ISSN 0024-3922
LINGUISTICA LIV
SKUPNI EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI OKVIR -NAVZKRIŽNI POGLEDI
Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues -
regards croisés
Ljubljana 2014
Revijo sta ustanovila fStanko Škerlj in fMilan Grošelj Revue fondée par fStanko Škerlj et fMilan Grošelj
Glavna in odgovorna urednica - Rédactrice en chef Martina Ožbot
Številko LIV uredila - Responsable du numéro LIV Meta Lah
Svetovalni odbor - Comité consultatif Diana Berber Irabien, Jason Blake, Maria Bortoluzzi, Lilijana Burcar, Anna Bu^ová, Ivana Cindric, Janet Enever, Helga Fasciano, Tomislav Frleta, Renata Geld, Rita Green, Ada Gruntar Jermol, Marija Javor Briški, Rosa María Jiménez Catalán, Ana Jovanovic, Violeta Jurkovič, Melita Koletnik, Gun Lundberg, Marija Lütze-Miculinic, Jasmina Markič, Marina Mattheoudakis, Jelena Mihaljevic Djigunovic, Tamara Mikolič Južnič, Igor Rižnar, Mojca Schlamberger Brezar, Stefan Schneider, Malgorzata Spychala, Marko Stabej, Thomas Szende, Sauli Takala, Mira Trajkova, Erwin Tschirner, Primož Vitez, Marjeta Vrbinc, Julijana Vučo, Ana Zwitter Vitez.
Izid revije je finančno podprla JAVNA AGENCIJA ZA RAZISKOVALNO DEJAVNOST RS
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© Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, 2014. Vse pravice pridržane. © Université de Ljubljana, Faculté des Lettres, 2014. Tous droits réservés.
CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana
811(4)(082)
SKUPNI evropski jezikovni okvir - navzkrižni pogledi = Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues - regards croisés / [uredila Meta Lah]. - Ljubljana : Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete = Presses scientifiques de la Faculté des Lettres, 2014. - (Linguistica, ISSN 0024-3922 ; 54)
ISBN 978-961-237-724-3 1. Vzp. stv. nasl. 2. Lah, Meta, 1963277892096
SOMMAIRE - VSEBINA
PRÉSENTATION DU VOLUME............................................................................... 9
Vesna Cigan
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS' MOTIVATION AND THEIR SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
Povezava med motivacijo in družbeno-demografskimi značilnostmi pri študentih..... 11
Urška Sešek, Janez Skela, Tomi Deutsch
THE EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO (ELP) IN SLOVENIAN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVE Evropski jezikovni listovnik (EJL) v slovenskem osnovnem šolstvu: perspektiva učiteljev ................................................................................................. 31
Brigita Kosevski Puljic
WIE TIEF GREIFT DER GEMEINSAME EUROPÄISCHE REFERENZRAHMEN FÜR SPRACHEN (GER) IN DIE AKTUELLE LEISTUNGSMESSUNG DER SCHREIBKOMPETENZ IM DEUTSCHEN ALS FREMDSPRACHE? -ZUM STAND IN SLOWENIEN
Kakšen vpliv ima skupni evropski jezikovni okvir (SEJO) na vrednotenje
znanja pisne zmožnosti pri pouku nemščine v Sloveniji? ........................................ 47
Andreja Retelj
DIE BEURTEILUNG VON LEHRWERKEN FÜR DEUTSCH ALS FREMDSPRACHE ANHAND DES GEMEINSAMEN EUROPÄISCHEN REFERENZRAHMENS FÜR SPRACHEN: EINE EMPIRISCHE UNTERSUCHUNG ÜBER DIE ENTWICKLUNG DER LEXIKALISCHEN KOMPETENZ
Vrednotenje učbenikov za nemščino glede na skupni evropski referenčni okvir:
učenje, poučevanje: empirična raziskava o razvoju leksikalne zmožnosti .............. 61
Darja Mertelj
SYNTAX MENTIONED SEVEN TIMES IN THE CEFR - AND HOW MANY
TIMES AT SCHOOL, IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS?
Sedemkrat skladnja v SEJO - in koliko krat v šoli, pri pouku tujih jezikov? .......... 77
Marija Kusevska
CONNECTING DEVELOPMENT OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE WITH THE CEFR
Razvoj pragmatične kompetence v povezavi s SEJO............................................... 97
Pawel Sickinger, Klaus Peter Schneider
PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND THE CEFR: PRAGMATIC PROFILING AS A LINK BETWEEN THEORY AND LANGUAGE USE Pragmatična zmožnost in SEJO: pragmatično profiliranje kot vez med teorijo in jezikovno rabo..................................................................................................... 113
Marija Spajic, Yvonne Vrhovac
CADRE EUROPÉEN COMMUN DE RÉFÉRENCE POUR LES LANGUES: ANALYSE DES COMPÉTENCES DE « PRODUCTION ÉCRITE » DU NIVEAU C1 DANS LE CONTEXTE SCOLAIRE CROATE Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir v hrvaškem kontekstu: analiza zmožnosti pisnega izražanja na ravni C1 ................................................................................. 129
Mateja Dagarin Fojkar
LITERACY DEVELOPMENT IN COURSE BOOKS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH IN THE SECOND CYCLE OF SLOVENIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL Razvijanje opismenjevanja v učbenikih za učenje angleščine v drugem triletju slovenske osnovne šole ............................................................................... 153
Daša Stanič
LE UNITÄ FRASEOLOGICHE NEI LIBRI DI TESTO D'ITALIANO COME LINGUA STRANIERA; Analisi di libri di testo graduati secondo i livelli di competenza linguistica del Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue (QCER)
Frazeološke enote v učbenikih za italijanščino kot tuj jezik; analiza učbenikov glede na ravni skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira (SEJO) .......................... 167
Mojca Jarc
THE CEFR PERSPECTIVE ON GENRE INFORMATION IN FRENCH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES TEXTBOOKS
Pogled na žanrske vsebine v učbenikih z vidika SEJO........................................... 189
Nives Lenassi
ASPETTI LESSICALI E SEMANTICI NEL QUADRO COMUNE EUROPEO DI RIFERIMENTO PER LE LINGUE E LA LORO PRESENZA NELL'INSEGNAMENTO DELLA CORRISPONDENZA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA Leksikalni in semantični vidiki v skupnem evropskem jezikovnem okviru in njihova prisotnost pri poučevanju italijanske poslovne korespondence ................. 207
Claire Bourgignon
DU CONTRÔLE DES CONNAISSANCES À L'ÉVALUATION DE LA COMPÉTENCE : CHANGEMENT DE PARADIGME ET MODIFICATION DES REPRÉSENTATIONS
Od vrednotenja znanj do vrednotenja zmožnosti: sprememba paradigme
in predstav............................................................................................................... 229
Karmen Pižorn
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CEFR-BASED SCALE FOR ASSESSING YOUNG FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS' WRITING SKILLS Razvoj ocenjevalne lestvice, prilagojene na okvir sejo za ocenjevanje pisnih
spretnosti mlajših učencev ..................................................................................... 241
Cvetka Sokolov
SELF-EVALUATION OF RATER BIAS IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION ASSESSMENT
Samovrednotenje pristranskosti ocenjevalcev pisnih sestavkov............................. 261
Ina Ferbežar, Nataša Pirih Svetina, Mateja Lutar
THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE:
A REFERENCE FOR SLOVENE
Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir: referenca za slovenščino.................................... 277
Gašper Ilc, Veronika Rot Gabrovec, Andrej Stopar RELATING THE SLOVENIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS TO THE CEFR: FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS
Umeščanje izpitov iz angleškega jezika na splošni in poklicni maturi v skupni evropski jezikovni okvir (SEJO): ugotovitve in njihov vpliv................................. 297
Marjana Šifrar Kalan, Andreja Trenc
LA CALIBRACIÓN DE LA COMPRENSIÓN LECTORA DENTRO DEL EXAMEN NACIONAL DE ELE SEGÚN EL MCER: ALGUNAS CUESTIONES DE EVALUACIÓN
Umestitev bralnega razumevanja maturitetnega izpita iz španščine v
skupni evropski jezikovni okvir: nekateri vidiki vrednotenja ................................ 309
Silva Bratož
TEACHING ENGLISH LOCATIVE PREPOSITIONS: A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Poučevanje angleških predlogov v funkciji izražanja krajevno-prostorskih razmerij: kognitivni pogled..................................................................................... 325
Silvana Orel Kos
DISCOVERING ENGLISH TENSE-BACKSHIFT PARAMETERS THROUGH DISCOURSE
Odkrivanje parametrov sosledice glagolskih časov v angleščini skozi diskurz ..... 339
Uršula Krevs Birk
DEUTSCHE UND SLOWENISCHE SPRACHLICHE BEZIEHUNGEN UND INTERKULTURELLE LINGUISTIK: BEISPIEL INTERNATIONALISMEN Nemško-slovenska jezikovna razmerja in medkulturno jezikoslovje: primer internacionalizmov ...................................................................................... 353
Urška Valenčič Arh
„AUF DEM RICHTIGEN WEG SEIN" - PHRASEODIDAKTISCHE ANSÄTZE IM DAF-UNTERRICHT
„Biti na pravi poti" - frazeodidaktični pristopi pri pouku nemščine kot
tujega jezika ............................................................................................................ 365
Barbara Pihler Ciglič
LOS MARCADORES VERBALES DE MODALIDAD EPISTÉMICA Y SU PAPEL EN EL DESARROLLO DE LAS COMPETENCIAS COMUNICATIVAS Glagolski kazalniki epistemične modalnosti in njihova vloga pri razvoju sporazumevalnih jezikovnih zmožnosti ................................................................. 381
Gemma Santiago Alonso
EL ANÁLISIS CONTRASTIVO COMO INSTRUMENTO DIDÁCTICO: LOS PROBLEMAS DE ADQUISICIÓN DEL ARTÍCULO EN ESPAÑOL POR APRENDICES ESLOVENOS EN LOS DIFERENTES NIVELES DEL MCER Kontrastivna analiza kot didaktični instrument: problemi slovenskih govorcev pri usvajanju španskega člena na različnih nivojih skupnega evopskega jezikovnega okvira.................................................................................................. 397
Ivana Franic
DE LA MÉTATAXE À LA MÉDIATION LINGUISTIQUE : LA STRUCTURE OUBLIÉE ?
Od metatakse do jezikovne mediacije - pozabljena struktura? .............................. 411
Alenka Kocbek
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF TRANSLATION FOR FLT
Prevajanje kot neizkoriščeni potencial v poučevanju tujega jezika........................ 425
Sabine Hoffmann, Giolo Fele
PROCESSI DI TRADUZIONE E SCRITTURA ELEMENTARE NELLA LINGUA STRANIERA TEDESCA
Procesi prevajanja in pisanje na osnovni ravni pri nemščini kot tujem jeziku ....... 439
Chikako Shigemori Bučar, Hyeonsook Ryu, Nagisa Moritoki Škof, Kristina Hmeljak Sangawa
THE CEFR AND TEACHING JAPANESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE SEJO in poučevanje japonščine kot tujega jezika................................................... 455
Nguyen Viet Anh
ENJEUX DE L'INTÉGRATION DU CECRL AUX UNIVERSITÉS DE LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES AU VIETNAM
Izzivi vpeljave skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira na univerze za
tuje jezike v vietnamu ............................................................................................. 471
Rong Zhang Femandez
L'ENSEIGNEMENT DU CHINOIS DANS UNE CLASSE HÉTÉROGÈNE: STRATÉGIES ET PRATIQUES
Poučevanje kitajščine v heterogenem razredu: strategije in pristopi ...................... 485
Ada Gruntar Jermol NOTE DE LECTURE
Recenzija................................................................................................................. 499
PRÉSENTATION DU VOLUME
Depuis sa parution en 2001, le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues a beaucoup influencé la sphère de l'enseignement et de l'apprentissage des langues étrangères. Une bible pour certains, un référentiel parfois contestable pour d'autres, il introduit des concepts qui ont des répercussions en Europe et ailleurs, comme nous allons le voir dans le présent volume.
La première partie du volume est consacrée à l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues et au développement de diverses compétences langagières. En premier lieu, nous publions l'article de Vesna Cigan qui apporte les résultats d'une large recherche portant sur l'apprentissage, la motivation et l'auto-évaluation des apprenants croates. Urška Sešek, Janez Skela et Tomi Deutsch décrivent l'introduction du Portfolio dans les écoles primaires slovènes et se focalisent surtout sur les représentations des enseignants. Brigita Kosevski Puljic parle des compétences de l'expression écrite et Andreja Retelj de la compétence lexicale, les deux dans le domaine de l'allemand langue étrangère. Darja Mertelj s'interroge sur la place de la grammaire - et plus particulièrement des structures syntaxiques - dans l'approche actionnelle, Marija Kusevska consacre son article au développement de la compétence pragmatique, ce qui est aussi le thème de la contribution de Pawel Sickinger et Klaus-Peter Schneider qui présentent leur projet de recherche, Pragmatic Profiling. Marija Spajic et Yvonne Vrhovac dépeignent les compétences en production écrite des apprenants croates au niveau C1.
Suivent deux articles ayant pour thème l'analyse de manuels de langues étrangères : Mateja Dagarin Fojkar a analysé des manuels, utilisés pour l'enseignement de l'anglais langue étrangère dans les collèges slovènes, et s'est focalisée sur le développement des compétences de lecture/écriture et Daša Stanič, elle, a analysé les unités phraséologiques dans les manuels d'italien.
Les auteurs des deux articles suivants se proposent d'analyser l'enseignement de la langue sur objectifs spécifiques. Mojca Jarc analyse les genres dans les manuels de FOS et Nives Lenassi la correspondance commerciale dans les manuels d'italien.
L'évaluation est au centre de six articles ; Claire Bourguignon postule pour un changement des représentations en matière d'évaluation, Karmen Pižorn décrit le développement des grilles pour évaluer la production écrite des jeunes apprenants et Cvetka Sokolov remet en cause les erreurs des évaluateurs. Les auteurs des trois autres articles dans cette section Ina Ferbežar, Nataša Pirih Svetina, Mateja Lutar, Gašper Ilc, Veronika Rot Gabrovec, Marjana Šifrar Kalan et Andreja Trenc décrivent les projets se proposant d'évaluer les examens nationaux du baccalauréat par rapport au CECRL.
La section suivante est consacrée à des thèmes plus orientés vers l'enseignement de la langue et la traduction. Silva Bratož retrace une perspective cognitive pour l'enseignement des prépositions de lieu, Silvana Orel Kos présente l'approche discursive de l'enseignement/apprentissage du discours indirect, Urška Valenčič Arh consacre sa contribution à l'enseignement des idiomes en allemand langue étrangère et Barbara Pihler réfléchit sur le rôle tenu par les marqueurs temporels dans le développement de la compétence de communication. Gemma Santiago Alonso présente les avantages
de l'analyse contrastive, en se basant sur ses expériences et les problèmes des apprenants slovènes ayant choisi l'espagnol comme langue étrangère. Ivana Franic parle de la médiation linguistique, Alenka Kocbek du potentiel de la traduction dans l'enseignement d'une langue étrangère. Le dernier dans cette série d'articles est celui de Sabine Hoffmann et Giolo Fele ; ils présentent les résultats d'une étude ayant pour thème la recherche des processus de traductions auprès des apprenants débutants.
En dernier lieu figure une partie tout aussi intéressante, celle consacrée au CECRL et aux langues non-européennes : Chikako Shigemori Bučar, Hyonsook Ryu, Nagisa Moritoki Škof et Kristina Hmeljak Sangawa parlent du rôle du CECRL dans l'enseignement du japonais comme langue étrangère, Nguyen Viet Anh présente les enjeux de l'intégration du Cadre dans les universités de langues étrangères au Vietnam et Rong Zhang Fernandez dépeint l'enseignement du chinois dans une classe hétérogène en France.
Le thème du présent volume de Lingüistica, le CECRL, a - vu le nombre des résumés envoyés à la rédaction et celui des articles publiés - suscité un vif intérêt parmi les didacticiens et les linguistes. Nous espérons avoir ouvert de nouvelles perspectives et proposer des pistes de recherche pour le futur.
Meta Lah
Département des langues et littératures romanes Faculté des lettres, Université de Ljubljana
Vesna Cigan*
University College Effectus, College for Finance and Law, Zagreb
UDK [37.015.3:005.32]:811.111'243 DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.11-30
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS' MOTIVATION AND THEIR SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
1 INTRODUCTION
The main focus of this paper is to examine the intensity of students' intrinsic and/or extrinsic learning motivation, as well as how this is related to their socio-demographic characteristics. As an innate human quality, and a central psychological concepts, motivation has been studied in many scientific disciplines, from many different perspectives: psychological, sociological and social-psychological, among others. Self-determination theory (Deci/Ryan 2000a: 68) explains human motivation and personality using traditional empirical methods, and focusing on human resources for the development of personality and behaviour regulation. A motivated person is characterized by the possession of energy, a strong interest in taking action, goal orientation and perseverance. By contrast, a person lacking inspiration and impetus to act is considered unmotivated. The types of factors that motivate a person to undertake an activity are extremely diverse. People can be motivated because they value the activity they are undertaking very highly, or because there is a strong external coercion. Students can be motivated to learn because of their inherent curiosity and interest in acquiring knowledge, or for external reasons, such as achieving good grades or positive feedback (approval) from their parents. Based on these different reasons and/or goals, self-determination theory (hereafter referred to as SDT) distinguishes between two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic (Deci/Ryan 2000: 54).
To further explain extrinsic motivation and environmental factors, Deci and Ryan (2000: 61) introduced, alongside self-determination theory, another sub-theory, referred to as organismic integration theory. According to this theory, on the far left of the self-determination continuum (Figure 1) is amotivation, the state in which there is no interest in pursuing an activity, and at the far right end there is intrinsic motivation, which is characterised by a high degree of autonomy and intrinsic regulation. Extrinsic motivation, categorised by the degree of autonomy, is situated on the continuum between amotivation and intrinsic motivation.
Author's address: Visoko učilište Effectus, visoka škola za financije i pravo (University College Effectus, College for Finance and Law), Kennedyjev trg 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, E-mail: vesna. cigan@gmail.com.
*
Amotivation
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Extrinsic motivation
External regulation Introjected regulation
Identified regulation Integrated regulation
Intrinsic motivation
control
self-determination
Figure 1: Self-determination continuum (Deci/Ryan 2000: 61) (adapted)
The first substantial studies on foreign language learning motivation appeared in the works of Canadian social psychologists, Gardner and Lambert (Gardner 2010: 205), who presented their theory of integrative and instrumental motivation, within the framework of the social psychological approach in their book, Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning, published in 1972. Integrative motivation is associated with a positive attitude towards the target language group, a desire to interact and the "willingness to be like valued members of the language community" (Gardner 1972: 271). Instrumental motivation is associated with the potential pragmatic benefits of foreign language proficiency such as, for instance, a better job or a higher salary. As a sub-theory of self-determination theory, Deci and Ryan (2000: 58) presented cognitive evaluation theory, to explain social and environmental factors that cause variability in intrinsic motivation. Social-contextual events that are conducive to feelings of competence during action can enhance intrinsic motivation, because they fulfil a basic psychological need—the need for competence.
The sociolinguistic component affects substantially all language communication between members of different cultures who, acting as social agents in a specific environment, form part of a wider social context. The approach to language learning and teaching, adopted in the Common European Framework of References (CEFR), is based on a "fundamental principle of the Council of Europe, that the methods to be employed in language learning, teaching and research are those considered to be most effective in reaching the objectives agreed, in the light of the needs of the individual learners in their social context" (CEFR 2001: 142).
1.1 Motivation Research in Croatia
Jelena Mihaljevic Djigunovic, an author who has been predominantly engaged in the research on foreign language learning motivation in Croatia (1995, 1999, 2007), has explored the motivation for learning English, attitudes towards the language and the learning context, as well as secondary school and college students' attitudes towards themselves as foreign language learners. In addition to pragmatic-communicative and integrative motivations, which have been the subject of much research, the author
introduced an affective motivation type, found in students who learn English because they like the language, especially owing to its acoustic model. The results of this research show that initial attitudes towards learning English are extremely positive and that, under favourable conditions, they remain very positive.
Marko Palekcic (2004) has carried out empirical research into students' interest in and motivation for learning in general, and examined Croatian and German students' regulatory styles and motives for choosing their study programmes. Personal and social motives were found to be more frequent in Croatian students, in contrast to external motives, which were less present. Social orientation plays a more important role in Croatian students, who show a stronger interest in their study programmes. They also show higher values for identified regulation, as a form of motivation for learning, which means that they have identified with their study programmes, and that acquiring a degree on completion of their studies has extreme personal importance.
Katica Balenovic (2011) explored the motivation of adult learners of English in the context of globalization. According to the results of her research, adult learners show four types of orientations, or reasons, for learning English: affective-cultural, commu-nicative-integrative, professional and instrumental-technological. These reasons do not differ significantly in relation to the environment in which students live.
Drawing on the aforementioned research studies, theoretical concepts of external and internal motivation were the main building blocks of the framework for this research. Although null hypothesis was made in favour of the external motivation, more evidence has been found with regard to intrinsic motivation.
2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1	Aim
The aim of this research was to examine the existence and intensity of the relationship between indicators of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and the socio-demograph-ic characteristics of the respondents. In particular, the aim was to explore the intensity of the relationship between each type of motivation and the type of upper secondary education completed, gender, parents' education, as well as the reasons for choosing the study programme, in relation to the motivation type and intensity. The relationship between each type of motivation, self-assessment of motivation for learning English, and students' satisfaction with their chosen study programme, was also examined.
2.2	Sample
The survey was conducted in March 2012, at seven higher education institutions, in four cities in Croatia:
1.	Sveuciliste u Splitu, Sveucilisni odjel za strucne studije, Nastavni centar, Zagreb (University of Split, University Department of Professional Studies, Teaching Centre, Zagreb)
2.	Veleuciliste "Hrvatsko Zagorje", Krapina (Polytechnic "Hrvatsko Zagorje" in Krapina)
3.	Veleuciliste u Karlovcu, Karlovac (Polytechnic in Karlovac, Karlovac)
4.	Visoka poslovna skola Libertas, Zagreb (Business College Libertas, Zagreb)
5.	Visoka skola za ekonomiju, poduzetnistvo i upravljanje Nikola Subie Zrinski, Zagreb (College for Economics, Entrepreneurship and Management Nikola Subie Zrinski, Zagreb)
6.	Visoka skola za poslovanje i upravljanje, s pravom javnosti Baltazar Adam Krcelie, Zapresie (College for Business and Management Baltazar Adam Krecelie, Zapresie)
7.	Visoko uciliste Effectus - visoka skola za financije i pravo, Zagreb (Effectus College for Finance and Law, Zagreb)
The sample comprised 604 respondents (full-time and part-time students) of whom 253 were male (41.9%) and 351 female (58.1%). Third-year students made up the largest proportion of the sample: 295 (49.3%). This was followed by second-year students: 201 (33.3%), and fourth-year and fifth-year students: 105 (17.4%)1. Considering the fact that the higher education institutions that participated in the survey are located in four counties in north-western and central Croatia, with a majority in the city of Zagreb, this is a convenient sample.
