth, and fheep, for filh, blubber, and other articles of that kind. At Reikavik there is a woollen manufactory, where ten or twenty workmen are employed : one likewife meets with a few looms here and there; and many more might be eflablifhcd amonglt the peafants, if encouragement was given them.
Danifh money is current in the country, but the whole flock of ready money cannot amount to many thou-fand dollars. Their accounts are not all kept in money, but according to yards and fillies : 48 fillies, each fifh reckoned at two pounds, make one rix-dollar, and twenty-four yards make one likewife. You may buy a horfé for 150 fifh, and a farm for 6000 K 4 yards.
[   i*5 ]
yards* A vatt is loo pounds, and faering ten. They reckon 163 quarts to a tun, and five to a kuttur. The Icelandic ell is as big as the Hambo-rough ell, three of which make a fathom.
LETTER
[   153 I
LETTER XIV.
To Chevalier  I h r e. Of the Icelandic Literature.
Stockholm, Dec. 4, 1774.
THE hiflory of an tien t times fhews us that our anceltors did not defpife arts and fciences, though they peculiarly diflinguifhed themfelves by valour and heroic deeds. Their religion, mixed with fables, was, however, reduced to fome rule ; and their lyflem of morality, though not the pureft and bell ; yet inculcated certain virtues, which were in vain fought for among the more enlightened Greeks and Romans. The long voyages they made without knowing the ufe of the compafs, is a proof of their having been much better acquainted with allronomy and geography, than could have been expected. Phylic, and particularly furgery, mull
have
have been held in high efteem among fo warlike a nation, though I queftion very much whether any perfon could now fubmit to the manner of curing an external hurt, fuch as was prac-tifed among the ancients. Their invention exhibits itfelf in riddles, hif-tory, and poetry; and how highly thefe were valued among them, may be proved by many examples, of which I mail only mention EgiPs poem, in praiié of Erick Blodoxe king of Norway, by which he favcd his life ; and Hiarne's epitaph on king Frode, on account of which he is faid to have been made king of Denmark.
Though it cannot be entirely afcer-tained, that Odin brought the Runic characters to the north; yet it is proved almoft beyond a doubt, that they were known among us in the fifth and fix t h centuries. The art of writing was alio known here, if not certain, at lead, as early as among the Franks and Germans ; the former had no letters before they began to make ufe of the Latin ones in the fixth century, and the latter were likewife unacquainted
acquainted with them before the time °f Chad e main.
Their tafte for riddles, llories, and poetry, the Icelanders alio brought along with them from their native country, to the ifland where they are now fettled ; and whillt thefe traces of fcience diminillied in Norway, on account of the troubles which fhook the whole north during feveral centuries, they not only prefer ved themfelves in Iceland, which was not expofed to lb many d ilt urban ces, but the care of their Gaiety likewife excited the inhabitants to apply themfelves to the ftudy of hiflory, that they might by it be informed of the defigns of their powerful neighbours, and take the befl and mofl neceffary meafuresto oppofe thofe who only wilhed for an opportunity of fubjecting them to their yoke.
It is true they had no fchools or public feminariesfor the inllrucTion of youth in the fciences, before the introduction of the Chriflian religion ; but it was, however, not altogether neglected, for they took great pains, befides inuring the bodies of their young men to
feats
r i
feats of ftrength and agility, and teaching them fuch exercifes as enabled them to defend themfelves and their countrymen, to inftrucT: them alio in hiflory, religion, and law. Thence we find in their ancient chronicles frequent mention of perfon s who had made con-iiderable progreis in thefe fciences, and even before they received the Chrif-tian religion there were a number in the country well verfed in the laws.
In their: frequent voyages, before the ufe of the compafs (LeitarJlainJ was known to them, they difcovcred new countries, when driven out of their courfe, which were however deferted almofl as foon difcovered : however, fome, if not all of them, have been difcovered in later times.
Thus Bjorn Herjulfson, in a voyage he made to fee his father in Greenland, was driven by a f trong north-wind upon a flat woody country, from whence he afterwards reached his father, after a long and troublelbme voyage, without thinking any more of his new difcovery. After the death of his father,
[ 157 ] drer, he again returned to Norway; Where the account of his voyage raifed an inclination in Leifer to go in fearch of this country. He therefore fet fail With 35 men, and at firft landed on a mountainous country covered with fnow, without the leaft appearance of Verdure : from whence he continued his voyage, and came to another country which was flat and woody ; this he named Markland. He fet fail again with a north-eaft wind, and in two days time arrived at an ifland which lay north of the continent. He now entered weflward into a ftraight where his fhip flruck on the fand at low water ; he then had it drawn afliore with cables, and having built a houfe, remained there the whole winter : here they did not experience the leaft cold, and the grafs only grew a little reddifli in winter. The days were not of fo unequal a length as in Iceland ; and the fun appeared above the horizon on the fhortefl day, both when they break-fafted and at fupper-time. The vine and wheat both grew wild, and this occafioncd their giving the name of
Vineland
Vineland to the country. This gives us room to conjecture that he advanced pretty far towards the fouth of America. They afterwards carried on a trade with the natives of the country, whom they called Skralingar, for a long time, which, however, ceafed at laft, and the country, and even its name, are now totally forgotten.
Poetry formerly flourifhed very much in Iceland, Egil Skalla Grimfon, Cor-mak Ogmundlbn, Glum Gcirfon, Thorleif, Jarlar Skald, Sighvatr, Thordfon, Gunlaug Ormftunga, and Skad Ralfn, are celebrated as great poets. The art of writing was not, however, much in ufe till after the year rooo. It is true the Runic characters were known in the country before that period, and moft probably brought thither from Norway. Though we have no reafon to believe they were cut upon ftones, as was practifed among us (no Runic ftones having been found there, whofe age reaches to the times of Paganifm) ; they ufed, however, to fcratch them on bucklers, and fometimes on their delings and walls: and
the
the LaxdaeJa Saga makes mention of one Olof of Hiardarhult, who had a large houfe built, on the beams and rafters of which remarkable fto-ries are laid to have been marked, in the fame manner as Thorkil Hake cut an account of his own deeds on his bedflead and chair. That Runic characters were made ufe of before the introduction of the Chriftian religion, may be proved by Olof Trygg-Wailbn's Saga, where he makes mention of a man, whofe name was Oddni, who, being dumb, made known, by means of Runic characters, that he had been infulted by Ivar, his father's guefl.
After the reception of the Chrif* tian religion in the year iooo, the feiences took another form. The Latin characters were immediately adopted ; as the Runic alphabet, which only confilts of 16 letters, was found infufficient. The firft Icelandic bifhop, Ifleif, founded a fchool at Skalholt; and foon after they founded four other fchools, in which the youth were in-ftruded in the Latin tongue, divinity, 2 and
[   i6o ]
and Tonic parts of theoretic philofophy. Jonas Ogmnndflbn, firft bifhop of Hoolum, fent to Gothland in the year 1120 for one GifleJFinfon to fuperin-tend the fchool at Hoolum. Arngrim Jonfon, on this occafion, mentions a remarkable circumftancc in his Crymo* gaea, p. 108. of the architect Tho-rodr, who, as he was employed in building the cathedral church at Hoolum, paid fo much attention to the grammatical leftbns given to the fchool-boys, as to make a confiderable pro-grefs in them himfelf. The fame author alio mentions, that the bifhop, who was a learned and zealous man, having one day furprized one of the fcholars in reading Ovid's letters, and book De Arte Amandij was fo incenfed thereat as to ftrike the book out of his hand. At a time when no great knowledge of the Latin language could be expected even in Sweden, an Icelander however was found of fufficient capacity and learning to inftruct the young people to read and underftand the Lati 11 poets. But notwithstanding the fciences were there only in their
in-
t   i6i ]
infancy, thofe who dcfired to make greater progrefs in them, ftudied in foreign univcrlities. Giflur Ifleifson ftudied at Erfurt ; and many retort to Paris, as Samundr Sigfuftbn did, from whence they were called Parijklarkar (Paris-writers). Many, however, whofe names are become celebrated, have only ftudied in Iceland : as a proof of which, I will only mention the two moft famous Icelandic writers Are Frode and Snorre Sturlcfon. It may therefore be affirmed that Iceland, from the introduction of the Chriflian religion there till the year 1264, when it became fubject to Norway, was one of the few countries in Europe, and the only one in the north, where the iciences were cultivated and held in cfleem. This period of time has alio produced more learned men than at any other period fince. Wc need only read their ancient chronicles, to be convinced that they had great knowledge in morality, philofophy, natural hiflory, and aftronomy. They had tolerably clear ideas of divinity, and ufed to read the Fathers : but their L poetical
[   i6z ]
poetical and hiftorical productions, in particular, have bid defiance to time, even when ignorance was again beginning to relume her empire. It would be an eafy matter to mention a number of poets who diftinguifiied themfelves, not only in Iceland and the Orkneys, but likewife at the Swedifh, Danifh, Norwegian, and Engl i (h courts, as the JlaLLirtal (or lift of poets) contains no lefs than 240 : but it will be fuperftuous to mention here any more than the three principal ones, viz. Snorre Sturlcfon, who was beheaded in the year 1241, in the 63d year of his age, at Reikholt in Iceland ; Olafr Iluitafkald, who died in 1259; anc* Sturla Thordfon, who made his exit in i 284. Some extracts of the works of thele authors are inferted in fome printed and manuscript chronicles.
Of much greater importance are their layings or hiftories, the utility and authenticity of whjbch have caufed fo many dilputes : for if they have been confldered by fome as fure and irreverfible iiipporters of the hiflory
of
of our forefathers, they have been looked upon by others as abfurd inventions and falflioods, which belong to the fame clafs as the hiftory of the knight Finke, Fortunatus, the horned Siegfried, and other old women's talcs. This lull opinion is no lels un-reafonable, than an excels of veneration paid to them would be inconfide-rate and ralli. When they are con-iulted with circumfpcction and judgment, they are undoubtedly of great ufe, lb much the more, as they are the only remaining monuments of the ancient northern hiftory ; and indeed fome of them are written with great judgment and perfpicuity.
The Aræ Erodes Schedæ were written fince 1122, and are the moft antient Icelandic accounts extant. The writings of Sturlefon, Gun-laug, Odde, and feveral others, are all of them works that will never be loft or hurt by time ; and I do not find any thing in them which ihould induce us to deny them the fame credit that we fo implicitly give to the writings of Tacitus and Livy.
L 2 No
No one can doubt, that even thofe authors in the compilation of their hi (lories, which have been confidered as patterns of language, have made vrfe of the information of other writers. Nor have our Icelandic hiflo-rians been rcmifs in this ; for Sturlefou himfelf quotes Are Thiodolfr, the langfedgatalf or genealogical table, and fome ancient fong s in which their kings were celebrated ; from which indeed he compiled his accounts.
The Icelanders were remarkably fludious in preferving the memory of their anccftors ; and it was the moft agreeable occupation in their meetings and affemblics, to repeat thofe hifto-ries and poems for which their great men had been renowned, as was the practice among the Greeks. Add to this, the contents and compofition of the writings themfelves, which plainly prove, that the authors have not been inclined to relate marvellous (lories ; and it would be unjutt to refute them that reliance on their veracity, which we without hefitation bc-
ftow
flow on other writers of the fame elafs.
The greateft part of their works Were compofed in the (Ith, 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries ; and fome of them have even appeared in print. I have a lift of thefe hifLories in my pofleflion ; and though they arc by no means of the fame degree of merit, it will perhaps not be d i fagre c able to you to have a copy of it, as it is not only a proof of their love of fcicncc, but likewife of their application.
As a frefli infhmce of their ace n racy and affiduity in fludy, I muft likewife mention their chronicles, in which they recorded whatever happened of importance both in Iceland and abroad. Thefe annals are in general confidered as more authentic than their layings. Semundr and Are Frode were the firft who introduced them, and they have fince been continued down to our days. The following are confidered as the beit.
r. Flateyar Jnnal, which reaches to the year 1395, and of which
L 3 2. y*p>
2. V atnsfiardar Annal is a fupple-ment which extends to 1660.
3. Skallhok.
4. Hola.
5. Odda.
6. Biurns a Skardzaa to 1645, of which
7. H?/?/ Annal, which goes down to the year 1718, is a fnpplement. Hrafnagils Annal begins where the lall leaves off, and continues to 1754.
8. Odds Ejrikfonar a fitium to 1680. 0. Annales Regii, which go to the
year 1 341.
i o. Hirdftora.
11. haugmanna.
i 2. Bijkupa.
i 3. Annales antiqui.
14. Annales vetuftiorcs go to the conclufion of the 13th century. Bjarne HalldorforCs annal, as I have been informed, begins about the middle of the 7th century, and reaches quite down to 1772.
But even here the fciences have been fubject to the fame revolutions, which they have experienced everv where
elfe.
[   167 1
elfe.   The luftre in which they had maintained themfelves fo long, was fucceeded by the moil profound ob-fcurity.    Tu give a clearer idea of this, I (hall borrow the expreiiions of the learned bifliop of Skallhok, Dr. I inneus, on this occaiion, y/ho compares the flate of the fricnecs in Iceland to the four flages of human hie, in his well-written Hill. Eccl. Iflandia:.    Their infancy extended to the year 1056, when the introduction of the Chriflian religion produced the firft dawn of light.    They were in their youth till   1110, when fchools were iirfl eftahliflicd,   and  the education and inftruction of youth began to be more attended to than bclbrc. Their manly age lafled till about the middle of the 14th century, when Iceland produced the greatelt number of learned men.    Old age appeared towards the end of this lame 14th century, when the feiences gradually decreafed, and were almoft entirely extinct, no work of any merit appearing.  Hiflory now drooped her head, their poetry had no relifh, and all other feiences were L 4 tu-
enveloped in darknefs. The fchools began to decay, and in many places they had none at all. It was very uncommon for any one to underftand Latin, and few priefts could read their breviary and rituals fluently.
But this was not alone the cafe in Iceland, the greater part of Europe experienced the fame change.  For the dawn of a brighter day, which had begun to fprcad from Greece over Italy and the fouthern part of Europe, after the taking of Conflantinoplc by the Turks in 1453, had not yet penetrated to the north. Whatever bore the name of learning was not only de-fpifed; but fo grofs was their ignorance, that men of the higheft rank, both fpiritual and temporal, were incapable of writing their names.     We cannot wonder at this in Iceland, when the hiftory of the church affords fo many examples of bifhops who were prefent at councils, at the conclufion of which they caufed to be written under the acts, quo n i am Dominus N. Eps f cop us jcribcrc nefcit, idco ejus loco jubjcripjU N. N.  We were alio informed, that the
ignorance
ignorance of this age was fo great, that Scarce any Swedifh king before Gufta-Vus I. knew how to write his name. In the annals of Konungaocb Hö feiinga fy rc l fe (fnppofed to be written by biihop Brynolf Carlflbn, who died at Skara in 1430) it is faid, no more ought to be required of a foverclgn, than to know how to read, underltand, and explain his letters.
The Reformation produced here, as in mofl places, a new dawn of knowledge. Some time before a printing preis had been brought to Iceland, bifliop GifTur propofed to open a new fchool in the convent of Videy, which had been fbized by the crown ; but as this had been dellgned for a dwelling-place to the king's receivers of the cuftoms, Chriflian III. commanded, in the year 1552, that a fchool-houfe mould be built near each of the cathedral churches; that at Skallhok for forty fcholars, and that at Hoolum for thirty-four; but they have fince been reduced, the one to thirty-four, and the other to twenty-four fcholars. Each of thefe fchools was to be provided
t 17* ]
vided with a rector and an afTiftaiit teacher ; and the king appropriated as much land to thefe foundations, as was fuflicicnt to afford tolerable fala-ries to the teachers, and board, books, and cloathing to the fcholars gratis, fo long as they remained at fchöol.
Great pains have fince been taken to appoint men of known abilities as teachers to thefe fchools ; and young men are lb well inftrucled there, that few of the clergy fludy any where elle. Many Icelanders, however, fludy at Copenhagen ; and in the year 1773, there were no lefs than fifty-four at that nniverfity, where excellent regulations have been made for the fupport of poor (Indents. Some likewife fludy in foreign univerfities ; and between 1760 and 1770 a native of Iceland, Paul Wid I'm by name, died at Leip-iic, who was univerfally beloved and efleemed there. A Mr. Thorolti, who has been above three years at Upfala, has likewife on all occafions (hewn himfelf a man of great merit.
We (hould therefore form a very wrong judgment of Iceland, to imagine
gine it abforbed in total ignorance and obfeurity : on the contrary, I can affirm, that I have found more knowledge among the lower clafs, than is to be met with in moft other places. Yo u will feldom find a pcafant who, befides being well-inftructed in the principles of religion, is not alfo acquainted with the hiftory of his country, which proceeds from the frequent reading of their traditional hiftories (jagas J wherein confifts their principal amufement : nor is it uncommon to find perfons among them who can repeat the poems of Kolbein, Gr lm fö ri, Sigurd, Gilles, Gudmund, and Berg-thors by heart,   all of them poets who flourifhed in later times; and among whom Vigfus Jonflbn has particularly diftinguiflied himfelf by his wit, though fometimes at the expence of decency.    The clergymen fpeak Latin well; and I have found better libraries in many parts of Iceland than could have been expected.
A   learned   focicty   was erected here, which is fpoken of in the preface  of the above-mentioned Speculum
t ]
lum Regale under the name of Societas iuvifibilis ; and I was intimately acquainted with the rector Halfdan Ejnarfon, and the late fyffelman Bjarne Haldorfon, who were both members of that fociety, tho' I believe it does not exift at prefent. I could mention feveral whofe learning and talte did honour to their country, but I (hall only name thofe who have acquired molt fame in the literary world.
Among thefe the bifliop of Skallhok, Dr. Finnur Jonfon, deferves the firft place; who, befides many learned writings on the antiquities of Iceland, fome of which have been publifhed, has lately prefented the public with an ecclefiaflical hiftory, in three volumes quarto, replete with information, criticifm, and erudition. 1 was happy in becoming more intimately acquainted with this worthy prelate, who has been bifhop ever fince 1754, and found no lefs inftruc-tion than pleafure in his company. You may eafily conceive how much I wiflicd, at taking leave of him, that his advanced age would permit him to
put
put a fin idling ftroke to his other Vfcorks; We have fome reafon to hope for this at prefent, as one of his fons, the learned Mr. John Fin Hon, has lately been appointed his father's aflift-ant and pro v oft.
To this number alio belong Halfdan Ejnarlbn, rector of the fchool of Hoolum, who has publifhed the Speculum Regale, and is now employed in writing Hiftoria Literaria Iflandiæ. The provoft and minifter of Hiardarholt, Gunnar Paullen, is jullly celebrated on account of his great knowledge in ancient poetry. Bjarne Jonlbn, rector of Skallhok, compofes very good Latin verfes, and has a diffcrtation of Gangdagar ready for the prefs. Bjarne Pa u 1 fe n,in company w i t h EggertO! ofse n, made a journey through Iceland to colllecl manufcripts and curiofities at the expence of the fociety of feiences. The lagman Soen Sol velen has publifhed feveral law-works; as has likewife the vice-lagman Jon Olftbn, and the provofts Vigfus Jonfen and Gudlaug Thorgcirfon, befides feveral others.
Theprofeflbr andcounfellor of flate, Erichlén, who is not fettled in Iceland,
is likewife known on account of many difTertations on antiquities, and is a ufeful member of the Collegii Mag-næani. Arnas Magnaus, Torfeus, and feveral other Icelanders, have alio particularly diftinguifhed themfelves for literature in this and the former century. I (hal) give a fuller account of them in another letter, wherein I propp (e to treat of the Icelandic antiquities in particular, where I (hall alfo mention thole who have peculiarly diftinguifhed themfelves in that branch of literature.
The language in Iceland is the fame as that formerly fpoken in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and has pre-ferved itfelf fo pure, that any Icelander underflands the molt antient traditional hiflory, as eafily as we do letters written in the time of Charles IX. The general change, which took place in the northern language during and after the time of Eric k of Pomerania, did not extend to Iceland, though fome trifling alterations were afterwards made in it in the 15th century, by the introduction of religion and their 5 trade
trade with the Danes, Englifh, and Germans. Near the coafts fome Da-nidi is underltood, and fome even Speak it ; nor is it uncommon For a peafant to fay, J alv e dom ine, bonus dies, bonus vcffcr, grar i as, proficiat, domiuus tecum, vale. Notwithstanding, I cannot agree with Sperling in conlidering the language as being more Danifli than Icelandic, fince not a lingle word of Danifli is underitood in the interior parts of the country. The great pleafure they find in reading their traditional hillories, has contributed not a little to preferve the language in its purity.
You have yourfelf treated of its origin in the preface to your Swedifli-Gothic Dictionary ; and one may form the beft judgment of the language from Olof Tryggwaffon's and fome other hiftorical traditions (Sagas) which have been written hi the. nth, i 2th, and i 3th centuries, when it was in its grcatcft purity. But as thefe works are not in every perfon's hands, I will here infert a copy of the Lord's Prayer as a fample, both as it was ex-
prcfled
prefTed and printed in 1585, and in 1746, which will clearly point out the imall change which the language has undergone during a fpace of near zoo years.
Fader vor thu fem ert a him n n m. Helgjft nam thitt. Tilkome thitt riike. Verde t hi n n vilie fo a jordu fern a himne. Gief ols i dag v ort dagligt braud. Og fyrerlat ofs vorar fkullder, fo em vier fyrerlautum vorum fkulldunautum. Og inleld ofs ecki i freiftne. Helldr frelfa thu ofs af illu, thuiat thitt er riikit, maattur og dyrd ura allder allda. Amenn.
1746.
Fader'vor thu fem ert a himnum, helgesft thitt nafn, tilkomme thitt rike, verde thin vilie, fo a jordu lem a himne. Gief thu ofs i dag vort daglegt braud, og fyrer gief ofs vorar fkullder, fo fem vier fyrer-giefum vorum fkulldunautum, og innleid ofs ecke i freiftne, helldur frelfa thu ofs fra illu, thuiad thitt er riiked og maattur og dyrd um allder allda. Amen.
In regard to the pronunciation, they have four different dialects. Thofe who dwell on the caff fide of the country, drawl out their words in pronouncing them, which is not done in other places. On the wefiern fide they have many words which are peculiar to that part of the Ifland; and in Sneiialds Jokul the aa is pronounced as ah In the fouthern part of Iceland o is pronounced fhort before r in certain words, as for example in bvorfger, mor audt, and others, though they are commonly long in other parts. In the northern part of Iceland the words are quite of different genders, as Jlcur, which is itfually feminine, but there is mafculine ; and klara, mafculinc, which is there feminine. In South Iceland I have obferved the following pronunciation :
A is pronounced au   in tha
Aa — au — aara
LI — dl — gamall
Au — b — than
U .— ö — upp
Ae -— ei — vaere
Ja •— iau — hia
M O
prefled and printed in r 585, and In 1746, which will clearly point out the finall change which the language has undergone during a fpace of near 200 years.
T585.
Fader vor thu fem ert a himnum. Helgjft nafn thitt. Tilkome thitt riike. Verde thinn vilie fo a jordu fern a himne. Gief ols i dag v ort dagligt braud. Og fyrerlat ofs vorar fkulldcr, fo em vier fyrerlautum vorum fkulldunautum. Og in leid ofs ecki i freiftne. flelldr frelfa thu ofs af illu, thuiat thitt er riikk, maattur og dyrd um allder allda. Ame nn.
1746.
Fader'vor thu fem ert a himnum, helgesft thitt nafn, tilkomme thitt rike, verde thin vilie, fo a jordu fem a him he, Gief thu ofs i dag vort daglégt braud, og fyrer gief ofs vorar fkulldcr, fo fem vier fyrer-giefum vorum fkulldunautum, og innleid ofs ecke i freiftne, helldur frelfa thu ofs fra illu, thuiad thitt er riiked og maattur og dyrd um allder allda. Amen.
In regard to the pronunciation, they have four different dialects. Thofe who dwell on the caff fide of the country, drawl out their words 111 pronouncing them, which is not done in other places. On the weftern lide they have many words which are peculiar to that part of the Ifland; and in Snefwlds Jokul t lie aa is pronounced as ai. In the fouthern part of Iceland o is pronounced fhort before r in certain words, as for example in bvbriger, mor audt, and others, though they are commonly long in other parts. In the northern part of Iceland the words are quite of different genders, as fiur, which is ufually feminine, but there is mafculine; and klara, mafculinc, which is there feminine. In South Iceland I have obferved the following pronunciation :
A is pronounced au   in tha Aa       —     au   — aara LI       —     dl    — gamall Au      —     ö     — thau U i—      ö     — upp Ae -—      ei '— vaere Ja '—     iau —- hia
M O
	[ 178	]
o	cm	—- moder
Gu	— guö	— Gud
Y		—• fyrer
Aef	— acp	— kiaefda
Their alphabet confiits of the lame letters as ours, except the (th), which character we have loll, together with the pronunciation ; the E n gli 111 have yet prelerved it, though Fo? reigners find it dillicnlt to pronounce.
We   have an   Icelandic grammar ofRunolph Jonfon, printed in 410 at Copenhagen in 1 651 : it was alio printed in   liickefii Elementa linguarum ieptcntrionahum,  Oxford 1688, and again in his Theiaurus, Oxford 1703. But the manuicript of Jonas Magnu-fens's   Grammatica 1 Handle a, which you, Sir, poilefs, is more complete, and deferves to be publifhed,  as likewife Eggcrt   Ol fen's   Orthographia lilaii-dica.    1 he   moft  ancient Icelandic dictionary   we have is  the Wormii Specimen Lcxici Run ici, compiled by Magnus Olaffcn, which was publifhed in folio,   at   Copenhagen,   in 1650. 5 After-
Afterwards Gudmundi Andreae Lexicon   Iflandicnm was  publifhed by Refenius at Copenhagen, in quarto, in the year 1683.   This was followed by Verelu Index linguae vet. Scyto-Scandicae, which Rudbeck caufed to be printed in folio, at Upfala,  1691, and by two Lexica Latina Iflandica, both publifhed in quarto at Copenhagen, the one in 1734, and the other in 1738 ; to thefe liugman's Monofyl-laba Iflandica Lat. Lxplicata, Upfala, 1676, in octavo, may be added. In the library at Upfala was a copy of a manufcript Lexicon 111. Lat. which I have brought with me from Iceland. In the Antiquity Archives is likewife a very  ample work of Gudmundi* Ojanen» which has been augmented and reduced to order by Mr. Affeffor Gagnerus, which will however moft probably never be printed för want of a publifher.     It is  to  be lamented that Runolph Jonfon never was able to publifh his  Lexicon Iflandicum, though a privilege was granted him for that purpofe in May 1650: we may however foon expect to have fome t hi n g H % more
more perfect on this fubjecr, as the Collegium Magnaeanmn in Copenhagen have promised to continue the important mdcxe.% with which they have fupplicd the Krijlnifa and Qunlaug Ormflun^a Sagas.
LETT E Tx
t   i8i. ]
LETTER XV. To  Chevalier  I ii k e.
Of Printing in Iceland.
Stockholm, Sept. 12, i774'.
IHAVE fald in my lall letter that the art of printing was introduced in Iceland a (hort time before the Reformation. But as many may be furprized that books were printed there fo early, I (hall endeavour to treat more at large in this of the different printing-offices in Iceland.
One of the molt famous, but at the fame time mod illiterate and turbulent bit hops in Iceland, was John Areibn, bifhop of Hoolum. He made nfe of many arts, and particularly of his zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, to undermine the king's power, and hinder the progrefs of the reformation. His plots however fucfeeded fo ill, that he was beheaded in 1550. As this man was extremely ignorant, M 3 aud
and had not the leaft knowledge of the Latin language, which was however made ufe of in letters of excommunication, and other ordinances, he commiffioned a friend to procure him a perfon well verfed in Latin, who might at the fame time eftablifh a printing-office. For this pnrpofe John Mathieflbn, a native of Sweden, was recommended to him, and he arrived in Iceland between 1527 and t530,
I cannot determine with certainty whether he was in orders at his arrival in Iceland ; however I am inclined to believe it, from the appellation of Sira being given him after his arrival, which is a term applicable to the clergy. The biiliop immediately appointed him to the prebendary of Bridebolftad and Vcfturhopi, which Situation he enjoyed till his death in 1507, when at a very advanced age. Befides feveral other children he left a fbn whofe name was John, who was a printer there in the time of bilhop Guthrandr : he was fncceeded in the printing-office by  his fon Brandur,
John
John Bradtfon, fon of the latter, died in an advanced age in i68r, as pro-Voft of Hytarnas. His ion John John-fbn, a clergyman, died in the fame place in 1732. This whole family is now reduced to poverty.
The printing-office was immediately eftablifhed ; and in 1531 John Ma-thieffon printed the firft book in Iceland, which was the Breviarium Nida-rofienfe. There was likewife an edition of this book printed at Dronthiem, the editor of which was archbifliop Erick Walkendorf, which is now very fcarce. I do not remember to have fcen this edition mentioned any where, except in the 28th number of the Danifli Magazine, where a copy of it is laid to be in the library of Mr. Klevenfcldr. But in regard to the Icelandic edition, it is generally believed, that not a frit-gle copy of it remains, fince the only one I ever heard of was in Arnas Mag-naei's library, which was con fumed in the fire at Copenhagen in 1728.
Be fi des the B r e v i a ri u m Ni d ar of ie 11 fe, lie printed the Handbok PrvJLi (an Ectic-M 4 fiaftical
fiaftical Manual) Luther's Catcchifin, and other books of the fame fort. Printing however did not go on very well till 1574, when bifliop Guthrandr Thorlakfon ordered new types to be brought thither ; whereupon, amongft other books, the Icelandic bible appeared in print in folio, in the year 1584. The printing-office was at this period fo well provided with types, that two prcfles were employed, cx-clufive of thofe at Hoolum, where feveral books were printed and publifhed about that time. The Icelandic code of laws was printed in 1578, at Nupu fell, twelve miles from Hoolum, as likewife the Viti 7 he odor i S u m m a rl a in 1589.
The printing-office at Hoolum was taken from Thord Thorlakfon, in 1685, and transferred to Skall-holt ; where one-and-forty different books were printed : the firft of which was Paradyfar Lykel f likewife F or f adr a Bok in 1686; and the laft, Boennbok Sira Tbordar Bardar fonar jVfcv/ Vika Saung Olearii. ml. af Sira
6ta nes
Steines in 1697. But in the beginning of this century, the printing-office was again removed to Hoolum, after bifliop Bjorn Thorleifibn had bought it, together with the privileges granted to it, for five hundred dollars; and the firft book publifhed on the revival of printing at this place, was the Paraphrafis Medit. Dr. John Gerhardi, 1703. Since this time, fome hiftorical books, among which I will mention the life of Guflavus Landkrona, publifhed at Hoolum in 8vo, 175 6, tranflated from the Swedifh into the Icelandic language, have always been publifhed here ; the grcatefl part of them however are religious books, A new privileged printing-office has likewife lately been eftabliflied at Hrappfey, by Olafr Ollien, where feveral valuable books have already been printed.
A lift of Icelandic books might perhaps not be improper in this place ; but as I am unable to furnifli you with a complete one, I did not think it worth while to fend you a catalogue
' of
of about three hundred that I am acquainted with; of which number however I am happy to have upwards of one hundred now in my library.
LETTER
LETTER XVI.
To Chevalier Ihre.
Of the Remains of Antiquity  in lev* land.
Stockholm, Dec. 21, 1774-Dear Sir,
HOW infinitely happy {hould I be, were I able to fatisfy your curi-ofity in refpect to the great number of remarkable and ancient monuments with which Iceland is fuppoled to abound: but this is out of my power; all the information I can give you amounts to no more than that the country is fo dcftitute of them, that it is in vain to go in fearch of any am* tiquities deferving the leaft notice. There are however fome ruins of an old cattle near Videdal, which was formerly about two hundred perches in circumference: the remains on the   north   lide   are  about twenty
fathoms
fathoms in height, though they are very low toward the fouth. Near the parfonage Skaggeftad, at Lauger-nas, are likewife fome ruins of a lefler caflle, but it is not known by whom, or when it was built. In other places are remains of Heathen Temples, viz. at Midfiord, Godale, Vidvik, and others: at Hegranas is a kind of ancient place of execution ; there are alfo feveral burying-places from the times of Paganifm, among which Ifliall only mention Thorleif Jarlafkalds, iituate on a fmall ifland in the Oxaraa. Some old, fwords and helmets have likewife been found, but they have not cleared up any part of hiflory. On the heaths of Thingmans and Threkyllis are two great Hones Handing upright, which moft probably have been erected as monuments to the memory of fome deceaféd perfons, according to Odin's regulation. This cuftom, which was long praclifcd in the North, has from thence been Brought to Iceland ; though it was not ulual in Sweden till a long time after to put any infeription on the
monu-
monument. I have been told, that forne years ago, forty fmall figures of brafs were found in the ground near Flatey, reprefenting animals and other ol)jc;f:5 ; but unfortunately they fell into the hands of people who did not know their value, confequently they have been all lofh
There are no oilier monuments remaining of Sturlefon, befides his writings, but a mount over-grown with grafs at ileikiiolt, which is laid to have been railed from the ruins of his houfe ; Sttirluuga Rcitur, the burying-piace of his family ; and at a little diilance from them, Snorra hc.ug, one of the fin c ft baths in Iceland. This bath, which is large enough to contain 50 perfons at one time, is mured in with a wall of bafalt, and concreto therm arum ; it has a imooth level bottom, and is furrounded with benches. In Sturlcfon's time a long covered palFage led from thence to the dwellini^-houfe, fo that the bathers re-tire from the bath without being cxpofed to the cold. The fpring is at forty paces diftance, and is called
[     IQO ]
Scribla, and die water from it is con* veyed to the bath through a conduit made of ftones. At the end of this conduit is a hole in a rock, which is fliut with a Ipigot and faucet, and through which you let in as much warm water as you think fit; this, when too hot, may eafily be cooled by water from an adjoining brook.
Thefe are almoft the only ancient monuments Iceland affords, and all, as you will readily allow, are of very little importance. There are no ancient manufcripts, Icelandic fagas, or hiftorical traditions or accounts, to be met with, the ifland having been entirely ftripped of them, owing to the zeal and induftry of the antiquarians and others, who formerly reforted in numbers to this country, for the fole end of collecting them.
The honour of having firft begun to collect them belongs to Sweden : the firft who undertook it was Jonas Ilngman, who went to Iceland in 1661, at the ex pence of the court of Sweden, where he obtained a number of manufcripts, which laid the foundation for the collection of Icelandic original records,
that
[ I91 I that are contained in the Swedifll archives of antiquities. Encouraged by his example, Thormundr Thorvi-fon likewife went to Iceland, furnifhed With an order from king Frederic the Third, of the 27th of May 1662, to the bifliops Bryniolf, Svenflbn, and Gille Thorlakfon, to aflift him 111 collecting Icelandic manufcripts.
After the cftablifhment of the college it was propofed to fend Peter Salan to Iceland; but this did not take place, though they gained their point fome time after, in 1680, by means of Gud-mundr Ollbn,   who prevailed upon his brother Helge Olfon to leave Iceland and come to Sweden, whither he brought a conliderable number of manufcripts.    Great additions were afterwards made to thefe collections by Arngrim Johnfon, Jonas Wigfuién, Lopt Jofephen, Gudmund Gudmun-derfon,   and   Thorvaldr Brockman, who were all employed as tranllators by the college of antiquities. Jonas Eghardfen, Magnus Ben edict fen, Ifleif Thorleiffen,   Ejnar  Ejnarfcn, Arnas Hakanfen,   Francis   Jacobfen, and
Thord
Thore! Thorlakfon have alfo very much enriched the collection, both when the college of antiquities was at Upfala, and when it was afterwards transferred toStockholm.
The attention of the Danifli court was at laft excited; king Chriflian the Fifth, in 1685, difpatched Thomas Bartholin to Iceland with an order to the bailiff Heidemann, to affift him in collecting Icelandic antiquities : he forbad at the fame time, in the firicteft manner, any manufcripts, hifcories, or other accounts relating to Iceland, to be ibid to foreigners, or carried out of the country.
Stockholm, as well as Copenhagen, became therefore pofTeft of a conlide-rable number of Icelandic writings ; but the latter court not fatisfied with what they had already obtained, difpatched Arnas Magnaus and Paul Widaiin to Iceland in 1712; where they fought for whatever might remain there with fuch extreme care, that it is almoft impoflible to get fight of any manufcript hiflory in the whole country; and notwithstanding the pains
I have
have taken, I could only obtain an imperfect copy of the Sturlunga Saga, Which I purchatcd.
It is in vain, therefore, that one now enquires for ancient Icelandic chronicles in Iceland ; for befides the fine collection in the Swedifh archives of antiquities, there is a very admirable collection of them in the library of the academy at Copenhagen, which vvas a gift of Arnas Magu'aus ; befides feveral fmall collections oriels importance in the hands of private per-fons.
I have already mentioned the Icelandic hiflories which have been publifhed : fome of them have been printed in Iceland, among which thofe printed at Skallhok are very rare ; but the greatefl part have been publifhed in Sweden, though fometimes from very imperfect manufcripts. Olof Rudbeck the elder, Vcrelius, the two Pcringfkolds, Kenhiehn, Biorner, Salan, and Brokman, have however acquired a great deal of merit by the care and   diligence which they
bellowed
bellowed upon them. None of thefe editions however can be compared, in point of elegance and criticiiin, to thofe publifhed in Copenhagen, by the Magnlianian College, the continuation of which is expected with great impatience by the literary world.
LET-
LETTER XVII.
To Baron Axel Iæjonhufwud,
Of the Icelandic Poetry*
Stockholm, Dcc. 12, 1775»
T T is with the utmoft pleafure that A I prepare to obey your commands, in communicating to you a fliort account of the Icelandic poetry ; I only lament that my circumfcribed knowledge on a fubject which is furrounded with lb many obfcuritics, will not permit me to make my account as perfect: as I could wilh, and as the importance of the fubject requires; I regret this inability lb much the more, as I am to fubmit my thoughts to the eye of fo great a connoiffeur j but if even my obfervations fhould not be very important, I will confole myfelf for it, as they will, however, be a proof of my readinefs to comply with your willies.
N z Though
Though the opinion of fome men or learning, that writing in verfe has been earlier practifed in Europe than writing in prole, may appear extraordinary at firft, yet it feems more probable upon nearer examination. The poets among the Greeks and Romans were more ancient than their hifto-rians and moft celebrated orators. The time when prole firft began to be written among thefe nations, may be afcertained with tolerable accuracy ; but it is almofl impofiible to determine the age of poetry among them, as it is far more ancient than the liege of Troy and the Olympic games. In the fame manner we know that the firft work in profe among the Romans was the fpeech of Appius Caegius, to the fenate and Roman people in the 125th Olympiad; in which he advifes them to refufe the conditions of peace offered by Pyrrhus, when it is certain that poetry had been known and cultivated among them long before.
This need not be wondered at, when we recollect that long before the know-2 ledge
[   197 I
ledge of letters could have become general   in   Europe,   many actions niio-ht, however,  have been thought Worthy to be conligned to polterity. How   great   an    afliflance   mull it have been to the memory, when the remembrance of an event, deftined to be refened from oblivion, was pre-fcrved in words, compofed according to a certain mcafure, where it might be determined, even by the car alone, if any word had been omitted or altered.    The laws of the ancient Germans were written in verfe, and the flanzas in which they were compofed were generally lung.     The French monarch, induced by the favourable reception given to every poetical work, caufed the Bible to be tranflated into Verfe in the ninth century : from the fame motive Ottfried, a Benedictine monk in Alface, tranflated the four Evangelifls into German verfe about the fame period.
Thus we fee that poetry is extremely ancient among all nations ;  and in Sweden it may be confidered as a legacy N 3 of
of Odin, who fir ft brought it thither. In ancient times there was no king or chief, or any other man of note, who had not his own fkald or poet, who was obliged to be prefent on all important occafions, to remark whatever was worthy of attention, and to relate it in longs. He was prefent at battles in the Sköldborg, or in the midft of the bra veft warriors, that he might behold with his own eyes thofe actions which were to be recorded : at their banquets he was obliged to animate the guefts with happy inventions and poetical encomiums on their deceafed heroes. Thelé poets were every where held in Jiigh efteem; they were conflantly admitted to the king's prefencc, and frequently were both his generals and mi-nifters. They were called Jkaldr, which Chevalier Hire derives from Jkial, reafon or prudence, from whence the expreffion of Jkialamait, wife men. They were likewife called jpekingr, i rom fpekcy wifdom, from whence the Englifh word to Speak, derives its origin.
To
[   199 I
To the fongs of thefe poets we owe the firft accounts of the Swedifh. hiftory, and cannot therefore deprive them of the honour Tacitus bellows on them in calling them Antiqiuffi-mum annalium genus. Our ancient traditions arc likewife filled with thefe longs, which we cannot alter or reject as worthless, though they are, for the moft part, unintelligible to us. The caufe of this is, firft, that the Skalds purpofely compofed their fongs with fo much art, that they were not only unintelligible to the vulgar, of which we find examples in Geila Sturfonar, Viga Glum, and Grekis's Sagas; but they were not even underftood by the greateft poets, of which Gretter's hiftory gives us a proof.
They were, fecondly, accuftomed to tranfpofe the order of the words in their fongs in fo ftrange a manner, as nccefla-rily augmented the obfeurity, I will only mention one example of this from Kenhjelm, where the words, to follow in their natural order, ought to have N 4 been
been ranged according to the number" placed over them :
i • 289
Hilmir vann at hohni
5 7 6
Hialm-fkoth rothni blothi
3 H     T5 13 Iht a t of dul du t he jf ho eldar
4 loir 12 Hoerd oc aujlur i goer thorn
18   20    17 19 Rots bra Recka Inert r
o o IO 22 21
Riikur valkera lijki 23        24 27 Herfefnir let hr o f num
25        26 28 Hold flacmingia goldi t.
They had, thirdly, a particular poetical language (Skal dfk aparm at) which was very copious, but could not be made uie of in common life. This language probably made one of the principal parts of their fhidics in thofe times, as they were not infen-
fible
fible of its beauty and elegance. Thus for example, there are upwards of fifty fononymes of the word bölja, billow or wave. And Chevalier Ihre quotes Lopt Guttormion's Lyodalykil (a love-long) in which there are many different appellations, which all ex-prefs the word woman. 1 mall borrow a few lines of this poem, which are mentioned in the Edda among the kringaheiti, and which prove how far thefe poets went in their Antono-mafias.
Heingi eg hamri kringel an Hang a riupu tangar. Grimnis fylgs a galga Gyn nun g bru ar linna.
The natural difpofltion of thefe words is this : Eg be ingi hamri kringdan linna gynnung a hang riupu bruar tangar, a Grymnis fylgs galga ; which means, I hang the round beaten gaping fnake on the end of the bridge of the mountain bird, at the gallows of Odin's Shield. To find the fenle of thefe words, Mr. Ihre obferves, that by the gallows of Odin's Shield is meant the
arm,
[     20Z ]
arm, on which it is ufuai to ham;; 'W the iliield. By the word ripa is under flood a falcon, for a Skald has the permiflion of putting one genus for another. The bridge of the falcon is the hand, on which the falconer places him, and its end or tong (tongue) is the finger. The gaping round beaten fnake means a ring; and confequently this long flory means no more than, I put a ring on my finger.
Fourthly, to make themfelves Mill more intelligible, when two words had the fame found, the Skalds were allowed the liberty of putting the peri-phrafis of the one for the other : for example, the word tlgnifics a horfe's hoof or foot ; but the fame word like-wife means decency, moderation, un-dcrftanding ; and to exprefs this the horfe's hoof was frequently made ufe of. But the principal difficulty in the explanation of this ancient poetry proceeds from the extreme in correct nefs of the manufcripts of our Sagas, particularly of the poetry, which cannot be read correctly without great attention. Thefe are the caufes why the greater
part
part of the verfes in their Sagas, publifhed either in Iceland itielf or in Sweden, cannot be underftood ; only Very few are capable of comprehending them ; that it is however pollible, is proved by the new editions of Kriftnis Saga, Landnamabok, and feveral others. The provolt Gunnar Paulfen in Iceland is particularly diflingu i (lied for his great knowledge in this branch of literature.
The difficulties we meet with in ascertaining the true fenfe of thefe an-cient poems, is likewife the caule of the contempt with which we confider thefe few remains of the genius of the ancients. I will readily acknowledge that they have no poem which could be propofed as a pattern of wit and elegance ; yet it cannot be denied, but that very fublime thoughts and expreflions, and fometimes very beautiful comparifons, are to be met with in them : and it is impolfible to read the dying Lodbrok's Biarkamal, Eigils, Hofud, Lau hi, and Ejvindrs, Haco-narma, without pleafure, befides levc-ral others.
They
They choie for the fubject of their poetry whatever happened in common life; however they principally occupied themfelves in compofing fongs in praile of the actions of their great men; in which they are accufed of not being over fcrupulous in bellowing their flatteries. We have feveral poems exilting on various fhbjeets, among which there is a tolerable epic one on Charles and Grim, befides another on Hialmar. They have likewife fome fatirical pieces, which they ufed to call uidvi-for, and the undertaking of the author was named yrkia nid; but there are no traces of their having had the leaft idea of theatrical performances.
From what has been laid, it may be imagined that there is no language which allows a poet fo much liberty as the Icelandic ; and indeed there is no language fo rich in poetical expreffions as this : it muft not however be thought that it is confined by certain rules: on the contrary, I believe there is no profody fo copious as the Icelandic, as, according to
the
the Edda, they had no lefs than 136 different forts of verifications (in Ice^ landic hattur) each of which had its particular rules. However it will be extremely difficult, nay almoft im-poffible, to fay any thing certain on this fubject, before we have a true explanation of that part which treats of it in the third volume of the Edda.
The Edda is one of the moll: celebrated remains of antiquity, and yet it has hitherto been very imperfectly known. It has generally been confidered as the mythology of the ancients, and the Volufpa and Håvamål have been forced upon it, as two of its volumes, though they do not in the leaft belong to it. But Chevalier Ihre has thrown more light on this affair : in his printed letter to Mr. Lagerbring, he has attentively examined the manufcript of t lie Edda, in the library at Upfala, and clearly proves that it is nothing more than an introduction to Icelandic poetry, confining of three parts: the firfl, daemifagor, is an extract from the Hiftoria mythica veterum
rum: the fecond, kenningar, is a mere Ærarium poeticum ; and the third, Hods greiner, contains the Icelandic profody, écc. &c. The lb-called dæmifagomc, are for the moil: part tranilated into the Swedifh language by Goranfon, but the tranflation is very incorrect. Kefenius has likewife publifhed them, together with the Kenningarne in Latin. But the third part, which deferves no leis attention, has not yet appeared in print; and it is much to be wifhed that Chevalier Ihre would give it to the public, as there are fo few befides himfelf capable of doing it juftice.
The various conjectures which have been formed concerning the true author of the Edda, have been no lefs erroneous than thofe relating to the fubject. of the book itfelf. It lias generally been thought that Samu ndr Sigfufon, who died in 1133, wrote a very ample work, entitled the Edda, which treated of many important fubjecls, and was in a manner a magazine of all human knowledge ; of which however fcarce one 5 third
[   ~°7 1
third has ever been preferved, and tranfmitted to us in the prefent Edda. But Chevalier Ihre affects, that the Edcla we now are in pofleflion of, has not been extracted trom any one more ancient, but that it has originally been compofed by Snorre Sturle-fon.
The difficulties and objections which have been made againfl this opinion by the learned Arnas Mag-niius, and afterwards by profeflor Schloicrn, can eafily be removed ; for moft probably Sturlefbn's Edda has been continued by the monk Gunlaug, as Bjorn of Skardfaa fuppofes, or rather by Olafr Hvitafkald. It is not therefore furprizing, that fomething in praifc of Sairlelbn fliould inferted ; and it may eafily be explained from hence, why the author called Waldemar king of Denmark, his matter.
It is difficult to determine the true nature of the ancient Icelandic poetry; however to give you fome idea of it, I will fay fomething of the verification moft frecpently ufed among them,
and
[    SOB )
and which was called drottquade (king's long).
It was divided into flanzas, each of which confifted of four couplets, and each of thefe couplets was again compofed of two hemifticks, of which every one contained lix iylla-bles : and it was not allowed to augment this number, except in cafes of the greater! necelfity. Thefe ft 11a-bles con lift of three or four feet, according to the different forts of verification, and fometimes of more, in proportion to the fhortnefs of the fyl-lablcs. Belides this, the Icelandic poetry requires two other things, viz. words with the fame initial letters, and words of the fame found. This affonance is called bending^nå is either more or lefs ; in the firfl cafe it is called adalhending, and in the fecond, Jkottbending. This you may clearly fee by the following example :
Auftur londum for undann Alvaldur fa er gaf fcaldum, Hann feck gagn at gunne, Gunntrör da flög mergum,
Slydur-
Slydtirtungiir let fiingrå Sverd leiks reigenn ferdar, Sende grammur ad grunda Gull w a r p a t h i fn a r p a n n,
Here it muft firft be obferved, that there is in every couplet a fyliable ivhich governs the whole verfe, radcr quacdiuui, which is ahnoft always the firft word in the fecond hemiftich ; and two words in the lirft hemiftich muft begin with the fame letter, if it is a conibnant ; but when it is a vowel, One vowel may be put for another; Tims, for example, in the above ft a n 2a the following words are thofe which govern each verfe, confiding oft wo lines °r hemiftichs, radar que dandi, in the firft Verfe, the word alvadur, becaufe it begins with a vowel, has, in the ftrft hemiftich of this verfe, the words aujlur and tirtdanrt; in the fecond verfe gunhör-da, you find gaga and gunne in its firft half; in the third verfe jverd* "Whence in the firft hemiftich flydurtun-iur and flingra ; in the fourth verfe, gulharpathi, which requires gramilr O and
[    zio ]
and gr u n du in its firft half. Secondly, one i'mds in the firft hemiftich of each verfe a fko11hending, or two words, which have equal confonants with unequal vowels, fuch as are in the firft verfe, 16 n dum, undann ; in the fr* cond hann, gunn ; in the third, flydur* tungur, flingra ; and in the fourth, fende, grundu. But in the fecond hemiftich of each verfe is an adalhcnding, where two words have botli equal confonants and vowels, in the above-mentioned ftanza : words of this kind are in the firft verfe alv aid, Jhaldumm; in the fecond verte gunhörda, mor gum ; in third verfe fverd, ferdar ; and in the fourth verfe gulvarpathi, fnarpann; confequently in a ftanza, which, like the above, confifts of thirty words, above one half of its peculiar properties are contained in the impoflibility of changing one word for another, or tranfpofing it, without making a great alteration in the whole verfe. Thefe aiTonances, or hendingars, are generally found in the firft and laft word of each line: fometimes however the one afionant word is placed in the
middle
t   iti ]
Mddlc of the lin?, as in the inflancfe °f the word londum in the firft hemiftich of the firft verfe.
This conlbnance of founds muft be confidered as the necellary ornament °f a regular verfe by the ancient Skalds : the greater this uniformity is, die more the verfe approaches to perfection ; it likewife ferves tlieiri as a guide in tinging their vcrfes. We alio find fomething of this fort in the Latin poets: Virgil lays,
■—tales cafus Caflandra canebat.
And another poet,
Dum dubitat natura mareri) fäfcetetVé pucllam,
N'ates es o puleher pacne puella puer.
Tiiis has likewife been remarked by Boxhorn, who at the fame time quotas from Giraldus Cambrenlis, that this ^'as alio cuftomary among the ancient Cambrians, and in "England: fo that U feems to iiave been the opinion ot tnoft nations, that the elegance of O 2 poetry
poetry required this harmony of founds* For this reafon the Cambrians fay,
Digawn Duw da y unie Wrth bob ctybwylh paravvd.
And the Englifli,
God is together gamman and \vi(-dome.
David Rhaefus confirms this in his Grammatica Cambro-Brytannica, printed in folio, London 1592, and quotes feveral pafTages from their verfes, which have a great deal of refemblance with the hendingar of the Icelanders.
I know not whether the agreement of the initial letters, cuftomary in the poetry of the Finlanders, might not likewife be mentioned here, as a proof of the fame cuflom being obferved there as in Iceland : I will therefore infert a paffage from Calamnii's Congratulation to the late king Adolphus Frederic, on his undertaking a voyage to Finland.
Kofi a
Kofia kulki kuningamme Adolph Fredric armollinen Meidän manila matkuftcli, Kaicki vereni venähti, Kaicki liikahti Uliani, Eltae virteni viritin, Kannoin minum kandeleni, Haen iftuimcn etelien, Kaicki vallan kamarikin : lofta anvin andimia.