2.3 Measuring Instruments
For the purpose of this research, a survey questionnaire was developed, consisting of four parts (Cigan/Slogar 2012). The first part includes three questions, designed to examine the type of upper secondary education completed, secondary education grade point average, and factors influencing the respondent's choice of the study programme. All questions were closed-ended multiple choice questions, with the exception of the last question, which examined the factors affecting the decision, which was open-ended. The second part of the survey contained an instrument with ten separate items, which measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning. In the process of instrument development, the Self-Regulation Questionnaire for Adolescent Students (Skalen zur motivationalen Regulation beim Lernen von Schülerinnen und Schülern -überarbeitete Fassung, Müller/Thomas 2011) was adapted, and the items were formulated according to the tenets of self-determination theory (Deci/Ryan 2000: 55). Items measuring intrinsic motivation focus on respondents' reported satisfaction and comfort associated with the process of learning and language class activities. The second set of items, measuring extrinsic motivation, examines externally regulated behaviour (external, introjected and identified regulation).
The third part of the questionnaire consisted of two instruments that examined respondents' attitudes towards active teaching methods in English language and management classes, as well as students' active inevement in the learning process2. The fourth
1	In further analyses of the results, fourth-year and fifth-year students are presented in the same category (fourth/fifth-year students).
2	Results are presented in detail in the article written by Cigan, V. and Slogar, H. (2012) Attitudes towards Teaching Methods at Higher Education Institutions Aiming to Develop Entrepreneurial Competencies.
part of the questionnaire looked at the self-assessment of motivation for learning English, and further professional development after completion of the study programme, as well as self-assessment of one's satisfaction with the current study programme. Students were asked to specify their motivation intensity and level of satisfaction on a five-point Likert scale. At the end of the questionnaire, there was a set of independent variables which included the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents: gender, year of study and parents' education.
3 RESEARCH RESULTS ANALYSIS
Using SPSS 15.0 software package, univariate and multivariate statistical analyses (descriptive data analysis, correlation analysis, t-test, ANOVA and factor analysis) were performed to analyse the compiled data. Characteristics of the sample are presented first. These are followed by the analyses of the indicators of motivation, self-assessment of motivation for learning English, further professional development after completion of the study programme, and the level of satisfaction with the programme of study.
3.1 Sample Characteristics
The sample comprises 604 respondents, of whom 41.9% are male students and 58.1% female. The majority of them (63.7%) completed vocational education before enrolling in the study programme, while the rest (36.3%) completed grammar school (Table 1). Two-thirds of the respondents (65.4%) achieved a very good final grade average on completion of secondary education, a slightly smaller percentage of them (21%) achieved an excellent grade average, while 13.6% achieved a good grade average (Table 2). Broken down by gender, the data show that a larger portion of female students than male completed grammar school, and that female students achieved higher grades on completion of secondary education than male students.
Type of upper secondary education completed	Frequency	%	Gender	Frequency	%
4-year vocational school	385	63.7	male	179	45.5
			female	206	54.5
Grammar school	219	36.3	male	74	34.8
			female	145	66.2
Total	604	100	-	604	100
Table 1: Type of upper secondary education completed
GPA	Frequency	%	Gender	Frequency	%
Excellent	127	21.0	male	32	25.2
			female	95	74.8
Very good	395	65.4	male	172	43.5
			female	223	46.5
Good	82	13.6	male	49	59.7
			female	33	40.3
Total	604	100.00	-	604	-
Table 2: Secondary education grade point average
The majority of students' parents in this sample have completed secondary education, and more mothers than fathers have only primary school education. Sixty-three percent (63%) of the mothers completed secondary education, while the percentage of fathers in that category is 61.4%. The percentage of fathers holding a university or academy degree (27%) is slightly higher than that of mothers (25.8%). The same trend exists for master's and doctoral degrees (6.1% of fathers and 4.1% of mothers). In terms of the educational attainment of students' parents, one quarter of students come from families where at least one parent has a higher education qualification. The vast majority of parents have completed secondary education, and there is an extremely low percentage of those who have completed primary school education only. The results of previous studies (Palekcic 1985, 2004) show that parents' education has a significant influence on the decision to study, motivation for learning and academic performance.
Figure 1: Parental level of education
In the first part of the questionnaire, examining factors influencing students' choice of the study programme, the respondents were offered six answers, the last of which was open-ended. Almost half of the respondents indicated that it was the desired job
that had a crucial impact in making this decision (47%), followed by failure at another institution (25.7%), and the influence of other people (friends, teachers) in 8.4% of the respondents. Parental influence is ranked fourth (6.1%), followed by personal factors (5.6%). Factors related to higher education institution (4.1%), and a marketing campaign conducted by the higher education institution, occupy the last place, with 3%. The responses to open-ended questions (9.8%) were coded according to two dominant types of factors derived from the collected answers: personal factors and those related to the higher education institution.
3. Indicators of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation for Learning
One of the research objectives was to investigate the type and intensity of students' motivation in general, as well as students' self-assessment of motivation for learning English and further professional development. Another objective was to identify the relationship, if any, between motivation and the following independent variables: the type of upper secondary education completed, secondary education grade point average, year of study, gender, and parents' education, as well as the extent and direction of this relationship.
Students' motivation was examined using instrument 2.4, containing ten items. Five of them measure intrinsic motivation and another five measure extrinsic motivation. Students indicated their degree of agreement with the items on a five-point Likert scale3.
Respondents' answers were ranked according to the mean, and are shown in Table 3.
s		Item	N		M	SD
o S E = HH	Item No					
		I learn because...	Valid	Missing		
2.4.	3.	it will give me better career choices.	601	3	4.36	.778
2.4.	2.	I want to acquire knowledge.	601	3	4.20	.706
2.4.	9.	I want a good grade.	598	6	3.89	1.134
2.4.	6.	I find class activities very interesting.	601	3	3.28	.845
2.4.	10.	I enjoy engaging in classroom activities.	601	3	3.27	.881
2.4.	8.	I simply have to.	598	6	3.16	1.305
2.4.	1.	it's fun.	603	1	2.98	.936
2.4.	7.	I want to do better than my fellow students.	601	3	2.81	1.110
2.4.	4.	I don't want my teacher to think poorly of me.	600	4	2.79	1.164
2.4.	5.	my parents demand that from me.	600	4	2.43	1.185
Table 3: Indicators of motivation for learning
3 ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree.
The top five items, ranked according to the mean, are particularly interesting, because items 1 and 3 (better job and grades) represent both external regulation and identified regulation. In other words, the respondents are motivated for learning by values accepted in their social environment, but also by the conscious valuing of the goal of that activity, which they accept as personally important. Items 2, 4 and 5 represent autonomous behaviour, because the respondents follow their own internal interests.
The overall average motivation score of all respondents (motivation intensity total score = MITS) is 3.23, and the distribution of these results is shown in Figure 2.
100-
75-
tL.
250-1-T "
0,00
Figure 2: Histogram of overall motivation score
Table 4 shows the items ranked according to the mean, by type of motivation. In addition, the average score for the answers to the items, according to types of motivation, was calculated according to types of motivation, and shown in Figures 3 and 4. The mean for intrinsic motivation (IM) is 3.42, and for extrinsic motivation (EM) is 3.04. These average scores were used in further analyses, as dependent variables.
Intrinsic Motivation	M	Extrinsic Motivation	M
2.4.2. I learn because I want to	4.20	2.4.3. I learn because it will give me	4.36
acquire knowledge.		better career choices.	
2.4.6. I learn because I find class	3.28	2.4.9. I learn because I want a good	3.89
activities very interesting.		grade.	
2.4.10. I learn because I enjoy	3.27	2.4.7. I learn because I want to do	2.81
engaging in classroom activities.		better than my fellow students.	
2.4.8. I learn because I simply have	3.16	2.4.4. I learn because I don't want	2.79
to.		my teacher to think poorly of me.	
2.4.1. I learn because it's fun.	2.98	2.4.5. I learn because my parents demand that from me.	2.43
Table 4: Items ranked according to the mean by type of motivation
JL
2,00	4,00	6,00
Figure 4: Histogram of extrinsic motivation total score
A high motivation intensity total score was found in this sample of students. According to types of motivation, the respondents were found to be slightly more intrinsically motivated.
The reliability of the instrument was tested, using Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for each type of motivation. Cronbach's Alpha coefficient indicates an acceptable level of reliability, which means that these two dimensions meet the requirements for further analysis of the results.
Type of Scale	Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient
Indicators of extrinsic motivation	0.621
Indicators of intrinsic motivation	0.782
Table 5: Cronbach's Alpha coefficient values
Factor analysis identified two factors which, together, account for 56% of the total variance. Table 6 shows the initial eigenvalues, percentages and the cumulative percentages of variance, on the basis of which these factors were extracted.
s o S	Initial Eigenvalues			Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings			Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings		
a S o U	Total	% of variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of variance	Cumulative %
1	2.603	32.542	32.542	2.603	32.542	32.542	2.580	32.249	32.249
2	1.873	23.409	55.951	1.873	23.409	55.951	1.896	23.702	55.951
3	.879	10.984	66.935						
4	.725	9.061	75.996						
5	.634	7.920	83.916						
6	.486	6.081	89.997						
7	.433	5.418	95.415						
8	.367	4.585	100.000						
Table 6: Extraction method: principal component analysis
The first factor, intrinsic motivation, accounts for 32.5% of the total variance, and comprises items 2.4.1., 2.4.2., 2.4.6., 2.4.10. The second factor, extrinsic motivation, explains 23.4% of the total variance and includes items 2.4.4., 2.4.5., 2.4.8., and 2.4.9. Table 7 shows factor loadings for each of the items.
According to factor loadings and content characteristics, the items I learn because it will give me better career choices and I learn because I want to do better than my fellow students align equally with both latent dimensions, which makes them unsuitable for further analysis. For that reason, these items were excluded from further analyses.
		Component	
		1	2
2.4.1.	I learn because it's fun.	.776	-.108
2.4.2.	I learn because I want to acquire knowledge.	.716	-.107
2.4.4.	I learn because I don't want my teacher to think poorly of me.	.318	.605
2.4.5.	I learn because my parents demand that from me.	.103	.752
2.4.6.	I learn because I find class activities very interesting.	.772	.059
	Component	
	1	2
2.4.8.	I learn because I simply have to. 2.4.9.	I learn because I want a good grade. 2.4.10.	I learn because I enjoy engaging in classroom activities.	-.240 -.226 .806	.733 .632 .044
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. Rotation converged in 4 iterations.
Table 7: Factor loadings
3.3 Self-Assessment of Motivation for Learning English and Further Professional Development and Satisfaction with the Study Programme
The final research objective was to examine how students assess their motivation for learning English and further professional development, and to what extent they are satisfied with the study programme.
According to the frequency of responses, 40.9% of the respondents are extremely motivated to learn English. 31.6% of the respondents rated their motivation intensity with a four, which means that two-thirds of the respondents are highly motivated to learn English, while 21% of them do not have a clear position. Low motivation intensity was found in 4% of the respondents, and only 2% were completely unmotivated.
How motivated are you to do the following activities: to learn English?
Figure 5: Motivation for learning English
The results of the self-assessment of motivation for further professional development show that 57% of the respondents are extremely motivated for further professional development after completion of the study programme, while 27.5% of them assessed their motivation intensity with a four. 13.4% of the respondents assessed their motivation intensity with a three, 1.3% with a two, while only 0.7% reported that they were not at all motivated for further professional development.
How motivated are you to do the following activities: further professional development after completion of the study programme?
Figure 6: Motivation for further professional development
A sense of satisfaction can enhance motivation, and it is also an important prerequisite to achieving learning outcomes. This was the reason for examining students' satisfaction with the study programme chosen. The data obtained show that students are very satisfied with the study programme they presently attend (M = 3.81): 18.9% of them are highly satisfied, while 48.8% rated their satisfaction with a four. Viewed collectively, 67.7%, or two-thirds of the respondents, are very satisfied, 27.2% of the respondents rated their level of satisfaction with a three, and 4.5% with a two. Only 0.5% of the respondents are not at all satisfied with the study programme.
How satisfied are you with the study programme chosen?
300-
295
Mean = 3.81 Std. Dev. = 0.807 N = 603
0
2 3 4 5
6
Figure 7: Level of satisfaction with the study programme
3.4 Relationship between Indicators of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation for Learning and Socio-Demographic Characteristics
The existence and nature of the relationship between indicators of motivation and so-do-demographic characteristics were examined using correlation analysis, analysis of variance and t-tests.
The t-test showed statistically significant relationships at a significance level of 0.05 between gender and three items from the instrument that measures motivation: 2.4.1. I learn because it's fun, 2.4.3. I learn because it will give me better career choices, 2.4.7. I learn because I want to do better than my fellow students,. Female students scored higher on the first two items, while male students scored higher on item 2.4.7.
The test did not reveal a statistically significant relationship between items from instrument 2.4 and the type of upper secondary education completed, nor between total, intrinsic, and extrinsic motivation and the type of upper secondary education completed.
Using ANOVA for secondary education grade point average as an independent variable, a statistically significant difference was found for items 2.4.2. I learn because I want to acquire knowledge and 2.4.5. I learn because my parents demand that from me. Students who achieved a good grade on completion of their secondary education scored statistically significantly lower on item 2.4.2. than those who achieved a very good grade (F = 4.37, p < 0.05). A statistically significant difference was found for item 2.4.5 between students who achieved a good or a very good grade on completion of secondary education, and those who achieved an excellent grade (F = 6.03, p < 0.05). It can be concluded
that parental influence as an external locus of control is smaller in students who achieved an excellent grade on completion of secondary education. In other words, students with lower grades learn more because of their parents' influence and expectations.
Following that, the relationship between indicators of motivation, i.e. the items from the instrument 2.4, and the year of study was examined. The results of the analysis of variance indicate statistical significance only for item 2.4.1. I learn because it's fun. The difference was found between second-year students and fourth/fifth-year students (F = 4.34, p < 0.05), with the means increasing together with the year of study, up to the fifth year. These results support the conclusion that intrinsic motivation is stronger in senior-year students, and that learning as an activity has a high degree of autonomy and internally-perceived locus of causality.
The analyses did not reveal a statistically significant relationship between parents' education, the items from instrument 2.4., and the average scores for MITS, IM and EM. Similarly, no statistically significant relationship was found between the values of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as dependent variables, and the tested set of independent variables (gender, the type of upper secondary education completed, secondary education grade point average, year of study and parents' education).
3.4.1 Relationship between Self-Assessment of Motivation for Learning English and Further Professional Development, and Satisfaction with the Study Programme Chosen and Socio-Demographic Characteristics
We examined the statistical significance of differences between average scores for the self-assessment of motivation for learning English and further professional development, and satisfaction with the study programme chosen and the set of independent variables.
There is a statistically significant difference in motivation for learning English between students who achieved an excellent grade on completion of secondary education, and those who achieved a good grade or a very good grade (F = 5.09, p < 0.05). It can be concluded that the respondents who achieved the highest grade on completion of secondary education are more motivated to learn English.
The results of the analysis indicate that there is a statistically significant difference in the variable motivation for further professional development, in relation to gender (t = -2.87, p < 0.05), whereby female students are more motivated for further professional development than male students.
A significant difference in relation to the variable year of study (ANOVA) was found in the variable satisfaction with the study programme chosen (F = 5.37, p < 0.05). In relation to the year of study, there is a difference between second- and third-year students and third-year and fourth/fifth-year students. A significant decline in the degree of satisfaction was recorded in third-year students, when compared to second-year students. The level of students' satisfaction then increases in the fourth and fifth year of the study programme, but still remains lower than that recorded in among second-year students.
No statistically significant inter-correlation was found between the variable motivation for learning English and further professional development, and satisfaction with the study programme chosen and the independent variable parents' education.
3.4.2 Relationship between Indicators of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation and Self-Assessment of Motivation for Learning English, Further Professional Development and Satisfaction with the Study Programme
Other statistically significant correlations found using correlation analysis between motivation for learning English, motivation for further professional development, and satisfaction with the study programme and total, intrinsic, and extrinsic motivations are shown in Table 9.
	Self-assessment of motivation for learning English	Self-assessment of motivation for further prof. devel.	Self-assessment of satisfaction with the study programme
Intrinsic motivation for learning	0.205**	0.358**	0.343**
Extrinsic motivation for learning	-0.044	-0.086*	0.064
Motivation intensity for learning total score	0.096*	0.159**	0.265**
** Correlation statistically significant at the 0.01 level * Correlation statistically significant at the 0.05 level Table 9: Other correlations found
A weak statistically significant correlation was found between intrinsic motivation and motivation for learning English, further professional development and satisfaction with the study programme. Using a stricter cut-off point of p < 0.01, a correlation was found between intrinsic motivation for learning and all three dependent variables, while no correlation was found with extrinsic motivation.
The results obtained are in line with expectations. The assumption was that respondents motivated to learn in general (MITS) would be motivated for learning English and further professional development. The values of Pearson's correlation coefficient indicate that the found correlation between total and intrinsic motivation for learning, self-assessment of motivation for learning English and further professional development is weak, but nevertheless statistically significant and positive. There is a weak correlation between the motivation intensity total score and satisfaction with the study programme, with the value of correlation coefficient slightly higher for intrinsic motivation. The highest correlation found—which is also statistically significant and positive, but still relatively weak—was between intrinsic motivation and self-assessment of motivation for further professional development.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The research was conducted with a sample of 604 respondents, in which female students made up a slightly larger portion (58%). Approximately two-thirds of the respondents completed vocational education, while approximately one-third completed grammar school education before enrolling in the study programme, which reflects the composition of secondary school graduates in Croatia. Female students had higher GPAs on completion of secondary education (M = 4.17) than male students (M = 3.93).
There are two main reasons why the respondents chose the study programme. The first reason, reported by 47% of the respondents, is their career aspirations, and the second reason is failure at another higher education institution (25%). Given this rather high percentage, it would be interesting to further investigate what the respondents mean by "failure at another institution" - failure to enrol in the study programme they want, failure to meet study requirements and pass the exams, or something else? Influence from friends, teachers and parents were less commonly cited reasons for enrolling in the study programme.
The main research instrument consisted of ten items, examining intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for learning. Factor analysis identified two factors which account for 56% of the total variance. The first factor comprises indicators of intrinsic motivation, and the second comprises indicators of extrinsic motivation, which confirmed the assumed existence of these two latent dimensions, as well as the validity of the applied instrument.
The survey results reveal a high motivation intensity total score among the respondents. Broken down by the type of motivation, the data show that the respondents are more intrinsically motivated. Higher intensity of intrinsic motivation is found in senior-year students, i.e. fourth and fifth-year students. External regulation, operationalised by item 2.4.3. I learn because it will give me better career choices, was also found. The wish to acquire knowledge ranked second, and the attitude that class activities are interesting are indicators of intrinsic motivation. A slightly lower rating was given to learning in order to get a good grade. This indicates integrated regulation, because a person has assimilated the importance of grades into his/her own sense of self, and undertaking the activity of learning has an instrumental value in achieving the set personal goal (good grade). Learning at college satisfies one of the basic psychological needs - the need for competence, which concurs with the results of previous studies (Cigan 2012, 2013). The results also show that learning a foreign language is important, in that it allows for better career choices, personal development, as well as personal affirmation.
Students in this sample are extremely satisfied with the study programme (M = 3.81) and thus, according to their own assessment, have an above-average motivation for further professional development (M = 4.39) and for learning English (M = 4.06). Based on previous studies (e.g. Ellis 1994), it is difficult to establish with certainty the mutually-reinforcing nature of the relationship between satisfaction and motivation; in other words, which of the two concepts affects the other. The results obtained support Gardner's assumption (2010: 210) that this relationship is a two-way issue, likely to function in both directions. Students' satisfaction with the chosen study programme
affects the intensity and maintenance of intrinsic motivation. Components of foreign language learning motivation, in Dornyei's framework of motivation in language learning (1994: 280) concerning teaching materials, teaching methods and learning tasks performed during class, also enhance students' satisfaction.
A statistically significant correlation was found between motivation for learning and higher grades on completion of secondary education, which is consistent with many previous studies and conclusions about external and integrated regulation. The higher the level of students' autonomy (Figure 1), the higher the grades.
Previous studies (e.g. Palekcic 1985) show that parents' education may be an important factor, or have a substantial role in choosing the study programme, or that it is related to a developed motivation for learning. However, these assumptions have not been confirmed in this study. The correlation between parents' education and total, intrinsic or extrinsic motivation for learning, has not been found. These results suggest a weak external regulation of motivation, which is consistent with the finding that the respondents in this sample are more intrinsically motivated.
In terms of applicability of results for teachers in general, the study confirms that teaching materials and methods positively influence students' learning motivation, especially if the course content is closely connected to the field of studies and their future career. Failure at the previous college as the second reason for enrolling in the present studies indicates the need for teachers to offer support, reassurance and confidence to students. The affirming attitude of a teacher contributes to students' self-perception and, thus, to their intrinsic motivation.
Finally, there are some limitations in this research. Students' self-assessment has limitations of its own, as respondents often give socially desirable answers. The second limitation refers to the sample type. Despite a relatively large number of respondents, the sample is not truly representative of the Croatian student population. It is a convenient sample, because respondents are exclusively students attending professional study programmes, and the survey was conducted in a geographically-limited area that included Zagreb, Karlovac and Krapina. Nevertheless, in favour of generalising study results, it should be mentioned that the majority of higher education institutions are located in Zagreb, where a big portion of students from all over Croatia conclude their studies. Besides, all higher education institutions are organised according to standardised criteria and level of quality assurance. Therefore, it is expected that surveying any other sub-sample of students in another geographical area would yield similar results, regarding satisfaction and/or motivation.
Primary Sources
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Abstract
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS' MOTIVATION AND THEIR SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
This article presents the results of research on the relationship between indicators of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in students attending higher education institutions, and their socio-demographic characteristics: the type of upper secondary education completed, secondary education grade point average, year of study, gender, and parents' education.
The research was conducted in March 2012, through a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 604 respondents. The questionnaire examined, among other things, students' motivation for learning, self-assessment of motivation for learning English and further professional development, and self-assessment of overall satisfaction with the study programme.
According to the self-determination theory developed by Deci and Ryan (2000), intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are essential for undertaking any activity, including learning. As a social agent, each individual interacts with different social groups in an action-oriented set of circumstances, and develops his/her personality (CEFR). Social contexts that catalyse intrapersonal and interpersonal differences also have a significant influence on motivation. Gardner's theory of motivation emphasizes the importance of social components and the extrinsic nature of instrumental and integrative orientation.
Instrumental-integrative dichotomy was further developed by Dornyei (1994: 279), who introduced a motivational framework consisting of three levels: the language level, the learner level and the learning situation level.
Survey results show that the respondents are generally highly-motivated to learn, and that intrinsic motivation is predominant. Statistically significant differences were found between gender, secondary education grade point average, and year of study and the type and intensity of motivation, whereas the type of upper secondary education completed, and parents' education, were not found to be statistically significantly correlated with the examined concepts.
Keywords: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, satisfaction with the study programme, learning English, professional development.
Povzetek
POVEZAVA MED MOTIVACIJO IN DRUŽBENO-DEMOGRAFSKIMI ZNAČILNOSTMI PRI ŠTUDENTIH
V	članku predstavljamo rezultate raziskave o povezavi med indikatorji intrinzične in ekstrinzične motivacije pri študentih in njihovimi družbenimi in demografskimi značilnostmi: vrsto zaključene srednje šole, povprečno oceno v srednji šoli, letnikom študija in izobrazbo staršev.
Raziskavo smo z vprašalnikom, ki smo ga razdelili 640 respondentom, izvedli marca 2012. V vprašalniku smo med drugim spraševali po naslednjem: motivaciji za študij, oceni lastne motivacije za študij angleščine v povezavi z nadaljnjim profesionalnim razvojem ter oceni splošnega zadovoljstva s študijskim programom.
V	skladu s samodeterminacijsko teorijo, ki sta jo razvila Deci in Ryan (2000), sta intrinzična in ekstrinzična motivacija bistvena dejavnika vsake dejavnosti, tudi učenja. Kot družbeno bitje ima posameznik stike z različnimi družbenimi skupinami, s katerimi deluje v okoliščinah in s tem razvija svojo osebnost (SEJO). Družbeni kontekst, ki katalizira intra- in interosebne razlike, prav tako pomembno vpliva na motivacijo. Gardnerjeva teorija motivacije poudarja pomembnost družbenih komponent in ekstrin-zične narave instrumentalne in integrativne naravnanosti. O instrumentalno-integrativ-ni dihotomiji je pisal Dörnyei (1994: 279), ki je vpeljal motivacijski okvir, sestavljen iz treh ravni: jezikovne ravni, učenčeve ravni in ravni učne situacije.
Raziskava je pokazala, da so respondenti večinoma visoko motivirani za učenje in da prevladuje intrinzična motivacija. Statistično pomembne razlike smo našli med spolom, povprečno oceno v srednji šoli ter letnikom študija in intenzivnostjo motivacije. Pokazalo se je tudi, da vrsta zaključene srednje šole in izobrazba staršev nista imeli statistično relevantnih korelacij s preučevanimi koncepti.
Ključne besede: intrinzična in ekstrinzična motivacija, zadovoljstvo s študijskim programom, učenje angleščine, profesionalni razvoj.
Urška Sešek
University of Ljubljana
UDK 81'243:373.3(497.4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.31-46
Janez Skela
University of Ljubljana
Tomi Deutsch
The National Education Institute of the Republic of Slovenia*
THE EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO (ELP) IN SLOVENIAN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVE
1 THE EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO: THE BACKGROUND
Since its inception, the European Union has been making efforts to preserve its linguistic and cultural diversity, and to equip its citizens with communicative competences needed by a highly-mobile and flexible economy and society. The main institution in charge of promoting the multilingualism of individuals and the linguistic/cultural plurality of societies, through educational projects, has been the Council of Europe (Mitchell 2009: 90). The 1995 European Commission "M+ 2 policy", stating that each individual should develop communicative ability in at least two foreign languages (European Commission 1995: 47), was the basis for two of the key projects of the Council of Europe: the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR 2001) and the European Language Portfolio (ELP). These two tools were developed in parallel, and are closely related. The CEFR is a description of the aspects of language, its use and the underlying competences—a comprehensive document meant to serve as an aid in developing curricula, textbooks and tests for the teaching and learning of any language.
The ELP is CEFR's counterpart, a materials package for language learners and teachers that transfers, into classroom practice, the key ideas of the CEFR: language as part of a complex set of competences developed and used across cultures, learner autonomy and life-long learning (Stoicheva et al. 2009: 4; Little et al. 2011: 5). With its workbook format, the ELP enables language learners to record and reflect on their language learning and intercultural experiences, formal and informal, over a period of time. Another important aspect of the ELP is that its use can be guided by a teacher or independent of one - self-directedness is a key feature of its design. As a record of an individual's language profile, it is also a personal document that can serve as proof of a person's experience and competences for the needs of various types of mobility across Europe and beyond.
Authors' addresses: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. Zavod RS za šolstvo, OE Maribor, Trg revolucije 7, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia. E-mails: urska.sesek@guest.arnes.si, janez.skela@guest.arnes.si, Tomi.Deutsch@zrss.si.

The ELP was conceived in 1991, and then shaped within the Council of Europe's project, Language Learning for European citizenship. From 1998 to 2000, versions of the ELP were produced and piloted in 15 member states. The ELP was adapted for users of all ages, and for different educational contexts: primary, secondary, vocational, university and adult. The pilot projects involved approximately 30,000 learners and 2,000 teachers. The project report (Schärer 2000) synthesized the findings of all the pilot projects, and made recommendations for further activities. The overall conclusion was that the ELP is a feasible learning and teaching tool, which addresses the key educational issues in Europe, and fosters the aims of the Council of Europe.
After 2000, large-scale implementation began, and a validation committee was set up by the Council of Europe, to ensure that all versions of the ELP conformed with the "ELP Principles and Guidelines". Only validated ELPs could use the official ELP logo but, at the same time, the developers had room to adapt their models to the needs of specific contexts. In 2001, the European Year of Languages, a seminar was held in Portugal to officially launch the ELP. Between 2001 and 2009, seven further seminars were organised, and the Council of Europe published various supports for ELP developers (e.g. Schneider and Lenz 2001), teachers and teacher trainers (Little and Perclova 2001). By 2011, 118 ELPs, from 32 member states, had been validated. ELPs have been designed for, and implemented, in all educational contexts: primary, lower and upper secondary, vocational, adult, further and tertiary. In 2007, the rapporteur general estimated that 2.5 million individual ELPs had been produced and/or distributed (Schärer 2007).
2 THE ELP: ITS STRUCTURE, AIMS AND IMPLEMENTATION
The general idea of a portfolio - as a folder containing selected samples of a person's work to show to potential customers, employers and others - was modified to suit the mission of the ELP. Its three obligatory components include:
•	a Language Passport, a record of the user's second/foreign languages (L2s) learnt, formal language qualifications achieved, significant experiences of L2 use, and a self-assessment of the user's current proficiency in the L2s listed;
•	a Language Biography, used to set language learning targets, monitor progress, and record and reflect on important language learning and intercultural experiences;
•	a Dossier, presenting evidence of the user's proficiency in the selected language(s).
As can be seen from this description, the ELP has a two-fold function (Ushioda and Ridley 2002: 2): a reporting function (the Language Passport and the Dossier) and a pedagogical function (the Language Biography and the Dossier). A key feature of the ELP is self-assessment - all of its sections require some form of this. The various versions of the ELP approach this somewhat differently, but they all derive their categories from the CEFR's six levels of proficiency in the five communicative skills/activities: listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production, and writing. The self-assessment mostly takes the form of grids, scales or checklists, adapted to the users' age and context, the "can-do" statements being the most common descriptor format.
In its documentary function, the ELP supplements certificates and diplomas, and allows the owner to document informal language learning. Users engage in continuous self-assessment of their language skills, and express it in widely-acknowledged terms. Its pedagogical function is to promote plurilingualism, raise cultural awareness, and enhance the language learning processes by increasing the users' learner autonomy. The process of compiling an ELP namely engages learners in thinking about their learning process, directing and sustaining it. We can say that effective use of the ELP, in both its functions, hinges on an on-going process of self-reflection.
The pan-European implementation of the ELP so far has mostly taken place within projects initiated by Ministries of Education or, in some cases, institutions at a regional or local level (Stoicheva et al. 2009: 7, 8). Examples range from trans-national ELPs, such as the ALTE-EAQUALS model, to various national ELPs for public schools and offshoots, such as the Professional European Language Portfolio, the CROMO (CROMO 2007), a cross-border project of Austria, Italy and Slovenia, and the European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages by Newby et al. (2007). In addition, there are many local, localized and in-house ELP models being developed around Europe, which may or may not comply with the requirements of the Council of Europe. The ELP has had a considerable impact on different aspects of foreign language learning and teaching, across Europe and beyond (for an impact study, see Stoicheva et al. 2009).
3 THE ELP IN SLOVENIA: THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
In Slovenia, five ELP models have been developed so far for different age groups:
•	lower primary level (ages 6-10), validated in 2011 (Čok et al. 2011);
•	upper primary level (ages 11-15), validated in 2004 (Skela and Holc 2006);
•	secondary level (ages 15-19), validated in 2006 (Puklavec et al. 2006);
•	adult learners (16+), validated in 2010 (Amič et al. 2010);
•	an experimental ELP for university students (Troha et al. 2000).
Slovenia was among the first countries to join the Council of Europe's ELP project. Between 1998 and 2000, two ELP models (Čok et al. 1999 and Skela et al. 2000) were piloted, with 634 students and 20 teachers (Schärer 2000: 63-64). The main findings of the piloting work were similar to those found in other countries, and included in Schärer's 2000 report. The ELP was considered an interesting and beneficial tool, by both learners and teachers. Learner self-assessment was considered an important innovation and there were positive effects on learner motivation. The problems and questions included: how to relate the ELP to formal assessment, how to integrate the ELP with the curriculum and textbooks used and how to make enough time for the ELP. Also, it became clear that both learners and teachers needed certain training to make the most of the ELP.
After the piloting phase, implementation began in the school year 2001/2002. As an ELP model for secondary schools was not available yet, only primary schools participated (Godunc 2012: 61-63). The implementation was evaluated using standard
questionnaires, discussions and teacher reports at seminars, and samples of learner-produced ELPs. The data collected was again sent to the rapporteur general, and supported similar conclusions as had been made during the previous piloting projects. Overall, the numbers of ELP users in Slovenia grew to 2,150 in the school year 2003/2004 (Scharer 2004: 47). To support the participating teachers in this period of experimental implementation, the Slovenian Ministry of Education organised many seminars, including a series aimed at training a small group of teachers as ELP trainers.
In 2006, a large-scale research project was launched by the Ministry of Education, to conduct a thorough and objective empirical evaluation of the ELP in Slovenian primary and secondary schools, over a three-year period (Holc 2012: 69-70). The project entitled "Uvajanje in spremljava Evropskega jezikovnega listovnika v OŠ in SŠ" ("Introduction and Evaluation of the ELP in Primary and Secondary Schools") included 72 primary schools in the years 2006-2009, and 42 secondary schools in the years 2007-2010 (ibid.: 71). The objective of the study was to find out the scope of the use of the ELP (number of users, types of contexts etc.), how it was received by learners and teachers, the issues concerning its implementation and, most importantly, what impact the use of the ELP was perceived to have. Because of the scope of this project, we present in this paper only the research done in primary schools, where the foundations of language learning are laid.
The Ministry of Education invited the schools to participate, and individual language teachers were able to choose whether to get on board (a minimal stimulation in the form of promotion credits was offered). The schools were then provided with the needed number of copies of the two validated versions of the ELP for Slovenian primary schools (Čok et al. 1999 for younger learners, and Skela and Holc 2006, for learners aged 11 to 15). The participating teachers selected the classes which would work with the ELP. The teachers and their selected classes were then obliged to participate in the monitoring. Because of the nature of the ELP as a complex innovation, the impact of which involves a considerable shift of beliefs and attitudes that can only unfold over a period of time, direct methods of impact study, such as experiments, classroom observation or external testing of learner competences, were deemed less appropriate than an exploration of teachers' and learners' perceptions. Thus, the main research method used was a survey of all the participating teachers and learners. As presenting the entire mass of data (from two teacher surveys and one learner survey, altogether over 800 responses) would exceed the scope of this article, we present here the results of the teacher surveys. Additional reasons for focusing on the teachers' perspective include the quality of data (the data gained from the teachers, who worked with the ELP voluntarily, is somewhat more reliable than the students' data) and the fact that it is the teachers who are the carriers of pedagogical innovation.
The specific research questions addressed through this sub-study were: 1. Who are the users of the ELPs in Slovenia, and what is the context of their ELP
use? (number of teachers, grade levels and number of classes, frequency of use, teacher preparation);
2.	What are the teachers' perceptions of the quality of the ELPs used? (appropriateness for use with target groups, usefulness of the components, effectiveness in its different functions, and teacher satisfaction with the content, particularly the language competence scales);
3.	What effect does the ELP have on teaching? (in general, on lesson planning and on teacher teamwork);
4.	What effect does the ELP have on learning? (in general and on learners' capacity for self-assessment and learner autonomy);
5.	What are the problems with the ELP, and what is its potential for full-scale use?
4	METHODOLOGY
The first phase of the study in primary schools, carried out in 2008, included teachers only, but at two different levels: the lower-primary (1st - 5th grade, 18 participants) and upper-primary (6th - 9th grade, 73 participants). The questionnaire for both of the grade level groups was the same, with minor adaptations since each group was using a different ELP. Both groups responded to 26 items, 16 multiple choice, 5 Likert scales and 5 open-ended items. In 2009, again, 73 upper-primary teachers (largely the same group as the year before, only 7 % were new users) were surveyed using a modified version of the 2008 questionnaire. As the questionnaires are in Slovenian, they are not provided as appendices to this article (they can be obtained from the authors on request). The item stems have been translated into English, and are presented in bold print in the next section, grouped according to the research questions. The Likert scales are presented in their entirety. The analysis of all the quantitative and qualitative data obtained through the surveys sheds light on a number of variables involved in the pedagogical innovation represented by the ELP.
5	RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Context Data
As both of the ELPs studied can be used in different primary school grades, the teachers were asked in which grades they chose to use them. The upper primary ELP was mostly used in the 8th grade in 2008 (49%), and in the 9th grade in 2009 (56%). The lower primary ELP was used mainly in the 5th grade (89%). In 2008, the teachers were asked to state how many of their classes were using the ELP. Most teachers used it with only one of their classes (55% upper primary, 67% lower primary). The average class size was 28 and 25, respectively (with considerable variation).
In 2008, most of the teachers at both levels reported to have used the ELP at least once a month (72% and 54% respectively). The rest mostly used it at least once per trimester. Very few teachers used it on a weekly basis. In 2009, the situation was virtually the same.
How well were the teachers equipped to implement the ELP? In 2008, 78% of the lower-primary teachers were satisfied with the Instructions for teachers. All of the participating lower primary teachers, and 85% of the upper primary teachers, attended special ELP training sessions. The majority found the training useful or very useful (75%, 19%, and 65%, 25% respectively), and stated that they wished to attend it in the future,
as well. The most frequently suggested topics were practical examples of successful ELP use, lesson planning and the integration of the ELP into the syllabus, and its use as a (formal) assessment tool.
5.2 Perceived Quality of the ELP
In response to the question of how well the ELP, as a whole, was adapted to the target learners, the teachers surveyed in 2008 rated their ELP on a scale of 1-5. As we can see, most ratings were high, self-assessment being the most problematic aspect for both lower and upper primary teachers.
	Average rating upper-primary	SD	Average rating lower-primary	SD
The content of the ELP is age-appropriate.	4,10	0,65	4,17	0,62
The format of the ELP is age-appropriate.	3,88	0,82	3,94	0,94
The texts in the ELP are appropriate to the learners' reading skills.	3,75	0,97	4,00	0,84
The self-assessment criteria are age-appropriate.	3,81	0,91	3,72	0,96
The self-assessment criteria enable the learners to realistically assess their knowledge.	3,71	0,93	3,72	0,83
Table 1: Perceived quality of the ELP - adaptation to learner level
As the ELP consists of three parts with somewhat separate functions, the teachers were also asked to rate the usefulness of each component. On a scale of 1-5, the average rating by both groups was over 4 for all three, with the Dossier being rated as the most useful. In 2009, this item was changed to directly elicit the teachers' perceptions of the effectiveness of the ELP in its various functions. As the data below shows, the teachers deemed the ELP the most effective in its documenting function.
The ELP...	Average rating upper-primary	SD
.. .is enjoyed in by the learners.	3,95	0,62
.. .helps learners to develop communicative competence.	3,66	0,84
.enables learners to appropriately document the FL competences gained in school.	4,36	0,7
.enables learners to appropriately document the FL competences gained outside of school.	4,10	0,75
.has a positive impact on the teacher-student rapport.	3,75	0,78
.encourages student-teacher dialogue.	3,96	0,72
.enables the learners' parents to gain quality, reliable information on their child's foreign language competences.	3,74	0,69
Table 2: The effectiveness of the ELP in its various functions
In 2008, two more specific items asked about the content of the ELP. In response to the questions of whether anything should be added to the ELPs they used and, if so, what, 33% of the lower primary teachers mostly suggested adding sample learner responses to the ELP rubrics. Of the upper primary teachers, only 13% suggested additions, ranging from minor technical improvements to a revision of the self-assessment scales. Another item inquired about the way language competence levels were defined in the ELP, since these are its central element. As many as 86% of the upper primary teachers, and 88% of the lower-primary teachers, felt they were well-defined and useful in the teaching process. The few teachers who responded to the open-ended question of how they could be improved said that the descriptors were not precise enough (4 answers) and that the scales should be simplified (4 answers).
5.3 Perceived Effect on Teaching
In 2008, the teachers were asked to assess the possible positive effects of the ELP on their teaching on a 5-point Likert scale. In Table 3, the two effects perceived as the most salient by both groups of teachers are highlighted.
The ELP...	Average rating upper-primary	SD	Average rating lower-primary	SD
.. .helps me in the classroom.	3,62	0,77	3,94	0,54
.supports more open formats of instruction.	3,86	0,82	4,00	0,69
.helps me to present the learning goals to the learners.	3,85	0,76	4,17	0,86
.enables me to set better quality learning tasks and exercises.	3,26	0,96	3,83	0,79
.aids me with assessment and testing.	3,33	0,90	3,33	0,84
.enables more streamed instruction.	3,60	0,88	3,72	0,83
.brings more acknowledgment of the mother tongue in FL learning.	3,71	0,86	3,72	0,89
.supports cross-curricular connections.	3,38	0,99	3,39	0,85
.enables better planning of objectives.	3,63	0,94	3,89	0,68
.helps me make better teaching methodology choices.	3,33	0,88	3,50	0,71
Table 3: The perceived effect of the ELP on teaching
In 2009, the upper primary teachers were asked to state whether the ELP had an effect on their instruction (66% said yes), and to provide descriptions of these effects.
The answers were qualitatively analysed to reveal the main themes. The most frequent notion was self-assessment as a positive innovation (28 mentions). The comments actually do not always refer to teacher activity, but we assume that the teachers sometimes talk about their work through describing its effects on learners (e.g. "The students have begun thinking about their knowledge" and "Self-assessment has become easier and more systematic").
In the comments that clearly refer to changes in teacher activity, the most often mentioned issue is planning (9 comments, e.g. "I have rationalized the planning of an individual lesson" and "The aims have become more clearly defined" and "I linked the lesson aims to specific parts of the ELP"). Again, this is an issue that was dealt with by a separate survey item, but spilled over into related items, which confirms its centrality. The next most frequent comment was that the use of the ELP brought more variety into the lessons (7 comments), which was always seen as positive. In terms of lesson formats/methodology, the ELP brought about more independent learner activity (7 comments, e.g. "We devoted more time to individual work" and "The students did a great job with various writing projects to be placed into the ELP"" and "The students began to look for persons and events to help with their language learning""). In terms of lesson content, there were individual comments on more work on receptive skills, more discussion of learning strategies, and more intercultural/ interlinguistic content. Even though only two teachers made this comment, it seems important to note that the ELP also has the potential to help a teacher get to know their students better ("I identified individual students' learning styles"" and "I found out about their activities outside of school").
Since planning proved to be a key aspect of teaching affected by the introduction of the ELP in the 2008 survey, in 2009 the teachers were asked explicitly if, and in what ways, the use of the ELP affected their lesson planning. 62% said that their lesson planning was changed. In the 42 open-ended answers to the question about the type of changes, the mentioned issues included:
•	time pressure (10 comments, e.g. "The lessons need to be planned more carefully, as there is not enough time to include work with the ELP""),
•	official incorporation of the work with the ELP into the (annual) syllabus (8 comments),
•	changes to the planning of teaching methods (7 comments, e.g. "I took more care to cater to different learning styles"" and "I introduced more peer learning" and "I planned more individualization and ability streaming"),
•	using the ELP at the ends of syllabus units (partly replacing or supplementing the usual revision and assessment activities, 5 comments),
•	more planned self-assessment activities (4 comments),
•	more focus on all four language skills (2 comments).
Some teachers reported, in detail, how they incorporated the ELP into their lessons (e.g. "I told the students to do their homework on a separate sheet, instead of in their notebooks, if it was to be included in the ELP""); this type of comment is less useful for a broader analysis, but valuable for ELP teacher training.
Last but not least, one teacher's comment, although isolated, proves that it is possible to integrate the ELP into instruction to a much larger extent than was done by the majority of the participants: "I included the ELP into the phase of motivating my students, and into the phases of revising and assessment. The ELP has replaced many of the previous teaching/learning activities, and some of the learning materials, as well".
A special aspect of pedagogical innovations is whether, and to what extent, they require or encourage teachers to cooperate with each other. For this reason, the 2008 survey contained questions about the number of foreign language teachers (of different languages) working with each class using the ELP, and their teamwork. Since, at the lower primary level, students mostly take one foreign language class only, and the number of respondents in this group was low, we will only look at the upper level, where the most frequent situation involved 2 foreign language teachers teaching the same group of learners (42%). 33% of the groups were taught by three or four teachers. Of those teachers who teach alongside at least one other FL teacher, 74% reported involving their colleagues into the work with the ELP, which was definitely a positive dissemination effect.
5.4 Perceived Effect on Learning
In 2008, the teachers were asked to assess the effect of the ELP on their learners, on a 5-point Likert scale. As Table 4 shows, the results from the two levels differ, but development of reflective thinking was rated highly in both groups.
When using the ELP, the learners...	n	Average rating -upper primary	SD	n	Average rating -lower primary	SD
.are more motivated for FL learning.	73	3,55	0,83	17	4,29	0,59
.have a more active role in the learning process.	73	3,81	0,79	18	4,22	0,73
.take more responsibility for their FL learning.	73	3,62	0,92	18	3,78	0,65
.develop reflective thinking.	73	3,99	0,54	18	4,00	0,69
.are in more control of their learning process.	71	3,86	0,59	18	3,94	0,54
.are more independent in their FL learning.	73	3,42	0,70	18	3,78	0,65
.get quality feedback about their learning process.	72	3,88	0,65	18	3,94	0,54
Table 4: The perceived effect of the ELP on learning
In another, open-ended item which asked about the effects of the ELP on teaching, a number of responses referred to the effects on the learners, most notably the
development of self-assessment skills (e g. "The students can now assess themselves realistically"), increased motivation (e.g. "The students became more aware of the importance of learning foreign languages" and "The students were curious to see how they do and filled in the rubrics on their own" and "The students were surprised to see what they are already able to do, especially the weaker ones'"), and the development of learner autonomy (e.g. "The ELP helped my students to find their learning style" and "The students can now set their own goals" and "The students think about language learning"). The value of the ELP as a record of learner achievement was also mentioned.
In the 2008 survey, there was a separate question about the effect of the ELP on learners' capacity for self-assessment. 78% of the upper-primary, and 66% of the lower-primary teachers said that their learners' self-assessments converged more with their own than before using the ELP.
Based on the results of the 2008 survey, in which the learner autonomy aspect of the ELP proved to be a challenge, the 2009 survey explicitly elicited information about the perceived effect of the ELP on various aspects of learner autonomy. As seen in Table 5, the ELP helped the teachers move towards more learner-centeredness, but true autonomy - setting one's own goals—still eludes almost a half of the participants.
	YES		NO	
	No. of teachers	%	No. of teachers	%
The learners set their own (individual) goals.	43	59,7	29	40,3
I and the learners define the necessary learning steps together.	69	95,8	3	4,2
I use the ELP to talk to each student about their progress.	63	86,3	10	13,7
I encourage learners to reflect on their learning in writing.	63	87,5	9	12,5
I put written comments onto the learners' self-assessments.	54	74,0	19	26,0
Table 5: The perceived effect of the ELP on learner autonomy
5.5 Problems and Potential for Full-Scale Use
In the 2008 survey, both groups of teachers were asked two overlapping open-ended questions about the problems they encountered in using the ELP. Only 5 teachers alltogether listed "negative effects", and 29 responded to "other problems in working with the ELP". In both items, the key issue was a lack of time to devote to the ELP, due to a packed syllabus. The second most common comment was that the ELP is too long/ demanding/complex for the learners (particularly the weaker ones). Other, individual responses ranged from content aspects (e.g. "Not enough clear linkage to curricular aims and content for each grade") to a lack of experience in working with the ELP
and its technical details (e.g. "The folder cannot contain all the materials the learners collect over two years").