But this carries me too far from my fubject. Though we do not find any rhymes in our moft ancient poetry, it may, however, be faid with certainty that they are older than the introduction of the Chriflian religion. Skule Ej n a Hb n is therefore wrongfully ac-enfed of having introduced the ule of rhymes, which is now become fo general, that except England, which has preferved its blank verfe, no nation in Europe is pleated with verfes that do not rhyme. The art of rhyming, which is by no means elTential to poetry, and ftill lefs ufeful, as it only ferves to make it more difficult, was borrowed, it is not improbable, from the O 3 ancient
ancient northern (kakls, and has now fpread itfelf beyond Europe ; lb that rhyming is become as univcrfal as the complaint, that the number of ver-fifiers incrcafes in the fame proportion as the number of poets decrcafes. Baretti relates, that he heard a Mo-fambique fong in rhyme, from fome Negroes at Madrid. Gages fays the lame of the Mexicans ; and Nixbuhr mentions that the Arabs are great rhymers.
To conclude, I here prefent you with a fpecimen of an Icelandic poem which I \ u gm a n com po fed on the death of cou n t Magnus de la Gardia. It was printed at Upfala ; but is become fo fcarce, that I doubt whether any perfon in Sweden has a printed copy of it : it may at the fame time ferve to fliew the nature of a drottquade, as the author has obferved aimoll all the rules which coiv (titute one.
Au t er i feggia fot i Saknar manns i ranui
Gret
Gret ylgur Ragnvald rytto Rom-ftamir haukar fromall: Kund Lodbrokar; kieudo Kuillinda valir illra : Kuoldrido klarar hrcldoll Kueid ari mar falt reid ar Tijd hello tar af giodi Tafnlaulir æpto hrafnar.
Thuarr og vid theingils dauda Thydur morg brad, i hijdi Skreidaft thui berll (kiædur Skiott marti grads, of otta : Ox ödum falu faxa Fra r miog or Iciptri rara liuarma beckur ad h rockin Braut grön a haudar nauti.
Greto fkin laus agiætann Gripdijr heidingia fiupufs Verdar of fx do fordum Flein things all v a kran king: a : Og i oglodum huga Undo lier menn og hrundir Seims kuado mundar loma Sleirrhuor hult malar thuerri.
Heidin-
[   M< ]
Heidingiar ef fua hedina Harmadu kuanar barma Stalir iier giordi Mala Stijrir o g Eida birufl : Thars i malmgufti gicra Grad t lm arr og vod til brada Varga kna vimd oborgid Vas, thaut ram i all.
Hvad bæri ofs er ernm Urdarbrumis tlia alkunnir Sira Jofurs thefs fara Sueita dagliga neitum ? Og i hans erum faugru Orda vidkuædi vordnir Uppfræddir ad vier Jireppa-Ailundum gledi håa ?
Ex ri ofs ey bliugum vera Breifklcika holdfins veikan Tijtt fyri fionir fettia Synd Hya, dygd i nijafl ? Hel med thu i broka Holi Kreikir lier a faul bleikum Akuedr ymfra thioda Andlåt med quifti handar.
Hel vasgir hauklum eigi Hrijfur or thelTo li J XX K ej fara, Klerk og Kafir Karlmcnfko fulla Jaria: Altignum amint fagnar Og kot-af-röpa throti Kurteifa kappa her fa Kieliing leggur ad velli.
Bæmi fr a m m duglig koma Drijir hel verk at nijo Andlinga aburt leidi r Ofs da ugg v ar tara i'o f li : Mannlunga mætfla fangar Med fier hertekna hiedan Færir og furdum florum Fiaurlcftir mcingid bella.
Sidpridi, fas md og heidur, Somligur dygdar blomi, Mangixfka, vinfxl minning, Metrda fremd ofgietin, Frijdleikur, fegurd, aud ur, Frækn, aft, og hyller diifto Hel med lier dregur i du ala Deyr tho gott mannord eije.
El n n nu af æfi ba n ni Afgieck raud moens brecku Blået ur al ty gi n ytum Æ tregandi lægir: Kurreis, vis, kiænn, til vurta Kin-flor lof dunga vinur Haboriii Jarl og Herra Ifaukftandar malar grandi.
Dyr Magnus Delagardi Dygdhdr Odains bygde Ak urs vift af var rekin, Er nara hirt illlkiptin : Mord hauxa fall hans ferdi fridoftum brecko hlijda Sorg ftora fua og morgnm Slædir lax hrundum fædo.
Thar fic ofs tho ad eyrir Thad hann i gudi gl ad ur Als træd holds goto greida Grand fyrtift vondra anda ; Hifdiir i Gimlis gardi Glatt fingur og iamklingir Ltvauldum Ein gla fueitum Endalauft lof mink raufto.
E P I T A-
E PITA PHI UM.
I^Oriditur hoc tumulo juvenili mor-
tuus ævo
Magnus, de Magna Gardia gente fatus.
In multos canus dignus qui viveret annos,
Hei mihi! q nod juvcnis concidit ante diem.
Huj us enim ingenium ccpit non terra,
Quid inde ? Tollite Cælicolæ, reddittc Cælicolæ. Die tumulumfpcctans ocnlo properante
viator :
Magno Tuo Cine ri ilt pia terra levis.
Scripfit Upfhliae anno 1667, die 14 Febiuniii.
JONAS KU G M AN.
t E T-
t ]
LETTER XVIII,
To Profetior Bergmann, Of the Volcanos in Iceland,
Stockholm, Sept. i, 1773.
yrAVING received the collection I J[ JL made in Iceland of the fpecimens of the different fubflanccs of which their volcanos arc compofed, I take the liberty of fending it to you ; adding at the fame time a fhort account of thefe burning mountains, which is in part extracted from Icelandic writers, and partly founded on what I heard from the natives, as well as from my own obfervations ; and which I do not think unworthy of your clofer examination* Indeed it is much to be lamented, that fince of late fuch care and application have been bellowed on the Itudy of natural hiflory, fo little attention has been paid to the operations of Nature in this remarkable ifland ; for
hitherto
hitherto a very fmall number of the many volcanos are yet fully known ; but that we fhouklbe more ignorant in regard to the wonderful hot fpoutinir. Water-fprings with which the country abounds, is very extraordinary; not to mention many other uncommon appearances in Nature.
My time and attention have been too much confined and taken up to give you fo complete an account of the curiolities of Iceland as they de^ ferve; but I flatter myfelf notwithstanding, that you will give a favourable reception to the few obfervations I fliall make, though they fhould not be fo important as might be expected. We may hope to fee this fubject treated upon more at large, when you have time and opportunity to compare the effects of fire in Iceland, with fimilar ones in other parts of the world.
I will not venture to determine how far the opinion of fome men of learning is founded on truth, that all mountains have taken their rife either from  fire   or  water. How
probable
probable focver this opinion may &p* pear, of which we can find no traces' in the mofl: remote times, and the mofl ancient authors ; yet it would be very difficult* nay almoll impolfible, to eflablifh it by experience : but be this as it may, I will venture to pronounce, that Iceland has been formed by eruptions of fire.
It is no uncommon event for iflands to be produced in this manner; we have many examples of it; but the iize and extent of Iceland, in cornpa-1 rifon to other iflands, which owe their origin to the fame caufe, may raiic fome doubts againfl the reception of this hypothefis. Nor can it be denied, that this, as well as feveral forts of flonc which are to be found there, and which do not bear any diftincl marks of the effects of fire, are likewife calculated to confirm thefe doubts. Again, I fee nothing to hinder me from confidcring Iceland as produced by fire, when I reflect that the ground in all parts of the ifland, and particularly near the fea fhore, con fill s of lava or tuffa, which is frequently co* £ verecl
vered with other forts of ftones; as at «Lundö, and even with a hard kind of nioor-ftone (Jaxum) or with feveral ftrata of different kinds of earth and ftone, as at Laugarnces, where the lava is fourteen feet in depth; when I find befides, that thofe rocks which have no traces of fire are compounded of land mixed with fmall pieces of fpar, which may eafily be produced, in two or three thoufand years, fince the lava has laid the foundation ; I am ftill more inclined to fupport this opinion.
I am not however fo credulous as to believe, that the whole ifland was produced at once by fire ; but I rather conjecture that it has been the work of fome. centuries, by feveral cliffs and rocks having been produced at different times, whofe points have been connected by new eruptions, and which have formed the bafis of the whole ifland.
It is very difficult to determine, whether this fuppofition has any real foundation or not ; however 1 think myfelf authorized to believe it, as well
horn
from the arched flSclire into which the ii k ams of lava have generally formed themfelves, as from the probable connections of the fea and the volcanos there : I likewife believe, that from hence it may beft be explained, why feveral iflands have been fwallowed up in great earthquakes, as a building may fooneft be cleftroyed by tearing away the pillars on which it reits.
Thus I go further back with regard to the eruptions of fire in Iceland, than the common tradition among the vulgar people there, who believe that the firft inhabitants of the country, whom they fuppofe to have been Chriftians and Irifhmcn, were fo much opprcllbd by the Norwegian Colonilts, that they were forced to leave the country, which they firft fet lire to, to revenge themielves. We cannot however determine, till after the arrival of the Norwegians, how often the eruptions of fire have happencch But this nation has prcferved with great care whatever concerned their place of refidence or habitation*
i The
The firft eruption of fire, mentioned by the antient records, is the Ildbor-gar brann-, immediately after the arrival of the Norwegians on the weft fide of the ifland, in the ninth century. But it is not remarked as any thing extraordinary, only that the fire broke out near a farm belonging to Thore ; and a ftretch of lava, or a braun, of three miles in length, and two and a half in breadth, remains to this day as a monument of it. After this there are no eruptions mentioned till the year iooo, when the Chriftian religion was introduced there. At a time when the chiefs of the country were alfembled, to confult about the reception of the Chriitian religion, infor mation was brought that fire was thrown out at Plow. The Heathens confidered this as a proof of the wrath of their gods, on which account they were refolved to refufe the new religion ; but this refolution was overruled by Snorre Code's afking them, " On whom did the gods difplay " their wrath, when thole rocks on " which we now ftand were on fire V* P The
The Icelandic Chronicles mention many inftances of fiery eruptions obferved in different places during the fpace of 800 years*; it is therefore difficult to conceive how Horrebow, who has been in the country himfelf, could affirm, that fire is emitted only from them very rarely, and in few places.
To be fenfible of the dreadful effects of fire, the country itfelf need only be conlidercd. The mountains are aimolt entirely compofed of lava and tuffa, and the plains are crufled over with hraun, or tracts of lava, which are, however, in many places covered with earth or turf. The accounts which we have of certain eruptions of fire, alfo inform us, that they have always laid watte large tracts of land, either more or leis.
I will not in this place mention the damages done to the inhabitants by the allies thrown from the volcanos, which frequently covered the fields for
* The Chronicles give a lift of 63 eruptions at Heckla and other places, from the year 1000 to 17 66; of which twenty-three were eruptions of Mount Heckla only.
a fpace
a fpace of twenty or thirty miles in length, and half a yard in height, and by which the cattle fuffered very much, as it caufed them to lofe their teeth, and frequently to drop down dead for want of food ; and when they have been killed, pumice has fometimes been found in their liver and bowels. I will only name fome of the places fituate neareft to the volcanos, that have been utterly de-ftroyed by their effects. This haé been partly done by violent earthquake 3, Which generally preceded the eruption ; and partly by inundations of water from the ice melted by the fire ; and laftly, by the quantity of glowing allies and Hones thrown from the mouths of the volcanos, and the ftreams of burning matter which flowed down on all fides.
In i 311 eleven farms were confumed near Roidekamb, and as many more near Tolledyngr; and in 1366, 70 at Lillehered. Heckla deflroyed two in 1374; leven in 1390; and 18 in one day in 1436. In the fame man-P a ner
ner five farms were laid wafte near Myrdals Jokul in 1660, and (till more in 1603 near Heckla. In 1727, at leaft 600 fheep and r 50 horfes were killed near Myrdals Jokul, by the flood and the pieces of ice which ruflicd down with it. In 1728, many farms were deftroyed near Krafle, and a large lake called Myvatn, Avas entirely dried up, into which the ftreams of fire that rolled from the mountains, flowed during fome years, and formed a tract of lava of four miles in length, and one and a half in breadth. In 1755 Kattlegiaa laid wafte fix pa-rifhes; and in the fame year the laft eruption of Heckla ravaged a tract many miles to the north-eaft.
It is not therefore to be doubted, but that the fire rages here with as much, and perhaps more violence than Vefu-vius, Ætna, and other volcanos ; not-withftanding which, I fee no foundation for the opinion of fome people, who affirm that there is a communication between the volcanos of Iceland and Italy ; it might be maintained with as much foundation that Kattlegiaa and
Teneriff,
Teneriff, or Krafle and Lima, communicate.
But before I quit this fubjecTt I will mention a circumftance which is related both by Egbert Olafsen and Jacobfen. The laft time that Kattlegiaa emitted fire, a flafti of lightning, as it were, burft from the flame, and pierced through the c lifts which intercepted its way. The fame lightning in one place killed eleven horfes, three of which were in a liable ; a farmer was alfo killed by it near the door of his room ; his upper cloaths, which were woollen, remained entirely unhurt, but his Hurt and waiftcoat, which were both of linen, were burnt; and when his cloaths were pulled off, it was found that the flefh and fkin on the right lide were confumed to the very bones. The maid-fervant, who wanted to aflift him in laving the cattle, was likewife ftruck by the lightning, but did not die till feveral days after, during which time fhe fuffered inexprel-fible torture. It is likewife faid, that when fne put on her cloaths, they were finged by the glutinous fires, which P 3 cleaved
cleaved to her body. At flrft, I hefi-tated to receive this as true, but when I read in your Cofmography, that Brac-cini had obferved in 1631, that a column of fmoak from Vefuvius extended over feveral miles of the country, from which deadly lightning proceed d ; and that the fame happened in 1707, when the iron rods erected in Naples became electric whenever Vefuvius emitted fire ; I am the more inclined to believe that there is fomething electrical in this kind of fire, as the fame phenomena appear in thunder and lightning.
LETTER
LETTER XIX.
To Professor Bergman. Of the Volcanos in Iceland.
Stockholm, Sep. 21, 1774.
IT fcarcely ever happens that the mountains begin to throw out fire unexpectedly ; for befides a loud rumbling noifb, which is heard at a con-fiderable diftancc, and for feveral days preceding any eruption, and a roaring and cracking in the part from whence the fire is going to burft forth, many fiery meteors are obferved, but unattended in general with any violent concuflion of the earth, though fometimes earthquakes, of which the hiflory of the country affords feveral inftances, have accompanied thefe dreadful conflagrations.
Among the traces left by thefe eruptions, are particularly the clefts which are frequently to be met with, the largeft of which is AJmennegiaa, near the water of Tingalla; it is very P 4 long,
long, and 105 feet in breadth. The direction of the chafm itfelf is from north to fouth : its vvcftern wall, from which the other has been perpendicularly divided, is x07 feet 6 inches in height, and confifts of many ftra-tas (each of which is about ten inches in height) of lava, grown cold at different times, as may eafily be difcovered by the apparent cruft, which is full of blifters, of a darker brown, and not fo much comprefTed as the remaining part of the mafs of lava. The eaftern wall is only 45 feet 4 inches in height ; and that part of it which is directly oppofite to the higheft part on the other fide, is no more than 36 feet five inches high.
It is likewife confidered as a fign of an impending eruption, when fmall lakes, rivulets, and ftreams dry up. Some perfons believe, that it does not contribute a little to halten the eruption, when the mountain is fo covered with ice, that the holes are flopped up through which the exhalations, ccc. often found a free paffage.
Though it is by no means my opinion, that this contributes much to it,
it cannot be denied, that the fire is generally contained in thefe mountains covered with ice, or, as they are called in the country, joknls.
The firft thing that is ufually obferved, before a new eruption of fire, is the burfting of the mafs of ice with a dreadful noife, whence it is called in Icelandic Jokla-bliod (JokuFs Sound) and J okla breftar.
Flames then burfl forth, and lightning and balls of fire iffue with the fmoak, which are feen fevei al miles off. With the Dames proceed a number of larger and fmaller flones, which are fometimes thrown to an incredible diftance. I have feen a round Hone near Nafeirholt, about a mile from Heckla, which was an ell in diameter, and had been thrown there in the lafl eruption of Heckla. Egbert Olafsen alio relates, that at the laft eruption ot Kattlegiaa, a flone which weighed 290 pounds was thrown to the diftance of four miles.
A quantity of white pumice-ftone is alfo thrown up with the boiling waters j and it is believed, with great pro-2 bability,
bability, that the latter proceeds from the lea, as a quantity of fait fufficient to load feveral horfes has frequently been found after the mountain has difcontinued burning.
Then follows generally brown or black pumice-ffone, and lava, with fand and allies.
The lava is feldom found near the opening, but rather tuffa, or loole allies and grit ; and indeed the greater part of the Icelandic mountains con-illts of this matter, which, when it is grown cold, generally takes an arched form, fome admirable proofs of which may be feen in the cleft at Allman-nagiaa: the upper crull frequently grows hard and folid, whilfl the melted matter beneath it continues liquid; this forms great cavities, whofe walls, bed, and roof are of lava, and where great quantities of flalaclite of lava are found.
There are a great number of thefe caves in Iceland, fome oi which are very large, and are made ufe of by the inhabitants for fheltering their cattle.
3 I will
X will here only take notice of the cave of Surtheller, as the largeft of all: it is between 34 and 36 feet in height; its breadth is from 50 to 54 feet, and it is 5034 feet long.
It would be both tedious and difficult to clafs the different compofitions of fire in thefe places, as it is not eafily difcovered to which they belong : for example, jafper, of which great quantities of red and black are found inclofed in the lava, and mixed with it ; I will therefore only name thofe which have been evidently produced by the fire. Firft, tuffa, a ftone, fe-ruminated aflies and grit, which fometimes is found mixed with lava, bafalt, and other forts of ftones, and having been moiftened by the fpouting of water, grows hard by heat and length of time. Secondly, lava, is that kind of ftone which has been melted by the violence of the fire, and Varies according to the difference of the ft ate in which it ferved as food to the fire. This lava is fometimes found folid, and at others porous and full of
bladders
bladders and holes ; in the i n fide it is filled up with opaque and brittle fquare cryftals of a dead white, or with green drops of glafs, which decay after they have been long expofed to the air. The colour of the lava is black, dark blue, purple, reddilh brown, or yellowifh, but oftenefl black or red. Where the fire has operated very ftrongly, it is, as it were, glazed, and looks like refin. In the frames or great tracts of lava it is fometimes obferved, that the emit in growing cold has laid itfelf into folds ; but generally it forms itfelf into a re* femblance of a rope or cable, fometimes lengthways, and at others in the form of a circle, like unto a great cable rolled together ; and generally lb, that its thicknefs continually augments from the centre to the periphery. To this clafs I mull alfo count a black folid matter, which flrikes fire againft fleel, and fometimes takes the forms of trees or branches: fome people have been inclined to think they are petrified trees, but I am rather
of opinion that it is a real jafper. Thirdly, pumice, black, red, and even white, which laft has mofl probably been difcoloured by the boiling water. Fourthly, agate ; I preferve the received name, though it is really nothing more than burned glafs. In fome few places it is found white, tranfparcnt, and almoft in the form of cryflal. The bluifh fort is alfo rare, but found in large piecej : the moll common is the black agate, which is found generally in fl ratas, or in fmall nefls, and fometimes almofl in the fhape of cryflal, in oval, fquare, or pentagonal forms. The aflronomcr, Mr. Ejnar Jonfon, has made ufe of this black glafs in his tubes, both in Copenhagen and Iceland, for the ob-fervation of the fun, and has found them greatly preferable to the darkened glafs. The green agate is found rather coarfer and more reddifh, like thick bottle glafs: it is called hraflinnu-brodcon.
Brimflone, which may be confidered as the proper fuel of the fire, is found
in
in great abundance, pure and mineralized : in the north, principally at Hufewick, and in the fouth at Kryie-wick, there are white brimfione mines which are called Namas, I (hall referve the bafalts for a particular letter.
LETTER
LETTER XIV.
To Professor Bergman. Of Mount Heckla.
Stockholm, Sept. 7, 1773.
THE caufe of Heckla (or, as it is called in the country, Heckla-fall) having been more noticed than many other volcanos of as great extent^ and no lefs wonderful and inftructive, may partly be afcribed to its having vomited fire fo frequently, and partly to its fituation, which expofes it to the light of all the fhips failing to Greenland and North America : as we confidered it with greater attention than any other volcano on the ifland, I will give you a defcription of the flate in which we found it on the 24th of September 1772.
After we had feen many tracts of lava, among which Garde and Wva-lupe Hraune were the mofl considerable,
able, we purfued our journey to the foot of the mountain. We had a tent pitched here, where we propofed to pafs the night, to enable us to afcend the mountain with greater fpirits in the morning. The weather was extremely favourable, and we had the fatisfaction of feeing whatever we wifhed, the eruption only excepted.
The mountain is iituatedin thefouth-ern part of the ifland, about four miles from the fea-coaft, and is divided into three points at the top, the higheft of which is that in the mielelle, and is, according to an exact obfervation with Ramfdcn's barometer, 5000 feet higher than the fea. We made ufe of our horfes, but were obliged to quit them at the ilrft opening from which the fire had burft. This was a place furrounded with lofty glazed walls, and filled with high glazed cliffs, which I cannot compare with any thing lever faw before.
A little high- r up wc found a great quantity of grit and flones, and £1111 farther on another opening, which though not deep, however defcended
lower
lower down than that of the higheft point. We thought we plainly obferved evident marks of hot boiling water in this place.
Not far from thence the mountains began to be covered with fnow, fome fmall fpots excepted, which were bare. We could not at firft difcern the caufe of this difference, but foon found that it proceeded from the vapour which arofe from the mountain. As we af-cended higher, thefe fpots became larger ; and about two hundred yards from the fummit we found a hole of about one yard and a half in diameter, from which fo hot a fleam exhaled, that it prevented us from afcer-taming the degree of heat with the thermometer.
The cold now began to be very intenle, as Fahrenheit's thermometer, which was at 54 at the foot of the mountain, fell to 24. The wind was alfo become fb violent, that we were fometimes obliged to lie down to avoid being thrown into the moft dreadful precipices by its fury.
Q_ ' Wc
We were now arrived at one of the higheft fummits, when our conductor, who did not take great pleafure in the walk, endeavoured to perfuade us that this was the higheft part of the mountains. We had juft finilhed our obfervations, and found by them that Ramfden's barometer flood at 24-238, and the thermometer, fixed to it, at 27, when happily the clouds divided, and we difcovered a Hill higher fummit. We loft no time in deliberation, but immediately afcended it, and when at the top difcovered a fpace of ground, about eight yards in breadth, and twenty in length, entirely free from fnow ; the land was, however, quite wet, from its haying lately melted away. Here we experienced at one and the lame time, a high degree of heat and cold, for in the air Fahrenheit's thermometer was conftantly at 24, and when we fet it down on the ground, it role to 153. The barometer was here at 22-247, and the thermometer at 38.
We  could not with fafety remain here any longer, though we were very 5 much
much inclined to it« and defcendeåi after having confidered the laft opening there, one of the fides of which was entirely overturned, and the other quite covered with allies and grit. Iii our return we obferved three confidcr* able openings, in one of which every thing looked as red as brick. From another the lava had (lowed in aftream of about 50 yards in breadth, which the Icelanders call Stenaa, or Stone Flood ; and at fome diftance from thence the ft ream divided into three broad amis. Further on we found a large circular opening, at the bottom of which we obferved a mountain in the form of a fugar-loaf, in throwing up of which the fire feemcd to have exhaufted itfelf.
The lall eruption of mount Heckla happened in 1766; it began the 4th of April, and continued to the 7th of September following. Flames proceeded from it in December 17711 and in September 1772, but no flow-ing of lava, &c.
The mountain does not confift of Java, but chiefly of land, grit, and %~ sft**.
a fl ies,  which are thrown up with the ftones, partly melted, and partly difco-loured by the fire.   We like wife found feveral lorts of pumice, and among them one piece with fome fulphur in it.    The   pumice was fometimes fo much burnt, that it was as light as tow ; their form and colour was fometimes very fine, but at the lame time fo foft, that it was difficult to remove them from one place to  another : of the common lava we found both large pieces and fmall bits,  as likewife a quantity of black jafper, burned at the extremities, and refcmbling trees and   branches.    Among   the ftones thrown out of the mountain we faw fome flate of a ft rong red colour.
LETTER XXL
To Profeflbr Be r g m a n .
Of the bot fp out ing Water-fprings in Iceland.
Stockholm, Oct. 3, 1774.
AMONG all the curiofities in Iceland, which nature prefents to the eyes of an attentive fpeclator to raife his admiration, nothing can be compared to the hot fpouting water-fprings with which this country abounds. The hot fprings at Aken, Carlfbad, Bath, and Switzerland, and feveral others which are found in Italy, are confidered as very remarkable; but to my knowledge, except in the laft-mentioned country, the water no where becomes fo hot as to boil ; nor is it any where known to be thrown fo high as at the hot fpouting water-fprings in Iceland.
0.3 AU
All thofe jets d'eau which have been contrived with fo much art, and at lo enormous an expence, cannot by any means be compared with thefe. The water-works at Herrenhaufen throw lip a fingle column of water, of half a quarter of a yard in circumference, to the height of about 70 feet ; thofe on the Winterkaften, at Caffel, throw it up, but in a much thinner column, 130 feet ;   and the jet d'eau at St. Cloud, which is thought the greateft amongfl all the French water-works, caffs up a thin column 80 feet into the air :  whilfl fome fprings in Iceland pour forth columns of water, of feveral feet in thicknefs, to the height of many fathoms ; and many affirm, of feveral hundred feet.
But, without relying upon what has been laid by others of thefe wonderful phænomena of nature, I think myfelf happy to have contemplated With mine own eyes the mofl remarkable of thefe fprings, which has enabled me to give you an accurate account of it. I only beg leave to fay fomething of them in general, before
I treat
I treat of that which I faw in particular.
Thefe fprings are of unequal degrees of heat. From fome the water flows gently as from other fprings, and it is then called taug, a bath ; from others, it fpouts boiling water with a great noife, and is then called hver or kittel (kejfej). Though the degree of heat is unequal, yet I do not remember ever to have obferved it under 188 of Fahrenheit's thermometer. At Langarnas we found it at 188, r 9 r, 193. At Gey fer, Rcykum, and Laugarvatn 212; and in the laft place, in the ground, at a little hot vein of water, 213 degrees.
It is very common for fome of the fpouting fprings to clofe up, and others to fpring up in their Head ; there are likewife frequent traces of former hvers, where at prefent not a fin gle drop of water is to be feen. Many remember to have feen inftanccs of this ; and Egbert Olafsen relates, that in 1753 a new hver broke forth at Rei-kakio, liven fathoms in breadth, and three in depth, at the diftance of 50 CL4 fathoms
fathoms from an old fpring, which had been flopped up by a fall of earth. Frequent earthquakes and fubtcrra-nean noifes, heard at the time, caufed great terror to the people who lived in the neighbourhood.
All thefe hot waters have an incruft-ing quality, fo that we very commonly lind the exterior furface from whence it burfts forth covered with a kind of rind, which almoft refem-bles chaced work, which we at firft took for lime ; but we foon became dubious of this, as it did not ferment with acid ; but we hope that you, Sir, will foon refblve us. This cruft is in general very fine ; but it is, however, moft pure and clear at the fpouting fprings ; for at the others, where the water flows, the parts precipitated by the water are fometimes mixed with earth, which makes the cruft appear darker.
At the hvers it is very difficult, nay almoft impoflible, to examine within the opening the difpofition of the paf-fage which the water has formed, both by reafon of the heat of the water,
and
and the violence with which it is forced out. One may, however, with confidence judge of the great by the fmall ; and it gave us the greater pleafure, as we had an opportunity at Laugarnas to examine the vein of Water itfelf a confiderable way under the cruft.
The water had in this place taken its courfe through a bright grey clay, the furface of which was covered with a white rind; but was on the fide neareft the clay, quite fmooth, and crifped on the upper fide. The vein flowed a good way under this cruft, through a canal formed of a fimilar matter; and the whole canal was filled with cryf-tals, which had a very pleafing effect. I had not time to examine their nature and form on the fpot, as they were Very fmall ; but I expect a more particular account of this fubject from you, as you will find feveral fpecimen of them in the collection I fent you. We could not, however, purfue the courfe of the water very far, as we were obliged to leave it to its fubterranean paf-fages, through which nature had fcdu-
ced
ced it from its refervoirs, where heated by the warmth, and comprefled by the exhalations, it at lau: burfls from its prifon, by gufliing forth at another place, in order make way for its vapours.
The water in fome places talles oi fulphur, and in others not ; but when drank as loon as it is cold, talles like common boiled water. The inhabitants ufe it, at particular times, for dying ; and were they to adopt proper regulations, it might be of (till greater life. Victuals may alio be boiled in it, by putting it into a pot covered, and boiling it till a certain quantity is evaporated. JVJilk held over this water when boiling becomes fweet, owing, moll probably, to its execflive heat ; as the lame effect is produced by boiling it a long time over the fire. They kave begun to make fait, by boil ing fea-water over it, which, when it is refined, Is very fine and good. The cows which drink of it yield a great quantity of good milk. Egbert Olaf-&n informs us, that the water does iiot become troubled when alkali is
thrown
thrown into it, nor does it change colour from fyrup of violets. I do not know what degree of credit ought to be given to Horrebow, who aflerts, that if you fill a bottle at one of the fpouting fprings, the water contained in the bottle will boil over two or three times during the time the fpring throws it forth, and if corked too foon the bottle will burft.
Though it cannot be denied that thefe fprings have fome communication with the Icelandic volcanos, yet they are feldom found very near them, but are difperfed throughout the whole country. For this reafon, hot fprings are found among the mountains, and even on the top ot the ice mountains ; as on Torfa Jockul, where a great number of hot fprings are to be met with; and among them two large hvers, which throw up the boiling water to a great height. There is likewife a lukewarm fpring near Haadegis Hnuk, on Gutlands Jokul, at the foot of the mountain, with many traces of former évers. There are even in the fea hot fpouting fprings, which can only be
ap*
approached at low water; as at Rey~ ka-fiord in I fa-fiord, where four fprings may be obferved in the water by the attending fleam, and one hver on the furface of the water. There are alfo two others in the Qddbiarnar flioals, ft i 11 more at Drapfkar, and a great number at Sando, Urdholm, Reykey, and on the flat iflands. To give a better idea of the lituation of thefe fprings, I will give a lift of them, which I will endeavour to make as topographical as pollible.
In Borgarnbrd's Syffel, nearLeyraa, not tar from the foot of the mountain of SkardQieides, we met with the firft hver, v/hich is, however, not a very ftrong one ; and not far from it there is a fmall bath. At Lunda Rey-kiadal there is a hver and a bath ; and near a farm-yard, Varma-Lakiar-Mula, a warm fpring and a bath. A little farther to the north is the valley of Reykholts, which is two miles and a half in breadth, in the bottom of which hot baths are every where to be met with. T his fpot may be difcovered at feveral miles diftance by the vapours
which
which exhale every where from the hot Water,  and unite in the air, refem-hling a prodigious fmoke ariling from fome volcano.   The three principal hvers in this place are, Tunguhver, Aa-hver,   and Scribla;  the laft fur-nifties water to Snorralaug, Snorre Sturlefon's bath, which is efteemed the beft in Iceland.   From this place there is no hot fpring to be met with northward for a very large tract, till you come to Sneefield's Cape, where there is a lukewarm fpring near the farm called Lyfehol, in Stadefveit: at this place many remains of ancient hvers are to be feen.    Still further to the north, in Dale Sylfel, is a warm bath with fome fprings.   In Soling's Valley, and further on, near the farm Reyka-holer, in Reykianas, are many ftrong hvers ;  particularly three very large ones, the moft considerable of which is Krablanda.    From thence we came to the hot fprings of Flatdarna, Odds-biarmarfkar, and Drapfkar; and afterwards vifited thofe at Talkne-fiord, Ar-narfiord, and Ifa-fiord in Reyka-fiord, Where there is a ftrong fpouting fpring.
After
After we had paft Cape Nord, or the northern extremity of Iceland, we met with fome warm fprings at Reykar-fiord ; others, together with a fine bath, at Biarnar-fiord, near Kal-dadarna : at Hruta-fiorden there is a great hver calle Reike-hver, and another as large at Midfiorden, called Reixalaug. When you go from hence fouthward into the country, you will find a number of boiling fprings at H verevälle, three of which fpout the water high into the air with a prodigious noile ; ftill further to the fouth there is a hver near Gei t land's Jokul.
If we turn again to the north, we find hot fprings at Blanda, others near the haven at Skaga-Strand, and (lill more at a little diftance from thence at Skaga-fiordcn ; one of which falls from a rock thirty feet high. To the eaft there are hot fprings in many places of Vajdle Syffel, as at Olafs.fiordr, Langaland, Kriftnas, and Hrafnegil ; but in Thingo SylTel there are fprings of both forts (baths and hvers) in great number, andofconfider-able dimenfions.   The hvers in Reykia
Valley deferve to be particularly mentioned, amongll which Oxe and Bad-Itofu are the largeft.
On the ealt fide of the country there are no confiderable hvers, ihough warm fprings are to be found in Selar, Lau-garvalle, Rafukells, and Fliots valleys; and on the fouth, on Torfa Jokul, We then proceeded to Skallhok, where there are many fprings ; about a mile from thence the hvers, called Reikholt and Grafa, both which fpout very high. The next hver is Gey fer, which I (hall afterwards mention more mir nutely. Not far from this lad is Lau-gervatn, a fmall lake, round which a number of warm fprings may be ob^ ferved, and eight boiling ones. The road now leads us to the hvers at Oclves, which is thought to be the largell in all Iceland ; the moft remarkable of which are Gey fer and Bad-flofu.
Here is alfo a dry hver, from which water formerly proceeded, but now cmitsonly fleam through itsmouth; the heat of which however is fo great, that
a pot
a pot of water placed over the opening boils in a very fliorttime. We met with fpouting fprings at Krufcvik in Gullbringe SyfTel, the hver Eine, the hvers at Reikianas, and feveral at Langarnas in Kiofar Syflel.
From this lilt, which, however, is far from containing all the warm fprings in Iceland, you may judge* Sir, of the prodigious number that we met with. Near moft of them are warm baths, each of which merits a particular examination and defcription. Eggert Olafsen and Blame Paulfen have made very curious obfervations on feveral of them ; but I only beg leave to mention fome which I made at Gey fer, where is the largeft of all the fpouting-fprings in Iceland, or perhaps in the known world. Thefe obfervations were made the 21ft of September 1772, from fix o'clock in the morning till feven at night.
Among the hot fprings in Iceland, feveral of which bear the name of gey fer t there are none that can be compared with that which I am going
3 to
to dcfcribe, though the heft description will fall very fhort of it. It is about two clays journey from Heckla, not far from Skallhok, near a farm called Haukadal. Here a poet would have an opportunity of painting a picture of whatever Nature has of beautiful and terrible united, by delineating- one of its moft uncommon phenomena : it would be a fubject worthy the pen of a Thompfon to tranfport the reader, by poetical imagery, to thefpot which is here prefented to the eye. Reprefent to your-ielf a large field, where you fee on one fide, at a great diftance, high mountains covered with ice, whole fummits are generally wrapped up in clouds, fo that their (harp unequal points become invifible. This lofs however is compenfued by a certain wind, which caufes the clouds to fink, and cover the mountain itfelf, wheu its fummit appears as it were to reft upon the clouds. On the other fide, Heckla is feen, with its three points covered with ice, rifing above the clouds, and with the fmoke which afeends from it, forming other clouds at R fome
fome diffance from the real ones: and on another fide is a ridge of high rocks, at the foot of which boiling water from time to time gullies forth ; and further on extends a marfh of about half a mile in circumference, where are forty or fifty boiling fprings, from which a vapour afcends to a prodigious height.
In the midfl of thefe is the grcatcft fpring geyfer, which deferves a more exact and particular account. In travelling to the place, about a quarter of a mile from the hver. from which the ridge of rocks near it ftill divided us, we heard a loud roaring noife, like the milling of a torrent, precipitating itfelf from flupendous rocks. We afked our guide what it meant : He anfwered, it was geyfer roaring ; and we foon fa w with our naked eyes what before appeared almoft incredible.
The deepth of the opening or pipe from which die water guflies cannot well be determined ; for fometimes the water funk down feveral fathoms, and fome feconds palled before a ftone which was thrown into the aperture,
reached
reached the furface of the water. The opening itfelf was perfectly round, and nineteen feet in diameter; it ended above in a bafon which was fifty-nine feet in diameter ; both the pipe and the bafon were covered with a rough ftalaclic rind, which had been formed by the force of the water; the uttermoft border of the bafon is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itfelf.
The water here fpouted feveral times a day, but always by flarts, and after certain intervals. The people who lived in the neighbourhood told us, that they role higher in cold and bad weather than at other times ; and Eggert Olafsen and feveral others affirm, that it fpouted to the height of fixty fathoms. Moft probably they only gueffed by the eye, and on that account their calculation may be a little extravagant; and indeed I doubt that ever the water was thrown up fo high, though I am much inclined to believe, that it fometimes mounts higher than when we observed it.
R 2 I will
[   26o ]
I Will here infert an account, how high the water was thrown the clay that we were there, which I hope, will not be difagreeable to you. We obferved the height thus ; every one in company wrote down at each time that the water fpouted, how high it appeared to him to be thrown, and we afterwards chofe the medium. The firft column marks the fpoutings of the water, in the order in which they follow one another ; the fecond, the time when thefe effufions happened; the third, the height to which the water rofe ; and the laft, how long each fpouting of water continued.
N' Time.
1 At VI 42m.
2 -    5* -
3 VII   6 -
4 -    31 -
5 -    51 -
6 VIII 17 -
7 -   29 -
8 -    36 -
Height,
30 feet
6 -
6 -
12 -
60 -
24 -
18 -
12 -
Duration.
0 m.	20f.
0	2q
0	IO
0	
0	6
0	
0	40
0	40
	The
[   a6i ]
The pipe was now for the firft time full of water, which ran (lowly into the bafon.
N? Time. Height. Duration.
9    IX 25   -    48   -     i 10
iq X   l6      -       24     - i oo
XII 35 minutes we heard as it were three difcharges of a gun under ground, which made it fhake, the water immediately (lowed over, but funk again inltantly. II 8 the water flowed over the border of the bafon.
III 15 we again heard feveral
fubterraneous noifes, tho* not fo ftrong as before.
IV 43 the water flowed over
very ftrongly during a whole minute. 49 we again   heard many loud fubterraneous difcharges, not only near the fpring, but alio from the neighbouring ridge of rocks, where the water (pouted. Ii     VI 51   -    92   -     4 00 R 3 After
After this great effort, the water funk down very low into the pipe, and was entirely quiet during feveral minutes, hut it foon began to bubble again ; it was however not thrown up into the air, but only to the top of the pipe.
N'	Hours.	Min.	N*	Hours.	Min.
I	5	7	l8	5	42
2	5	9t	r9	5	43r
3	5	101 1	20	5	47
4	5		21	5	48^
5	5	14I	22	5	49
6	5	'7	23	5	
7	5	i 81	24	5	
8	5	2c|-	25	5	54
9	5		26	5	37t
10	5		27	5	59
11	5	27i	28	6	IQ
I 2	5	30^	29	6	19
13	5	3H	30	6	23
14	5	33t	3i	6	26
*5	5	35	32	6	29
16	5	36	33	6	3°
17	5	38			
The force of the vapours which throw up this water is excelfive ; it
not
not only prevents the flones which are thrown into the opening from finking, but even throws them up to a very great height, together with the water. I muft not forget to mention a very curious circumflance : when the bafon was full of water, we placed ourfelves before the fun in fuch a manner, that we could fee our fhadows in the water, every one obferved round the fhadow of his own head (though not round the heads of the others) a circle of almoft the fame colours which compote the rainbow, and round this another bright circle i this moft probably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from the water. I remember to have feen fomethintj fimilar to it when travelling in the fummer, particularly in the meadows, and it is fooneft obferved when riding on horfeback, or in a carriage, when you have your fhadow on one fide.
Not far from this place, another fpring at the foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks fpouted water to the height of one or two yards each time.
R 4 Np
	Hours.	Mia.		Hours.	Min.
i	a	45--	7	4	O
	3	47t--	8	4	3
'T	o	504.   — —	9	0	5*
4	o	53t--	10	0	8 i
5	o	55--	11	0	i 12-4
6	o	57!--	i 2	0	J4
The opening througli which this water ifllied was not ib wide as the o-her ; we imagined it polfible to flop up the hole entirely by throwing large ftones into it; and even flattered ourfelves that our attempt had fucccedcd, but to our great aftonifhmcnt the water gullied forth in a very violent manner, which fhews how little the weak efforts of man avail, when they endeavour to profcrihe bounds to the works of Nature. We haftencd to the pipe, and found all the ftones thrown alide, and the water playing freely through its former channel.
In thefe large fprings the waters were hot in the higheft degree, and tailed a little of fulphur, but in other refpects were pure and clear. In the fmaller fprings in the neighbourhood 2 the
the water was tainted ; in lbme it was as mnddy as that of a clay-pit, m others as white as milk ; and yet there-are a few fprings where the water forces itfelf through a fire underneath as red as blood.
I have already obferved, that near molt of thefe fprings and hvers there are baths, which are frequently vifited by the natives : there are alio in many places dry and fweating-baths. Eggert Olaisen mentions one of thefe baths at Huufevik, in North Iceland ; and I had the curiofity of feeing one of them at Thibfaarholt, not far from Skallhok, which confifted of a hut railed of earth, into which hot fleams arofé from many holes. Fahrenheit's thermometer, which was at 57 degrees in the open air, rofe to 03 in the hut whilft it was open, and when it was placed in one of the little openings the fleam arofe to 125.
LETTER
LETTER XXIL To ProfefFor Bergmann, Of the Pillars of Bafalt.
Stockholm, June 6, 1773.
AMONG the effefts of fire, fome of which are extremely dreadful, and all of them very extraordinary and remarkable, none have in latter times attracted more attention than thofe large regular pillars known by the name of Bafalts. There had formerly been hardly any places obferved in Europe, where this kind of ftone was found, the Giant's Caufeway excepted ; and the greater part of our mineralogifts have, if I am not miftaken, confidered them as a kind of chryftalization. Mr. Defmarets was the firft who maintained in a diflértation prefented to the French academy of feiences, that they were produced by fire, wherein he defcribed fome bafalts found near St.. Sandour in Auvergne.
2 This
This opinion at firft appeared almoft abfnrd to our natural hiftorians, as it was not believed that volcanos had ever been in thefe places where bafalt pillars were found.
This new dilcovery however occa-fioned a more exact enquiry concerning other places where thele pillars are met with. All thefe enquiries only ferved to confirm Mr. Defmarets's opinion, by proving that thefe bafalt pillars muft have been produced by fubterraneous fires.
There is no one furely will entertain the leaft doubt of a fubterraneous fire having formerly exifted where thefe pillars now ftand, as at Stolpenftein in Meiflen ; near Lauban in Lufatia; in Bohemia ; near Liegnitz in Silefia; near Brandau in Heffia; in Sicily; near Bolfenna, Montebello and St. Forio in Italy ; near St. Lucas in the diftrict of St. Vicenza ; near Monte Roftb in the Patinan diftrict, and Monte Diavolo in the mountains of Verona ; in Lower Languedoc; in Iceland, and in the weftern iflands of Scotland; which you,  Sir, have all
men-
mentioned in your Cofmography. Alio in St. Giovanni, Monte Caftello, Monte Nuovo, Monte Oliveto, near Cadair Idris in Wales, in England, almoft every where in Velay and Au-vergne, where whole towns, as Chil-lac and St. Flour, are built upon thefe pillars. But as this matter has not yet been fully invefligated, and it cannot be determined with certainty in what manner thefe pillars are formed, though they are known to be produced by fire, perhaps it will not be difagreeable to you, if I fay fomething of the many bafalt pillars in Iceland, as well as of thofe in the ifle of Staffa, which you will readily acknowledge to be more lingular than any thing Nature ever produced of this kind.
It is well known that thefe pillars are very common in Iceland, and fome account is alfo given of them in the Phyfical Defcription publiflied of the country. The lower fort of people i m agin e thefe pillars have been piled upon one another by the giants, who made ufe of fupernatural force to effect
k,
[ 2ÖQ ]
it, whence they have obtained the name of the Trolla-blaud Trollkonu-gardur in feveral places. They have generally from three to feven fides, and are from four to fix feet in thick-nefs, and from twelve to fixteen yards in length, without any horizontal divifions. But fometimes they are only from fix inches to one foot in height, and they are then very regular, as thofe at Videy, which are made life of for windows and door-polls. In fome places they only peep out of the mountains here and there among the lava, or Hill oftener among tuffa ; in other places they are quite overthrown, and only pieces of broken pillars appear. Sometimes again they extend two or three miles in length without interruption. In the mountain called Glockenberg in Snefialdf-nas, this kind of ftone appears in a manner very different from any other place in Iceland ; for on the top the pillars lie quite horizontally, in the middle they are (loping, and the loweft are perfectly perpendicular ; in fome places they are bent as a femi-
circle,
L 27o ]
circle, which proves a very violent effecT: of the fire on the pillars already Handing, as in moft places, or at lead in a great many, they are intirely perpendicular, and by their form and fituation, that they have even been burnt in a perpendicular direction.
As to the matter of which the Icelandic bafalts are compofed, it is ill fome places fimilar to that of which the pillars at Staffa confilt, though irt others it is more porous, and inclines more to grey. And who knows, if an attentive and curious naturalift, who had both time and talents requi-fite for fuch an undertaking, might not eafily trace all the gradations between the coarfeft lava and the flneft pillar of bafalt ? I myiclf faw fome of this laft fort at Videy, which were folid, of a blackifli grey, and compofed of feveral joints. And not far from thence, at Langarnas, near the fea-fliore, I faw a porous glaify kind of ftone, conlequently lava, but was fo indittinctly divided, that I was a long time undetermined, whether ( fhpuld conlider it as pillars or not;
but
but at length the reft of the company* as well as myfelf, were perfuaded that they really were fuch. But I will poftpone the examination of the matter of which thefe pillars con lift, and of the manner in which they are formed, till fuch time as I have given you the promifed defcription of the ille of Staffa.
A piece of good fortune procured us the pleafure of being the firft who ever examined thefe wonders of Nature with an attentive eye. Among all thofe who have publifhed defcrip-tions of Scotland, there are none except Buchanan, whofe account, however, is Very imperfect, that mentions a fingle fyllable of thefe pillars. Mr. Pennant, an indefatigable and experienced naturalift, in the fame year that we viiited this ifland, made a tour to Scotland to examine the natural productions of that country, but was prevented by a contrary wind from going to Staffa. Mofl probably we fhould not have come there neither, if the ufual ebb and flood, which is very
ftrong
ftrong between the weftern iflands of Scotland, had not forced us in our way to Iceland, on the twelfth of Auguft in the night, to caft anchor in the Sound, between the Hie of Mull and Morvern on the Continent, exactly oppofite to Drumnen, the feat of Mr. Maclean. We were immediately invited to land, and breakfafted there, with that hofpitality which characlcriies the inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland. Mr. Leach, another gueft of Mr. Maclean, gave us many particulars of thefe pillars, which he had vifited a few days before. Mr. Banks's delire of information could not refill the offer of this gentleman to accompany us to Staffa ; we therefore went on board our long-boat the fame day, and arrived there at nine o'clock in the evening. It was impolfible for our furprize to be increaled, or our curiofity to be fuller gratified, than they were the next morning when we beheld the no lefs than beautiful fpec-tacle which Nature prefented to our view.
if
[ }
If we even with admiration behold art, according to the rules prefcribed to it, obferving a certain kind of order, which not only llrikes the eye, but alfo pleafes it ; what mull be the effect produced upon us when we behold Nature difplaying as it were a regularity which far furpaflcd ever}' thing art ever produced! An attentive fpectator will find as much occa-lion for wonder and #flonifhment, when he obfervcs how infinitely fhort human wifdom appears, when we attempt to imitate Nature in this as well as in any other of her grand and awful productions. And though we acknowledge Nature to be the miftrels of all the arts, and afcribe a greater degree of perfection to them, the nearer they approach and imitate it, yet we fometimes imagine that fhe might be improved, according to the rules of architecture.
How magnificent are the remains we have of the porticos of the antients! and with what admiration do wc behold the colonnades which adorn the principal buildings of our times J and
B yet
yet every one who compares them with Fingal's Cave, formed by Nature in the iflc of Staffa, muft readily acknowledge, that this piece of Nature's architecture far furpaffes every thing that invention, luxury, and tafte ever produced among the Greeks.
The ifland of* Staffa lies weft of Mull, three miles N. E. of Jona or Columb-Kill, and is about a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth : it belongs to Mr.Lauchlan Mac-Qiiarie. On the weft fide of the ifland is a fmall cave, where there is a very convenient landing place, but where no regular bafalt figures are to be met with. To the fouth of this cave are fome narrow pillars, which, inftead of Handing upright, are all inclined, and look like fo many pieces of an arch.    Further on
* Mr. Banks's account of this ifland, as communicate J by that intelligent gentleman to Mr. Pennant, and inferted in his Tour in Scotland, and Voyage to the Hebrides in 1772, is too curious to be omitted, as it is not only very interefting in itfelf, but is an undeniable proof of the accuracy and fidelity with which our author, Dr. Troil, has treated of the various fub-jedts contained in this publication :—the Editor deems it therefore unncceflary to apologize for fubjoining aa extiatt of it to this letter.
you
you leave a fmall grotto on your right hand, which is not compofed of pillars, tho* they appear more diftinctly and larger above it, and in one place refemble the interior timberrwork of a (hip. Directly oppoiite to it, only a few yards diftant, is the peninfula of Bo-lcha-la, which entirely confifts of regular though lefs pillars, that are all of a conical figure. Some of them lie-horizontally, others incline as it were to the central point, as to the upper end, but the greater number are perfectly perpendicular. The ifland itfelf, oppofite to Bo-fcha-la, confifts of thick columns or pillars, which are not however very high, as they gradually clecreafe in approaching to the water, and extend into the lea as far as the eye can reach. You may walk upon thefe with great eafe, as from one ltep of a ftair-cafe to another, till you come to fingal's, or more properly fpcaking, to Fiuhn Mac CouPs grotto or cave, which enters into the mountain from N.E. to E.
This cave confifts of very regular pillars, which to a great extent on S 2 both
both fides, and in the mofl interior part, fupport an arched vault, compofed of the obtufe points of pillars crouded clofe together.   The bottom of the cave, which is filled with clear frefli water feveral feet in depth, is likewife   covered   with innumerable pieces of pillars, which compofe its floor.     The colour of the pillars is of a blackifh grey ; but between the joints there is a yellow ftalactic quarry rind exhaled, which fer ves to make thefe divilions more diflinct, and produces an agreeable effect to the eye, by the many different modulations of colour.     It is fo light   within the cave, ; that   one can diftinguifli the innermoft range of pillars perfectly well from without*   The air in it is very pure and good, as it is.conftantly changed by the riling and falling of* the water during the tide.    Very far into the cave there is a hole in the rock, fome w hat lower than the fur-face of the water {landing in it, which makes a pleafing kind of noife on every flux and reflux of the tides, One may walk in moft parts of the
cave
cave on the broken points of fome pillars riling above the fur face of the water, but it is moil convenient to go in a boat. We made the following meafurcmeuts of the cave :
F.   1.1 F. I.
The length, from the farthefl of the bafalt pillars, which from the fhore formed a canal to [.371 6
the cave,       -     - 121
From the commencement of the vault to the end of the cave, 250
The breadth of its entrance,   53 7
Of the interior end, 20 o
The height of the vault at the entrance of the cave, 117 6
Of ditto, at the interior end,    70 o
The height of the outermoft pillar in one corner,       - 396
The height of another, in the north-weft corner, - 54 o
The depth of the water at entrance, - - 180
Of the infide end,       - 90 S 3 Above
[     2/8 'J
Above the cave was a ftratum of a ftone mixed with pieces of bafalt. We made the following meafurements ;
F. I.
From the water to die foot of the pillars, - -       36 8
Height of the pillars,       -      32 6 Height of the arch or vault above the top of the pillars, 31 4
The ftratum, above this, 34 4
From hence, a little farther north-weft, we met with the largeft pillars which are to be found in the whole ifland* The place on which they flood was likewife quite free, fo that we were enabled to examine it. Hie following was the refult of our meafurc-ment :
The weftern corner of FingaPs Cave:
1. From the water to the
foot of the pillars, - 12 10
2. Height of the pillars,       37 3
3. The ftratum above them, 66 o Farther wellward :
i. The ftratum beneath the pillars, - - ii o
5. Height of the pillars, 54 o 3. The ftratum above, 61 6
Still
Still more well ward :          F. I.