The teachers were also asked to respond to three general statements about the ELP. The answers show that the ELP is time-consuming and demanding to use, both issues that can be addressed in the future.
Working with the ELP is...	n	Average rating -upper primary	SD	n	Average rating -lower primary	SD
.. .time-consuming.	73	3,36	1,02	18	3,67	0,77
.. .unnecessary.	73	2,05	0,78	18	1,61	0,61
.demanding.	72	3,28	1,12	18	3,61	0,92
Table 6: General evaluation of the ELP in 2008
A related question was whether the ELP should be integrated into the curriculum. As many as 89% of the lower primary teachers, and 78% of the upper primary teachers, said yes.
In the 2009 survey, the teachers were asked to respond to a different set of three statements concerning their feelings about the ELP. As Table 7 shows, the results mostly speak in favour of the ELP.
	YES		NO	
	No. of teachers	%	No. of teachers	%
Does the ELP yield sufficient results, relative to the investment?	40	55,6	32	44,4
Would you recommend the ELP to other FL teachers?	62	84,9	11	15,1
Would you like to continue using the ELP in your teaching?	56	76,7	17	23,3
Table 7: General evaluation of the ELP in 2009
A subquestion of whether the ELP should be made part of the curriculum was the question of whether it should be used as an obligatory assessment tool. In 2008, only 38% of the upper primary, and 42% of the lower primary teachers, felt that it should. In the 2009 survey, this question was changed, to make it more specific. As many as 77% of the upper primary teachers said that the ELP could not replace one of the existing forms of assessment. The question was supplemented with an open-ended item, asking which forms of assessment the ELP could replace, if any. The suggestions were:
•	the ELP could be linked to oral testing (in different ways),
•	the ELP could be used in descriptive assessment or as a supplementary grade,
•	certain written products/worksheets in the ELP can be graded,
•	the ELP can replace any/all other forms of assessment.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The 2008 and 2009 teacher surveys on the use of the ELP in Slovenian primary schools were part of a formal piloting project which represented the third phase of introducing this innovation in Slovenia. Summarizing the results, we can draw three conclusions. Firstly, the two validated ELPs for Slovenian primary schoolers of two age brackets proved, in practice, to be quality materials: the average ratings were high for all the aspects of their content, presentation and effectiveness. The second main conclusion is that, in the teachers' judgement, the users were largely reaping all the benefits targeted by the creators of the ELP (see e. g. Skela 2012). For most teachers, the ELP changed their teaching by making it more varied, more communicative and learner-centred. It also facilitated the presentation of goals to the learners, and ushered in systematic learner self-assessment. The ELP's key positive impact on the learners was the increase of motivation at the lower level, and development of autonomy at the upper level, which is probably related to the greater cognitive maturity of the upper-primary learners. (While we did not statistically compare the 2008 results of the teacher groups at the two levels, due to their unequal sizes, this was, practically, the only point in which they differed noticeably). The teachers' positive reception of the ELP can further be seen from the fact that most of them disseminated it within their schools, wanted to continue using it, and felt that it should be introduced, across the board. These results are very positive and encouraging, despite the fact that the participating teachers were volunteers, early adopters who generally tend to embrace innovations.
The third main conclusion refers to the issues and problems with implementing the ELP. In our study, these were largely the same as those revealed by previous piloting studies in Slovenia and elsewhere, which testifies to the complexity and challenging nature of the innovation. Most teachers in our study chose to use the ELP in the upper grades of their bracket, probably because they considered it demanding, which was a fairly frequent open-ended comment. Self-assessment was the most difficult aspect for both levels, even though the scales were deemed to be well-designed. While most teachers felt that their learners' self-assessment skills nevertheless improved, the ability to set their own goals did not improve to the same extent. The documenting function of the ELP was rated by the teachers as more important than the pedagogical function - perhaps partly because it is less challenging, and thus more enjoyable for learners. Also, most teachers felt that the ELP could not be integrated into official assessment procedures.
Of course, to some extent these issues are related to practical factors, such as the degree of system support. In accordance with recommendations from previous studies, the teachers in our study were given well-attended and well-received training sessions. Despite that, most of them used the ELP in only one of their classes, and once a month on average, which is definitely related to workload and time constraints, the most frequently-reported implementation problem dealt with, in a variety of ways, by individuals in their lesson planning.
Most importantly, however, the results of the study show that the ELP, in a primary school context in Slovenia, is a complex pedagogical innovation, but one with great potential. Of its two parallel functions, the documenting of language learning and achievement
is more readily embraced, while the self-assessment and self-directedness aspects involve a paradigm shift, which goes beyond the foreign language classroom. In this function, the ELP implementation would need to be sustained considerably longer, in order for its impact to fully unfold. Since the study presented in this article, the use of the ELPs in Slovenia has decreased, which has been a regrettable trend elsewhere in Europe, as well, due to a combination of factors, indicated already by Stoicheva et al. (2009: 5-7) and Little et al. (2011: 5). For the Slovenian context, Holc (2012: 94) lists the specific steps that should be taken, in order to further promote the use of the ELP at national level. We hope that this article will contribute to a revival in interest of all stakeholders in this excellent tool for the promotion of language and intercultural competences, and lifelong learning in general.
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Abstract
THE EUROPEAN LANGUAGE PORTFOLIO (ELP) IN SLOVENIAN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVE
The European Language Portfolio (ELP) is a unique, pan-European language learning material, aimed at supporting life-long language learning and the development of learner autonomy and intercultural competences. The article outlines the ELP's origins, structure and functions, and its impact on foreign language learning and teaching in Europe. Of the Slovenian ELP models, the two intended for primary school have been the most widely-implemented. Their implementation was the subject of a three-year study, in the context of a national piloting project involving over 600 learners and 100 teachers, held in 2008 and 2009. Due to the complexity and scope of the study, this article focuses on the perspective of the teachers, as carriers of pedagogical innovation. The results show that the two versions of ELP validated for Slovenian primary schools are judged by the teachers as being quality materials which are well-adapted to the learners. This pilot period yielded a number of positive effects in both teaching and learning, most notably more communicative and learner-centered instruction formats, and an increase in the learners' motivation and self-assessment skills. The main concern was strained lesson planning, due to the fact that the ELP was not integrated into the curriculum. Overall, the study shows that, of the two parallel functions of the ELP, the documenting of language learning and achievement is more readily embraced, while the self-assessment and self-directedness aspects involve a paradigm shift, which would require further sustained and widely-supported implementation. This would enable the full unfolding of the ELP's great potential for the promotion of language and intercultural competences and lifelong learning in Slovenia and in Europe.
Keywords: European Language Portfolio (ELP), upper-primary, lower-primary, pilot study, teacher survey.
Povzetek
EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI LISTOVNIK (EJL) V SLOVENSKEM OSNOVNEM ŠOLSTVU: PERSPEKTIVA UČITELJEV
Evropski jezikovni listovnik (EJL) je edinstveno evropsko gradivo za učenje jezikov, namenjeno podpori vseživljenjskega učenja jezikov in razvijanju avtonomije učenca in njegovih medkulturnih zmožnosti. Članek predstavi razvoj Listovnika, njegovo zgradbo in funkcije ter vpliv na učenje in poučevanje tujih jezikov v Evropi. Od modelov Listovnika, razvitih v Sloveniji, sta bila do sedaj najširše uporabljena dva za osnovno šolo. Njuna vpeljava je bila predmet triletne raziskave v kontekstu pilotiranja na nacionalni ravni, v katerem je v letih 2008 in 2009 sodelovalo več kot 600 učencev in 100 učiteljev. Zaradi obsega in kompleksnosti pridobljenih podatkov se članek osredotoča na perspektivo učiteljev kot nosilcev pedagoške inovacije. Rezultati kažejo, da dva modela EJL, validirana za slovenske osnovne šole, učitelji ocenjujejo kot kvalitetna gradiva, dobro prilagojena
potrebam učencev. Njuno pilotiranje je v očeh učiteljev dalo vrsto pozitivnih učinkov, predvsem bolj komunikacijski in na učenca osredinjen pouk ter povečanje motivacije in sposobnosti samoocenjevanja pri učencih. Glavni problem je bil težavno načrtovanje pouka, ker EJL ni vključen v učni načrt. V splošnem rezultati kažejo, da je od dveh vzporednih funkcij EJL lažje sprejeto dokumentiranje procesa in dosežkov učenja jezikov, medtem ko tisti njegovi vidiki, ki se tičejo avtonomije učenja, zahtevajo spremembo miselnosti, za katero je potrebna daljša kontinuirana in podprta vpeljava. Ta bi omogočila polno doseganje velikega potenciala EJL za spodbujanje jezikovnih in medkulturnih zmožnosti ter vseživljenjskega učenja v Sloveniji in v Evropi.
Ključne besede: Evropski jezikovni listovnik (EJL), osnovna šola, druga triada, tretja triada, pilotna študija, anketa učiteljev.
Brigita Kosevski Puljic
Universität Ljubljana
UDK 811.112.2'243(497.4):37.016(4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.47-59
WIE TIEF GREIFT DER GEMEINSAME EUROPÄISCHE REFERENZRAHMEN FÜR SPRACHEN (GER) IN DIE AKTUELLE LEISTUNGSMESSUNG DER SCHREIBKOMPETENZ IM DEUTSCHEN ALS FREMDSPRACHE? - ZUM STAND IN SLOWENIEN
1 EINLEITUNG
Der 2001 vom Europarat veröffentlichte Gemeinsame europäische Referenzrahmen für Sprachen hat in der letzten Dekade einen starken Einfluss auf den Fremdsprachenunterricht in Europa ausgeübt. In Slowenien wurde er schon kurz nach seiner Veröffentlichung den Fremdsprachenlehrenden vorgestellt. Die Niveaustufen des GER hatten Einfluss auf die Art und Weise der Qualitätskontrolle im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Als Folge dieser Entwicklung hat die fremdsprachliche Didaktik im letzten Jahrzehnt auf dem Gebiet der Forschung gewiss Vieles geleistet. Die Frage, in welchem Ausmaß die Forschungsergebnisse auf die Praxis eingewirkt haben, steht jedoch weiterhin im Raum. Manchmal wird den Lehrkräften einfach zu viel zugemutet, wenn man von ihnen erwartet, dass sie automatisch verstehen, was alles in den einzelnen Kapiteln des GER auf sie zukommt und wie sie die Inhalte bewältigen bzw. wie sie sie in ihren fremdsprachlichen Unterricht implementieren können. Es geht hierbei nicht nur um die Kann-Beschreibungen, sondern um Vieles mehr, was dem Referenzrahmen, „den man ohne Hintergrundwissen über den historischen Kontext, in dem er entstanden war, nur als einen bildlosen Rahmen verstehen könnte" (Skela 2011: 5)1, entnommen werden kann.
Wie in vielen anderen europäischen Ländern hat der GER auch im slowenischen Bildungssystem seine Rolle bestätigt. Seine Empfehlungen und Anregungen werden überall dort beachtet, wo es um handlungsorientiertes Fremdsprachenlernen, -lehren und -beurteilen geht. Nicht zuletzt wird er auch bei nationalen Tests für Fremdsprachen beachtet oder es werden die Aufgaben der einzelnen Prüfungsteile in bestimmte Niveaustufen eingereiht, wodurch in Form von Sprachzertifikaten europaweit gültige Abschlüsse ermöglicht werden.
Auch aus den verschiedenen Curricula für Deutsch als Fremdsprache ist evident, dass sie vom GER beeinflusst worden sind, wie z. B. das Curriculum für Deutsch als
* Die Adresse der Autorin: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slowenien. E-mail: brigita.kosevskipuljic@ff.um-lj.si.
1 Zu diesem Thema wird den slowenischen Lesern empfohlen, das aufschlussreiche Nachwort in der slowenischen Fassung des GER (2011) von Janez Skela zu lesen.
Fremdsprache an Gymnasien: „Das Definieren der kommunikativen Fertigkeit geht aus dem Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen hervor" (Hole et al. 2008: 4). Im Weiteren werden die kommunikativen Fertigkeiten nach dem GER zitiert und erläutert. Genauso richten sich die Bildungsstandards nach den einzelnen Niveaustufen. Es ist also klar, dass zumindest der Fremdsprachenunterricht dem GER „unterworfen" ist. Dabei stellt sich aber die folgende Frage: Wird der Referenzrahmen folglich auch als Hilfsmittel bei der schulischen Leistungsmessung eingesetzt? Im Unterrichtsalltag kann man nämlich beobachten, dass häufig nach dem einen Prinzip unterrichtet, jedoch nach einem anderen benotet wird, obwohl die Standards als ein wichtiger Faktor der Qualitätssicherung in Bildungssystemen allen Beteiligten ermöglichen zu wissen, in welche „Richtung sie sich bewegen sollen und an welche Regeln sie sich halten müssen" (Pizorn 2012: 113).
2 DAS SCHREIBEN IM DAF-UNTERRICHT UND DIE BEWERTUNG
Unser Interesse gilt vorwiegend der Bewertung der Schreibfertigkeit im DaF-Unter-richt, die - das zeigt auch die Praxis - im Fremdsprachenunterricht mehr oder weniger vernachlässigt wird.
Dabei geht es um die komplexeste sprachliche Produktionsfertigkeit. Das Schreiben beim Fremdsprachenunterricht ist nicht nur ein Mittel, mit dem wir ein Ziel erreichen, sondern vor allem ein Prozess, der beim Fremdsprachenlernen durchlebt und allmählich bewusst gemacht wird (Kosevski Puljic 2009: 91-92).
Um die Bewusstmachung von Schreibprozessen durchführen zu können, sollen bei den Lernenden auch in Anlehnung an den GER von Anfang an alle rezeptiven und produktiven sprachlichen Aktivitäten, die letztendlich zu einer erfolgreichen Schreibkompetenz führen2, gefördert werden. Sehr wichtig dabei erscheint die Textkompetenz, da der Wissenserwerb auch im Fremdsprachenerwerb vor allem auf der Basis von Texten verläuft. Ein textkompetenter Mensch kann Texte lesen und verstehen und mittels Texten sprachlich handeln und lernen (vgl. Portmann-Tselikas 2005). Das bedeutet, dass Lernende, die über eine hohe Textkompetenz verfügen, ihre Aufmerksamkeit abwechselnd auf die lokale und auf die globale Ebene eines Textes richten. Der Focus liegt also nicht nur auf der Grammatik, Syntax oder Orthographie, sondern auch im Bereich der Textkohärenz oder der Stilistik. Dabei spielt z. B. auch die Phraseodidaktik eine wichtige Rolle. Phraseme kann man schon im Anfängerunterricht einführen, denn
[sie] machen aus der Kombination von Sätzen eine semantisch kohärente Folge, sind strukturbildender Faktor der Kommunikationsstrategie und tragen zur Verwirklichung der Sprecherintention [oder der Schreiberintention] bei. Phraseme können je nach Textsorte verschiedene Funktionen ausüben (Valencic Arh 2014: 79).
2 Die schriftliche Produktionskompetenz entwickelt sich immer im Ensemble mit allen anderen sprachlichen Fertigkeiten, wie Hörverstehen, Leseverstehen, produktives und interaktives Sprechen, nicht zuletzt auch sehr mit innerem Sprechen bzw. Monologen.
Im Fremdsprachenunterricht ist es wichtig alle Arten des Schreibens zu fördern, vom freien, kreativen bis zum gelenkten Schreiben. Das Verfassen von verschiedenen Texten unterliegt (außer beim kreativen Schreiben) auch der Leistungsmessung, die auf bestimmten Kriterien basiert. Auf jeden Fall sollte zu den schriftlichen Produkten der Lernenden eine entsprechende Rückmeldung seitens der Lehrenden erfolgen. Bei der Bewertung sollte man nicht nur die Fehler sanktionieren, sondern auch eine Positivkorrektur miteinbeziehen.
Im GER gibt es zwar zu produktiven schriftlichen Aktivitäten zusammenfassende Informationen, wie u. a., welche Textsorten produziert werden können (Formulare und Fragebögen, Artikel für Zeitungen, Zeitschriften, Plakate, Berichte, Mitteilungen, Notizen, persönliche Briefe oder Geschäftsbriefe usw. und sogar Kreatives Schreiben). Aber als Lehrende/Lehrender muss man sich selbst die entsprechenden Deskriptoren aussuchen, um daraus Kriterien für die Leistungsmessung der einzelnen Textsorten zu erstellen, was mit großem Aufwand verbunden ist. Die Darstellung der Deskriptoren für schriftliche Produktion ist sehr allgemein vorgestellt:
Niveau	Schriftliche Produktion allgemein
B2	Kann klare detaillierte Texte zu verschiedenen Themen aus seinem/ihrem Interessengebiet verfassen und dabei Informationen und Argumente aus verschiedenen Quellen zusammenführen und gegeneinander abwägen.
B1	Kann unkomplizierte, zusammenhängende Texte zu mehreren vertrauten Themen aus seinem/ihrem Interessengebiet verfassen, wobei einzelne kürzere Teile in linearer Abfolge verbunden werden.
A2	Kann eine Reihe einfacher Wendungen und Sätze schreiben und mit Konnektoren wie und, aber oder weil verbinden.
A1	Kann einfache, isolierte Wendungen und Sätze schreiben.
GER (2011: 67)
Bei der Schreibfertigkeit sollten einzelne Teilfertigkeiten wie Orthographie, Vokabular, sprachliche Korrektheit, inhaltliche Gestaltung, Kommunikationsangemessenheit u. a. separat getestet und, wenn nötig, bewertet werden. Diese Teilfertigkeiten unterscheiden sich für die verschiedenen Schreibformen wie Argumentieren, Appellieren, Gestalten, Informieren und Untersuchen. Die Kann-Beschreibungen für die oben aufgezählten Teilfertigkeiten sind im GER auf verschiedenen Seiten verstreut und manchmal auch unpräzise formuliert. Was heißt z. B., wenn jemand einfache isolierte Wendungen und Sätze schreiben oder gewöhnliche Alltagsthemen verstehen kann? Hierbei kann zum Teil Profile Deutsch (Glaboniat u. a. 2002) zur Hilfe herangezogen werden, wo man Kann-Beschreibungen mit Beispielen findet und wo oftmals die Antworten auf jene Fragen zu finden sind, welche beim Nachschlagen im GER aufgetaucht sind. Slowenische DaF-Lehrende können zur Leistungsbewertung der Textsorten auch andere Dokumente zur Hilfe ziehen, wie z. B. die Kriterien für den gelenkten Aufsatz im Prüfungskatalog für das allgemeine Abitur DaF (Predmetni izpitni katalog za
splošno maturo 2015 - nemščina [Der Prüfungskatalog für das allgemeine Abitur 2015 - Deutsch als Fremdsprache]).
Anderseits gibt es aber im GER (2001: 67-68) sogar Kann-Beschreibungen für Kreatives Schreiben, was eigentlich im Gegensatz zu den Prinzipien des Kreativen Schreibens steht, da dieses frei von Bewertung sein sollte, weil die Betonung mehr auf dem freien kreativen Schaffen der einzelnen Schreiber oder Schreiberinnen liegt, die anhand von verschiedenen Impulsen originelle Texte verfassen. Diese Kann-Beschreibungen eignen sich mehr für Aufsätze oder sogar dafür, wozu sie eigentlich gedacht sind (z. B. Buch-, Theaterstück-, Filmrezensionen) und wo die geltenden Konventionen beachtet werden müssen, also anders wie „beim Kreativen Schreiben, wo sie auch gebrochen werden dürfen" (Kosevski Puljic 2003).
Wie sehen Lehrende den GER heute, wodurch haben sie seinen Nutzen erkannt und inwiefern hat er einen Einfluss auf die Leistungsbeurteilung der Textproduktion im Daf-Unterricht ausgeübt? Das sind Fragen, auf die im folgenden Kapitel des Beitrags versucht wird, Antworten zu finden.
3 METHODOLOGIE
Die Datenerhebung erfolgte durch einen Fragebogen mit teilweise skalierten Antworten und teilweise Einstufungsantworten (insgesamt 7 Items). Die Fragen, die die Lehrkräfte beantworten sollten, waren folgende:
Frage 1: Wie lange unterrichten Sie Deutsch als Fremdsprache?
Es wurden folgende Skalen angegeben: A (bis 5 Jahre), B (5 bis 10 Jahre), C (10 bis 20 Jahre) und D (20 Jahre und mehr):
Frage 2: Wie nützlich finden Sie den GER als Hilfe bei der Förderung der Schreibfertigkeit beim DaF-Unterricht nach folgenden Tätigkeiten? Bewerten Sie auf der Skala von 1 bis 5 (1-am wenigsten wichtig; 5-am wichtigsten).
Die Tätigkeiten waren folgende: das Planen der Schreibförderung im Jahresplan, das Ausarbeiten der Kriterien für das Bewerten der schriftlichen Produkte von Lernenden, Selbstevaluierung der Lernenden, das Benoten der Produkte, die Auswahl der Textsorten, der Erwerb der Schreibfertigkeit allgemein.
Frage 3: Was empfinden Sie als größte Stütze bei der Erstellung von Kriterien für die Leistungsmessung der schriftlichen Produkte der Lernenden?
Hier sollten sich die Befragten für die folgenden drei Dokumente entscheiden: das Curriculum für DaF, GER, den Prüfungskatalog für das allgemeine Abitur für DaF.
Fragen 4, 5 und 6: Wie wichtig finden Sie die folgenden Kategorien für die Leistungsmessung der schriftlichen Produkte? Bewerten Sie sie auf der Skala von 1 bis 5 nach der Wichtigkeit.
Hier wurde die gleiche Skalierung wie bei Frage 2 eingesetzt. Die Lehrenden sollten folgende Kategorien separat nach den Niveaus A1, A2 und B13 bewerten: Inhalt, Kommunikative Angemessenheit, Wortschatz, sprachliche Richtigkeit, Argumentieren und Originalität.
Frage 7: Welche Niveaustufe eignet sich am besten zur Einführung folgender Textsorten? Markieren Sie bitte in der Tabelle.
Die Befragten sollten 22 Textsorten in die Niveaustufen von A1 bis B2 einreihen. Die Textsorten sind aus der Tabelle ersichtlich.
Der Fragebogen wurde 70 DaF-Lehrenden ausgehändigt. Die Befragung fand nach der externen Bewertung von schriftlichen Aufgaben des allgemeinen Abiturs im Juni 2014 statt. 54 DaF-Lehrende (3 Lehrer und 51 Lehrerinnen) haben den Fragebogen beantwortet und ihn der Autorin ausgehändigt.
4 ERGEBNISSE DER BEFRAGUNG
Die an der Befragung teilnehmenden Lehrpersonen sind durchschnittlich über mehr als 18 Jahre im DaF-Unterricht tätig. Zwanzig Lehrpersonen sind über zwanzig Jahre an der Schule tätig, siebenundzwanzig von zehn bis zu zwanzig Jahren und nur sieben sind weniger als zehn Jahre an der Schule tätig. Es wird vermutet, dass auch sie sich in der letzten Dekade mit dem Referenzrahmen vertraut gemacht haben (Frage 1).