1. Stratum beneath the pillars,          -          -       -       17 £
2. Height of the pillars,       50 o
3. The ftratum above them 51 1 Still more to the weft :
1. Stratum beneath the pillars, - -      -       19 8
2. Height of the pillars,        55 r
3. The ftratum above, 54 7 The ftratum beneath the pillars here
mentioned, is evidently tuffa, which had been heated by lire, and feems to be interlarded, as' it were, with fmall bits of bafalt ; and the red or ftratum above the pillars, in which large pieces of pillars are fometimes found irregularly thrown together, and in unea-qual directions, is evidently nothing elfe but lava. Though a prodigious degree of fire muft formerly have been requilite to produce this upper ftratum, yet there are not the leaft traces in its exterior, the pillars having been removed by it, lor the whole enormous mafs refts upon them.
When you move farther on, and pal's the northern fide of the iiland, S 4 you
you come to Corvorant's Cave, wheftf the bed beneath tlic pillars is railed, and the pillars themfelves decreafe in height: they are, however, tole rably diftinct, till you are pall a bay which extends very far into the country* on the lide of which the pillars entirely dl&ppear* The mountains here confift of a dark brown ftone, of which I cannot affirm with certainty whether it is lava or not, and where not the leaft regularity is to be obferved ; but as loon as you pafs the fouth-eaft fide of the ifland, the flones begin again to affume a regular figure, though fo gradually, that it is fcarcely perceptible at firft, till at laft, the regular and crooked pillars again appear with which I began my defcription.
The pillars have from three to feven fides, but the greater number have five or fix, and fo crouded together, that a heptagonal pillar is furrounded with feven others, which join clofely to its feven fides. In fome places, however, there are little infignificant openings, but they are filled  up with quarz,
which
[   i8i ]
Xvliich in one place had even made its Way through a number of pillars, though without in the leafl deflroying their regularity. The pillars confift of many joints or pieces, of about a foot in height, which fo exactly fit Upon one another, that it is difficult to introduce a knife between the in-terftices. The upper piece was generally concave, fometimes fiat, and rarely convex ; if the upper joint was flat, the loweft was fo likewife, but when it was excavated, the lower one was rounded and reverfed.
The fides of the pillars are not all equally broad. The following measurements were taken of four pillars ;
N° I. with 4 fides. F. I.
ilt fide Diameter i 5
nd          - - i r
3d          - - 16
4th          - - ii
N° II. with 5 fides.
i ft fide Diameter 1 10
2d          - - r 10
3d          - - 15
4th - i 7-i
yth         - h - 18
N° III.
t    2$Z )
f. r.
N° III. with 6 fides.
i fl: fide Diameter o IO
2d          - - 22
3d          - - 22
4th          - - rir
5th          - * 22
6th         - - 2 9
N° IV. with 7 fides.
i A fide Diameter 2 to
2d          - - 24
3d           - - i 10
4th          - - 20
5th          - - II
6th         - i 6
7th         - - 13
The pillars are all over as fmooth, and as fliarp cornered as thofe of the Giant's Catifeway ; their colours are generally black, though the external fides fometimes incline to yellow, as their furfaces are bleached by the weather. As to their grain and fubllance, they intirely refenible, and are mofl probably the fame original fubllance as the Icelandic agate. As 1 have nothing remaining of it, I cannot examine
amine what effect borax and other alloys, or aqua-fortis, and the like, would have upon it: what is the nature of its proper gravity, and what polifli it will admit of> it would, not-withftanding, be ufeful to be informed of in order to compare it with funilar kinds of flonefrom other parts.
But in what manner have thefe regular pillars been produced ? It is the received opinion that the fire has been acceflary to it: you have yourfelf remarked, Sir, that it muft cither have been a matter which had been melted by fire, and burft afterwards, and that then a liquid, which we are yet unacquainted with, muft have produced their regularcryftaline figures; or elicit muft have been, as you have like-wife obferved, a kind of earth, which, after having been ibftened by the exhalations arifing from a fubterraneous fire, its whole mals was forced out of its fituation, and affumed this regular form as it grew dry. I have noticed this diftincr. and regular appearance in dried clay, and even in ftarch when dried in a cup or bafon.
For
For it may be demonit rated that they are not cry (tals formed by Nature, by their not being produced as all other cryftals are, by external apportion (per appo-fitiouem) nor in any other matrix, as is common among cryttals.
It would be very difficult to determine whether the matter of which thefe prilmatic pillars confift, burlt into thefe regular forms after it was melted, and was growing cold, or w hi lit it was drying, as you feem inclined to believe : I cannot deny that my eyes have prcpoflcfted me in favour of the firft opinion, in all thofe places where I have feen any of thefe pillars ; but as fo many objections may be offered againft this opinion, lam obliged to leave the matter undetermined. Tne following may, however, ferve as a proof, that I did not, without due foundation, believe them to be a kind of lava, which burlt in growing cold and hard. Firft, you find both in the ifland of Staria and many other places, that the pillars ftand on lava or tuffa, and arc furrounded by this matter.
Secondly,
[ m ]
Secondly, at StafTa, there was a large ftratum above the pillars, in which there were many pieces of thefe pillars irregularly thrown among one another, which leaves us to conjecture that they mult have been more in number, and higher after an old eruption of lire, but that a fubfequcnt eruption had overthrown them, and mixed them with the whole mafs. Thirdly, we found one of thefe pillars, on breaking it, full of drops, almoft like a lacfile or dripping {lone ; and none furely will pretend a bal alt to be of fuch a composition. Fourthly, I have formerly laid, that the pillars in fome places refcmble the iniide timber-work of a (hip ; that is to fay, thefe pillars which moft probably were quite ftrait at firft, in falling received this crooked inclination ; nor were it alone the joints of the outermoft or lowefl fide which warped a little, but each ftone was bent fingly. Fifthly, we found on the fhore at Hi lira, near Skallhok, a piece of bafalt, with a piece of glafs flicking in it, in the lame manner as granatc formed cryftals are found in the 5 bafalts
bafalts at Bohemia, which are like thofe that abound in the lava of Iceland and Italy. And laflly, a kind of ftone near Langarnas in Iceland, which was much coarfer, and more glalTy than the common bafalts, and evidently was lava burft into polyedrous and regular figures, though not quite fo regular as the above-mentioned pillars.
What I have here faid, might eafily induce one to imagine that the balalt, after having been melted, and was grown again, had been burft into fuch pillars. But two objections, which you raife againft this opinion, are difficult to be removed. Firft, this matter melts fb eafily, that it becomes glafs without difficulty, before the blow-pipe for allaying, whence it feems that this mafs muft neceflarily have been chanoed to edafs, if it had been expofed to fo great a fire as that of an eruption. But may one fafely judge of an experiment made in miniature before the blow-pipe of the workings of Nature at large? Might not, perhaps, an addition we are unacquainted With, have prevented the
mals
mafs from becoming glafs, and caufe it to break into thefe regular figures, though we cannot now determine wherein this addition confuted? Secondly, we find that the trapp* in Weft-Gothland, which both in appearance and fubllance fo much refemhie bafalts, though it does not form itfelf into pillars, (lands on flate ; and how could this trapp have been formed by the fire, without, at the fame time, kindling the bed, which is of fo combuftible a nature ? But (hould not, perhaps, the fire be able to form the trapp into pillars ? Perhaps all bafalt pillars may have been a mafs of trapp in the in-fide of the earth, which, having been, liquified during an eruption, was thrown up, and fplit into pillars ? But, Sir, I fear to fatigue you with my conjectures and queftions; it would, however, be very agreeable to me and other naturalifts, if you would kindly communicate to us your thoughts on this fubjecl:. This would, no doubt, enable us to judge with more certainty
# A kind of ftone in Linn. Syft. Nat. Mineralogy.
Of
of bafalts, which at prefent engages the attention of the curious in general, and all naturalifls in particular.
ACCOUNT of the Ifland of STAFFA,
communicated
By JOSEPH BANKS, Esq.
T N the found of Mull wc came to anchor (Auguft * 12, 1772) on the Morvern fide, oppofite toa gentleman's houie called Drumncn : the owner of it, Mr. Macleane, having found out who we were, very cordially afked us afhore, : wc accepted his invitation, and arrived at his houfe; where we met an Englifh gentleman, Mr. Leach, who no fooner faw us, than he told us, that about nine leagues from us was an ifland, where he believed no one even in the highlands had been, on which were pillars like thofe of the Giant's Caufeway : this was a great object to me who had wifhed to have feen the caufeway itfelf, would time have allowed : I therefore refulved to proceed directly, especially as it was juft in the way to the Columb-kill ; accordingly having put up two days provisions, and my little tent, we put off in the boat about one o'clock for our intended voyage, having ordered the fhip to wait for us in Tobir-more, a very fine harbour on the Mull lide.
At nine o'clock, after a tedious paflage, having had not a breath of wind, we arrived,, under the direction of Mr. Matleane's fon and Mr. Leach. It was too dark to fee any tiling, fo we carried our tent and baggage near the only houfe upon the ifland, and began to cook our fuppers, in order to be prepared for the carlieft dawn, to enjoy that which from the converfa-
tion of the gentlemen we had now raifed the higheft expectations of.
The: impatience which every body felt to fee the wonders we had heard fo largely defcribed, prevented our morning's reft; every one was up and in motion before the break of day, and with the firft light arrived at the S. W. part of the ifland, the feat of the moft remarkable pillars ; where we no fooner arrived, than we were ftruek with a fcene of magnificence which exceeded our expectations, though formed, as we thought, upon the molt fangtrioe foundations; the whole of that end of the ifland Supported by i anges of natural pillars, moftly above fifty feet high, Handing in natural colonades, according as the bays or points ot land formed themfelves: upon a firm bafis of folid unformed rock, above thefe, the ftratum, which reaches to the foil or Surface of the ifland, varied in thicknefs, as the ifland itfelf formed into hills or vallies ; each hill, .which hung over the columns below, forming an ample pediment; fome of thefe above fixty feet in thicknefs, from the bafe to the point, formed by the doping of the hiii on each fide, almoft into the fhape of thofe ufed in architecture.
Wc proceeded along the fhore, treading upon another Giant's Caufeway, every ftone being regularly formed into a certain number of fides and angles, till in a fhort time we arrived at the mouth of a cave, the moft magnificent, I fuppofe, that has ever been defcribed by travellers.
The mind can hardly form an idea more magnificent than fuch a fpace, fuppoi ted on each fide by ranges of columns ; and roofed by the bottoms of thofe, which have been broke off in order to form it ; between the angles of which a yellow ftalagmuic matter has exuded, which lerves to define the aivjles prc-cifely, and at the fame time vary the colour with a great deal of elegance; and to render it ftiil more agreeable, tne whole is lighted from without ; fo that the fartheft extremity is very plainly icen from without, and the air within being agitated by the fiux and T reflux
reflux of the tides, is perfectly dry and wholeforne, free entirely from the damp vapours with which natural caverns in general abound.
We afked the name of it; faid our guide, The cave of Fiuhn: what is Fiuhn ? faid we. Fiuhn Mac Coul, whom t'he tranflator of Oflian's works has called Fingal. How fortunate that in this cave we fhould meet with the remembrance of that chief, whofe exiftence, as well as that of the whole epic poem, is almoft doubted in England !
Enough for the beauties of Staffa ; i fhall now proceed to defcribe it and its productions more philosophically.
The little ifland of Staffa Hes on the weft coaft of Mull, about three leagues N. E. from Jona, or the Columb-Kill : its greateft length is about an Engiifh mile, and its breadth about half a one. On the weft-fide of the ifland is a fmall bay, where boats generally land: a little to the fouthwafd of which the firft appearance of pillars are to be obferved ; they are fmall, and inftead of being placed upright, lie down on their fides, each forming a fegment of a circle : from thence you pafs a fmall cave, above which, the pillars now grown a little larger, are inclining in all directions: in one place in particular a fmall mafs of them very much refemble the ribs of a fhip : from hence having pafled the cave, which if it is not low water, you muft do in a boat, you come to the firft ranges of pillars, which are ftill not above half as large as thofe a little beyond. Over againft this place is a fmall ifland, calkd in Erfe Boo-Jba-/a, fcparated from the main by a channel not many fathoms wide : this whole ifland is compofed of pillars without any ftratum above them; they are ftill fmall, but by much the neateft formed of any about the place.
The firft divifion of the ifland, for at high water it is divided into two, makes a kind of a cone, the pillars converging together towards the centre : on the other, they are in general laid down flat; and in the front next to the main, you fee how beautifully
they are packed together ; their ends coming out fquare with the bank which they form : all thele have their tranfveife fedtions exact, and their fui faces f mouth, which is by no means the cafe with the large ones, which are cracked in all directions. 1 much queftion, however, if any one of this whole ifland of Boo-lha-la is two feet in diameter.
The main ifland oppofite to Boo-fha-la, and farther towards the N. W. is fupported by ranges of pillars pretty erect, and though not tall (as they are not uncovered to the bafe) of large diameters ; and at their feet is an irregular pavement, made by the upper fides of fuch as have been broken off, which extends as far under water as the eye can reach. Here the forms of the pillars are apparent; thefe are of three, four, five, fix, and feven fides; but the numbers of five and fix are much the mofl: prevalent. The largeft I meafured was of feven ; it was four feet five inches in diameter*. The furfaces of the large pillars in general are rough and uneven, full of cracks in all directions ; the tranfveife figures in the uptight ones never tail to run 'm their true directions: the fuifacts upon which we walked were often flat, having neither concavity nor convexity ; the larger number however were concave, though fome were very evidently convex : in fome places the interftices within the perpendicular figures Were filled up with a yellow fpar ; in one place a vein jpafTed in among the mafs of pillars, carrying here and there fmall threads of fpar. Though they weie broken, and cracked through and through in all directions, yet their perpendicular figures might ei^ly be traced: from whence it is cafy to infer, that whatever the accident might have been that caufed the dillocation, it happened after the formation of the pillars.
* As Mr. Banks's meafurement and dimcnfions of thefe and other remarkable pillat s, and of J-inmats lave, agree even to a fingle figure with thole given by oui accurate Author in pages 277, 278, 279, 281, of this work, the repetition of them would have been ufelefs ; for which realon they are omitted.
T 2 From
From hence, proceeding along more, you arrive at Fingal's Cave, which runs into a rock in the direction ot N. E. by E, by the compafs.
Proceeding farther to the N. W. you meet with the higheft range of pillars, the magnificent appearance of which is paft all defcription : here they are bare to their very bads; and the ftratum below them is alfo vifible: in a fhort time it rifes many feet above the water, and gives an opportunity of examining its quality. Its furface is rough, and has often large lumps of ftone flicking to it, as If half immerfed; itfelf, when broken, is compofed of a thoufand heterogeneous parts, which together have very much the appearance of a lava ; and the more fo, as many of the lumps appear to be of the very fame ftone of which the pillars are formed : this whole ftratum lies in an inclined pofition, dipping gradually towards the S. E. Hereabouts is the fituation of the higheft pillars. The ftratum above them is uniformly the farne, confiding of numberlefs fmall pillars, bending and inclining in all directions, fometimes fo irregularly, that the ftones can only be faid to have an inclination to affume a columnar form ; in others more regular, but never breaking into, or difturbing the ftratum of large pillars, whofe tops every where keep an uniform and regular line.
Proceeding now along fhore round the North end of the ifland, you arrive at Ona na/carve, or The Corvo-rant's Cave : here the ftratum under the pillars Is lifted up very high ; the pillars above it are considerably lefs than thofe at the N. W. end of the ifland, but ftill very confiderable. Beyond is a bay, which cuts deep into the ifland, rendering it in that place not more than, a quarter of a mile over. On the fides of this bay, efpecially beyond a little valley, which almoft cuts the ifland into two, are two ftages of pillars, but fmall j however, having a ftratum between them exactly the fame as that above them, formed of innumerable little pillars, Shaken out of their places, and leaning in all dircclioi s.
Having
Having pafltd this bay, the pillars totally ceafe ! the rock is of a dark-brown ftone, and no figns of regularity occur till you have palled round the S. E, end of the iiland (a fpace almoft as large asthatoccu^ pied by the pillars) which you meet again on the weft fide, beginning to form themfelves irregularly, as if the ftnuum had an inclination to that form, and foon arrive at the bending pillars where I began.
The ftone of which the pillars are formed, is a coarfe kind of bafaltcs very much rcfembling the Giant's Caufeway in Ireland, though none of them are near fo neat as the fpecirnens of the latter, which I have fecn at the Britifh Mufeum, owing chiefly to the colour, which in ours is a dirty brown, in the Irifh a fine black : indeed the whole production feems very much to refemble the Giant's Caufeway, with which I fliould willingly compare it, had I any account of the former before me.
Thus much we have taken from Mr. Banks's ac~ potfnt of the ifland of Staffa—which Mr. Pennant allures the public in a note to his tour in Scotland (p. 269.) was copied from his Journal; concluding in thefe words : " I take the liberty of faying (what " by this time that gentleman, meaning Mr. Banks, " is well acquainted with) that Staffa is a genuine " mafs of b-faltes, or Giant's Caufeway; but in 14 in moft réfpeSi fu peri or to the Irifh in; grandeur,"
We think Mr. Pennant might have fpared his reul r this information, as Mr. Hanks in his account informs us, that it is a Giant's Caufeway formed of coarfe bafajres.
h E T-
LETTER XXIII. From Chevalier Ihre to Dr. Troil,
Concerning the Edda,
S I R,
CCORD1NG to your requeft, I
l \ fend you an anfwer to the objections made by Mr.Schloczer again It my opinion of the Edda, which, together with a tranflation of my letter to Mr. Lagerbring, on the fubject of a manu-fcript.of the Icelandic Edda, is, as you know, inferted in that gentleman's Icelandic hiflory.
It gives me great pleafure to find that my thoughts on thefe fubjects have been examined by men of learning in Germany, by which means a number of falle notions which had been formed on the fubjeft and de-fign of this book have been removed; and I am very happy to receive any ob-
Upfdla, Oct. i, 1776.
jections which may tend to convince me that I have been miftaken.
Though I now refume the pen, it is not (b much with any immediate dcfign to refute thofe objections which have been made agaimtme, as to give thofe accounts and explanations which have been required of me, and which I think myfelf more capable of doing than any other perfon, as I can command the codex, whenever I think proper. Mr. Schloczer and I propofe the fame end to ourfelves, namely, the inveftigation of truth.
Mr. Schioczer's firft objection is, that I have not given a complete de-fcription of the manufcript, its fize, &;c. He is perfectly right in this point, and I will briefly endeavour to repair this difficulty ; but firft, I muft obferve a diplomatic description was not fo much required in that letter, as I had directed my attention more to the contents of the book than its external appearance,
I intended to fhew what was the view of die author of the Eckla in compofmg this work, what parts belonged to it, and which did not, where-T 4 in
t  »9< 1
in our manufcript differed from Refe* Bius's pditiotif whence the book had obtained   ie name of Eddee, &c. ccc. and its diplomadcal defcriptions would have afforded no information in any of thefe articles.    This letter was befides not addrellcd to any foreign man of learning, but to one of my learned countrymen, well verfed in ancient literature,   who had  frequently had this manufcript in his own hands, and examined it, and was perhaps better acquainted with it than myfelf. It would have been very fuperfhious to tell him, it was written in antient characters, in the Icelandic language, on parchment.
But to oblige Mr. Schloczer, and perhaps many others, I will inform them that this codex, as I faid before, is written upon parchment, the colour of which is dark brown, which may proceed partly from its old age, and partly perhaps from its having been long kept and made ufe of in the Icelandic frnokey rooms. It is in Very good prelérvation, and in general legible.    It is true,  there are
fome
fome round holes in the parchment, but thefe feem to have been there at firft, as no part of the text is loft by them. The ilze is a fmall quarto, one finger in thicknefs, containing fifty-four leaves and a half, or one hundred and nine pages, befides a white leaf before, and one behind, on which there are, however, fome bad figures, of which thefe on the firft reprefent Gangleri, with Herjafuhar and Thridi, who refolve queftions. The characters are old, and when compared with many others, feem to prove, that the copier lived about the beginning of the fourteenth century. But all this is of very little importance. Mr. Schloczer believes his fnbfequent queftions may give more light in fettling the principal point, as they tend to difcover who was the author of the Edda, and what really belongs to it.
He is therefore more curious to know what is contained in this codex. Mr. Schloczer believes he has fo much more reafon for putting this queftion, as I myfelf have hinted, that befides Demifagor, Koeninggar, and Liodf-2 greinir,
griemir, it contained a lift of Icelandic lagmen,and a langfedgatal or genealogy of Sturkfon's anceftors.   He therefore delires to know if this codex is not a magazine of all kinds of Icelandic works, which have been accidentally collected into one volume, and bound together ?   I anfwer to this, if the cafe were thus,  Mr. Schloczer might have expected from a man who acted with candour and fome knowledge of the matter before him, that he would not. have omitted this circumllance. I therefore now declare that there is nothing elfe  in it,   but what has already been mentioned ; unlefs I add, that p. 92 and 93, after the author has defcribed the general rules of poetry, and the nature of letters, and the copier has left half a blank page before he writes the names of all the different forts of verfification n fed in the Icelandic    poetry,    another   hand has patched in a fleganographical writing, of which I did not know what to make during   a long time, and indeed I did not take great pains to decypher it.
I will,
I will however give a fpecimen of it: dfxtfrb fcrkptprks bfnfdktb Jkt ptnnk-bxs bprks. As 1 was reading in Vanly's Bibliotheca Anglo Saxonica, I accidentally met with a fimilar collection of con-fonants, with a key affixed to it, which {hewed that the whole fecret confifted in placing, inftead of each Vowel, that conibnant which in the alphabet fol-» lowed next to it; alio inftead of a, e, i, o, u, v, the letters b, fy k, p, x, z, were put; and according to this rule the afore-mentioned riddle flgnified, Dextera fcriptoris bcnedicfta fit omnibus horis.
I afterwards found the fame kind of fteganography mentioned in a little work afcribed to Rhrabanus Maurus, under the title of De Inventione Lit-terarum, and which is fo celebrated on account of the proof contained in it of the runes of the Marcomans. After letters became more univerfally known among the people, the fubtle Monks however, defirous of knowing fomething which the vulgar were unacquainted with, invented various mylterious ways of writing in this
man-
manner, which they not only make ufe of among themfelves, but introduced in their public writings. This tafte met with admirers among our nnceflors in Sweden, and thence we find fo many kinds of what are called vittrunes, which were unintelligible to the vulgar. See in Bautil, N° 25, 205, 331, 36r, 539, 568, 571, 572, 581, 648, 748, 767, 8r7, 819, 822, iooi, 1088, and many more in Vormius. Perhaps what we call among us helfinge runes, have alfo no other origin, as the greater part of them only differ from the common runes, by having the ftaff taken away. It is however remarkable that our gravers of runes even made ufe of this cryptographys in monuments erected to the memory and honour of the de-ceafed.
It is further afked, if there are any external or internal traces of the copier having confidered all the above-mentioned pieces, or at leaft the three firft parts as a connected work ?
The anfwer to this may be found in the title of the book, which is at length
in
[    30I ]
in the Goranfon edition, and runs thus :
Bok thefli heiter Edda. Henne hever fam fetta Snorri Sturlo f. epter theim hælti, fem her er fhipat. En fyrft fra Afum ok ymi; tharnaeft fkalld fkapar mal ok heiti marga hluta. Sidaz hættartal, er Snorri hever ort um Hakon k. ok Skula Hertugi ; that is, This book is called Edda ; and has been compofed by Snorre Stuilefon, in the manner it now ftands : viz. firft: of the afes and ymi, afterwards the language of poetry, and its appellations of various things. Laftly, a differtation of the verilfications Snorre made upon king Hakan and duke Skule.
I mentioned in my letter to Mr. Lagerbring, that the Rubric was written in a later hand ; which is right fo far as has been added after the Edcla itfelf was begun, which may be feen by the narrow fpace left for it, fo that it has forced the copier to bring the laft line into that immediately preceding it. Befides, I clearly   perceived   that   the manu-
fcript
fcript was very old, and that no reafon able eye-witnets could believe it Was written in 1541, as Mr. Schloczer conjectures. But as it had been been written with red ink, which had prefervecl its colour better than the black, I then believed the hand had been fomewhat younger ; but as I have now very minutely compared the writing-in the Rubric with that of the Edda, I think I may fafely affirm, that they are both written by one and the fame hand. From hence it follows, that he who copied the Edda confidered the above-mentioned articles, and no others, as effential parts of it.
I am come to the principal cjueition, whether Sturlefon is the author of the Edda ? Here Mr. Schloczer feems to have taken moll pains, to prevent me from deceiving the learned world in this point.
Becaufe Mr. Schloczer has found that moft antiquarians exprefs themlelves with a kind of circumfpecYion when they fpeak of the Edcia and its author, and inftead of pofitively declaring 3 St uric-
Sturlefon the author, as Arngrim and fome others have done ; only lay, Cre* ditur, exiftimatur auctor fuiffe: that is, he believes the matter to be at leaft dubious, if not totally groundless.
I will not infill upon it, thar there is at leaft more affirmation than negation in thefe expreifions, efpecially as it is ufual, on mentioning an evidently falfe opinion, to add, f alio creditur, or fomething fimilar. For Mr. Schloczer himfelf remarks very judicioufly, that the opinion of theié men is of very little importance, when they alledge no grounds for it. He therefore believes himfelf entitled to maintain with certainty, that Sturlefon has falfely been thought the author of the Edda. To iupport his opinion, he mentions three arguments in different places, which I mult now examine more clofely.
The firft argument is to be met with in p. 39, where Mr. Schloczer fubmits it to consideration, whether the ferious Snorre, overcharged with flate affairs, could be fuppofed to have had time, and did not think it beneath his dignity
liity to write Aerarium poeticum, and become the predeceffor of Weinreich? Here I will only obferve, that Snorre was not conftantly lagman, and that he might have compiled this work before he obtained this dignity, or in the interval between the firft and fecond adminiftration of this confidera-ble charge; and laftly, even in its vacancies. Neither Mr. Schloczer nor I are able to determine how much time the management of a lagman's office requires. They hold feveral yearly court-days or affizes, after which I have always underftood that they are entirely free and difengaged ; fo that I may fairly infer that the lagmen are not troubled with the examination of tedious records, or are employed in any extraordinary works. We find many Icelandic lagmen who have been poets laureats in Sweden and Norway, as Marcus Skaggafon, Sturle Thordarfon, and others. If Mr. Schloczer*s argument was conclufive, he might go ftill farther, and prove, that Sturlefon could neither have written the Heimfkringla, or hiftory of the northern kings, which required ten times
more
[    3°5 ]
more time, and more laborious cUf* quifitions, than the Edda.
Mr. Schloczer founds his fecond argument on his believing it incre* diblé, that any one in the golden age of poetry in Iceland fhould pre^ fume to advance fuch ablurd things as I have done in my letter. He therefore believes the Edda to be a production of later times, when poetry was in its decline in Iceland.
To undcrftand the whole force of this argument, it muft be known, that Mr. Schloczer divides the Icelandic literature into three periods; the fimpler period, from the beginning to the introduction of Chriftianity ; the golden period, from the introduction of Chriftianity to the clofe of the thirr teenth century, when the black death or the great plague, as well as the fub-jectionof the Icelanders to the crown of Norway, checked the progefs of poetry ; and the laft, from that period to the prefent. I will not ftrictly examine thisdivi-fton, tho* I cannot comprehend that the y intro*
introduction of Chriflianity could contribute to the improvement of poetry ; and ftill lels, if the digcr-deatb, which raged in the middle of the fourteenth century, produced the fame effect on the furviving poets, as on the cultivation of the country and its population. But this I am clear of, that any one who would attempt to clafs the Icelandic poets with any degreeof certainty, mufi be perfectly well acquainted with their language, and be able to weigh the faculties of their minds againlt each other.
It fignifies very little under what particular dynafty the poetry of the Chinefe moll flourillied, fo long as we are able to nnderlland their poems without tiie alliflance of an interpreter.
As to the pafiages of Icelandic poets, which I have quoted in different places, they prove not a tittle of what Mr. Schloczer pretends they do. For Lopt Gutormflbn's verfes are not in the Edda ; and though the other fong is to be met with in Refenius's edition of it,   yet it
is not in the Upfala manufcript. It \$ therefore not known to what period they belong ; and they cannot by any means be made ufe of as proofs to flicw, that Snorre was not the author of the Edda. It is highly proper to be Well acquainted with a fubject. before one ventures to treat of it,
I will by no means prefume to defend all the phrafes I have made life of; though it is well known that cuftom has introduced them into every language, which were they tran (laud into other languages, would not only lofe their original beauty, but appear aukward and gracelefs, For example, it would not be bejieved that to tread the flars under foot iignified to be exalted and happy; nor would any one be underftoocl who would, to exprefs a doubtful Mate of mind, call it hanging water. And thefe phrafeSj not to mention an infinity of others, were however in conftant practice among the Latins.
Jkit as to our ancient ancefiors in particular, who indubitably originated V i from
from the Eaft, they no doubt brought their allegorical exprellions from thence. And, in my opinion, the fondnefs of the ancients for riddles did not contribute a little to thefe metaphors in fpeech ; for their merit frequently con filled in the moft perverted exprellions, which in procefs of time were revived and admired as beauties. We are not permitted the liberty to judge without diftin&ion in mete matters of tafte and genius, though they widely differ from what is practifed in other nations.
Mr. Schloczer takes this third and laft, and perhaps worft argument from the contradiction which I have obferved between the Edda and Snor-re's Heimskringla* I wanted to fhew in my letter, that the ancients by their Algard meant the town of Troy ; and this I can prove, by the one having maintained the lame things of Afgard as the other does of Troy. My opinion therefore is, that Troy and Af* gard muft neceflarily fignify one and the fame place, unlefs we admit that Sturlefon has  contradicted himfelf.
It
[   30Q ]
It may eafily be apprehended, that what I have mentioned by no means implies that there was a contradiction between the Edda and Heimfkringla, but only that the above cited place had been called by two different names. Mr. Schloczer cannot poflibly be ignorant of the meaning of argumentationes ab abfurdo.
Hitherto I have mentioned the arguments with which Mr. Schloczer endeavours to fhew, that Sturlefon is not the author of the Edda ; but now to prove the contrary on my fide, I will content myfelf with one fingle argument, which is of fuch a nature as to make all others unneceflary. In the fuperfcription fubjoined to our Codex, the copier roundly affirms Sturlefon to be the author of this work ; and his teftimony is fb much the more undeniable, as the nature of the copy itfelf proves, that it cannot be later than the 14th century ; and that an Icelander had made iton the fpot, who certainly would not have thought it worth his attention and time to copy a work, if he had not known the auth.r of it.
U 3 That
^hat this was the general opinion of the Icelanders, I think, may be proved thus ; that though various conjectures are generally made concerning the author of an anonymous work, there are hardly any except Sturlefon mentioned as the author of the Edda.
i cannot on this occafion pafs Over in filence what I have read in p. 326 of the Danifli Journal, which Mr. Lilie publiflied in 1756; namely, that the celebrated Arnas Magnaus, in a written account left us by Snmundr TYode, was of the fame opinion as Mr. Schloczer, that Sturlefon was not the author of the $£dda.
The arguments which he makes ufe of feem to carry fome weight with them; that in the laft part of the Edda, called Liodfgreiuir or Skällda, Sturlefon is not only quoted, but alio recommended as a pattern to the poets ; and that in this part mention is likewife made of the kings Hakan Hakanfon, Magnus, Erich, and Hakan Magnuflön, who all lived later than Snorre. This argument at firft fight feems to be dcciflve, but lofes its
whole
i   3» ]
whole force upon a nearer examination. The true ftate of the matter is this :
In the beginning of Liodfgreiuir the author of the Edda fays, that he has three different heads to treat upon ; viz. the rules of poetry, its licences (licentia poetica), and its faults (vitia carminum), Jet t ning, ie if e, and Jyrer-bodning. The two firft of thefe fub-jecls are perfectly difcuiled in the Liodfgreinir, but the laft is wanting. A later writer has attempted to make up this deficiency, and has therefore made a fupplement to Sturlefbn's Edda. It is not in the leaft extraordinary that he fhould have mentioned Sturlefon, and given him his merited fhare of praife ; but that this fupplement does not belong to the genuine Edda, is proved by the Upfala manu-fcript, where it is entirely wanting.
In this manner it may be explained what is faid of the late kings : they arc never mentioned in the Edda; and I am much miftaken if Arnas Mag-naus has not taken thorn from the Skaldetal, or lift of poets, where they U 4 are
t ia ]
are all taken notice o f. This Skak cdetal was no more than a Hippie-ment to the Edda, as I fhall make appear prefently. If therefore the learned Magna us had ever feen our Codex, he certainly would not have entertained this opinion.
In regard to thefe appendixes, t am perfectly convinced that the catalogue of Lagmen and the LangfedgePal, or genealogy, are the works of Sturlefon himfelf. The fubject contained in them refers entirely to Snorre, who was both Lagman and a defcendant of the Sturlunga family. The Ac 11 årtal, or genealogical table, which from the beginning defcends in a ftrait line from the fathers and mothers fide to the fons, at Sturte extends to all the children, and daughters children ; yet hi fome inftances even there not to all thefe, but moft probably to thofe only who were alive when this genealogical table was compofed. The fame is to be obferved in the catalogue of the Lagmen, where it is very accurately mentioned how long every one of thein pofTcfled their place: but at
the
the family of Snorre the catalogue ftops without obferving how long they maintained this charge the laft time. It is therefore impoflible that this genealogy fliould have been compofed before Snorre's time; nor is it lefs improbable that any one fhould have omitted in later times to add the fix-teen years during which Snorre was Lagman the laft time ; or that he fliould have forgot to mention this circumftance of him in the whole lift: of Lagmen, who was the moft considerable of them all.
1 will in this place add, that it was very common, not only in the North, but even in other parts, to fubjoin fuch lifts, genealogical tables, and the like, to larger works, in order to refcue them from oblivion, and prevent their being totally loft to poiterity. In the fame manner the copier of our Weft Gothic law had added to it a Komina a Länzd, or lift of kings, as likewife a lift of the bi-fliops of Skara and Lagmanner in Weft-gothland. Are Frode has in like «rønner affixed his genealogy to his
Schedis,
t   3*4 I
Scbedis, or IJlandiga bok, and feveral others.
It is more difficult to determine fomething conclufive concerning the the third appendix, or S kalde tal. I have always been of opinion, that it Was begun by Snorre, as it commonly follows the Edda, and that it was afterwards augmented by one or more perfon s: Vormius did the fame by a poem written by Saxo Hiærne, who obtained by that composition the regal dignity in Denmark, though as a Dane he was not properly intitled to be placed in the lift; of Icelandic poets.
That this catalogue was the work of feveral hands may in my opinion be perceived by more than one indication : immediately in the beginning it is faid, that Starkotter was the firft of the Skalds, whole verfes the people had learned by heart ; and in the end a certain Ulfvcr bin Oarge is cited as the firft, who, according to Mr. Scho-ning, lived in the fecond century, and confequently muft have been feveral centuries older than the above-mentioned   Starkotter.     Thefe two
accounts
t 3*5 ]
accounts can hardly be fuppofed tö proceed from one and the fame author.
It is befides incontrovertible, that what is faid of the lad Norwegian kings correfponds not with the time of Snorre* It would be of efiential fervice if a man of Mr. Suhm's merit and abilities would critically examine this Skaldatal, and compare it with Vormius's lift of poets, which differs fo widely from it in feveral points.
This at leaft may be perceived by every one, that the Skalds therein mentioned have not all lived in the thirteenth century; but that a great part of them exifted in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries. The 230 Skalds, who, according to Mr. Schloczer's reckoning, lived in the thirteenth century, may be con-fiderably reduced in number, by one and the fame Skald being mentioned in three or four different places, as if he had been in the fervice of as many matters. It is very remarkable that ibme of thefe Skalds, as Okar Svarte, Sigvatur Thordarfon,  and others, have been
received
[ n* ]
received as poets laureats in all the three northern courts.
Nor is it lefs remarkable that fome of thefe Icelandic Skalds were taken into pay at the Englifh court, by kings AtheHlan and Ethel red : this Would require an examination to discover how their Skald, [kapar maly or poetical language, could be underwood in a foreign country, as both languages, without thefe poetical figures, differ fb widely from each other, as is evident from the remains of both.
It is laftly afked, if there åre any internal or external marks, from which it might be guefled that the three parts of the Edda mentioned by me belong together, and form one work ? But this queflion is anfwered by the title quoted above, wherein all the parts are clearly enumerated.
In regard to the third part, called Liodfgrcitiir, Mr. Schloczer defires to know how this title fuits to an ars poetica ?
I have already in fome meafure anfwered this queflion in my letter to
Mr.
Mr. Lagcrbring, by citing the ftrange titles the ancients fometimes prefixed to their books. However, that a clearer idea may be formed of what relates to this appellation, it fliould be obferved, that Sturlefon immediately in the beginning divides all founds or tones into three kinds. The firft he calls vit t laus bliod) or the found of inanimate things, as of thunder, waves, wind, and the like ; to the fecond he reckons the founds of irrational animals ; and to the laft, the articular founds of men, which are produced by means of the tongue, the palate, &c. He then fpeaks of the found of the letters, how fome are long, others (hort j fome confonants, and others vowels and diphthongs : he then proceeds to the rules of profody, and whatever elfe belongs to the Icelandic Jkaldjkap ox poetry.
From hence it may be leen what has given rife to this appellation ; Liodfgreinir literally fignifying no more than diftindlion of founds. Sturlefon has given as ftrange a title tq
this
[   3*8 ]
this Northern hiftory, which he calls beimjlringla, and this from no other reafon, but becaufe it was the firft word with which the boolc began,
LETTER
LETTER XXIV. From Chevalier Back to Dr. Trqh,*
HE accounts with which you
X have favoured us of die difeafe9 which moftly abound in Iceland mult be of univerfal fervice to the Swedes. When I had the pleafure and happi-nefs of converting with you on this fubjecT:, my attention was peculiarly railed by the information you gave me of the Icelandic fcurvy, and of its dreadful confequences on thofe perfons who were affected with it.
What Mr. Peterfen calls the Icelandic fcurvy, is the true elephantiafls, which is nearly related to the leprofy. Cellus has defcribed it in the days of Auguftus under the name of elephantiafis ; and yet Aretaeus has treated more fully upon it, in feci:. 5, under the
Of the Icelandic Scurvy.
Stockholm, June 12, 1776.
S I R,
iamq
farne name* It is more terrible than any other difeafe, producing fre^ quently a dreadful end : it gives a difgufling appearance to the patient, as the body by its colour, roughnefs, and fcaly appearance, refembles the fkin of an elephant. Whoever compares your defcriptipn and Mr, Peierfen's of this difeafe with that of the ancients, will not find it an eafy matter to take the Icelandic fcurvy for any thing elfe but the elephantiafls. In my opinion, both Ett-muller and Bocrhaave, and his famous commentator baron van Swieten, would have done better not to call the elephantiafls the higheft degree of the fcurvy ; or if they had not confounded thofe two difeafes, fo different in their beginning, progrels, nature, and remedies.
Thofe among us who have written of the theory of difeafes, have with more propriety given the name of fcurvy where a gradual increafing languor takes place, together with a bleeding, flinking and putrid breath, and many colourecl blackifli-blue fpots on the
body,
body, particularly round the roots of the hair, and which principally proceeds from corrupted fait animal food, and the want of vegetables. The elephantiafls, on the other hand, which is alfo called Lepra Arabum, is rather an hereditary difeafe ; the fkin becomes thick, unequal, gloffy, and lofes its fmoothnefs ; the hair falls off, languor and want of feeling take place in the extremities: the face becomes difgufling and full of biles, and the patient gets a hoarfe n aid voice. In the real leprofy (impetigo, lepra Græcorum) the fkin becomes wrinkled and full of fcales, which feem to be fire wed with bran, often, burft, itch exceedingly, and are filled with a watery moiflure.
Mr. Sauvage mentions feveral forts of elephantiafls ; but it is a queflion whether they all differ or not, as he might have multiplied their number. I believe that the elephantiafls mentioned by Cleger in his Eph. Nat. Curiof. and Sauvage's javanefe elephantiafls are very like the Icelandic, At leaft it is certain that the elephan-X tiafis
tiafis in Madeira, which Dr. Thomas Jleberden defcribes in the firft volume of his Medical Tranfactions, almoft one hundred years after Clcger, is entirely the fame.
It is very remarkable that this difeafe has preferved its nature fo perfectly in the moft northern parts during more than a hundred years, and remained intirely fimilar to that in the hotteft climates. It appears the fame difeafe, at Martigucs in Provence, has been defcribed by Dr. Johannes in the firft volume of the Medical Obfervations and Inquiries ; and that it has been in the Ferro iflands, may be feen in the firft volume of Bartholin's Actis Hafn.
The difeafe obferved in Norway, which Mr. Anthony Rob. Martin defcribes in the Tranfactions of the Swedifh Royal Academy of Sciences, in the latter end of the year 1760, may likewife be reckoned amongft this clafs ; as alfo that which appeared in feveral parts of Sweden, and of which Mr. Alienor Odhelius gives an account in the third part of thele Trani-5 actions
actions for the year 1774; all theft may very properly be compared to Mr. Sauvage's Elephantiafls Legitima,
It was believed in the moft early times, that this difeafe had taken its rife in Egypt; but Lucretius pofltively fays, that it was firft difcovered on the Banks of the Nile. In Celfus's time it was not at all known in Italy ; but Pliny relates, that it was firft brought into that country by the army of Pom-pey, from Egypt and Syria, but did not remain there long. In the twelfth century it was brought to Europe the fecond time by theCrufaders, and is frequently mentioned in the publications of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries : it was not however very violent in the fifteenth and fix-teenth centuries ; and in the feven-teenth century it feems to have in-lirely difappeared in England, France, and Italy, when all the Lazar-honfes, which had been built on purpofe to receive patients infected with this difeafe, became ufelcfs.
But how did this dreadful difeafe come from the South, where the dii-X 2 eafes
cafes connected with an eruption are mofl: frequent, fo far to the North ? Could it not alfo have happened by means of the Cruiades, our forefathers in the North having had like-wife the honour to partake of them ? nay, even the Icelanders were not excluded from a (hare. The oldelt Iceland writings give us examples of the elephantiafls in Norway, and other northern countries, as may be feen in the firft volume of Q'lafsen's Voyage to Iceland, page 172. But it ftill remains a query, whether it was the true fcurvy or not, which the learned author found mentioned for the firft time, under the antient Norway and Icelandic name of Jkyrbjugur, that appeared in the Norway fleet, in the year 1 280, during the war of king Ehrick with Denmark. For according to Mr. Peterfcn's tcftimony, the word Jkyrbjugur is to this day frequently made ufe of to cxprefs the elephantiafls ; though I muft confefs that the fcurvy feems to be a common difeafe among the fleets in thofe days as well
as
as in ours. However it would be ufeful for the hiftory of the difeafes common in the North, if the origin of them could be determined from thefe old accounts, efpe-cially as thefe accounts of the fcurvy are two hundred years older than any we have been yet able to difcover. We may moft probably expect this difcovery from our neighbours in Denmark and Norway, who elucidate the northern hiftory from ancient accounts with fo much zeal and happy fuc-cefs.
Mr. Anthony Rob. Martin relates, that in the above-mentioned place the number of perlbns in Norway infected with this difeafe, in the year 175a, amounted to 150, for whom three hofpitals were erected ; and Mr. Peterfen fixes the number of thofe who were ill of it in Iceland in the year 1762 at 280 pcrfons, for whom four hofpitals were eflablifhed.
You may afk, Sir, how this difeafe came to be fo firmly rooted in Iceland, as it has fo decreafed in the South, that it has almoft difappeared there ?
X 3 I believe
t   3*6 ]
i believe that this is hot fo much owing to the climate as to the manner of life and diet. People Whofe continual occupation is filhing, are night and day expo fed to wet and cold, frequently feed upon corrupted rotten fifh, fifh livers and roe, fat and train of whales, and fca-dogs ; as likewife congealed and ftale four milk : they often wear wet cloaths, and are commonly expofed to all the hardfhips of poverty. The greater number of thefe are therefore to be met with in this clafs: on the contrary, where lefs fifh and four whey are eaten, and more Icelandic mofs (lichen Iflandicus) and other vegetables, this difeafe is not fo prevalent, according to an obfervation made by Mr. Peterfen in the above-mentioned Tran factions.
We have a very remarkable in fiance of the great effects of diet on the difeafes of a nation, in the inhabitants of the ific of Ferro. Since hilling has declined among them, and the inhabitants have cultivated corn, and live upon other food inftead of whale's flefh and
bacon,
bacon, the elephantiafls has in tirely ceafed among them, according to Mr. Peterfen's account. Things bore a very different afpect there ten years before this alteration: as a proof, I will quote Mr. Debe's own words from the firft volume of the Act. Hafn. pag. 98. Elephantiafls in infulis Fcrroenfibus fre-quens ex victu et aere, has habet notas ; fades et artus hie fere ubique foedantur tumoribus plumbei coloris, qui exulcerantur foedum in modum. Rauci funt hoc morbo infecti, et per nares vocem cmittentes. Vere et au-tumno invalefcens morbus plurimos enecat.
Experience likewife teaches us, that the greater number of perfons labouring under this dilbrder in our country reticle near the fea-lhore, in the districts of Abo and Oeflerbottn, and in the ifles fcattered round the Ihore, who in general get their livelihood by fifhing and catching fea-dogs : from what has been faid before it may be learnt what is proper to be done gradually to remove this destructive difeafe. But I will relerve X 4 for
i   3-8 ]
for another occafion, whatever relates to this difeafe in Sweden.
About a hundred years ago plagues and peftilential fevers raged in Europe, as may be feen in the accounts of feveral phyficians of the epidemical fevers which prevailed at certain times. But at prefent, when a better police has procured us more cleanlinefs in the flreets and narrow lanes ; and more neatnefs is obferved in our apparel and habitations; as alfo fince beer prepared with hops, wines, and other liquors are drank, which are very falu-tary, though they produce other difeafes when made ufe of in excefs ; lince fruits and vegetables, tea and fugar, are become fafhionable ; thefe and iimilar diforders are greatly di-miniihed. Sir John Pringle proves the truth of thefe remarks, accompanied with feveral examples, particularly with refpect to the diléafes of England, in his Obfervations of the Difeafes of an Army.
It is very probable that theelephan-tiafis, and many other great diforders in the  fkin,   quitted   the fouthern
conn-
countries from fimilar caufes ; and have on the contrary maintained themfelves towards the north, where a fufficient quantity of bread cannot be provided for the natives, and where the lower fort of people, who live entirely by Hfliing, do not eat any vegetable food, but only feed upon rancid oily victuals ; and are befides unable to keep themfelves clean and neat, being continually expofed to wet and cold on the fea-fhore, 6cc.
I fliould repeat the obfervations which have been made upon this difeafe in Iceland, as they might perhaps ferve to make our countrymen better acquainted with the diforder itfelf, and the manner of curing it. But you, Sir, might perhaps tell me, that this is a more proper fubject for a phyflcal book than for letters con-cernino: Iceland ; for which reafon I will be as concife as poflible.
Mr. Anthony Rob. Martin has given fo exact an account of this difeafe, that I need not here enumerate its  iymptoms.    Whoever compares
it
it with Stør. Peterfen's little differta* liOn, will become perfectly acquainted with the elephantiafls, its beginning, progrefs, and greateft height; and will readily allow, that the Icelandic name of liktraa is given it with great pro-* priety, which fignifies, that thofe who are infected with this difeafe in its higheft degree, refemble a putrefying corpfe more than a living man.
The elephantiafls is either inherited from the father or mother, who are afflicted with it, or it is not inherited. In the firft cafe, the difeafe frequently appears before the child is two years old, and always before the age of a s y fo that fuch perfons feldom live to fee thirty years. The fooner the difeafe makes its appearance, the fooner the patient becomes a prey to death. But thofe who have not inherited the elephantialis, but have brought it upon themfelves, by their mode of living and other caufes, may drag on a wretcheel exiftence during twelve or fourteen years, and fometimes longer. The elephantiafls is of the fame nature in the South.
Before
t m }
Before this difeafe breaks out on any perlon, his breath is difagrceable and {linking for three, and fometimes fix years preceding : he lias a great appetite to eat four, half-rotten, and unwholfome food ; is always thirfty, and drinks very much: fome are flothful and fleepy, and when afleep are with great difficulty awakened ; are fhort-brcathed when the complaint af-cends upwards ; they fpit very much, and complain of wearinefsin their knees. They fliiver violently when they come out of a cold room into the open air ; the eyes and lips become of a brown and blue colour: they have a weak fmell; with fome the feeling is likewife numbed ; others have weak fight; and fome lofe it entirely, when their foreheads begin to fwell in the beginning of the difeafe. They have frequently thin hair, particularly on the eye-brows ; the beard likewife grows very thin on both fides of the chin, and the fkin becomes gloffy, as if it had been rubbed over with greafe.
This
This difeafe is not found to be parties larly infectious in Iceland: asahufband afflicted with it does not in feci his wife, nor a difeafed wife her hufband. The children may likewife be brought up without danger in the houfe of their difcall'd parents. But it has been found by experience, that when one of the parents is infected with it, fome one or other of the children always catch it. It is the fame thing in Madeira, as Dr. Heberden obferves. Dr. Johannes informs us that at Martigues in Provence, when one of the parents has the difeafe, one of the children or grand-children, or a defeendant in the third degree, is certainly infected with it ; but in the fourth degree it again difappears, and only fhe vvs itfelf in a bad breath, hollow teeth, fwelled throat, and a darker colour than ufual.
The more ancient writers who have treated of this difeafe, frequently relate, that people were even afraid of being infected by converiing with thofe who wrere troubled with it. The difeafe mud therefore either have been
more
more violent in the beginning, and in the fbuthern countries, as the venereal difeafes were formerly in the beginning of the infection ; or the difeafe having but lately made its appearance, caufed more apprehcnfions. It is, however, always advifeable to be cautious in converting with fuch patients, and neither to wear their fhoes or cloaths. when they have been rendered wet with fweating. When the difeafe is arrived at fo high a pitch that the matter which flows from the fkin is corrofive, and eats into the flefh, it can no longer be denied, but that it then becomes infectious, and even dangerous to con verfe too near with the patient.
As the elephantiafls, when it has attained its greateft height, is incurable, according to the teftimony of ancient and modern phyficians ; it is fo much the more neceflary to notice the beginning of the difeafe, and the time preceding it, in order to prevent the danger.
A patient who finds himfelf in thefe circumftanccs, or lives in a place where
the
the difeafe is rife, or has any other caufe to believe that he has the leaft veftige of it exifting in his body, either by inheritance, or through his own fault, fliould, both in his diet and in his whole manner of life, avoid whatever is likely to contribute to it, or render his body more liable to receive the infection, with the utrnoft caution. He muft keep himfelf ex-* tremely clean ; immediately put on dry cloaths, whenever thofe on his back become wet; eat no other food but what is eafily digcited, and abltain from all oily rancid whale's fleih, and the like. He muft eat no half-rotten filh; nor their iuteflines and livers, efpeciaily if they are in a putrid Hate: on the contrary, he muft coniine himfelf to bread, roots, green herbs, cabbages, turnips, and falad of gentiana, cam-ptffris, forrel (rumex acetofa, L.) rumex crifpus, ccc. <Scc. He muft eat foups, boiled frefli meat, with fcurvy-grals, ledum acre, and the like. Me muft make ufe of baths of the decoction of juniper, dry baths of juniper, Sec. Sec. In the fame manner antimonia! remedies would be very
ufeful;
ufeful; and even Swieten's mineral mixtures, pills of an extract of hemlock (pilulae alterantes Plumiris), and ledum paluftre. I have likewife obferved with pleafure, that, a girl in the parifli of Wefler Hannings was cured of a commencing elephantiafls in the year 1774» uv making ufe, during a long time, of Huxham's anti-monial effence, with a decoction of antifcorbutic herbs.
But every one will eafily apprehend, that poor wretched people, who are naturally moft expofed to thefe and the like difeafes, are likewife entirely incapable of averting them by ob-ferving a proper diet and manner of life, which are, however, almoft the only remedies. Befides, thefe kind of people are generally carelefs of any jllnefs fo long as they are able to ftir ; they likewilc feldom confult a phyfician, and when they do, it is out of their power to follow his prefcriptions exactly. Some perfons attacked with it have, however, been freed of it, alter having had the fmall-pox. It might, therefore, be conjectured, that patients
afflicted
afflicted with the elephantiafls, if they had not had the fmall-pox, would be benefited by inoculation.