Bei Frage 2 mussten die Lehrenden entscheiden, bei welchen Tätigkeiten im DaF-Unterricht der Referenzrahmen als geeignete Hilfe anzusehen ist (Tabelle 1).
GER als Stütze zum	MW
Planen der Schreibfertigkeitsförderung	3,8
Bildung von Kriterien	4,2
Portfolio	3,9
Benoten	4,1
Textauswahl	4,3
Schreiberwerb - allgemein	4,1
Tabelle 1: GER als Stütze bei verschiedenen Aktivitäten
Die Mittelwerte zeigen, dass man sich der Nützlichkeit des GER bewusst ist. Es wird festgestellt, dass sich gerade die Bildung von Kriterien und die Textauswahl als am nützlichsten erweisen. Die Kriterien für die Leistungsmessung werden meistens von der Schule oder von den einzelnen Lehrpersonen festgelegt. Welcher Hilfen sich die Lehrenden dabei bedienen, wird aus der Tabelle 2 ersichtlich.
3 Wir haben uns für die Niveaus bis B1 entschieden, da die Mehrheit der Lernenden nach dem Abschluss die Fremdsprachenkenntnisse bis zum Niveau B1 nach dem GER erreicht.
Hilfen zur Erstellung von Kriterien	f
Curriculum	22
GER	8
Prüfungskatalog Abitur	24
Tabelle 2: Hilfen zur Erstellung der Kriterien für die schriftliche Produktion
Die Mehrzahl der Befragten hat sich für den Prüfungskatalog für das allgemeine Abitur und für das Curriculum entschieden. Nur acht Personen sehen den GER als die größte Stütze bei der Erstellung der Kriterien für die Leistungsmessung der schriftlichen Produktion.
Jedoch muss hierbei erwähnt werden, dass die Werte in der Tabelle 2 nicht im Einklang mit den Werten in der Tabelle 1 stehen. Was die Befragten unter Textauswahl verstehen, kann nicht deutlich erklärt werden, da der GER dies nicht sehr ausführlich erörtert. Was das Benoten angeht, ist auch fraglich, inwiefern sich die Lehrenden darüber bewusst sind, den Empfehlungen im GER nachzugehen, da sich bei der Frage nach der Nützlichkeit des GER bei der Erstellung von Kriterien für die Leistungsmessung nur 14% der befragten Lehrenden für den Referenzrahmen entschieden haben.
Der Grund dafür, dass die meisten Lehrenden sich für den Prüfungskatalog entschieden haben, kann auch an den im Katalog ausgearbeiteten Kriterien für die Bewertung der schriftlichen Produkte liegen. Die meisten DaF-Lehrenden arbeiten mit den Kriterien schon seit 1994, als das externe Abitur eingeführt worden ist. Inzwischen haben sie sich daran gewöhnt, da er auch immer zur Hand ist und schnell eingesetzt werden kann. Zur Illustration werden hier die Kriterien für die kommunikative Angemessenheit und die entsprechenden Leistungspunkte aus dem Prüfungskatalog angegeben. Sie sind in all den Jahren ausgearbeitet worden und dienen als große Hilfe bei der Leistungsmessung der gelenkten Textsorten. Natürlich gibt es auch Kriterien für die sprachliche Richtigkeit und die Beurteilung des Wortschatzes, was aber hier nicht erläutert wird.
5	Der Aufsatz entspricht vollkommen dem Thema und der kommunikativen Absicht der Textsorte. Die Mitteilung ist klar formuliert. Die Textsorte und ihre Merkmale sowie das sprachliche Register werden berücksichtigt. Alle geforderten Informationen werden ausführlich angeführt. Der Aufsatz wirkt sehr überzeugend.4
4	Der Aufsatz entspricht dem Thema und der kommunikativen Absicht, die erreicht wird. Die Textsorte und ihre Merkmale sowie das sprachliche Register werden berücksichtigt. Die Mitteilung ist zwar klar, die Ausgangspunkte sind gesetzt, doch die Informationen sind zu knapp formuliert, bzw. der Aufsatz enthält weniger als 100 Wörter.
3	Der Aufsatz entspricht dem Thema und der kommunikativen Absicht. Die Mitteilung ist nicht immer ganz klar formuliert und zwei Merkmale der Textsorte werden nicht beachtet oder es fehlt eine Information bzw. eine inhaltlich unpassende Information wird eingefügt. Der Aufsatz bildet eine in sich geschlossene Einheit, jedoch sind die Textverbindungen zwischen den einzelnen Elementen wenig geschickt ausgedrückt, bzw. der Aufsatz enthält weniger als 80 Wörter.
4 Die vorgeschriebene Mindestlänge beträgt 100 Wörter.
2	Der Aufsatz entspricht teilweise dem Thema und der kommunikativen Absicht, die Mitteilung ist an einigen Stellen unklar formuliert oder nicht ganz verständlich. Die Berücksichtigung der Textsorte ist mangelhaft. Einige thematisch nicht entsprechende Informationen werden eingefügt oder einige der geforderten Informationen werden ausgelassen. Die verschiedenen Aussagen sind schlecht miteinander verknüpft.
1	Der Aufsatz entspricht nur teilweise dem Thema und der kommunikativen Absicht. Die Aussage ist weitgehend unklar, das sprachliche Register entspricht nur teilweise den Anforderungen. Die Merkmale der Textsorte werden nicht berücksichtigt, mehrere geforderte Informationen werden ausgelassen oder mehrere thematisch nicht entsprechende Informationen werden eingefügt.
0	Der Aufsatz entspricht nicht dem Thema und der kommunikativen Absicht oder er wurde überhaupt nicht geschrieben.
Tabelle 3: Die Kriterien für die Benotung der kommunikativen Angemessenheit (PIK SM 2015 -nemščina)
Anschließend wurden die Lehrenden gefragt, für wie wichtig sie die einzelnen Kategorien zur Leistungsmessung der schriftlichen Produkte ihrer Lernenden in Bezug auf die Niveaustufen von A1 bis B1 halten.
A1	MW	A2	MW	B1	MW
Inhalt	4,5	Inhalt	4,6	Inhalt	4,8
Kommunikative Angemessenheit	4,4	Kommunikative Angemessenheit	4,5	Kommunikative Angemessenheit	4,7
Wortschatz	4,3	Wortschatz	4,5	Wortschatz	4,7
Sprachliche Richtigkeit	3,6	Sprachliche Richtigkeit	3,9	Sprachliche Richtigkeit	4,4
Argumentieren	3,5	Argumentieren	3,9	Argumentieren	4,5
Originalität	3,8	Originalität	4	Originalität	4,4
Tabelle 4: Die Relevanz der angegebenen Kategorien bei den Bewertungskriterien der schriftlichen Schülerarbeiten (Skala von 1 bis 5; 5 am wichtigsten)
Aus der Tabelle 4 wird ersichtlich, welchen Kategorien auf den einzelnen Niveaustufen die Lehrenden die größte Relevanz zumessen. Man kann beobachten, dass die Werte bei allen Kategorien von Niveau zu Niveau steigen. Innerhalb jedes Niveaus kann man bei den Kategorien Inhalt, Kommunikative Fertigkeit und Wortschatz fast gleiche Mittelwerte bei den Kategorien beobachten. Sehr wichtig finden die Lehrkräfte auch die Kategorie Originalität, was jedoch bei der Bewertung problematisch sein könnte, besonders dann, wenn keine entsprechenden Kriterien dafür vorhanden sind. Die Ergebnisse bei der Kategorie Argumentieren sind beim Niveau A1 und A2 ebenso erstaunlich, denn zu diesem Zeitpunkt beherrschen die Lernenden noch fast keine
sprachlichen Mittel zur wirklichen Argumentation. Auch bei den Kann-Beschreibungen wird die Fähigkeit zu argumentieren erstmals beim Niveau B1 erwähnt. Die sprachliche Richtigkeit hat ihre Position bezüglich ihrer Bedeutung in den letzten Jahren verändert (wahrscheinlich unter dem Einfluss des kommunikativen Ansatzes und folglich auch des Referenzrahmens). Für die Lehrenden ist sie nicht mehr so wichtig wie noch vor einigen Jahren zu beobachten war, als die Lehrenden in den Fortbildungsseminaren immer wieder betonten, die grammatischen Kenntnisse seien am wichtigsten beim Fremdsprachenerwerb5.
In Bezug auf die Frage, ab welchem Niveau es passend sei, die angegebenen Textsorten beim Schreibunterricht in der Fremdsprache einzusetzen bzw. zu üben, mussten die Lehrenden sich entscheiden, auf welcher Niveaustufe des GER eine bestimmte Textsorte eingeführt wird. Sie stuften die Textsorten in ein Raster auf der Skala von A1 bis B2 ein.
Einsatz der Textsorte	MW	Niveau	Einsatz der Textsorte	MW	Niveau
Grußkarte	2,1	A1	Reflexion	4,6	B1
Anleitung	2,8	A1+	Zeitungsartikel	4,4	B1
Essay	5,1	B2+	Szenario	4,9	B1+
Aufsatz	2,9	A1+	Tagebuch	3,6	A2
E-Mail	2,4	A1	Anzeige	3,0	A2
Persönlicher Brief	2,8	A1+	Reklamation	3,7	A2+
Lebenslauf	3,5	B1	Bewerbung	3,7	A2+
Beschreibung	2,7	A1+	Beschwerde	3,9	A2+
Bericht	3,8	A2+	Leserbrief	3,4	A2
Notizen	3,2	A2	Grafik beschreiben	4,1	B1
Interview	3,2	A2	Fachartikel	5,4	B2
Tabelle 5: Die am meisten geeigneten Niveaustufen nach GER zur Einführung einer bestimmten Textsorte.
Aus der Tabelle wird ersichtlich, welchen Niveaustufen die Lehrenden die einzelnen Textsorten zugeordnet haben, und zwar in dem Sinne, auf welcher Stufe es sich empfiehlt, die einzelnen Textsorten in den Unterricht einzuführen. Die einzelnen Niveaus sollten sie nur mit Zahlen bestimmen. Aus den Mittelwerten konnte man später die durchschnittlichen Werte für die Niveaustufen festlegen.
Den globalen Kann-Beschreibungen auf verschiedenen Niveaus des GER kann entnommen werden, wann man eine bestimmte Textsorte einsetzen könnte, wie z. B. auf dem Niveau A1, wo die Lernenden kurze, einfache Texte schreiben können. Doch hieraus lässt sich nur schwer entschlüsseln, welche Textsorte da gemeint sein könnte.
5 Die Aussagen der Lehrenden aus den Evaluationen der Fortbildungsseminare, die von der Autorin geleitet worden sind.
Die Mittelwerte in der Tabelle 5 weisen auf, dass die Entscheidungen der Befragten oftmals mit den kommentierten Kann-Beschreibungen in Profile Deutsch übereinstimmen. Manchmal aber werden bestimmte Textsorten nach Aussagen der befragten Lehrenden schon früher eingesetzt. Das ist auf jeden Fall positiv, da man weiß, dass schon mit geringen sprachlichen Mitteln einfache Texte verfertigt werden können.
Zuletzt gilt das Interesse auch dem potentiellen Unterschied in der Wertung des GER als Stütze hinsichtlich der Lebensarbeitszeit im Schulwesen der beteiligten Lehrkräfte.
	Planen	Kriterien	Portfolio	Benoten	Textauswahl	Schreibenallgemein
Unter 10 AJ5	3	3,7	3,7	3,7	4	3,7
10 oder mehr AJ	3,9	4,4	3,9	4,2	4,3	4,2
Tabelle 6: GER als Stütze bei verschiedenen Aktivitäten in Bezug auf die Arbeitsjahre der Befragten
Beim Vergleich der Nützlichkeit des GER im Bezug auf die Länge der Unterrichtstätigkeit kann festgestellt werden, dass die Mittelwerte der einzelnen Tätigkeiten bei den Lehrenden, die weniger als zehn Jahre unterrichten, niedriger liegen. Über die Ursache kann eigentlich nur spekuliert werden: Entweder haben die jüngeren Lehrenden nicht genügend hilfreiche Informationen über den Referenzrahmen, da wir uns dessen bewusst sein sollen, dass die Verbreitung des Referenzrahmens in den ersten Jahren sehr intensiv verlief, später aber immer weniger; oder, sie haben noch andere Quellen, aus denen sie, wenn nötig, Hilfe schöpfen können.
5	SCHLUSSBEMERKUNGEN UND AUSBLICK
Die Befragungsergebnisse im vorliegenden Beitrag zeigen, dass sich DaF-Leh-rende zwar auf den Referenzrahmen als Hilfsmittel für die Leistungsmessung beziehen, sich aber bei dem Erstellen ihrer Kriterien für das Prüfen und Benoten der schriftlichen Produkte der Lernenden andere Dokumente zur Hilfe nehmen oder für andere Kriterien entscheiden. Das sind in den meisten Fällen die Kriterien für den gelenkten Aufsatz und Essay aus dem Prüfungskatalog für das allgemeine Abitur. Der GER wird also nicht als eine große Stütze bei der Leistungsmessung der Schreibfertigkeit im Bereich des Deutschen als Fremdsprache anerkannt. Warum bedienen sie sich nicht öfter des Referenzrahmens, kann möglicherweise auch an den Deskriptoren im GER liegen. Sie erläutern nämlich nicht immer eindeutig, über welche Fertigkeiten und Kompetenzen die Lernenden verfügen müssen, und wozu sie imstande sein sollen (Cools/Sercu 2006: 17). Manchmal fehlen auch die Beschreibungen der niedrigeren Niveaus, wie z. B. bei „Berichte und Aufsätze
6	AJ ist die Abkürzung für Arbeitsjahre.
schreiben", wo keine Deskriptoren für die Niveaustufen A1 und A2 verfügbar sind, obwohl die Lehrenden bei der Befragung angegeben haben, dass Berichte und Aufsätze schon auf diesen Niveaustufen im Unterricht eingesetzt werden. Natürlich erfolgt dies gemäß den bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt erworbenen produktiven Schreibkompetenzen der Lernenden.
Der Referenzrahmen kann folglich trotz seiner umfangreichen Hinweise, Begründungen (die zwar nicht immer genügend wissenschaftlich fundiert sind), Erläuterungen und der Kann-Beschreibungen nicht als große Stütze für die Leistungsmessung und Benotung der schriftlichen Produktion betrachtet werden. Seine Verdienste können aber nicht geleugnet werden. Er setzte den wichtigsten Rahmen bisher, in dem sich die Sprachtheoretiker und Sprachpraktiker bewegen, wenn sie sich mit dem Fremdsprachenerwerb und seinen wichtigsten Komponenten auseinandersetzen. Nach der Dissemination des GER entstanden zahlreiche Dokumente, Werke und Beiträge, die den GER aus verschiedenen Perspektiven aufschlüsselten. Hier sollen auf jeden Fall auch die Lehrwerke der neueren Generation für Fremdsprachen erwähnt werden. Das sind Lehrwerke, die mit dem GER und den Niveaustufen „aufgewachsen" sind. In der letzten Dekade erlebten wir eine Hyperproduktion von solchen Lehrwerken; viele davon wurden explizit nach den Empfehlungen und Anregungen des Referenzrahmens geschaffen. Auch in Slowenien entstanden gute Lehrwerke, die nach dem handlungsorientierten Ansatz zum Fremdsprachenerwerb und Fremdsprachengebrauch verfasst wurden (z. B. Prima von DZS oder Alles stimmt! von Rokus-Langenscheidt).
Zusammenfassend kann gesagt werden, dass gerade die Lehrwerke, die anhand des didaktisch-methodischen Rahmens des GER entstanden sind, eigentlich die Paradigmen des GER verwirklichen. In den Lehrwerken werden die einzelnen zu bearbeitenden Themen meistens mit entsprechenden zielorientierten Kann-Be-schreibungen eingeleitet. Damit bedeuten sie auch für die Lernenden eine Stütze zur Bewusstmachung der eigenen Lernziele und dadurch können sie auch als Motivation zum weiteren Lernen dienen. Unter diesen Kann-Beschreibungen befinden sich auch Aussagen zu schriftlichen Kompetenzen, die man natürlich später auch in seine eigenen Kriterien für die Leistungsmessung der Schreibprodukte miteinbeziehen kann.
Literatur
COOLS, Dorien/Lies SERCU (2006) „Die Beurteilung von Lehrwerken an Hand des Gemeinsamen Europäischen Referenzrahmens für Sprachen: Eine empirische Untersuchung von zwei kürzlich erschienenen Lehrwerken für Deutsch als Fremdsprache." Zeitschrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht 11/3, 1-17.
Gemeinsamer europäischer Referenzrahmen für Sprachen: lernen, lehren, beurteilen
(2001). Berlin/München: Langenscheidt. GLABONIAT, Manuela u. a. (2002) Profile Deutsch: Gemeinsamer europäischer Referenzrahmen. Lernzielbestimmungen. Kann-Beschreibungen, kommunikative Mittel, Niveau A1, A2, B1, B2. Berlin: Langenscheidt.
GLIHA, Nadja u. a. (2013) Predmetni izpitni katalog za splošno maturo - nemščina. Ljubljana: Državni izpitni center.
HOLC, Nada et al. (2008) Učni načrt Nemščina - Gimnazija. 12 Juli 2014. URL:http:// portal.mss.edus.si/msswww/programi2008/programi/media/old_bkp/pdf/ucni_ nacrti/UN_NEMSCINA_gimn.pdf (12. 7. 2014).
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KOSEVSKI PULJIC, Brigita (2009) „Der Erwerb der Schreibkompetenz im Deutsch als Fremdsprache - zwischen Konzepten und Modellen." Glottodidactica XXXV, 91-101.
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PORTMANN-TSELIKAS, Paul R. (2005) Was ist Textkompetenz? 12 Juli 2014. http:// www.austriaco.edu.gt/Homepagiag/paed/koord/deutsch/daf_2010/bewertung_dfu/ textkompetenz_aufbau/PortmannTextkompetenz.pdf.
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VALENČIČ ARH, Urška (2014) Ein Prinz auf der Erbse. Phraseologie und Übersetzung. Am Beispiel der Kinder- und Jugendliteratur von Christine Nöstlinger im Deutschen und Slowenischen. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren.
Zusammenfassung WIE TIEF GREIFT DER GEMEINSAME EUROPÄISCHE REFERENZRAHMEN FÜR SPRACHEN (GER) IN DIE AKTUELLE LEISTUNGSMESSUNG DER SCHREIBKOMPETENZ IM DEUTSCHEN ALS FREMDSPRACHE? - ZUM STAND IN SLOWENIEN
Der Gemeinsame europäische Referenzrahmen für Sprachen wurde auch in Slowenien innerhalb des letzten Jahrzehnts als eines der bestimmenden Kompetenzmodelle für den Fremdsprachenunterricht etabliert. Da sich in slowenischen Schulen auch die Curricula für den DaF-Unterricht darauf beziehen, hatten folglich die Niveaustufen des GER Einfluss auf die Art und Weise der Qualitätskontrolle im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wurde anhand einer Befragung der DaF-Lehrkräfte der aktuelle Einfluss des GER auf die Leistungsmessung der Fertigkeit Schreiben im Unterricht untersucht. Die befragten Lehrenden haben sich unter anderem zur Nützlichkeit des GER bei der Förderung der Schreibfertigkeit geäußert und haben die Wichtigkeit einzelner Kategorien und der Textsorten bei der Leistungsmessung der schriftlichen Kompetenz auf den Niveaustufen von A1 bis B1 bewertet.
Die Ergebnisse der Befragung zeigen, dass der GER als Stütze bei der Leistungsmessung der Schreibfertigkeit im Bereich des Deutschen als Fremdsprache eher einen
geringeren Einfluss ausübt. Die Gründe dafür könnte man in den bereits existierenden Kriterien für die Bewertung der Schreibprodukte beim Abitur, eigenen Kriterien oder in verschiedenen persönlichen Gründen finden.
Schlüsselwörter: DaF, GER, Kriterien, Leistungsmessung, Niveaustufen, Schreibprodukte.
Abstract
THE IMPACT OF THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE (CEFR) ON THE ASSESSMENT OF THE WRITING SKILLS IN GERMAN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN SLOVENIA
CEFR is a didactic framework used to describe foreign language competencies. All foreign language curricula in Slovenia refer to this framework. CEFR language proficiency levels have an influence on the testing and assessment of writing competence. In order to quantify this impact, a study using a questionnaire was conducted among teachers of German as a foreign language. It comprised questions about the usefulness of the CEFR in teaching students how to improve their writing ability and in setting the criteria for the evaluation of writing assignments. Furthermore, questions were asked about the importance of selected categories for the evaluation of writing assignments at levels A1-B1 as well as about an appropriate classification of various text types at levels A1-B2 in the context of using the CEFR to teach German.
The results of the study showed that German language teachers do not consider the CEFR to be an important teaching aid when setting the criteria for the evaluation of written assignments. The teachers may have reached this conclusion on the basis of the existing criteria used in the external evaluation of writing assignments, on the basis of personal criteria as well as of other circumstances.
Keywords: German as a foreign language, CEFR, assessment, criteria, written outputs, proficiency level.
Povzetek
KAKŠEN VPLIV IMA SKUPNI EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI OKVIR (SEJO) NA VREDNOTENJE ZNANJA PISNE ZMOŽNOSTI PRI POUKU NEMŠČINE V SLOVENIJI?
SEJO je okvirni didaktični dokument za opisovanje tujejezičnih kompetenc. Nanj se sklicujejo vsi učni načrti za tuje jezike. Tako imajo tudi stopnje znanja po SEJO vpliv na način preverjanja in vrednotenja znanja pisne zmožnosti. Da bi ugotovili, kakšen je ta vpliv, smo med učitelji in učiteljicami nemščine izvedli raziskavo v obliki vprašalnika.
Vprašalnik je vseboval vprašanja o koristnosti SEJO pri poučevanju pisne zmožnosti in pri sestavljanju kriterijev za ocenjevanje pisnih izdelkov, o pomembnosti posameznih kategorij za ocenjevanje pisnih izdelkov na stopnjah od A1 do B1 in o ustreznem razvrščanju besedilnih vrst glede na stopnje od A1 do B2 po SEJO pri pouku nemščine.
Iz rezultatov je razvidno, da učitelji in učiteljice nemščine ocenjujejo SEJO kot nepomemben pripomoček pri sestavljanju kriterijev za vrednotenje pisnih izdelkov. Vzroki za to so lahko obstoječi kriteriji za zunanje ocenjevanje pisnih izdelkov na maturi, lastni kriteriji in drugi razlogi.
Ključne besede: nemščina kot tuji jezik, SEJO, preverjanje in ocenjevanja, pisni izdelki, kriteriji, stopnje znanja.