Some who have had this dreadful difeafe have gone from Iceland to Copenhagen, where they have happily experienced a cure. I will likewife mention, in jultice to Dr. Thomas Heberclen, that he is the only phyfl-cian known to have cured the elephantiafls, after it had attained a very high degree. His manner of cure is this : he firft mixes an ounce and an half of powder of bark, with half an ounce of faflafras root, and then adds as much iimple lyrup as is neceffary to make the whole into an electuary; of which he gives the patient two portions a day, of the fize of a nutmeg: he caufes the hands and feet to be rubbed morning and evening with a mixture, conflfting of eight ounces of brandy, an ounce of lye of tartar, and two ounces of {pirit of fal armoniack. He laftly caufes blitters to be con-ftantly laid between the fhouldcrs. This method regularly puriiied fuc-ceeded in the courfe of live months,
after
after he had before made ule of antimony, mercury, and the like, during the full period of feven years, without any lading amendment. But I have already faid too much of this loath-fome difeafe.
Sed quænam medela excogitari pe-terit, quae elephantem tam ingens malum expugnare digna lit ?    Aret tus.
Y LET-
LETTER XXV.
From ProfefTor  Bergman to Dr. Troi l.
Of the Effcäs of Fire, both at the Volcanos and the hot Springs; and alfo of the Bafalts.
Stockholm, June 12, 1776.
S I R,
YOU have been fo kmc! as to communicate to me your obfervations on Staffa and Iceland, and to de-lire my opinion of their natural curiofi-ties. It would be very ungrateful if I hefltated to comply with this requeft, as you prefented me with the intire collections you made there, that I might chemically examine the nature of each. Mere obfervations, without the afhftance of an exacF knowledge of the fubftances, in refpeel: to their original matter and com-poiition, inftead of affording any fufficient lights whereby to enable us
to
to determine with certainty of them, would only lead us to draw very erroneous conclufions. Though the form, grain, colour, hardnefs, polltion, and external appearances may affift us in our conjectures of the true nature of minerals, and fometimes of the manner in which they are produced, yet we muft neverthelefs remain in uncertainty, till proper experiments guide us to a more clear decifion.
Forgive me for mentioning the conclufions, which, in my opinion, might be drawn from your obfervations, regarding the internal nature of thefe fubftances, fo far as I have been able to difcover them from actual experiments. But you muft by no means expect a folution of all the difficulties that arife on this intricate bufinefs. I will cautioufly endeavour to feparate what is certain, from what has been hitherto confidered precarious and doubtful; a due regard to truth will always prevent me from offering mere conjectures, or even credible opinions, with a peremptory Y 2 decifion,
[   34° J
decifion, as incontrovertible arguments. Experience has taught us that we ought to judge of the works of nature with the utmoft diffidence; and we do not want examples, even from the remote!! times, of perfon s who have pretended to explain, with the moft pofitive certainty, not only how our earth, but even how the whole world received its prefent form, and even its very origin. To determine the contrivance of fo vaft a machine over a writing-defk, is indeed one of the moft daring enterprizes which the proud reafon of man ever propofed to itfelf; and, more than any other attempt, fhews his weaknefs and arrogance. All thefe imaginary fyf-terns have been by little and little overturned, though the greateft pains were exerted to compare them with nature, and examine their exiftence. Their arguments were then difcovered to be founded on a few infufficient obfervations, or, what is ftill worfe, on uncertain, and fometimes evidently falle principles.
You,
You, Sir, will therefore readily excufe my timidity; for inftead of endeavouring to difcover all at once, as it were å priori, though without any certainty, the manner in which nature works, and forms things in lccret, I prefer the more laborious method of dilcovering it gradually with certainty, by experiments founded on due obfervations; and fhali not he-fitate to confefs my ignorance, whcre-ever thefe guides in the ftudy of nature ceafe their inftructions. I do not, however, reject all conjectures and propofed opinions, whenever they lead to new refearches, provided they are offered as mere conjectures, and not obtruded on us as certain truths, or determined opinions.
From what I have hitherto laid, you will, I believe, conceive my method ; therefore I ftiall enter upon the fubject, and briefly treat of it under feparate heads, in the following manner.
Y 3 Of
Of the Hot Springs.
Y"OUR defcription of the Icelandic fprings, the moft extraordinary which have hitherto been difcovered in the known world, was extremely agreeable to me, partly on account of the furprizing force of them, and partly on account of the great light obtained in mineralogy by the cruf-tated (tones formed in them. How thefe fprings may be accounted for, I hope I have fufficiently explained in another place *; I (hall, therefore, entirely pais it over here. But now I will communicate to you what I could not then undcrftand, namely, the true nature of thefe depofitions.
You have prefented me with the following fubftances from the Geyfer :
i. The fubllance of which the water has prepared itfelf a bafon to run from.—It con fill s of a hard, rough, greyifh, and irregular flaty, and generally martial cruftated ftone, over which a covering of fmall cryftalli-
* In my Phyfika be/krifning om Jordklotet, ult. edit.
zations
zations has formed itfelf, that refem-bles the lichen fruticulofus, or rather the Stahlfteindrufe found in the Wef-terfilverberg; that is called the flos ferri or Eifen bluthe. Thefe precipitations are opaque, without of a whitifh grey, blacker within, and plainly fhew the formation of feveral crofts on one another. Each of thefe flos ferri, as well as the cruflated ftone, has the hardnefs of a flint; however they are not fo compact or ftrong as to ftrike fire with the ft eel.
The ftrongeft acids, the fluor acid not excepted, are not fuflicient with a boiling heat to diflblve this fubftance. Jt diflblves very little if at all by the blow-pipe with the fufible alcali, a little more with borax, and makes a ftrong effervefcence with fal fodæ. Thefe effects are peculiar only to a filiceous earth, and therefore there remains no doubt concerning the real nature of this cruflated ftone. Neverthelefs 1 have melted it in the crucible ; firft, by weight, with half as much alcaline fait, and likewife with three times as much;
Y 4 ancj
and have obtained in the flrfl cafe a fixed glafs, and in the fecond one, which, in diifolving, yielded a common liquor lilicum. The glafs of the cruflated ftone is of a more yellowifh brown than that of the cryflallizations; and this difference is caufed by the greater quantity of irony particles.
2. The porous cruflated ftone or finter, which is found in the moor furrounding the border of the bafon, is light, whitifli, and here and there fpotted with a rufl colour : it is evidently an incruflation upon mols and fim i lar fubftances, which have been decayed by length of time, and left thole cavities. In regard to its com-pofition, it is of a filiceous nature as the preceding, and alio perfectly himlar in refpect to fire and diffolvents.
I have already mentioned the folu-tion of the flint in fal fodæ with the blow-pipe ; and as I fliall hereafter have frequent occafion to refer to it, I will in this placerelate the whole procefs. The late director of the mines (bcrgmaflarc) Mr* Cronlledt, makes mention of this
fait
falt in his Mineralogy, but it is very feldom; and he considers it as lefs proper for uling with the blow-pipe, becaufe it is too foon imbibed by the coals. It certainly does not afford a very good folution upon coals, and I therefore made ufe of a filver fpoon, made on purpofe ; by which method I have been able to make good ufe of the fal fodæ, which in his examinations of the different kinds of earth in this manner, is very ferviceable, and even indifpenfably neceffary, as I fliall hereafter prove more at large, in a little differtation on the blow-pipe, and its proper ufe.
I have frequently inferted a luppö-fition in my printed works, that though the filiceous earth cannot be diffolvcd in the ufual manner in water, yet it might with the help of a great degree of heat: and that this really happened at the Geyfer, is evidently proved by the above defcribed cruflated flone. The hot water forms of itfelf the large fili-ceous bafon from which it [flues out of the fubftance,   that is in a
diflblv ed
diflblved flate at the firft, but quickly precipitates on account of the heat decreafing in the open air. The heat of the water was not examined with the thermometer, till fuch time that the bafon was filled, when It was neverthelefs found at a hun-» dred degrees, according to the Swedifh meafure. It is in all probability much greater under the earth; for its running through cooler channels, and its fpouting afterwards into the air to a great height, muft necef-farily very much diminifti the heat on account of the great difperfion.
This quick depoiition produces both the opacity and irregular form of this ftone, and prevents the particles from being lb clofely united, as might have been ex peeled from the degree of the hardnefs of each, fuppofing the fol-vent power had diminiihed more gradually,
Mr. Scheele has difcovered the formation of the flint; and I myfelf have found out, within thefe two years, a method of obtaining, with the help
of
pf fome fluor acid, thirteen precipitated cryflals of the fize of fmall peas. This artificial pebble in all experiments, both in the wet and dry method, and even in the focus of a burning-glafs, in a piece that I fent to Mr. Macquer, difcovered exactly to him the fame qualities as the natural one.
All thefe circumftances, therefore, prove, that the pebble is a faline earth, which is compofed of fluor acid, and an original fubllance exift-ing in the watry exhalations. It is not quite Ample; but however, I have not been able to conflder it as any other than an elementary earth: indeed my judgment is, that it cannot be compounded from any other principle.
I do not in this place mean a finer or coarfer powder, by the denomination of earth, as is generally under-flood under this appellation ; but I take the word in a chemical fenfe, to exprefs a fixed principle, which is obtained in analyfing any fubllance, and that cannot be diflblved in boiling
ing water, after the niceft mechanical divifion. It is well known that the diffblubility of any fubllance may be lelfened by certain compositions ; and that a folvent can better attack the fubllance, according to the extent of its furface ; and that laflly, water in an open vefTel will not admit of any greater degree of heat than one hundred degrees, according to the Swedilh thermometer. A fubllance may, by this rule, be diflbluble by itfelf, after having gone through a preparatory cleanling, or a chemical feparation, or with the allillance of a greater degree of heat, though it might be indiflbluble without any preparation, or with the ufual method of boiling; and it is with a view to this circumflance that I call the flint a kind of fait earth.
I have likewife examined the fub-llances you collected in the morafs near the Geyfer, and have found them to be the following :
3. A dark-red bole, which became darker in the fire, but was afterwards a little attracted by the magnet. It z crum-
crumbles into pieces in the water, and is fine and tough to the touch.
4. A bluifh-grey clay, which contains green vitriol of decayed pyritæ.
5. A brighter grey fort, which did not feem to contain any vitriol.
6. A white or yellowifli clay, with ruft-fpots.
All thefe forts become very hard in the fire, and take a good deal of time before they liquefy. The lait, when it foftens, is harfli and more landy to the touch than the preceding forts.
The different forts of (tone collected at Langarnas are of another nature : nor does the water here fpout out of a bafon, but through many fmall openings in the earth.
7. A whitiih irregular plated cruft, which often grows on the outfide into fmall globular blunt points. This in acids gives a fudden fermentation, that immediately ceafes without its being any otherwife attacked. It diflblvcs with borax by the blow-pipe with great difficulty, and without motion, but with a loud effervcfccnce
with
with fal lbdæ. It is confequently a fi] iceous mafs outwardly covered with lime, and has fixed itfelf on the following fubllance*
8. A folid irregular plated and broken cruft, of a dark colour, but in many places tinged with bright blue fpots. It becomes quite frnooth in cutting, almoft like {tone marie, but does not crumble in water, nor does it become foft in it; with acid it (hews an effervefcencc which foon ceafes; with the blow-pipe it grows hard, fcarccly melts at the thinneft edges* and is attacked with fome motion both by borax and fufible urinous fait and fal foclæ, but is not entirely diflblved by any of them.
o. The fubllance found at the bottom of the brook, which carries off the water that gullies out, is brown* lpongy, and compofed of pretty hard flakes and threads, that are covered with fine glafly cryftallizations. Thefe are clear only in fome few places * but lofe their brown colour, both in fire and marine acid, and become quite clear.
The
The fmall cryflals puff up very much under the blow-pipe, almoft like borax; they float in bubbles on the furface, and are diflblved with great difficulty by borax; they are attacked by fal fodæ with a ftrong ebullition : it is the fame with the more folid flakes, but they do not puff up fo ftrongly as the cryftallization. Thefe feveral qualities here mentioned evidently fhew, that this cruftated ftone confifts of zeolite.
10. From Reykum you fent me calcareous fpar in lumps, that are externally rounded, as if they had been toffed backwards and forwards by the water, and rubbed againft hard bodies. In them there are fmall greyiih green cryftallizations, that diflblve by the blow-pipe to a black flag; the fal fodæ caufes fome effer-vefcence in them, but does not dif-folve them ; they are likewife attacked with fome emotion by fufible urinous fait.
11. A loofe, tubulofe, whitifli cruftated ftone, or an incruftation cavernous,   and with  impreffions of
3 leaves,
leaves, (talks, and the like. As to its nature it is filiceous ; but feems at the lame time to contain a different fubftance, as it diffolves more flowly with fal fodæ.
The fpring which here burfts forth in a very Hoping direction towards the horizon, according to your account, dcpofites a kind of fulphureous greäfe by its hot (team, on the cavities of the upper lide ; but I have found no fpecimen of this in the collection you communicated to me.
From what I have hitherto faid, we may gather, that the Icelandic hot fprings contain very different fubftances from what are to be met with in other places of the fame fort, efpecially filiceous earth.
There is no lime at all near the Geyfer; but at Laugarnas there are fome faint traces of it, partly as an external covering, and partly as conftituent parts in the zeolite, of which more will be faid hereafter. The balls of lime found at Reykum are moft probably thrown out by the
fpring,
fpring, and have been rounded on the furface by the friction.
Of the Eruptions of Fire*
J H AVE in another * place treated pretty cxtcnfively of the dreadful devaftations caufed by fubterraneous fires on the furface of the earth in many parts of the world, both in regard to their caufes and effects; ; I have therefore not any thing to add in this place but what particularly relates to Iceland, and what may llrve to explain the eruptions which have happened there from time to time.
Whether Iceland is to be confidered as entirely produced by volcanos, is a queflion which mofl probably will remain unrefolved many years. It is true, Sir, that according to the accounts you have collected there, the volcanos have raged in a great many places, and that the whole country is in a manner covered with traces of their deflructive effects;
* Vcrlds bcfkrifn, § 149.
z
we
we alio learn from undeniable facts, that new iflands have been produced by volcanos in many places. But all this proves not any thing more than that the mod dreadful effects have been produced by fiery eruptions in Iceland.
To determine this queflion, it would be indifpenfably neceffary, that a naturalift fliould thoroughly examine all Iceland. If a granite, or any other ftone or berg-art, was found in folid rocks, and not feparate or in loofe fragments, which may have been brought thither from diftant parts, I fliould entirely diflent from your opinion. But before thefe and the like difcoveries were made, I believe no conclusions could be drawn.
I may venture to maintain with more certainty, that your collection confirms what I before concluded from other reafons, viz. that in all volcanos pyrites are found, which on decompofing produce heat and fire; and likewife flate that, penetrated with bitumen, fer ves to feed the fire.
12. The
12. The flate which you have brought from Iceland fplits into thin plates, which difcover many forts of imprelTions, particularly of leaves ; the colour is black, and it is exactly of the fame nature as the common aluminous flate.
13. The two pieces of furturbrand, or foflil wood, which you brought with you, bear evident marks of a vegetable compofition ; and I may almoft affirm, with perfect certainty, that the largeft is a kind of pinus abies ; on the out-fide are barks and branches, and in the infide all the rings of the fap appear:  the lefler is a piece of rind without   wood;    both   are black, quite   foft,    eafily   take   fire, and flame in burning.     After the flame is extinguifhed,   one hundred parts afford forty-two parts of coals, which after   being    only    calcined yield two parts of yellowifh-brown earth, that is attracted by the magnet, and partly diflblves with acids:  it makes fome effervefcence with borax and fufible urinous fait ;   the fal fodæ
Z a alfo
al ib caufes a little ebullition at firft, but does not entirely cliftblve it.
Your conjecture, Sir, concerning the manner in which the furturbrand is produced, does not feem improbable. I have already obferved a long time with furprize, that fifties, othoceratites, lituites, wood, &c. ckc. which are to be found in flate, have heen compreifed or flatted, whilft they p refer v e their entire form and roundnefs in lime.
This fame  circumftance may be obferved in the two pieces defcribed above, efpecially in the larger, which is only an inch and a half in thicknefs, though it is nineteen inches in length, and thirteen in breadth.    The outfide of it has no marks of any roundnefs, but is quite flat.   An exceeding great weight is required to prefs a ftick to a flat  plate ;   and I cannot conceive how the moft immenfe beds, which muft neceflarily have been foft when fpread over it, could ever produce this effect.  The caufe of this is yet un-difcovered,and will probably remain fo 5 a long
a long time; however fomething may be found there which feems to ihew, that the bituminous (late has been produced in the fame manner, as it has not only penetrated the fubllance of the flate, but, every thing elfe which has been laid upon it, for it may yet be obtained by means of diftillation. But by what means has this been brought thither ? How could it be imbibed by the clay, in cafe this was under water, which however feems to be undeniable, from the prodigious number of marine animals which are found buried ? and how could the inclofed bodies have been prefled down horizontally ? All thefe problems I cannot as yet anfwcr fatif-faclorily, much lefs explain with any degree of certainty.
14. Very coarfe, heavy, and hard lava, full of bladders, almofl black, intermixed with white grains refem-bling quarz, which in fome places have a figure not very unlike a fquare.
The black matter is not attracted by the magnet; but if a piece of it is Z 3 held
held againft a compafs, the needle vifibly moves. When tried in the crucible, it yields from ten to twelve pounds of iron in every 100 weight: it does not diffolve in the leaft with fal fodæ, with great difficulty with borax, and hardly vifible by fufible urinous fait. It feems to contain a great deal of clay earth in its compolition, which may be extracted by all folvents of acids.
It is well known that this earth, when it is entirely free from any other mixture, may by means of heat and drying be brought to that degree of hardnefs, as to give fire with a fteel, which proceeds from the parts being brought clofer together, and contracted in a fpace only half as large. By being thus contracted, it obtains a folidity and hardnefs ; and befides, the furface is fo much diminiflied, in proportion to the whole mafs, that the water cannot penetrate any farther to (often it.
W^e have almoft daily opportunities in the ftudy of chcmiftry of convincing
ing ourfelves, that a fiibflance with a (mall furface cannot be changed in any manner by liquid folvents; but may however be attacked by them, in proportion to the different degrees of pulverization ; nay, even a fubllance which cannot be reduced by the finelt mechanical divifion,  may frequently be feparated, as much as is neceffary, by a chemical one ; that is to fay, by a preceding folution in another fol-vent.   The attraction is here in proportion to the extent of the furface ; and the larger this is, the flronger will be the attack :  confequently I cannot believe that any clay, petrified by heat or flow drying, can have undergone any elfential change, but only that its parts have fo contracted themfelves as to  give  it  the hardnefs   of a flint to prevent   it   from   imbibing any vifible quantity of water.   But as foon as it has been diflblved by any acid whatever,   and   its   parts   have by this means been brought out of its former contraction,  to the requifite degree of finenefs and expanfion, it becomes as foft as before, without the Z 4 acid
acid contributing any more to it than has been faid, as all kinds of acids fucCeed equally well.
I have a very good affortment of the lava of Solfatera, by which it is very evident that the fulphureous acid, which had penetrated the black lava, deprived it gradually, partly of its combullible quality, and had alfo whitened it (to effect which other fubftances, particularly filk, are likewife cxpofed to fulphureous exhalations) and partly had reduced it by folution, either to a perfect allum, or at leaft to the common nature of any loofe clay. I have likewife produced all thefe effects with aqua-fortis, or any other acid, in a lava which had not yet fnffered any change.
The white, which poffefles more or lefs of thofe tranfparent grains or rays with which the lava is chequered, do not feem to be of the nature of quarz, as they cannot be attacked by fal fodæ; they are however, with fome difficulty, diflblved by borax and fufible urinous fait.
Thefe
t   36r ]
Thefe effects are perfectly fmiilar to thofe produced upon the diamond, ruby, faphire, topaz, and hyacinth. The chryfolite, garnet, turmaline, and fhirl, can neither be diffolved by fal fodæ, though they are fomewhat attacked by it, when reduced to a fine powder ; and upon the two läft mentioned ones it produces a flight effer-vefcence. On this account it is pof-fible that the precious ftones of mount Vefuvius, which are fold at Naples, are nearer related to the real precious flones than is generally imagined.
15. A finer kind of lava, quite porous within, and entirely burnt out, and confiderably lighter on that account than the preceding ones. I have not found any fuch grains in it refembling quarz.
16. The lb called Icelandic agate. This is of a black or blackifh-browu colour, and a little tranfparent at the thin edges like glafs, and gives fire with the fteel.
It cannot eafily be melted by itfelf, but becomes white, and flies in pieces.    It can hardly be diffolved in
the
[     3^2 ]
the fire by fufible urinous fait ; but it fucceeds a little better with borax* though with fome difficulty : with fal fodæ it dUfolves very little, though in the firfl moments fome ebullition is , perceived, and the whole niafs is afterwards reduced to powder.
From hence it may be concluded, that the Icelandic agate has been produced by an excetfive fire out of the lava defcribed in N° 14. I have found no cryftals of this glafs in the collection. If any perfon has fuch in their poffeflion, they fliould be examined to fee if they are exactly of the fame nature and fubftance with the above defcribed agate, and if their form has not been produced accidentally by burfting afunder.
17. More or lefs light, fpongy, and burnt-out pumicc-ftone, particularly black and reddilh-brown. Quarz cryftals are fometimes found in them; but oftener the rays and grains rcfem * bling quarz.
18. Stones thrown out of the volcano, grey or burnt brown, which feem to coniift of a hardened clay mixed
with
with filiceous earth. They are fprink-led with rays and grains refernbling quarz, and fome few flakes of mica. They fufe with great difficulty in the fire ; with fal fodæ they fhew fome effervefcence at firft, but however it foon ceafes : the parts refernbling quarz do not produce any motion at all. From this wc may conclude, that the lava mentioned in N° 14, principally originates from this mafs.
The other loofe ftones which 1 have received from you, Sir, to all appearance have no abfolute connection with the eruptions of fire, though fome have been fufpected of it. I will enumerate them here feparately :
lo. Red and green jafper, which, in fome places where it is broken, is quite fmooth and fliining ; this cir-cumftance diftinguifhes it from the common jafper, which is dull and clay-like where it is broken. It has befides all the qualities of true jafper; ftrikes fire with the fteel, does not melt in the mofl violent fire, but is diflblved by fal fodæ with an effervefcence, &c. &c.    As to the
fmooth-
fmoothnefs of fome parts, It cannot proceed from a commencing fuflon, as it becomes black and dark in a weaker fire. We here only find a new link in the connected chain of nature, by which the jafper is united with the flint.
There is no black jafper in your collection ; but the pieces, which to appearance come nearefl to it, belong to the clafs of the trapp, and fhall be defcribed hereafter.
20. Grey, greenifh flate, refernbling jafper, that gives fparks with the fteel, is attacked with a quick effervefcence by fal fodæ, but not farther diflblved by it. In fome places are grains refernbling quarz, which are eafily diffolved in fufible urinous fait, but do not fhew the leaft effervefcence in fal fodæ.
21. The fmall cryftals, faid to re-femble cocks-combs ; they are nothing but a different appearance or change of the heavy fpar.
22. A chalcedon cruft with fmooth prominencies, like what they call haematites : this is diflblved with the ut-
moft
moft difficulty by fufible urinous falt, with more eafe by borax, and with a violent effervefcence by fal fodæ, exactly as the flint.
23. Zeolite; two kinds: the one is folid, white, and internally, as it were, compofed of globofe parts, in which rays proceeding from the center appear that refemble fine threads.
This fort fwells a little by the blow-pipe, diffolves perfectly with borax, feparates in fal fodæ with fome effervefcence, but foon ceafes, and leaves fome part undiffolved.
The other fort confifts of a plate, which in colour and break refem-bles a carnelian : it has a quantity of fmall prominencies in it, filled with irregular white cryftals, and fome of the cavities are filled with a loofe-grained and brownifli-red fubllance.
The fubllance refernbling a carnelian becomes white in the fire, bubbles up, and becomes fufible.
The cryftalline fubflance becomes more frothy in the fire than the carnelian, and has all the qualities of the zeolite.
The
The Tandy fubllance hardly fwells; is diflblved with difficulty by borax, and is attacked at firft with a Hidden effervefcence by fal fodæ.
As it is not uncommon even in the profeflbrs of morality to pafs from one wrong ftep to another, fo are we not without examples of this kind in thofe who make nature their fludy. Ten years ago it was a general opinion that the furface of the earth, together with the mountains upon it, had been produced by moifture. It is true, fome declared the fire to be the firft original caufe, but the greater number paid little attention to this opinion. Now, on the contrary, that a fubterraneous fire had been the principal agent gains ground daily: every thing is fuppofecl to have been melted even to the granite. My own fentiments with regard to it is this, that both the fire and water have contributed their fliare in this operation, though in fuch a proportion, that the force of the former extends much further than the latter ; and, on % the
the contrary, that the fire has only worked in fome parts of the furface of the earth.
It is not an eafy matter to explain how the granite, which confifts of clear quarz-cryftals, foiid fiekl-fpar, and limmer (mica) with flat fcales, has been able to fupport a fufion, without the quarz burfting, or becoming opaque.
This is yet lefs to be conceived of the field-fpar, that becomes foft and liquid in a weak fire, and has a dull appearance. The glimmer fplits its fcales afunder in the fire, and frequently twifts them together again in a very different manner from that in which they appear in the granite. Notwithstanding all this, if the granite is confidered as a production of the fire, it need not be wondered at, that the zeolite has likewife been comprehended in this fuppofition.
I will allow that cryftals may be produced by the dry method, and I know feveral ways of obtaining them, both by fufion and fublimation ; but I can never be perfuaded that the zeolite
has
has been produced by die affidance of fire. It is true, that fometimes they are found in loofe ftones, and in fuch places where volcanos had formerly raged: it is likewife found in lblid rocks that have never been expofed to thefe fires, as at Guftavenberg in Jemtland.
If more forts than one are alio certainly free from all fufpicion of having been fubject to fufion, how is it poflible, without the cleared proofs, to fuppofe that the whole genus has been fubject to it ? If the Icelandic zeolite has been prepared by fire, we may juftly queflion how it can produce above five quarts in twenty-five of water in diflilling. This may like-wife be applied to all the other forts, tho' they generally contain lefs water, and the red fort from Adelfors only one quart in twenty-five. This is evidently the water of cryftallization, in proportion to which each kind fwclls more or lefs by the blow-pipe. The Icelandic and Feroe zeolites are mod fubject: to this, almoll like borax ; the Adelfors zeolite fwclls   much lefs,   and thai
from
[ sh ]
from Upland, and feveral other forts, fo little, that it ceafes in a moment ; and even then produces fo fmall an expanlion of fpace, that it is fcarcely perceivable to the eye.
Since therefore all zeolites contain this water of cryftallization, which is neither found nor expected in the productions of fire, it feems to me to be undeniable, that they have been produced in the way of moifture ; befides, the zeolites do not conlHl of a fimple particular kind of earth, but of three different forts which are mixed together, and in a manner the one diffolved by the other, in confequence of which their connection cannot be confidered as an original earth. In all, the greateft part confifts of filiceous earth, the next is argillaceous earth, and the leaft part is calcareous earth. The two laft forts may be diffolved by acids, and then precipitated by alkali volatile caufticum, by which the argillaceous earth, but not the calcareous earth, after being feparated from the firft by filtrating, may be precipitated by fal fodæ.
Aa In
In this manner I have found that the zeolites defcribed above, contain 48 in 100 of liliceous earth, 22 of pure argillaceous earth, and from 12 to 14 of calcareous earth. If thefe numbers are added together, and reckoned with what it contains of water, the produce is fomething more than 100. This furplus proceeds from the calcareous earth, that enters into the zeolite without fixed air, with which it is afterwards impregnated during the precipitation. Other zeolites contain exactly the lame fubftances, only in different proportions.
Of thofe which I have hitherto examined, the Jemtland zeolite contains the greatell quantity of calcareous earth, that is to fay, 16 parts in 100, and that from Feroe the lead, namely, 8 in 100. The red zeolite from Adelfors contains the greateft quantity of liliceous earth, to wit 80 in 100, and the Icelandic the lead, to wit, 48 in 100. The zeolite from Feroe contains moft argillaceous earth, namely, about 25 in loo, and that from Adelfors the leaft, or about 9 in  100.    When the original compo-
fition
ikion of any kind of Mone is thus known, it is not difficult to determine its qualities.
The zeolites at firft froth and fwell in the fire, the caufe of which has been already explained.
They afterward fufe more or lefs perfectly. The fwapparara may be reduced to a clear glafs, and the Upland red zeolite can hardly be brought to give any figns of vitrification on the furface.
It is welj known that quarz, pure argillaceous earth and lime, cannot fe-parately be made to fufe, nor two and two mixed together in many cafes ; but when all three are compounded, they are more or leis inclined to fufion. One part of pure argillaceous earth, with one part of lime, and two and a half to three parts of quarz, afford a mixture, which is eaficfl brought to fufé. If the com-pofkion of the zeolites is compared with this mixture, they are found to be fufible in the fame meafure as the proportion of their conftitucnt parts approaches more or leis to the above-mentioned competition.
A a 2 They
They are more flrongly attacked by fal fodæ than by borax, or fufible urinous fait, bccaufe there is in all moll liliceous earth, which is belt diffolved by the folid alkaline fait in the dry way.
Laflly, feveral forts have the quality of yielding jellies, that is to lay, they change a proportionable quantity of acid to a femi-tran (parent congealed mals, which refembles a jelly.
Thefe congelations may in general be produced in different ways; ibmetime the menflruum by length of time lofes its power, when the diffolved part is attacked gradually, though imperfectly diflolved, fo that in a manner it remains in Impended half diffolved, and after fome evaporation at lafl. congeals to a tough coherent fubllance. This frequently happened in diffolving tin in marine acid, or aqua regla, when the inflammable fubllance decrcafes too much, and by that means weakens the connection between the liietal and the fol vent.
Sometimes   a kind   of gelatinous congelation is produced  by an im-pcrieci precipitation.    For inftance, i when
when the liquor filicum is united with a certain quantity of acid, fo that the liliceous earth is not entirely feparated, but remains fufpended in the liquor. This much refembles a circumltanee exhibited by fome zeolites, which I will now more fully explain.
As the red zeolite of Adelfors produces this effect, more clearly than any other, it fhall ferve as an inflanee of it. After this is leparated and freed as much as poflible from calcareous fpar, three or four tea fpoons full of it muft be thrown into a wine glafs half filled with common aqua-fortis; when after a fhort time the whole fo-lution will be found in the form of a reddifh gelatinous fubftancc, that nothing of it runs out if even the glafs is turned. To difcover the caufe of this, I have taken fome of the cleareft jelly, and diflblved it with boiling water in a glafs mortar, and left it to dry on a filtering paper after a perfect filtration, by which means the place which it occupied was incredibly di-minilhed. I then tried this fubllance with acids, but it was not at all at-A a 3 tacked.
tacked, aiiddidnot melt in theftrongeft fire alone. The fulible urinous ialt hardly attacked it ; borax diflblved it, though with difficulty j but fal fodæ diffolved it perfectly with a ftrong eifervefeence. In confequence of this the gelatinous fubftance chiefly confifts of filiceous earth expanded in the higheft degree. But by what means has this indiffolnble fubftarice been introduced into a fol vent ?
We have before obferved, that the Adeifcrs zeolite contains eighty parts in a hundred of filiceous earth, nine and a half of argillaceous earth, and fix and a half of calcareous earth free from fixed air; all which fubftances are united as clofe as poflible. If therefore the powder is thrown into an acid, and remains there during fome time, the argillaceous and calcareous earth are immediately attacked by it ; but thefe are internally connected with the filiceous earth, and confequently take a confiderable part of it half diflblved into the fpungy and f\vollen flate, which all fubftances generally exhibit in the moment of
precipita-
precipitation. The fame thing happens when a refinons gum is laid into fpirits of wine; part of the gum, together with the refill, is then immediately diffolved by the (pint of wine on account of its connection, though the firft alone cannot be diffolved by it at all. If a iufficient quantity of water or acid is added before the liquor begins to congeal, no congelation enfues, but the filice-ous earth falls in loofe flakes to the bottom, which evidently proves that the folvent, in regard to its quantity and ftrength, muft be confined within certain limits. An addition of fome chalk increafes its tendency to gelatinous congelations, partly becaufe the folution becomes more broken and folid, and partly by means of bubbles of fixed air, which attach themfelves to the fpungy filiceous powder, and make it lighter ; whence the zeolite of Adelfors in this cafe feems to have an advantage over every other fort, on account of the lime-fpar naturally mixed with it ; the principal part however no doubt depends on the A a 4 feveral
feveral   parts    which   compofe it. Some forts  alford only a gelatinous fubftance after a preparatory calcination ; the caufe of which molt probably is this, that the calcareous earth has not before been enough united with the filiceous earth, at leaft not with the whole of it.    It is well known that lime and quarz, when expofed to the operation of a fire, that has only caufed them to bake together, neverthelefs afterwards yield a gelatinous fubftance. Alcaline fait mixed with fand affords a fimilar demi-concretion, as when we calcine potafhes ;  on which account the cleareft folution a long while after precipitates filiceous powder, in the fame proportion that the alcaline fait attracts fixed air, with which it preferably unites itfelf.    This generally produces   a  gelatinous congelation, when the water is faturated with alcaline fait, and alfo is well charged with filiceous earth.
From the fame caufe, clay, fpathofe fluor, and other fubftances, hard to be diffolved in acids, may be brought to a gelatinous   congelation,   when they
have
have before by fufion been united with alcaline fait, borax, or calcareous earth : calcareous earth by itfelf never gives a gelatinous fubftance in acids, con-fequently it can fo much the lefs become a filiceous earth by this method, as has however been thought by fome, who would foon relinquifh their opinion if they would only make experiments themfelves; where there is no flint   before,   it  cannot   poffibly be produced by any other acid, but that which is obtained from fpathofe fluor.
But at prefent this is enough of the zeolite, of which I have treated more extenfively, as it is found in great abundance in Iceland, and is fuppofcd by fome to be produced in the dry way ; but I hope that this matter is at prefent entirely determined, not only by its iéparation, but alfo by its production, which happens daily in the water.    See N° II.
I have for feveral years paft endeavoured to difcovcr the number as well as the nature of the original kinds of earth.   In the year 1758 Mr. Cron-itedt counted nine ; if he had lived
longer
longer for the benefit of the feiences, he would no doubt have rectified this account. In confequence of my experiments I have difcovered the following lix forts :
1. Calcareous earth, which after being faturated by acid of vitriol affords a kind of gypfum.
2. Terra ponderofa, which with acid of vitriol gives a ponderous fpar, and in feveral refpecls is very different from the calcraeotis earth.
3. Magnefia, which, together with acid of vitriol, produces the Englifh or Epfom fait.
Thefe three kinds are generally found faturated with fixed air, and they are on that account fubjecl to an effervefcence with flronger acids.
4. Argillaceous earth, which, together with the vitriolic acid, produces allum.
The common argillaceous earth is always mixed with filiceous earth, but the fort here meant muft be entirely pure.
5. Siliceous earth, which is not attacked by any acid yet known, the
fluor
fluor acid excepted. In the dry way it can he diflblved with a third part of its weight of fixed alkali to a trani-parent lading glafs, which at firft is affected with a ftrong effervefcence.
6. Gemmeous earth, that is not attacked by any known acid, and clearly diftingiiifh.es itfelf from the preceding forts, by its being entirely iudiflbluble, and being fubject to a weaker effervefcence in the fire with fixed alcali. It is found in all the gems or precious ftones.
I have in vain made ufe of various methods to fcparate thefe earths into more fimple principles, and to all appearance others would have no better fuccefs than I have had : if they are really compounds, they are at leaft iimple in regard to the method known among us of feparating fubftances, and do not arife from one another. Whatever has therefore been objected to this opinion from prejudice, cannot fubfift after experiments have been made upon that fubject. We muft not pretend to improve nature according to our notions,
but
but endeavour to dlftinguifh all kinds of fubftances, which have fufticient and lafting marks of diftinclions. No certain origin can be made unlefs the feparation and compofition of them, which may be relied on, has been made before. All the different forts of ftone and earth, hitherto known, are compofed of one or more of the fjx principles forts before-mentioned, which fhall be proved more at large in another place, as foon as I am able to make fome experiments that require repetition.
Of the Bafalts.
r\ F all the mountains hitherto known, there are without doubt not any more remarkable than thofe that are compofed of angular pillars. A few years ago only one or two of this kind were known ; but new ones are daily difcovered, which is a plain proof how much our attention   requires   being rouzed to
prevent
prevent it from (lumbering, even on the mofl important occaflons.
It cannot much be doubted that there has been fome connections between thefe pillars, and the effects of a fubterraneous fire, as they are found in places where the figns of fire are yet vifible ; and as they are even found mixed with lava, tophus, and other fubftances produced by fire.
The caufe of the regular form of thefe pillars is a problem which we have hitherto been unable to lolve fatisfactorily. This difficulty has appeared fo infurmountable to fome, that they have thought it impoflible to be the effects of Nature, and have confidered them as works made by human hands: this idea betrays the utmoft ignorance in regard to the true nature of thefe mountains of pillars, and does not even defervc a refutation.
As far as we know, Nature makes ufe of three methods to produce regular forms in the mineral kingdom, namely, that of cryftallization or precipitation : 2clly, the crufting or fettling of the external  furface  of a
liquid
liquid mais whilft it is cooling : and 3clly, the burfting of a moid fubftance whilft it is drying.
The firft method is the mofl common, but to all appearance Nature has not made ufe of this in the prefent cafe. Cryflals are feldom or never found in any confiderable quantity running in the fame direction, but either inclining from one another, or, what is ftill more common, placed towards one another in feveral Hoping directions. They are alio generally feparated a little from one another, when they are regular; the nature of tlic thing likewife requires this, becaufe the feveral particles, of which the cryflals are compofed, muft have the liberty of following that power which affects > their regular difpofition.
the bafalt columns, on the contrary, whofe height are frequently from thirty to forty feet, are placed parallel to one another in confiderable numbers, and lb clofe together that the point of a knife can hardly be introduced between them. Befides, in moft places, each   pillar   is divided into feveral
paits
parts or joints, which feem to be placed upon one another ; and indeed it is not uncommon for cryllals to be formed above one another in different layers, when the folvent has been viiibly diminifhed at different times ; but then the upper cryflals never fit fo exactly upon the lower ones as to produce connected prifms of the fame length and depth aa all the flrata taken together, but each ftratum feparately forms its own cryflals.
How then can t lie Giant's Caufeway in the county of Antrim, Fingafs Cave at Staffa, and all other aflem-blages of pillars of the fame kind, be confidered as cryftallizatious ? Precipitation, both in the wet and dry manner, requires that the particles (hould be free enough to fix themfelves in a certain order; and as this is not practicable in a large melted mafs, no cryftallizatious appear in it, except on its furface, orin its cavities.
Add to this, that the bafalts in a frefli fracture, do not fhew a plain iinooth furface under the microfcope, but appear fometimes like grains of different   magnitude,  and  at other
times
times refemble fine rays running in different directions, which does not cor-refpond with the internal ftruclure of the cryltals, which I have endeavoured to examine in another place.
From what I have hitherto mentioned, the opinion that the bafalts have been produced by cryftallization, becomes at leaft lefs probable, whether we admit the wet or dry method. But I muft not omit that the fpars exhibit a kind of cryftallization, which at firft fight refembles a heap of bafalts, but upon a clofer examination a very great difference is obferved. The form of the fpar is every where alike, but the bafalts differ from one another in point of fize and number of lides; the former when broken confifts of many fmall unequal cubes, but the bafalt does not féparate in regular parts, &c. ccc.
Nature's fecond method to produce regular forms is that of cruf-ting the outer furface of a melted mals. By a fudclen refrigeration Nature, to effect this purpofc, makes ufe   of   polyedrous   and irregular
forms.
forms. If we fuppofe a confiderable bed, which is become fluid by fire, and fpread over a plain, it evidently appears that the furface muft firft of all lofe the degree of heat requifite for melting* and begin to congeal ; but the cold requifite for this pur pole like-wife contracts the uppermoft congealed ftratum into a narrower fpace, and confequently caufes it to feparate from the remaining liquid mals, as the fide expoJéd to the air is already too ftiff to give way. In this manner a ftratum is produced running in a parallel direction with the whole mafs, others ftill are produced by the fame caufe, in proportion as the refrigeration penetrates deeper.
Hence we may, in my opinion, very plainly fee how a bed may be divided into ftrata. In the fame manner the refrigeration advances on the fides, which confequently divides the ftrata into polyedrous pieces of pillars, which can hardly ever be exactly fquarc, as the ftrongeft refrigeration into the inner parts of the mafs advances almoft in a diagonal line from the cor-B b uers.
nors. If we add to this, that a large mafs cannot be equal throughout its compofition, nor every where liquid in the fame degree, it will be eafy to dillo ver the caufe of feveral irregularities. If the depth of the bed is very confiderable, in proportion to its breadth, prifmatic pillars, without crofs-divifions, are produced, at lead lengthways from the uppermoft furface downwards.
The third way is perfectly fimilar to the preceding in refpect to the effect, but is different from it by the mafs being foaked with water, and by the buriling of it afunder, being the effect of the contraction whilfl it is drying. If we fuppofe fuch a bed to be fpread over a level fpace, the drying advances in the fame manner as the refrigeration in the former cafe.
This feparation into ftrata properly happens when a confiderable quantity of clay enters into the whole compolition, becaufc the clay decreafes more than any other kind of earth in drying.
Wc
We muft now examine which of thefe two ways may beft ferve to explain the manner in which the bafalts are produced* for it is hardly poflible that they fliould have been formed by cryftallization.
However well founded the opinion may appear of deducing thern from a melted fubftance, feveral very confiderable objections however may be railed againft it, winch I fliall not forget to mention. It feems therefore more credible to me, that they have been produced out of their fubftance whilft it was yet foft, or at leaft not too hard to be lbftencd by exhalations. If we therefore fuppofe that a bed is fpread over a place where a volcano begins to work, it is evident that a great quantity of the water, always prefent on thefe occa* fions, is driven upwards in exhalations or vapours ; thefe it is Well known pof-fefs a penetrating foftening power, by means of which they alfo produce their firft effect; but when they are increafed to a fuflicicnt quantity, they force this tough moift fubftance B b 2 up-
upwards, which then gradually falls, and during this time burfts in the manner defcribed above.
My reaibns for this opinion are dieie ; firft, we do not find the internal grain of the bafalts melted or vitrified, which however foon happens by fufion, and for which purpofe only a very fmall degree of fire is requiilte. It confequently is very hard to explain how this fubftance could have been fo fluid, that no traces of bubbles appear in it (at leaft I have not been able to difcover any after the niccft examination into the Scotch and Icelandic bafalts) and yet when broken appear dull and uneven. I know very well that lava is feldom vitrified within ; but the great number of bubbles and pores which are found in the whole mafs, are more than fufficient proofs than it has not been perfectly melted to its fmalleft parts, but has only been brought to be near fluid.
Secondly, the bafalts fo much re-femble the finer trapp, both in reipect to their grain and original composition,
C 3S9 ]
ii tion, that they can hardly be diftin-guilhed in final! fragments, as will be more plainly proved in the compa-rifon which I will make hereafter. See N° 24.
But the trapp in all probability has never been melted, at leaft not in thofe parts where I have had opportunity 3 of examining it.
Almoft in all the Well Gothic fl ratified mountains, the uppermost ftra-tum is trapp ; and it miiit be well obferved that it always lies upon black allum flate. Is it therefore credible that this fubftance, which in many places extend above a hundred yards, can have been perfectly melted, without caufing the flate lying beneath it to lofe fome part of its blackuefs, even in thofe places where they touch one another, as this effect may be produced in a fmall culinary fire ?
There is befides a finer kind of trapp, which is generally found in veins or loads, and frequently in very antient mountains, where not the leaft traces of fubterraneous fire are to be feen.
B b 3 The
The bafalt mountains feem to be very ancient, at leaft I do not know that the age of any one is afcertained. Should they then be fo old, that the fubftance of the trapp was not yet perfectly hardened, when were they produced ? Befides, we frequently find to this day clayey fubftances at a great depth, which are fo foft that they may be fcraped by the nail, but afterwards become very hard when expofed to the air.
There have without doubt been many eruptions of fire on the ifle of Staffa, as the fituation of the pillars and their being removed out of their places evidently prove.
You, Sir, have likewife brought a very clear proof of this from thence, which is a piece of bafalt, that on the exteriorly is full of hollows, and in a manner burnt.
A hard fubftance, when expofed to a degree of heat infufRcient to melt the whole piece, may however be attacked by it in fome parts of the furface moft liable to become fluid.
The
The mixture of a large mafs is feldom everywhere fo uniform, that fome parts fliould not be more liable to melt than others.
Crooked pillars may be produced as well by the drying as the refrigeration of a liquid mafs ; for this purpole it is only neceffary that the furface fliould be bent, as the ftratum always runs in a parallel direction with it.
From what I have hitherto faid you will perceive it is my opinion, that the bafalts have been produced by the afliftance of a fubterraneous fire, but that it is not yet determined whether they have been rent afunder after the fufion, or by drying : this laft however appears more credible to me on account of the reafons I have mentioned. For to fpeak ftricfcly, the fubftances inclofed in the bafalts, though they fliould even be volcanic, do not yet with certainty prove a preceding fufion, as a fubftance fof-tened by water may be as proper for it as one fufed by fire. I am however very far from being inclined to B b 4 main-
t   39- 1
maintain my opinion any farther than it agrees with certain experiments and experience.
Truth will fooner or later be difcovered ; and 1 know nothing more derogatory to the honour of a natural h morian, than having wilfully ob-ftructed its paffage.
I will now give a more full defer! ption of the bafalts and different kinds of trapp which you have brought from Staffa and Iceland.
24. Bafalt from Staffa.—The piece prefented to me is a priimatic hexagonal fragment, three fides of which are almoft of equal dimenfions, and are connected with one another; two others are larger, and are feparated from one another by the fixt h and fmallefl ; it is a little concave at the top, and convex at the bottom.
Trapp is generally found in fquare irregular cubes, whence it has mofl: probably obtained its denomination, on account of lome fimilarity with flones made ufe of for flair-cafes.
[f
It is alfo found in prifmatic triangular forms, though rarely, as alfo in the form of immenfe pillars. Of this kind are thofe called Traeleftenar, oppofite Bragnum, at the foot of the flanne-berg, which have fe par a ted themfelves from the remaining part of the bed; and in 1759» when I fir 11 faw them, formed an angle of about eight degrees with the plumb-line.
The bafalt from Staffa, when newly broken, is of a blackifli grey, mining, and fmall-fcaled ; and I have difcovered with the microfcope fome fmall white particles fprinkled up and down.
The fineft trapp is perfectly fimi-lar when broken, only of a lighter colour, which proceeds from the greater quantity of white particles.
The furface decays to a grey-yellow loofe cruft, which lofes itfelf in the more folid mafs.
The fine trapp decays in the fame manner.
The bafalt when ftruck with the flee! hardly gives fire, though a (park
may
may now and then be obtained with difficulty.
This fame circumftance may be obferved of the trapp.
Its fpecific weight is about 3000, and that of the trapp about 2990.
It becomes very beautiful by cutting, polifhing, and grinding.
Likewife the more fine kind of trapp.
It yields an afh-coloured powder.
The trapp yields rather a powder of a more light colour.
It foon melts to black glafly (lags.
The trapp likewife.
The bafalt is attacked by fal fodæ with an effervefcence which foon ceafes, and though fome feparation enfues, the greater part however remains un-dilfolved. Borax perfectly fol ves it without effervefcence, and gives a clear iron-coloured glafs. It is lblved with great difficulty by fufible urinous fait, and whilft cooling becomes of a whitifh grey, and not tran-fparent.
The fame effects are produced by thefe acids upon the trapp.
2 One
One hundred parts of bafalt very finely powdered, and feveral times digelted with frefh aqua regia, and then well waflied and dried, leave fixty-eight parts undiffolved.
The remainder of this {hews a little effervefcence before it unites with the fal fodæ, and diffolves very little. It is diffolved with ealé by borax, and with difficulty by fufible urinous fait. It feems therefore to be a mixture of filiceous and gemmcous earth.
The folution gives by precipitation with lixivium fanguinis as much Pruf-fian blue as is equal to twenty-fix parts in i oo of iron ; though the bafalt, by being tried in the ufual manner in the crucible, does not yield above ten in loo. This proves that lixivium fanguinis affords the moft exact method of affaying iron ore.
When at laft the folution is precipitated with cauftic volatile alkali, after the iron has been feparated by lixivium fanguinis, faturated with acid, pure argillaceous earth is obtained.
Some
Sometimes a little calcareous earth appears after a preceding precipitation ; when diflblved fal fodæ is added ; but fometimes not the fmallefl traces of it can be difcovered, even with the acid of fugar, which is however the fafefl method hitherto known of dif-covenng it. 'fhe calcareous earth feems therefore to be accidental. This is however very certain, that the interfdces between the pillars are fumctimcs found filled up with calcareous fpar.
The trapp is exactly of the fair e nature, and contains nearly the fame allay, lb that the experiments differ only one or a half part in one hundred. The mofl confiderable difference confifls in the calcareous earth appearing here more vifibly, fo that generally a flight effervefcence is obferved when an acid is poured on the powder.
25. Bafalt from Hvitara, near Skal-holt, in Iceland.—The piece in my polleflion is too fmall to difcover its form j only a part of the outfide can be diftinguifhed.    When frefh broken
it
it réfémbles the bafalt from Staffa, though fomething may be obferved in it which is very feldom difcovered in the läft. Thefe are fmall round cavities, not larger than pins heads, thinly fcattcred in fome places, as like-wile on the outfide. All thefe cavities are filled up with a white, green, or brown powder.
May not thefe perhaps have been fome particles of a fubftance, which eafily diflblving was become liquid, though the whole mafs had not a fufticient degree of heat to melt it ?
But whence can thefe cavities be lifted with this powder ? In the midft of fo folic! a mafs, no decay feems to be pol li ble.
The fubftance of the bafalt itfelf produces a little effervefcence with ial fodæ, and feparates without being vifi-bly diflblved. It cliffolves in borax, as likewife in fuflble urinous fait, although with more difficulty. By the common method of proving it in the crucible it yields ten parts in one hundred of iron.    The fame cireumftanees may
be
be obferved in trying the powder that fills up the cavities; it only feems to melt a little ealier than the folid fubftance furrounding it.
26. The bafalt from Langarnas perfectly refembles coarfe trapp,though it has more white particles, and forne^ times cryftallizatious as large as a cherry-Hone; the dark-grey and white parts prove to be entirely of the fame nature by the blow-pipe, becomes fluid by irlelf, and produces a ludden effervefcence with fal fodx, but without being quite diflblved by it : it is exactly as the preceding fort.
27. Black, folid glofly trapp, knotty within, and refernbling wood in its internal Itructure, being full of filaments. Many pieces are grown to a cruit of pumice on one fide or another, though their edges are quite frelh and fmooth; whence we may conclude, that they themfelves have not been melted, but have either been thrown intothelava, which was already burnt out, or that the lava has flowed over them: fome part of it however
feems
feems to have been more attacked by the fire.
The manner in which the fire and acids operate upon this trapp, is exactly the fame as with the preceding bafalt. There are likewife fome grains fcattered in it refernbling quarz, which are not fol ved by fal fodæ, nor does it caufe any effervefcence; borax and fufible urinous fait entirely dif-folves them, though flowly.
28. A compact dark-brown trapp from Vido, the furface of which is glalfy and uneven, as if it had been made fluid by fire. It muft alfo be obferved, that cryftallizatious of frefh pyrites are frequently found in thefe glafly rough pieces. The glalfy fuftance eafily becomes fluid with fome ebullition, almoft like fliirl; befides, it exhibits the fame circumftances with acids as the preceding.
You will fee, Sir, by this long let-ter, that in the eruptions in Iceland argillaceous and filiceous fubftances have been principally concerned, as has been the cafe in other parts. I know very well   that  Mr. Beaumc
main-
maintains, that filex might be made to afford allum with acid of vitriol after it has been diffolved in liquor fili-ciim with fal fodæ. But when the fufions are made in veflels which contain no argillaceous earth, no allnm can be obtained with acid of vitriol, which however may be obtained when the vegetable alkali is kept fluid during a. confiderable time in a common crucible, becaufe the alkali diflblves fome part of theveflel itfelf. Pure filiceous earth is intirely induToluble by itfelf in acid of vitriol, let it be treated in any manner whatfoever.
Let this account of thefe dreadful devaluations be fufficient.
Homo naturae minifter et interpres, tantum facit et intelligit, quantum de naturæ ordine, re vel mente obfervave-rit, nee amplius fcit aut poteft. Baco.
FINIS.