Andreja Retelj
Universität Ljubljana*
UDK 81'373:811.112.2'243(075) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.61-75
DIE BEURTEILUNG VON LEHRWERKEN FÜR DEUTSCH ALS FREMDSPRACHE ANHAND DES GEMEINSAMEN EUROPÄISCHEN REFERENZRAHMENS FÜR SPRACHEN: EINE EMPIRISCHE UNTERSUCHUNG ÜBER DIE ENTWICKLUNG DER LEXIKALISCHEN KOMPETENZ
1 EINLEITUNG
Der Erwerb der lexikalischen Kompetenz spielte in der Forschung bis 1990 eine nebensächliche Rolle (Milton 2009). Erst später wurde diesem Bereich größere Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt, welche in zahlreichen Studien resultiert. Das gilt jedoch vor allem für Englisch als Fremdsprache, der Erwerb des deutschen Wortschatzes blieb dagegen noch ziemlich unerforscht. Um diese Forschungslücke ein wenig zu schließen, wird in diesem Beitrag eine Analyse der häufigsten DaF-Lehrwerke in Slowenien aus der Sicht der Entwicklung der lexikalischen Kompetenz präsentiert. Dazu wird erstens der Einfluss des Gemeinsamen Europäischen Referenzrahmens für Sprachen (weiter: GeR) auf den DaF-Unterricht in Slowenien thematisiert, zweitens wird der Begriff der lexikalischen Kompetenz erschlossen und der aktuelle Forschungsstand aus diesem Bereich geklärt, anschließend wird die Analyse der ausgewählten Lehrwerke präsentiert.
2 DER EINFLUSS DES GER AUF DEN DAF-UNTERRICHT IN SLOWENIEN
Der DaF-Unterricht in Slowenien erlebte im letzten Jahrzehnt starke Veränderungen. Der kommunikative und handlungsorientierte Unterricht, der Lernende dazu führen soll, sich möglichst schnell in einer Fremdsprache zurechtzufinden, bewirkte die Neusetzung der Unterrichtsziele, die Rollenveränderung der Lehrenden und Lernenden sowie die Veränderungen der Lehrwerke und anderer Begleitmaterialien. Der heutige Unterricht soll lernerzentriert und nicht lehrerzentriert sein, das heißt, eine aktive Rolle der Lernenden soll folgendermaßen gefördert werden, so dass die Lernenden schrittweise kommunikative und andere Kompetenzen entwickeln können. Lernende werden als sozial Handelnde gesehen, die fähig sind, in verschiedenen Kontexten und Lebensbereichen ihre kommunikativen Absichten schriftlich und mündlich zu verwirklichen.
Das wichtigste Dokument, das zu diesen Veränderungen am meisten beitrug, ist der im Jahr 2001 erschienene Gemeinsame Europäische Referenzrahmen für Sprachen. Der GeR als Grundlage zur Beschreibung der Sprachkompetenz von Fremdsprachenlernenden
Die Adresse der Autorin: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slowenien. E-mail: andreja.retelj@fF.uni-lj.si.
*
geht von einem handlungsorientierten Ansatz aus und beeinflusste Curricula, Lehrpläne, Lehrwerke und Prüfungsformate sowie den Unterrichtsverlauf selbst. Der kommunikative und handlungsorientierte Ansatz stellt das Lehren und das Lernen einer Fremdsprache zu kommunikativen Zwecken in den Mittelpunkt des modernen Fremdsprachenunterrichts. Die Lernenden sollen beim kommunikativen und handlungsorientierten Unterricht fünf Fertigkeiten schrittweise entwickeln. Gemäß dem GeR sind das folgende Fertigkeiten: Hören und Lesen, zusammenhängend Sprechen, an Gesprächen teilnehmen, Schreiben. Die Beherrschung dieser Fertigkeiten kann mithilfe der Deskriptoren für jede einzelne Fertigkeit, die sich im GeR befindet, festgelegt und nach den Stufen von A1 bis C2 eingeordnet werden.
Für den modernen DaF-Unterricht in Slowenien bestimmende Lehrpläne für alle Schultypen und -ebenen beruhen auf dem GeR. Neben dem kommunikativen und hand-lungsorientierten Ansatz und der Lernerzentriertheit werden noch Lernerautonomie, Selbsteinschätzung, Kompetenzorientierung, Entwicklung von Lernstrategien, Individualisierung und Differenzierung und Entwicklung von Interkulturalität und Mehrsprachigkeit als die wichtigsten Ziele des DaF-Unterrichts gesetzt.
3 LEXIKALISCHE KOMPETENZ IN THEORIE UND PRAXIS
Die lexikalische Kompetenz bildet zusammen mit grammatischer, semantischer und phonologischer Kompetenz linguistische Kompetenzen (GeR 2001: 110). Der GeR definiert die lexikalische Kompetenz als „Kenntnis des Vokabulars einer Sprache, die aus lexikalischen und grammatischen Elementen besteht, sowie die Fähigkeit, es zu verwenden" (GeR 2001: 111). Zu den lexikalischen Elementen gehören feste Wendungen wie Satzformeln, idiomatische Wendungen, feststehende Muster, feststehende Phrasen, Kollokationen und Einzelwörter (ebd.: 111-112). Grammatische Elemente umfassen „geschlossene Wortklassen" wie Artikel, Pronomen, Präpositionen, Hilfsverben, Modalverben, Konjunktionen und Modalpartikel (ebd.: 112). Laut dem GeR umfasst die lexikalische Kompetenz also die Kenntnis und die Beherrschung von lexikalischen und grammatischen Elementen. Zur Beschreibung der lexikalischen Kompetenz bietet der GeR zwei Skalen an, eine zur Beschreibung des Wortschatzspektrums und eine zur Beschreibung der Wortschatzbeherrschung. Gleichzeitig wird aber hervorgehoben, die Benutzer des GeR sollten selber über die Auswahl der lexikalischen Elemente, Anforderungen an Lernende, rezeptive oder produktive Art der Beherrschung einzelner lexikalischer Elemente und über die Art, wie sie den Lernenden beigebracht werden, nachdenken und selbst eine Entscheidung treffen. Einerseits versucht der GeR mit beiden Skalen, die lexikalische Kompetenz auf den Stufen von A1 bis C2 zu beschreiben, einzustufen und eine gewisse Ordnung und Transparenz einzuführen, andererseits bleibt gerade diese Kompetenz noch ziemlich ungenau definiert und meistens völlig den Benutzern des Referenzrahmens überlassen. Der GeR befasst sich nicht genau damit, was es eigentlich heißt, ein Wort zu kennen, und welche Vokabeln Lernende auf einer bestimmten Niveaustufe beherrschen sollten, obwohl gerade diese Kompetenz als Kernkompetenz für die Entwicklung aller anderen linguistischen Kompetenzen nach dem GeR gilt und eine genauere Festlegung eigentlich sinnvoll wäre. Lehrende und Lernende sind hier auf sich allein gestellt.
Die theoretischen Grundlagen des kommunikativen Ansatzes und des GeR geben keine genauen Richtlinien oder Anweisungen, wie der Wortschatz beigebracht werden soll und wie die lexikalische Kompetenz entwickelt wird. Zahlreiche Autoren (z. B. Laufer 1997; Schmitt 2000; Read 2000; Milton 2009, 2010) stellen fest, dass das Wortschatzlehren noch immer größtenteils auf den subjektiven Theorien der Lehrenden basiert und instinktiv und unsystematisch verläuft. Eine der größten Rollen beim Wortschatzerwerb spielen einerseits persönliche Werte der Lehrenden und andererseits die Lehrwerke, die im Unterricht verwendet werden.
Das Wortwissen wurde lange nur auf die Bedeutungskomponente reduziert. Die lexikalische Kompetenz dagegen umfasst nicht nur das Wissen über die Bedeutung eines Wortes, sondern auch die Fähigkeit, das Wort passend anzuwenden. Forscher versuchten, die lexikalische Kompetenz entweder allgemein als „Wortwissen" zu definieren oder ein Modell der lexikalischen Kompetenz aufzubauen, das auf diverse Aspekte eingeht. Hen-riksen (1999) hebt hervor, die lexikalische Kompetenz bestehe aus drei Dimensionen, die das partielle bis vollständige Wortwissen, die Tiefe des Wortwissens und das rezeptive bis produktive Wortwissen umfassen. Jede Dimension muss als ein Kontinuum gesehen werden und das Wortwissen eines Einzelnen in einem bestimmten Moment dagegen als ein Stadium in der Entwicklung. Ein Wort zu kennen, bedeutet laut Nation (2001: 27) die Form, den Inhalt und die Verwendung zu kennen. Weiter wird jede Kategorie noch genauer in Unterkategorien aufgeteilt, wobei bei jeder Unterkategorie die rezeptive oder produktive Seite des Wortwissens zu unterscheiden ist. Insgesamt präsentiert Nation 18 Unterkategorien, die hier tabellarisch dargestellt werden.
g	Lautliche Form	R	Wie hört sich ein Wort an?
c		P	Wie wird das Wort ausgesprochen?
	Grafische Form	R	Wie sieht die grafische Form aus?
		P	Wie wird das Wort geschrieben und buchstabiert?
	Wortteile	R	Welche Wortteile kann man erkennen?
		P	Welche Wortteile weisen die Bedeutung auf?
Inhalt	Bedeutung	R	Welche allgemeine Bedeutung hat das Wort?
		P	Welches Wort soll allgemein zu einer Sprechintention auswählt werden?
	Konzept und Referenten	R	Welche Bedeutung hat ein Wort in einem bestimmten Kontext?
		P	Welches Wort soll in einem bestimmten Kontext ausgewählt werden?
	Assoziationen	R	Welche Assoziationen ruft ein Wort hervor?
		P	Mit welchen Assoziationen wird das Wort in einem konkreten Kontext verbunden?
sr. s 3 ■S s	Grammatische Kategorie	R	In welchen Mustern kommt ein Wort vor?
		P	In welchen Mustern soll ein Wort verwendet werden?
£	Kollokationen	R	Welche Worte passen zu einem Wort?
		P	Mit welchen Worten kann ein Wort verbunden werden?
	Registerrestriktionen	R	Wann, wo und wie häufig kommt ein Wort vor?
		P	Wann, wo und wie häufig kann ein Wort verwendet werden?
Tabelle 1: Aspekte des Wortwissens nach Nation 2001: 27
Häussermann und Piepho (1996: 79) heben hervor, der kommunikative Erfolg des Wortschatzlernens gelinge nicht nur durch den Besitz eines äußerst breiten Wortschatzes, sondern „[n]ötig ist: frühzeitig die Distanz und Selektionsfähigkeit zu entwickeln, die der Lernende braucht, um seinen aktiven Wortschatz zu ordnen, zu sichern[,] den intelligenten Umgang mit dem latenten Wortschatz zu lernen." Damit Lernende diese Kompetenzen entwickeln könnten, benötigen sie auch einen solchen Unterricht, der ihnen ermöglicht, diverse Strategien zum Wortschatzlernen kennenzulernen und selber auszuprobieren.
Einige Forscher (z. B. Lewis 1993) sind überzeugt, dass die lexikalische Kompetenz Hand in Hand mit der grammatischen Kompetenz geht und dass die beiden voneinander nicht zu trennen sind.
4 DIE ROLLE DER LEHRWERKE IM UNTERRICHT
Richards (2012) stellt fest, dass Lehrwerke den Schlüsselfaktor in den meisten Sprachprogrammen darstellen. Lehrwerke stellen die Grundlage für den größten Teil des sprachlichen Inputs und die Basis für Klassenaktivitäten dar. Mithilfe eines Lehrwerks werden Inhalte dargestellt, thematisiert und bearbeitet, durch Aufgaben und Übungen werden diese Inhalte gefestigt sowie auch sprachspezifische Ziele erreicht und nicht zuletzt verschiedene sprachliche und andere kommunikative Kompetenzen entwickelt.
Lehrwerke sind vor allem für angehende Lehrer nicht nur eine Ideenquelle für die Unterrichtsplanung, sondern oft auch eine Leitlinie ihres eigenen Unterrichtsverlaufs. Eine große Rolle spielen Lehrwerke vor allem bei denjenigen Fremdsprachen, wo den Lernenden ein weiterer Kontakt mit der Zielsprache fehlt. Neben dem DaF-Lehrer sind Lehrwerke auch in Slowenien oft die einzige tägliche Sprachbrücke, die dem Lernenden den Kontakt mit einer Fremdsprache ermöglicht. Der kommunikative und handlungs-orientierte Ansatz wird ebenfalls von Lehrwerkautoren verwirklicht, deren Lehrwerke eine authentische Sprache in verschiedenen Kontexten und Lebensbereichen vermitteln und Lernende zum Gebrauch der authentischen Sprache vorbereiten.
Richards (2012) hebt hervor, dass gute Lehrwerke viele Vorteile haben, da sie den Lehrenden und Lernenden einen klaren Überblick über den Unterrichtsstoff, über
sprachliche Mittel und über Ziele des Fremdsprachenunterrichts ermöglichen. Sie können die Grundlage des Unterrichtsverlaufsplans darstellen, sie tragen dazu bei, eine größere Standardisierung in den Unterricht einzuführen, bringen eine Methodenvielfalt, sorgen für einen reichen sprachlichen Input, helfen den Lehrenden Klassenaktivitäten zu planen und unterstützen die Visualisierung im Unterricht. Als Nachteile erwähnt Richards (ebd.) die Unechtheit der Sprache, wenn Texte nur zur Erreichung der grammatikalischen Strukturen verfasst werden. Oft werden Themen behandelt, die keinen Realitätsbezug haben und nicht zur kritischen Meinungsbildung beitragen. Lehrwerke werden oft für den Weltmarkt geschrieben, demzufolge erfüllen sie nicht alle gesellschaftsbedingten Bedürfnisse der Lernenden. Richards (2012) behauptet auch, Lehrwerke und deren Begleitmaterial könnten die Rolle der Lehrenden so stark verringern, dass sie nur noch mit dem Material unterrichten, das von anderen ausgewählt wurde.
Die DaF-Lehrwerke, die in Slowenien an staatlichen Schulen verwendet werden, werden von der Kommission für Lehrwerke beim Schulamt bestätigt. Lehrwerke werden zugelassen, wenn sie mit den Richtlinien und Lehrzielen im slowenischen Curriculum für Deutsch als Fremdsprache übereinstimmen. Aus der Sicht der lexikalischen Kompetenz heißt das, erstens, in den Lehrwerken werden Themen behandelt, die in den Lehrplänen vorgeschlagen werden, und zweitens, die Auswahl des Wortschatzes ermöglicht den Lernenden die kommunikativen Absichten in alltäglichen und beruflichen Situationen zu realisieren.
5 EMPIRISCHER TEIL
5.1	Ziele der Untersuchung
Die vorliegende Untersuchung soll die Entwicklung der lexikalischen Kompetenz anhand der ausgewählten DaF-Lehrwerke analysieren. Mit dieser Recherche wollten wir herausfinden, welche Aspekte der lexikalischen Kompetenz auf den einzelnen Niveaustufen nach dem GeR anhand der Wortschatzaufgaben und Wortschatzübungen entwickelt werden und was für ein Wortschatzspektrum die Lernenden mit den ausgewählten Lehrwerken erreichen könnten.
Die Lehrwerkanalyse, die nachfolgend dargestellt wird, ergibt ein Bild darüber, was eigentlich mit dem Wortschatzlehren und Wortschatzlernen aus Sicht der lexikalischen Kompetenz geschieht. Es muss betont werden, dass die Analyse selbst keine endgültigen Schlussfolgerungen ermöglicht, denn außer dem Lehrwerk spielten bei dem Wortschatzerwerb auch Lehrende mit ihren subjektiven Theorien (Laufer 1997) und Lernende mit ihrer Motivation für das Wortschatzlernen sowie Kontakte mit der Zielsprache eine große Rolle.
5.2	Korpus
Analysiert wurden behandelte Themen, Aufgaben und Übungen zum Wortschatzlernen in fünf Kursbüchern und den begleitenden Arbeitsbüchern, welche an slowenischen Gymnasien für Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache geläufig sind. Die Informationen zum Gebrauch der Lehrwerke wurden von den offiziellen Internetseiten von
30 Gymnasien entnommen. In die Analyse wurden folgende Lehrwerke einbezogen: Ideen 1, Ideen 2, Studio d A1, Studio d A2, Studio d B1, Themen aktuell 1, Themen aktuell 2, Optimal A1, Optimal A2, Optimal B1, Alles stimmt! 1 und Alles stimmt! 2. Zu allen Lehrwerken stehen noch zahlreiche Zusatzmaterialien zur Verfügung, die aber in die Analyse nicht miteinbezogen wurden. Bei der Auswahl wurden einige von Skela (2008) vorgeschlagene Kriterien befolgt und zwar:
•	Häufigkeit: Zur Analyse wurden die häufigsten Lehrwerke für Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache an Gymnasien ausgewählt. Alle Lehrwerke wurden vom Schulamt bestätigt.
•	Herkunftsland: Da nur die bestätigten Lehrwerke in Frage kamen, sind in der Analyse hauptsächlich nur Lehrwerke deutscher Herkunft vorhanden. Nur ein Lehrwerk wurde von einem slowenischen Autorenteam geschrieben.
•	Zielgruppe: Als Zielgruppe wurden Lehrwerke genommen, die für Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache in Frage kommen.
•	Stufe nach dem GeR: von A1 bis B1
•	Didaktischer Ansatz: kommunikativer und handlungsorientierter Ansatz.
Um das Wortschatzspektrum festzulegen, wurden in allen ausgewählten Lehrwerken behandelte Themen ausgeschrieben und mit den Vorschlägen aus dem Lehrplan für Deutsch (Holc 2008) und GeR (2001) verglichen.
5.3 Vorgehensweise
Die erste Phase der Analyse befasst sich mit dem Wortschatzspektrum anhand der in den Lehrwerken bearbeiteten Themen.
Weiterhin wurden dann in jedem Lehrwerk und in dem dazugehörenden Arbeitsbuch alle Aufgaben und Übungen, die das Vokabellernen unterstützen, identifiziert. Danach wurden die Aufgaben kategorisiert. Dabei wurden das dargestellte Modell des Wortwissens von Nation (2001) und die Aufgabenklassifizierung von Brown (2011) übernommen.
Um die Aufgaben und Übungen zu einzelnen von Nation (2001) vorgeschlagenen Unterkategorien des Wortwissens einzuordnen, erarbeitete Brown (2011: 88) eine Klassifikation der Aktivitäten, die er selber in seiner Untersuchung für englische Lehrwerke benutzte.
Aspekte des Wortwissens nach Nation (2001)	Klassifikation der Aufgaben zu den Aspekten des Vorwissens nach Brown (2011: 88)
Lautliche Form	Wahrnehmen der lautlichen Wortform Produktion der lautlichen Form Zuordnung der lautlichen Form zu der schriftlichen Form
Grafische Form	Buchstabieren Aktivitäten, die die Schreibweise innerhalb von anderen Aktivitäten unterstützen
Wortteile	Erkennen einzelner Wortteile (Wortbildung im Kontext, trennbare Verben im Kontext ...) Üben mehrteiliger Lexeme
Aspekte des Wortwissens nach Nation (2001)	Klassifikation der Aufgaben zu den Aspekten des Vorwissens nach Brown (2011: 88)
Bedeutung	Zuordnung der Bedeutung und Form (z. B. Bild und Wort zuordnen) die Form anhand der Bedeutung oder umgekehrt hervorrufen Erklärung der Bedeutung das Wort anhand des Kontextes hervorrufen
Konzept und Referenten	Aufgaben, die konzeptuelle und referentielle Ebenen eines Wortes ansprechen
Assoziationen	Verbindung des Wortes mit seinem Synonym, Antonym, Oberbegriff Bildung eines Synonyms, Antonyms oder Oberbegriffs zu einem bestimmten Wort Wortgruppierungen
Grammatische Kategorien	Sätze aus einzelnen Wörtern bilden Wortflexion im Kontext Lückentexte anhand grammatischer Eigenschaften
Kollokationen	Bildung eines Lexems Verbindung einzelner Teile eines Lexems Ergänzen fehlender Teile eines Lexems
Registerrestriktionen	Klassifizierung der Wörter anhand des Registers (z. B. dialektale Ausdrücke, Fachausdrücke, Umformungen ...) Aufgaben zur Identifizierung der Registerrestriktionen
Tabelle 2: Aspekte des Wortwissens nach Nation (2001) und Aufgabenklassifizierung zu den Aspekten des Wortwissens nach Brown (2011)
6 RESULTATE
Im ersten Teil folgt die Analyse der in den Lehrwerken bearbeiteten Themen und daraus werden die Schlussfolgerungen zum Wortschatzspektrum herausgearbeitet. Dieser folgt die Analyse der Aufgaben hinsichtlich der Aspekte des Wortwissens und der Aufgabentypologie.
6.1 Wortschatzspektrum
Alle analysierten Lehrwerke sind themenbezogen aufgebaut. Themen werden in einzelnen Lektionen bearbeitet. Die Mehrheit der Themen stimmt mit den Vorschlägen aus dem Lehrplan für Deutsch für Gymnasien (Holc 2008) und mit GeR (2001) überein. Der rote Faden einer Lektion kann schon anhand der Lektionsbenennung erkannt werden.
Fast alle Lehrwerke weisen eine ähnliche Themenverteilung auf. Auf der Stufe A1 werden Themen bearbeitet, die sehr konkret sind und stark mit dem Alltag eines Lernenden verbunden sind. Dies sind: Erste Kontakte, Länder, Gegenstände, Lebensmittel und Getränke, Wohnen, Alltagsaktivitäten, Körper und Gesundheit. Die Vokabelauswahl basiert auf konkreten Wörtern und Ausdrücken, die oft durch Visualisierung
dargestellt werden können. Aufgaben stimulieren Lernende dazu, Gegenstände zu benennen und in kurzen Sätzen zu beschreiben. Auf der Stufe A2 werden schrittweise Themen eingeführt, die schon eine Diskussion ermöglichen und dementsprechend folgt auch die Auswahl einer passenden Wortwahl. Auf dem Niveau A2 kommen meistens folgende Themen vor: Reisen, Medien, Arbeit und Berufe, Leben in der Stadt oder auf dem Land, Aussehen und Persönlichkeit, Mode, Umwelt, Verkehr. Und auf dem Niveau B1 kommen noch zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen, Generationsunterschiede, Geschichte, kulturelle Unterschiede, Politik, Landeskunde und auch Teile literarischer Texte dazu. Bei dem Lehrwerk Optimal, das über einen zyklischen Aufbau verfügt, kommen einige Themen mehrmals vor, wobei sie auf jeder weiteren Stufe nach dem GeR genauer und umfangreicher bearbeitet werden.
Die Analyse der Lehrwerke zeigte, dass es zwischen den ausgewählten Lehrwerken nur minimale Unterschiede bei der Themenauswahl gibt. Betreffend des Wortschatzspektrums könnten Lernende mit den in den Lehrwerken bearbeiteten Themen die im GeR angegebenen Deskriptoren von A1 bis B1 erreichen. In den online gestellten Lehrwerklisten für Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache steht meistens ein Lehrwerk auf Stufe A1 und eins auf Stufe A2, deswegen vermuten wir, dass Lehrer oft mit Kopien und selbsterstellten Arbeitsblättern arbeiten und dadurch fehlende Themen decken.
6.2 Aspekte des Wortwissens
Der zweite Schritt in unserer Untersuchung war die Analyse der Aspekte des Wortwissens. Anhand der Kategorisierung nach Brown (2011) wurden zuerst Aufgaben zur Festigung einzelner Aspekte nach Nation (2001) identifiziert. Die Analyse ergibt Resultate, die tabellarisch nach den GeR-Stufen von A1 bis B1 dargestellt werden.
Die Tabelle 3 zeigt die Zahl (N) und die Prozentzahl (%) der Aufgaben, die zu einem einzelnen Aspekt auf der Stufe A 1 identifiziert wurden.
Lehrwerk auf der Stufe A 1	Ideen 1		Studio d A1		Themen aktuell 1		Optimal A1		Alles stimmt! 1	
Aspekt des Wortwissens	N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%
Lautliche Form	14	32	32	18	8	4	12	11	10	6
Grafische Form	4	7	10	6	8	4	4	4	8	5
Wortteile	3	5	3	2	11	6	5	5	13	8
Bedeutung	24	40	58	33	79	42	50	48	64	40,5
Konzept und Referenten	0	0	2	1	0	9	0	0	0	0
Assoziationen	3	5	25	14	6	3	9	8	6	4
Grammatische Kategorien	12	20	42	24	61	32	22	21	55	34,5
Kollokationen	0	0	2	1	12	6	3	3	1	0,5
Registerrestriktionen	0	0	0	0	3	2	0	0	2	1
Gesamtzahl der Aufgaben	60	100	174	100	188	100	105	100	159	100
Tabelle 3: Aspekte des Wortwissens anhand der Aufgaben in den Lehrwerken auf der Stufe A1
In der Tabelle 4 werden Resultate der Aufgabenanalyse für die Stufe A 2 präsentiert. Wieder stehen Bedeutung und grammatische Kategorie stark im Vordergrund. Es gibt deutlich weniger Aufgaben, welche die Festigung der lautlichen Form des Wortes unterstützen. Die Zahl der Aufgaben, die die Schreibweise fördern, variiert von Lehrwerk zu Lehrwerk mit der Tendenz zur Senkung. Auf der Stufe A 2 gibt es etwas mehr Übungen zu den Wortteilen, aber noch immer ist ihre Anzahl sehr niedrig. Das Konzept und den Referenten sprechen nur drei Aufgaben in einem Lehrwerk an. Leicht steigende Tendenzen sind auch bei den Assoziationen, Kollokationen und den Registerrestriktionen zu erkennen.
Lehrwerk auf der Stufe A 1	Ideen 1		Studio d A1		Themen aktuell 1		Optimal A1		Alles stimmt! 1	
Aspekt des Wortwissens	N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%
Lautliche Form	4	4	4	4	0	0	6	7	2	2
Grafische Form	9	9	5	5	2	1	0	0	2	2
Wortteile	7	7	5	5	17	7	5	5	8	6
Bedeutung	43	43	28	26	112	48	42	47	55	44
Konzept und Referenten	0	0	3	3	0	0	0	0	0	0
Assoziationen	5	5	17	16	26	11	9	10	5	4
Grammatische Kategorien	29	29	36	34	52	22	25	28	52	42
Kollokationen	1	1	6	6	11	5	3	3	1	1
Registerrestriktionen	3	3	2	2	15	6	0	0	0	0
Gesamtzahl der Aufgaben	101	100	106	100	235	100	90	100	125	100
Tabelle 4: Aspekte des Wortwissens anhand der Aufgaben in den Lehrwerken auf der Stufe A2
Auf der Stufe B1 wurden nur 2 Lehrwerke analysiert, da an den meisten Schulen in zwei Schuljahren nur ein Lehrwerk verwendet wird, welches mit zusätzlichen Materialien kombinierend erweitert wird. Nur sehr wenige Schulen hatten auf der Lehrwerkliste ein Lehrwerk auf dem Niveau B1. Genauso wie auf den Stufen A1 und A2 werden die Aspekte Bedeutung und grammatische Kategorien bevorzugt. Auch andere Aspekte werden in Betracht genommen, jedoch mit einer viel geringeren Intensität.
Lehrwerk auf der Stufe B 1	Studio d B1		Optimal B1	
Aspekt des Wortwissens	N	%	N	%
Lautliche Form	9	8	3	3
Grafische Form	1	1	1	1
Wortteile	16	14	5	5
Bedeutung	36	32	55	51
Lehrwerk auf der Stufe B 1	Studio d B1		Optimal B1	
Konzept und Referenten	2	2	1	1
Assoziationen	14	12	9	9
Grammatische Kategorien	26	23	24	23
Kollokationen	4	4	6	6
Registerrestriktionen	5	4	1	1
Gesamtzahl der Aufgaben	113	100	105	100
Tabelle 5: Aspekte des Wortwissens anhand der Aufgaben in den Lehrwerken auf der Stufe B1
Das Lehrwerk Studio dbetont vor allem drei Aspekte, und zwar Bedeutung, grammatische Kategorien und Assoziationen. Im Vergleich zu anderen Lehrwerken gibt es auf der Stufe A1 wesentlich mehr Aufgaben, die das Üben der lautlichen Form des Wortes unterstützen. Auch die Anzahl der Übungen, die den Aspekt Wortteile entwickeln, steigt nach den GeR-Niveaustufen. Es gibt sehr wenige Übungen zu den Aspekten Konzept und Referenten, Registerrestriktionen und Kollokationen. Obwohl dieses Lehrwerk ein sehr vielfältiges Repertoire an einteiligen und mehrteiligen Kollokationen hat, ist dieser Aspekt nicht zum expliziten Üben gedacht. Das Lehrwerk Alles stimmt! legt Wert auf Bedeutung und grammatische Kategorien. Die lautliche und grafische Form wird mit einer sehr beschränkten Anzahl an Übungen unterstützt. Im Vergleich zu anderen Lehrwerken gibt es einige mehrere Übungen, die den Aspekt Wortteile fördern. Alle anderen Aspekte sind eher Ausnahmen als ein Bestandteil des Aufgabenangebots. Obwohl das Lehrwerk Themen aktuell am längsten auf dem Markt ist, legen die Autoren großen Wert auf die lexikalische Kompetenz, jedoch überwiegend auf zwei Aspekte, und zwar die Bedeutung und die grammatischen Kategorien. Teilweise gibt es auch Übungen, die das Lernen durch Wortteile, Assoziationen und Kollokationen unterstützen. Hier wurden auch Übungen identifiziert, die den Aspekt Registerrestriktionen fördern, vor allem auf Grund der Umformungen, die in anderen Lehrwerken eher bescheiden vertreten sind. Die Bedeutung und die grammatischen Kategorien stehen auch im Lehrwerk Ideen im Vordergrund. Auf der Stufe A1 sind auch Übungen stark vertreten, die das Lernen der Lautform und der Schreibweise unterstützen. Andere Aspekte sind nicht so präsent. Das Lehrwerk Optimal bietet nicht so viele Übungen, mit denen die lexikalische Kompetenz entwickelt wird. Von den Wortschatzaufgaben, die im Lehrwerk vorhanden sind, werden die Aspekte Bedeutung und grammatische Kategorien bevorzugt. Andere Aspekte sind fast nicht präsent.
7 SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN
Die Analyse der Lehrwerke, die an slowenischen Gymnasien für Deutsch als zweite Fremdsprache gebraucht werden, ergibt ein ähnliches Bild wie Browns Analyse der englischen Lehrwerke aus dem Jahr 2011. In der Regel liegt die Betonung nur
auf einigen Aspekten des Wortwissens. Die lautliche und die grafische Form eines Wortes werden meistens nur auf der Stufe A1 geübt, später werden beide Aspekte völlig ignoriert, bzw. dem zufälligen Lernen überlassen. Die Bedeutung eines Wortes wird in den Übungen meistens anhand der Bilder erklärt und im Lehrwerk Alles stimmt! mit einer entsprechenden Übersetzung auf Slowenisch. Dem Aspekt Bedeutung werden die meisten Übungen gewidmet. Es muss noch betont werden, dass in den meisten Fällen die Bedeutung einzelner Lexeme geübt wird, nur selten jedoch die der mehrteiligen Lexeme. Auf der Verwendungsebene gibt es in den Lehrwerken sehr wenige Übungen, die den richtigen Gebrauch der Wörter unterstützen. Da die lexikalische Kompetenz nicht nur auf die Bedeutungsebene beschränkt ist, sondern auch die richtige Anwendung der Wörter umfasst, konnte man anhand der Übungen feststellen, dass der Weg zur richtigen Anwendung der Wörter fast gar nicht angesprochen wird. In einigen Lehrwerken wurden Übungen zur Festigung der Kollokationen gefunden, die aber meistens nur auf die Bedeutung beschränkt bleiben und keine weiteren Impulse zur aktiven Anwendung geben.
Die Aufgabentypologie und die Aspekte des Wortwissens, die in den Lehrwerken bevorzugt werden, weisen darauf hin, dass laut Definition der lexikalischen Kompetenz nach dem GeR fast ausschließlich Vokabelkenntnisse vermittelt werden. Die Anwendung des Wortschatzes wird dagegen in den Wortschatzaufgaben kaum gelehrt. Einige Defizite könnten mit den Aufgaben für das Schreiben ausgeglichen werden, aber dafür gibt es in allen Lehrwerken nur im geringen Maße Aufgaben, die meistens auch kein geleitetes Schreiben fördern und nicht mit anderen Übungen verbunden sind. Kosevski Puljic (2009: 99-100) stellt fest: „Die einzelnen Sprachhandlungen können nicht wahllos getrennt voneinander geübt und dann bei Bedarf zu einem guten Text verbunden werden und es ist wichtig, dass die Lernenden auf jeder Niveaustufe ihrer Fremdsprachenkompetenz Textprozesse von Anfang bis Ende durchlaufen und dabei alle Prozeduren der (fremdsprachlichen) Texterstellung in einem Zuge und aufeinander abgestimmt entwickeln."
Um die lexikalische Kompetenz im Unterricht erfolgreicher zu entwickeln, müsste also auch die Anwendung des Vokabulars dringend systematischer durch passende Übungen gefördert werden, die Lernende dazu motivieren mündlich und schriftlich den Wortschatz anzuwenden. Wortschatzaufgaben sollten deswegen nicht nur auf der Festigung der Wortschatzkenntnisse basieren, sondern auch in Übungen integriert werden, die primär andere Fertigkeiten fördern. Dadurch könnte man gleichzeitig auch einen Beitrag zu allen anderen linguistischen Kompetenzen leisten, denn die lexikalische Kompetenz ist letztendlich ein Bestandteil aller anderen Kompetenzen.
Literatur
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AUFDERSTRASSE, Hartmut et al.
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(2006) Themen aktuell 2. Kursbuch. Ismaning: (2012) Themen aktuell 1. Kursbuch. Ismaning:
AUFDERSTRASSE, Hartmut/Heiko BOCK/Jutta MÜLLER (2008) Themen aktuell 2.
Arbeitsbuch. Ismaning: Hueber. BOCK, Heiko et al. (2008) Themen aktuell 1. Arbeitsbuch. Ismaning: Hueber. FUNK, Hermann et al. (2007) Studio d A2: Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Kurs- und
Übungsbuch. Berlin: Cornelsen. FUNK, Hermann et al. (2008) Studio d Bl: Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Kurs- und
Übungsbuch mit Zertifikatstraining. Berlin: Cornelsen. FUNK, Hermann et al. (2012) Studio d Al: Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Kurs- und
Übungsbuch. Berlin: Cornelsen. KRENN, Wilfried/Herbert PUCHTA (2008) Ideen: Deutsch als Fremdsprache l. Kursbuch. Ismaning: Hueber. KRENN, Wilfried/Herbert PUCHTA (2008) Ideen: Deutsch als Fremdsprache 1. Arbeitsbuch. Ismaning: Hueber. KRENN, Wilfried/Herbert PUCHTA (2008) Ideen: Deutsch als Fremdsprache 2. Kursbuch. Ismaning: Hueber. KRENN, Wilfried/Herbert PUCHTA (2010) Ideen: Deutsch als Fremdsprache 2. Arbeitsbuch. Ismaning: Hueber. MÜLLER, Martin et al. (2004) Optimal AI: Lehrwerk für Deutsch als Fremdsprache.
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Lehrbuch. Berlin: Langenscheidt. MÜLLER, Martin et al. (2008) Optimal B1: Lehrwerk für Deutsch als Fremdsprache.
Arbeitsbuch. Berlin: Langenscheidt. SANDER, Ilse et al. (2013) Alles stimmt! l. Učbenik za nemščino v l. letniku gimnazije
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gimnazije ter v l. in 2. letniku srednjih strokovnih šol. Ljubljana: Rokus Klett. SANDER, Ilse et al. (2013) Alles stimmt! 2. Učbenik za nemščino v 2. letniku gimnazije
ter v 2. in 3. letniku srednjih strokovnih šol. Ljubljana: Rokus Klett. SANDER, Ilse et al. (2013) Alles stimmt! 2. Delovni zvezek za nemščino v 2. letniku gimnazije ter v 2. in 3. letniku srednjih strokovnih šol. Ljubljana: Rokus Klett.
Sekundärliteratur
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HENRIKSEN, Birgit (1999) „Three dimensions of vocabulary development." Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21, 303-317.
HOLC, Nada et al. (2008) Učni načrt Nemščina Gimnazija. 12 Juli 2014. http://por-tal.mss.edus.si/msswww/programi2008/programi/media/old_bkp/pdf/ucni_nacrti/ UN_NEMSCINA_gimn.pdf.
HÄUSSERMANN, Ulrich/Hans-Eberhard PIEPHO (1996) Aufgaben-Handbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache: Abriß einer Aufgaben- und Übungstypologie. München: iudicium.
KOSEVSKI PULJIC, Brigita (2009) „Der Erwerb der Schreibkompetenz im Deutsch als Fremdsprache - zwischen Konzepten und Modellen." Glottodidactica XXXV, 91-101.
LAUFER, Batia (1997) „What's in a word that makes it hard or easy? Intralexical factors affecting the difficulty of vocabulary acquisition." In: M. McCarthy/N. Schmitt (Hrsg.), Vocabulary Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy. Cambridge: CUP, 140-155.
LEWIS, Michael (1993) Lexical Approach: the State of ELT and a Way Forward. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
MILTON, James (2009) Measuring Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Bristol/ Buffalo/Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
MILTON, James (2010) „The development of vocabulary breadth across CEFR levels. A common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guideline, examinations and textbooks across Europe." In: I. Bartning/M. Martin/I. Vedder (Hrsg.), Communicative proficiency and linguistic development. Eurosla Monographs Series 1, 211-232.
NATION, Paul (2001) Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: CUP.
READ, John (2000) Assessing Vocabulary Cambridge: CUP.
RICHARDS, Jack C. (2006) Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.
RICHARDS, Jack C. (2012) The role of textbooks in a language program. 12 Juli 2014. http://www.cambridge.org.br/authors-articles/articles?id=337.
SCHMITT, Norbert (2000) Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.
SKELA, Janez (2008) „Vrednotenje učbenikov angleškega jezika z vidika kognitivne teorije učenja." In: J. Skela (Hrsg.), Učenje in poučevanje tujih jezikov na Slovenskem: pregled sodobne teorije in prakse. Ljubljana: Tangram, 154-178.
Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir: učenje, poučevanje, ocenjevanje (2011). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo RS za šolstvo in šport, Urad za razvoj šolstva. 12 Juli 2014. http://www. europass.si/files/userfiles/europass/SEJO%20komplet%20za%20splet.pdf.
TOMLINSON, Brian (1989) Materials Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.
Zusammenfassung DIE BEURTEILUNG VON LEHRWERKEN FÜR DEUTSCH ALS FREMDSPRACHE ANHAND DES GEMEINSAMEN EUROPÄISCHEN REFERENZRAHMENS FÜR SPRACHEN: EINE EMPIRISCHE UNTERSUCHUNG ÜBER DIE ENTWICKLUNG DER LEXIKALISCHEN KOMPETENZ
Der Gemeinsame Europäische Referenzrahmen (weiter: GeR) gilt seit der Erscheinung im Jahr 2001 als ein Hilfsmittel nicht nur für Lehrende und Lernende, sondern auch für Curricula-Entwickler und Prüfungsentwickler und nicht zuletzt auch für Lehrbuchautoren. Das wesentliche Prinzip des GeR ist die Handlungsorientierung, welches die sprachliche Kommunikation als Handlung auffasst und sie weiter nach den Fertigkeiten Hören und Lesen, zusammenhängend Sprechen, an Gesprächen teilnehmen, Schreiben kategorisiert. Jede Fertigkeit wird mit Handlungsdeskriptoren in Skalen in sechs Referenzniveaus (A1 bis C2) beschrieben. Dadurch soll eine größere Transparenz im Lehr/ Lernprozess und zugleich ein Weg zur Bildung der kommunikativen Sprachkompetenz geschaffen werden. Da die Lehrwerke einen großen Teil des Fremdsprachenunterrichts bestimmen, werden in diesem Beitrag die in den letzten Jahren an slowenischen Gymnasien am häufigsten gebrauchten Lehrwerke für Deutsch als Fremdsprache anhand des GeR hinsichtlich der Entwicklung der lexikalischen Kompetenz untersucht.
Schlüsselwörter: lexikalische Kompetenz, GeR, Lehrwerke für DaF, Aspekte des Wortwissens.
Abstract
EVALUATION OF TEXTBOOKS FOR GERMAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN THE BASIS OF THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES: LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) has since its inception in 2001 served as a guideline not only for teachers and students, but also for curriculum writers, test developers, and textbook authors. CEFR was only translated into Slovenian in 2011. The key principle of CEFR is an action-oriented approach that defines the communicative competence of an individual on the basis of the language activities of reception (listening, reading), production (spoken and written), interaction (spoken), and mediation. Each individual skill is defined by descriptors for levels A1-C2. The aim is to ensure more transparency in the process of language teaching and learning and at the same time to enable students to develop their foreign-language communication competence in an efficient way. Given that foreign language textbooks greatly influence the way a foreign language is taught, the article tries to determine how the students' lexical competence at different levels (as defined by CEFR) is developed with the aid of some of the most commonly used German language textbooks.
Keywords: lexical competence, CEFR, German coursebooks, aspects of lexical knowledge.
Povzetek
VREDNOTENJE UČBENIKOV ZA NEMŠČINO GLEDE NA SKUPNI EVROPSKI REFERENČNI OKVIR: UČENJE, POUČEVANJE: EMPIRIČNA RAZISKAVA O RAZVOJU LEKSIKALNE ZMOŽNOSTI
Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir: učenje, poučevanje, ocenjevanje (dalje SEJO) se je od njegovega izida leta 2001 uveljavil kot pripomoček ne samo za učitelje in učence, marveč tudi za snovalce kurikula, sestavljavce testov in navsezadnje tudi za avtorje učbenikov. Slovenski prevod tega dokumenta smo dobili šele leta 2011. Poglavitno načelo SEJO je akcijski pristop, ki sporazumevalno jezikovno zmožnost posameznika opredeljuje z jezikovnimi dejavnosti sprejemanja (slušno in bralno razumevanje), tvor-jenja (govorno in pisno sporočanje) interakcije (govorno sporazumevanje) in posredovanja. Vsako posamezno spretnost opredeljujejo opisniki po lestvicah od A1 do C2. Na ta način naj bi se zagotovila večja transparentnost v procesu poučevanja in učenja ter hkrati ustvarila pot za izgradnjo sporazumevalne zmožnosti v tujem jeziku. Ker učbeniki za tuje jezike pomembno zaznamujejo pouk tujega jezika, smo v prispevku želeli ugotoviti, kako se na podlagi najpogosteje uporabljenih učbenikov za nemščino na različnih stopnjah po SEJO razvija leksikalna zmožnost.
Ključne besede: leksikalna zmožnost, SEJO, učbeniki za nemščino, vidiki leksikalne-ga znanja.
Darja Mertelj	UDK 811.13367:373.5(497.4)
University of Ljubljana*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.77-96
SYNTAX MENTIONED SEVEN TIMES IN THE CEFR -AND HOW MANY TIMES AT SCHOOL, IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS?
1 INTRODUCTION
Complex-clause syntax is regarded in this paper as comprising linguistic structures composed of a principal clause and one or more explicit or implicit subordinate clauses (hypotactic clauses) and two or more coordinate clauses (paratactic clauses). To date, in the era of the communicative approach not much is known scientifically about the role of complex-clause syntax in foreign/second language (=FL/L2) classrooms, in particular from the learners' viewpoint. In order to bridge this research gap, the paper analyses a questionnaire among 17- to 18-year-old learners in the third year of secondary schools that looked at their perspectives on the (possible) role of syntax. The examined aspects concern its role for the four skills, and the benefits of knowing syntax - implicitly including also some affective factors - and methodological approaches related to the teaching of syntax.
In the teaching of foreign languages, complex-clause syntax does not seem to have had an established role over the last 20 years, especially not within the communicative approach and the Common European Framework for Languages (CEFR 2001). Previously, it was taken into account by methods which stressed formal approaches to foreign language teaching, but not by natural, acquisition-based methods. Two important premises were introduced by the communicative approach (and they have been acknowledged by the CEFR): authentic texts and grammar as a tool when necessary. This is one probable reason why explicit, complex-clause syntax is hardly mentioned in the CEFR, even though it is implicitly present in descriptors, even though it is particularly recognisable in those for writing skills, and even though we know that it can be used for all four skills, as well as to guide learners towards some self-directed learning about language features.
The two main research questions this article addresses, by employing a quantitative research method, i.e. through an analysis of seven research statements in a questionnaire about learners' attitudes and perceptions about complex-clause syntax, are, first, its importance for the development of the four skills, especially the productive ones, and, second, the learners' attitudes to possible methodological approaches for explicitly or implicitly dealing with it. Aspects to be explored implicitly are learners' perceptions
Author's address: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: darja.mertelj@guest.arnes.si.
*
of the possible benefits or disadvantages of the explicit learning of complex-clause syntax in the FL classroom.
1.1 Syntax in the Common European Framework for Languages
Two main streams have permeated the history of FL/L2 learning and teaching: a) the natural approach, with the idea of practical use of the language in question; and b) the grammatical approach, with the idea of a thorough study of the constituents of the language. The goal of both was to enhance learners' ability to use the FL, and complex-clause syntax was present in both a) as part of formulaic language (which served as an input that became an intake in acquisition processes), and b) as part of the grammatical system to be learned consciously and, when necessary, transferred to use in the FL (cf. Vuco 2012).
By considering Batstone's distinction (1994: 5) between grammar as a product (i.e. a list of topics about individual grammar structures) and grammar as a process (i.e. grammar as a tool for processing the language), one can recognise that both are also reflected in the CEFR (2001, 5.2.1.2.: 123-124). This fact implies that grammar is an important element of linguistic competence since, even though it is not explicitly addressed in the descriptors, it is also not specifically omitted:
Syntax deals with the organisation of words into sentences in terms of the categories, elements, classes, structures, processes and relations involved, often presented in the form of a set of rules. The syntax of the language of a mature native speaker is highly complex and largely unconscious. The ability to organise sentences to convey meaning is a central aspect of communicative competence (CEFR 2001, 5.2.1.2.: 123-124).
As seen in the above quotation, the syntax of a native speaker is highlighted, particularly its "unconsciousness" (and at the same time its correctness, compared to that of learners of an FL/L2 at lower levels), and including its central role in FL/L2 communication. Later, syntax is only mentioned again where methodological aspects of foreign language learning from learners' perspectives are presented (CEFR 2001, 6.2.2: 149):
6.2.2How do learners learn? [...] but that learning is facilitated, especially under artificial classroom conditions, by a combination of conscious learning and sufficient practice to reduce or eliminate the conscious attention paid to low-level physical skills of speaking and writing as well as to morphological and syntactic accuracy, thus freeing the mind for higher-level strategies of communication (CEFR 2001: 149).
Elsewhere in the CEFR, syntax is merely named or listed without being elaborated; however, it appears to be "scattered" across quite a few chapters of the CEFR: within orthographic control ("to deal with syntactic ambiguity", CEFR 2001: 127), it is always listed among the aims ("knowledge of its phonetic system, its vocabulary and syntax", CEFR 2001: 145), and it is included in the observation and analysis of learner errors ("syntactic errors and mistakes", CEFR 2001: 165), while also being mentioned in connection with the linguistic complexity of oral or written texts (CEFR 2001: 174):
[...] particularly complex syntax consumes attentional resources that might otherwise be available for dealing with content; for example, long sentences with a number of subordinate clauses, non-continuous constituents, multiple negation, scope ambiguity, use of anaphorics and deictics without clear antecedents or reference. Syntactic over-simplification of authentic texts, however, may actually have the effect of increasing the level of difficulty (because of the elimination of redundancies, clues to meaning etc.) [...] (CEFR 2001: 174).
It is interesting that the importance of syntax is mentioned in the concluding chapter about different scenarios for teaching an FL, but it also appears to be worth mentioning for the primary school level, where it is presented as being important for construing the basic foundations of an FL (CEFR 2001: 185): "[...] establishing the beginnings of a basic linguistic component, primarily phonetic and syntactic aspects, while promoting elementary oral interaction in class" (CEFR 2001: 185).
However, it cannot be assumed that complex-clause syntax is irrelevant even though it is not explicitly considered or dealt with. In other parts of the CEFR, syntax is often implicitly present and recognisable, since we cannot exclude its role where general descriptors of levels are presented in the columns specified for language accuracy and coherence (CEFR 2001, 3.4.: 50-51). The two aspects of accuracy and coherence are prominent especially in the chapter on the productive abilities: speaking (oral descriptions, oral monologue, public speaking and forms of spoken interaction with others, cf. CEFR 2001, 4.4.3.: 97-106) and writing (creative, reports, essays and, again, written interaction with others, cf. CEFR 2001, 4.4.3.: 106-107).
Yet the Common European Framework for Languages (2001) does not provide answers to specific language teaching questions in (individual or common) cases of particular languages. Although the common descriptors for each level seem to be clear and give evident indications (also for grammatical structures), it is well known that they are "recognised, interpreted and/or understood" in different ways. There have been doubts in Slovenian schools over the last few years about how to address this issue: in fact, it is only on the basis of the national curricula (which fully adopt the CEFR) and textbooks for various foreign/second languages published in Europe that some agreement has been reached on the grammatical structures to be taught at each level, although without much reflection on which structure and to what extent.
1.2 Syntax in applied linguistics research
Some recent studies on syntactic complexity state (Vyatkina 2012) or seem to (re) confirm (Ortega 2012, cited in Vyatkina 2012) that this area is largely underexplored, but it appears that the topic has been (rarely) reappearing recently for some languages studied as first, second and foreign languages (examples: for German - Schlobinski 2014, for English and Chinese - Lu 2011, for German as an FL for specific purposes - Hoppnerova 2013). Studies focus on the developmental profiling of the interlan-guage, including syntax, but it is especially research for lower levels of proficiency that has largely been neglected. In her research, Vyatkina (2012: 25) shows that specific
complexity measures for higher proficiency levels also emerge at the beginners' levels, where some of her learners predominantly maintained coordination, but others also developed more complex syntactic structures.
Vyatkina seems to (re)confirm - as far as the implications for teaching are concerned - that instruction has a great influence on learners' performance: learners should be explicitly taught how to use linguistic features, and teachers should go beyond presenting the rules and should aim to achieve specific communicative purposes (Byrnes et al. 2010, in Vyatkina 2012). The same authors also propose a focus on syntactic features by means of examples associated with a level-appropriate writing task that is to be completed by learners (Byrnes et al. 2010). Some other authors not only suggest focussing on syntactic structures and their contextual use and functions, but suggest model texts that involve the targeted structures, and raise awareness of the importance of noticing linguistic features in learners' and model texts (cf. also Bostic 2011).
As far as corpus-based research on complex-clause syntax is concerned, some recent studies propose moving beyond word-based analyses to focus more on linguistic and syntactic patterns (Granger 2009). Further, a project is being developed (for English as an FL/L2) that will draw links between the Cambridge Learner Corpus and the CEFR (Hawkins and McCarthy 2010); here, also syntactic features in learner-produced texts and their level according to the CEFR are to be examined.
With a view to fostering the development of all four language skills, and in line with key issues about learners' language awareness (van Lier 2001; Bolitho et al. 2003), it is believed that the systematic and explicit development of knowledge about complex-clause syntax might also be important for learners. On the other hand, there are also drawbacks which suggest that "comprehensible input" (according to Krashen's input hypothesis, this is acquired "by understanding language that contains structure/s a bit beyond our current level of competence (i + 1)", Krashen 1982: 21) is the only necessary condition for developing the language towards higher levels of proficiency. This, however, has not been substantiated by research results.
1.3 Syntax and applied linguistics of Romance languages vs. Slavic languages
From the linguistic point of view, there are quite a few, mainly contrastive, studies concerning teaching Italian and Spanish complex-clause syntax to Slovenian students (for Italian, see Miklic 1992, 2003; Miklic and Ozbot 2007; Lenassi 2004; for Spanish, see Markic 2006; cf. Correia et al. 2013 for Portuguese), or to learners with a Serbian or a Croatian linguistic background (Samardzic 2006). Slavic learners share persistent difficulties, including these three aspects:
a)	recognising the suitable syntactic pattern in their first/main language (L1, mostly mother tongue) and realising which should be used in their FL production, in consideration of the appropriate clause patterns and connectives;
b)	choosing the appropriate tense and/or mood in subordinate clauses in which con-cordanza dei tempi e dei modi should be applied (and where learners usually do not overcome the interference caused by their L1); and
c) using implicit subordinate clauses where they are required in the FL: again, they do not overcome the influence of their L1 (in which implicit subordinate clauses are not used, or only to a very limited extent) and instead tend to use explicit subordinates (cf. Lenassi 2004).
In the domain of FL teaching at lower levels (A1, A2 and B1), the teaching of complex-clause syntax seems to have been largely neglected (Mertelj 2005: 5-11, 157— 218). Particularly in terms of the language-teaching perspective for Romance languages, almost no evidence has so far been found (except Averna and Vedder et al. 2013, which only concerns coordinative syntactic structures). The phenomena among learners encountered by their teachers with regard to complex-clause syntax are not only an issue in the teaching of Romance languages; the same or very similar problems can be found in the teaching of other FLs taught in Slovenian secondary schools (English and German), and, as already stated, by learners with other Slavic linguistic origins.
In the last ten years, under the influence of the CEFR and the "Matura" exam (a state external school-leaving exam that also covers foreign languages), it has been increasingly realised, especially in connection with both written exam assignments (a formal letter and an argumentative essay), that learners have other requirements which are more important than a productive level of almost all grammatical structures in a target FL.
As far as the understanding of syntactically complex clauses is concerned, the learners' results in the Matura exam are not problematic. However, in the tasks used for testing the learners' productive mastery many problems were identified. They ranged from the very limited use of connectives (in fact belonging to lower proficiency levels than required for A1 and A2, according to both the CEFR and Lo Duca 2006), to the appropriate use of tenses and moods (the analysis was only done for Italian, cf. Mertelj 2011) as negative transfer triggered mistakes and errors (problems here are quite well known, since the syntax of Romance complex clauses is objectively difficult for Slovenian learners: it presupposes the speaker's ability to master the highly complex foreign system of tenses and moods). In addition, it was obvious in the written essays that the learners predominantly avoided using complex syntax and used simple connectives, tenses, moods and not those the examiners would expect for an (argumentative) essay. Of course, it is also possible to express arguments and opinions with very simple linguistic means (stemming from the L1), but then such texts are too different from native speakers' texts to be awarded higher scores.
Consequently, there is also less interest in explicitly teaching syntax. This in fact seems to be implicitly encouraged by other requirements, especially writing at intermediate levels. In this respect, we believe there is or might be an interest in some "return" of the explicit teaching of syntax in contact hours or as autonomous learning in secondary schools, and this represents the basis of the first step of our survey: researching the state of the art among learners about their interests, motivational hints, attitudes, and preferences related to complex-clause syntax.
2 METHODOLOGY
This study aimed to explore secondary school learners' opinions about the role of complex-clause syntax in the process of teaching and learning, namely, from slightly different points of view about the topic of this paper. These points of view range from general statements about syntax and skills to very specific ones about goal setting and methodological issues, all in relation to two issues of learning syntax: a) Do learners perceive potential benefits of learning complex-clause syntax for receptive or for productive skills, or perhaps for both, approximately to the same degree? and b) Do learners give priority to more, or to less, systematic learning, with more, or fewer, elements of awareness-building?
Why is there any interest at all in teaching complex-clause syntax, in particular in the opinions of some language-teaching experts? According to the CEFR, such ideas are in line with learners' (presumed) communication needs: the communicative approach includes the development of receptive and productive skills (listening and reading comprehension, speaking and writing) which very soon presupposes some syntactic knowledge to support the understanding of clauses and texts, and soon also for developing productive skills. So far, no studies have explored the pedagogical value of complex-clause syntax instruction in the FL/L2 classroom. Moreover, to date no research has examined the attitudes of learners in this regard. The present study is designed to fill this research void.
Classes in secondary schools typically consist of learners at levels of proficiency ranging from zero or low-level (first-year) to medium-level proficiency (fourth-year) and it is thus a challenge to provide resources to match their learning needs. However, comprehensible input (Krashen 1982) is the first essential component of language learning that might be vitally supported by some necessary meta-linguistic instruction about complex-clause syntax, since complex clauses are present from the very beginning and later gradually enhanced (at higher levels).
However, dealing with texts (which contain complex syntactic patterns) at any proficiency level means that they have to be set at a comprehensible level in order for the input to become an intake (Krashen 1982). Of course, the input also has to be both interesting and relevant to the learner. Everybody is willing to invest effort into things that are perceived as interesting and/or useful, and this means that interest, accordingly, provides the intrinsic motivation for learning (cf. Silvia 2008). We therefore believe that the impact of explicit syntax instruction might support learners' efforts if it is based on their positive attitude to that (theoretical) knowledge which is supposed to efficiently enhance the mastery of an FL/L2. Three hypotheses were formulated, along with seven research statements, all of which refer to secondary school classes:
1st hypothesis: FL learners believe that explicit knowledge of complex-clause syntax is more important for comprehending texts and less important for producing texts.
(1)	Knowledge of complex-clause syntax is primarily essential for text comprehension (listening and reading).
(2)	Text comprehension presupposes recognition and understanding of long complex clauses (coordinate and subordinate clauses, connectives, etc.).
(3)	Knowledge of complex-clause syntax involves an ability to use connectives and tenses correctly.
2nd hypothesis: FL learners believe that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be imparted systematically and explicitly.
(4)	Knowledge of complex-clause syntax is best developed on the basis of a comparison between two languages (the mother tongue and/or a foreign language).
(5)	To develop learners' knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is necessary to systematically guide them by giving them specific complex-clause syntax tasks.
3rd hypothesis: FL learners believe that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be gained non-systematically and on the basis of needs stemming from writing tasks.
(6)	To develop learners' knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it suffices that a teacher briefly explains the features of syntax as they are encountered (without too many additional explanations and examples).
(7)	To develop knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is essential that a learner engages in independent text production.
In order to explore learners' stances on these issues, data were collected using a questionnaire containing statements (where responses were ranked on a Likert scale) related to the three hypotheses about learning complex-clause syntax. In May and June 2014, the questionnaire was completed by learners in Slovenian secondary schools who take French, Italian or Spanish. Although the research statements used in the questionnaire are primarily based on my own learning and teaching experience over the last 20 years, it must be stressed that they reflect the process of broadly introducing and affirming the communicative approach in the teaching of FL - an approach which has also been professionally and scientifically researched.
In this way, quite a number of personal experiences are implicitly linked to an analytic confrontation with scientific findings which reveal gradually stronger awareness of the fact that some explicit, although basic, information introduced or dealt with in the FL classroom "theoretically" and overtly (as well as entailed by some "syntactic" tasks according to learning-by-doing principles) is crucial to developing the four abilities in FL teaching. One statement is based on theoretical linguistic studies and analyses with a focus on contrastive aspects with Slovenian, the L1 of most learners, and English as an L2. The statements are all meant for levels from elementary A1 to lower intermediate B1 or, in other words, for classes from the first to the third year of secondary school; some statements follow a slightly mixed order in the questionnaire (they served as control statements).
The subjects participated in the study on a voluntary basis: all teachers of Italian, French and Spanish in those Slovenian public (but also in two semi-private) grammar schools where at least one of these languages is taught were asked to distribute the questionnaires to all learners from the first to the third year. A great number of Italian teachers responded positively, and slightly fewer French and Spanish teachers responded positively.
Nevertheless, the number of all respondents from third year is representative: altogether there were 322 (=322) from various Slovenian secondary schools, i.e. for Italian as an FL there were 135 respondents, for French as an FL 92 respondents, and for
Spanish as an FL 95 respondents. These figures are sufficient to represent this generation as a group contributing their opinions to this study. All of the learners responded to the research statements presented above; the results about the general tendencies of Romance language learners, as well as the differences and similarities among them about individual statements and hypotheses are outlined below.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data collected via the questionnaire are presented in the following figures, representing the percentage of answers provided by secondary school learners in the third year. The preliminary testing in some classes showed that learners, especially in the first and second year of the secondary school, (surprisingly) complained about being unable to understand some statements - in particular, what syntax is. Therefore, a simple explanation was provided with some examples of paratactic and hypotactic clauses (at the top of the paper, prior to the statements).
3.1 Syntax and the four skills (1st hypothesis)
The first hypothesis - FL learners believe that explicit knowledge of complex-clause syntax is more important for text comprehension and less for text production - aimed to check learners' opinions and attitudes regarding the role of complex-clause syntax for mastering receptive and productive skills. However, a special emphasis was given to reading comprehension and writing production, as can be deduced from the relevant four research statements (the hypothesis was based on): the first three focus on comprehension, and the fourth on production.
The first research statement (1) is a general one concerning receptive skills (see Fig. 1): the FL learners of Italian, French and Spanish expressed the extent to which they agreed or strongly agreed with the first statement of the questionnaire (1) Knowledge of complex-clause syntax is primarily essential for text comprehension (listening and reading). Such a belief is strongest (when counting the "agree" and "strongly agree" responses together) among the Spanish and French learners, at 88% and 82%, respectively, whereas the Italian learners are less convinced (78%), with 22% of them not agreeing with the first statement.
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	3	19	60	18
French	0	19	54	26
Spanish	2	11	68	19
Figure 1: "(1) Knowledge of complex-clause syntax is primarily essential for text comprehension (listening and reading)" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
Figure 1 shows that the learners of the three Romance foreign languages involved in the survey agree or strongly agree that knowledge of syntax is essential for comprehension. The result is not surprising, since learners from the third year had previously encountered so many (full or semi-authentic) texts that they had already realised that decoding the meaning of a text can also depend strongly on the comprehension of longer subordinate and coordinate sentence structures.
It is quite surprising that almost one-fifth of the Italian and French group does not agree, and it would be interesting to understand what drives their disagreement: do they rely much more on other aspects to decode a text? Or do they, for example, process the messages of a text with more lexical-based (or other) reading strategies (Jurkovic 2010 and 2013)? It would also be interesting to find out whether there are, among these learners, mostly those who prefer to adopt a passive, indifferent attitude to the learning of FL, or whether there are also many successful learners among this 20% share of respondents. With such an attitude, we believe that the respondents implicitly acknowledge the role of complex-clause syntax as an important part of comprehending texts.
The following research statement, (2) Text comprehension presupposes recognition and understanding of long complex clauses (coordinate and subordinate clauses, connectives etc.), was a sort of control question (see Fig. 2) because there are no crucial differences between the previous one and this one (placed seventh in the questionnaire), with a slightly weaker focus on general comprehension and more on understanding whole complex clauses. Results that are not completely similar appeared, but a correlation is evident between the opinions of learners from all three groups related to the first and second research questions (compare Figures 1 and 2):
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	4	19	54	23
French	4	13	56	28
Spanish	1	22	57	20
Figure 2: "(2) Text comprehension presupposes recognition and understanding of long, complex-clauses (coordinate and subordinate clauses, connectives etc.)" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
Thus far, it can be deduced from the first two research statements that the learners from the third year of grammar schools firmly express opinions indicating that complex-clause syntax are related to the comprehension of texts and their (longer) parts, and this implicitly confirms our assumption (besides the 1st hypothesis) that learners in the era of the well-established communicative approach are well aware of the importance of explicit knowledge of syntax for comprehension.
This opinion is equally strongly expressed with the third statement, (3) Knowledge of complex-clause syntax involves an ability to use connectives and tenses correctly in one's own texts, which concerns the value of complex-clause syntax (see Fig. 3): how much does "writing own texts" matter for the development of productive skills? Here
the learners expressed the strongest agreement with the statement, with percentages (both categories of agreement) ranging from 86% (Italian learners) and 88% (French learners) to even 93% among the Spanish learners. It is more than obvious that complex-clause syntax does matter when it comes to writing skills.
These opinions are supported and implicitly reaffirmed by the last statement in the questionnaire, (7) To develop knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is essential that a learner independently produces text, where, again, the autonomous writing of one's own text, with or without explicit syntactic support, by the teacher or by themselves, was agreed upon by all learners (see Fig. 7): French learners, at 88%, Spanish learners, at 86%, while only Italian learners were more reluctant, at 73%.
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	1	13	54	32
French	3	9	47	41
Spanish	0	7	58	35
Figure 3: "(3) Knowledge of complex-clause syntax involves an ability to use connectives and tenses correctly in one's own texts" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
However, we can conclude that the first hypothesis of this study is - surprisingly - not confirmed: most learners convincingly expressed, explicitly and implicitly, their agreement with the importance of knowing complex-clause syntax for productive skills; in addition, not considerably less importance was attributed to its importance for receptive skills (comprehending texts). In fact, it may be concluded that the great majority of learners of all three Romance FL agree that complex-clause syntax is relevant for mastering the foreign language they are learning.
3.2 Conscious and explicit learning of complex-clause syntax (2nd hypothesis)
With the second hypothesis - FL learners of Romance Languages believe that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be imparted systematically and explicitly - we tried to elicit two insights on the basis of the learners' opinions: a) how much do they agree with the research statements that all presuppose awareness-development and explicitness in the process of learning complex-clause syntax; and b) to which aspects of the explicit learning do they, if at all, give priority. However, for both insights we can ascertain the opinions. Only with some further research methods (involving elements of qualitative research, e.g. semi-structured interviews, classroom observation, or the like) would we be able to further deepen the insights as to whether such opinions of learners are based on their desired contents and/or techniques in the learning process, or whether such opinions are based on their more or less pleasant experiences with the approaches of their teachers and learning steps regarding the knowledge of syntax.
With the fourth research statement, (4) Knowledge of complex-clause syntax is best developed on the basis of a comparison between two languages (the mother tongue and/
or a foreign language), only one aspect was considered (see Fig. 4): a (more or less) systematic presentation of syntax in the light of the contrastive analysis. Here it was not clearly exposed whether or not the learners have an active role; merely the contrastive comparison was the main aspect. About half of the learners of Italian, French and Spanish agreed with this statement, and one-fifth of the Italian and French learners even agreed strongly with it. But we also cannot neglect the relatively large share (more than one-third, 38%) of Spanish learners who disagreed with the idea of a possible positive effect contrastive analyses or comparison/s with other languages would have on their knowledge of complex-clause syntax. Moreover, the Italian and French learners expressed quite a bit of disagreement (Italian 22% and French even 28%) with contrastive aspects in this respect.
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	3	19	60	18
French	11	17	50	22
Spanish	4	34	53	9
Figure 4: "(4) Knowledge of complex-clause syntax is best developed on the basis of a comparison between two languages (the mother tongue and/or a foreign language)" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
The fifth research statement, (5) To develop learners' knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is necessary to systematically guide them by giving them specific complex-clause syntax tasks, was linked to the second hypothesis and involved two aspects (see Fig. 5) of actively practising syntax: a) the systematic, not occasional, practice and use of complex syntactic patterns, where b) learners do have an active role, they are the "doers" of exercises and tasks, so grammar is a tool in the FL Italian, French and Spanish classrooms. Learners from all three linguistic groups agreed or strongly agreed with statement (5); such belief is strongest (by counting the "agree" and "strongly agree" responses together) among the French learners, with 90%, Spanish, with 86% and less with learners of Italian where one-fifth agreed strongly, but one-fifth also disagreed with the concept of active learning-by-doing (see 23% vs. 23% in Fig. 5).
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	1	22	54	23
French	1	9	53	37
Spanish	5	9	72	14
Figure 5: "(5) To develop learners' knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is necessary to systematically guide them by giving them specific complex-clause syntax tasks" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
Considering the beliefs about the two research statements, it can be concluded that the second hypothesis of this study is - again, surprisingly - confirmed: the great majority of learners convincingly expressed their agreement that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be imparted systematically and explicitly, with some reluctance shown by approximately one-fifth of the learners, who obviously would give preference to an implicit and accidental, non-systematic way of gaining the knowledge and practice of complex-clause syntax. The only disagreement clearly expressed by quite a few learners (at least one-fifth) among all three linguistic groups was that the contras-tive aspects were considered to be less relevant in the process leading towards mastery of complex-clause syntax.
3.3 Individual learning and acquisition of complex-clause syntax (3rd hypothesis)
With the third hypothesis - FL learners of Romance languages believe that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be gained non-systematically and on the basis of needs stemming from concrete writing tasks - we tried to test the learners' opinions regarding their strength as compared to what was implicitly expressed in the second hypothesis (namely, where the idea that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be imparted systematically and explicitly was supported by approximately 80% of the respondents); this was not the case with about one-fifth of them.
In the two research statements (6 and 7) the goal was obvious: to gather opinions about non-systematic learning when "a syntactic problem" is encountered after a communication need arises. Also in this case two insights were targeted: a) how much do learners agree with occasional awareness-building (when the syntactic phenomena are made explicit); and b) how do they feel about obtaining such information by themselves when faced with a school and/or home assignment of writing a text in which the need for some complex-clause syntax is perceived.
The first research statement in this series regarding the last hypothesis, (6) To develop learners' knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is enough that a teacher briefly explains the features of syntax as they are encountered (without too many additional explanations and examples), has a focus on the occasional presentation or brief occasional explanations of the encountered syntactic features, where learners of Italian, French and Spanish do not have an active role in the process (see Fig. 6). The learners of French and Italian disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement. Such a belief is agreed to the strongest by the French learners (72%, counting the "disagree" and "strongly disagree" responses together); about two-thirds of Italian learners (62%) hold the same opinion, but more than one-quarter (together 28%) agree with occasionally dealing with complex-clause syntax. Among the Spanish learners, this attitude is even stronger (36%). With such opinions, the learners strongly confirmed their answers given in the framework of the second hypothesis (see Figures 4 and 5).
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	27	45	24	4
French	41	31	26	2
Spanish	14	50	31	5
Figure 6: "(6) To develop learners' knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is enough that a teacher briefly explains the features of syntax as they are encountered (without too many additional explanations and examples)" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
The second research statement in the questionnaire, (7) To develop knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is essential that a learner engages in independent text production, implied writing at school or at home, in an environment where a learner is autonomous while writing a text (see Fig. 7). It focuses on learners' decisions about looking up syntactic information according to their communication needs, an undertaking which presupposes active participation in their own writing process - either the learners already have the necessary syntactic knowledge or they look up such information themselves in model texts or in grammar books (these avenues should be further researched, along with learners' communication needs and their ability to successfully find such information). Again, the learners of French and Spanish agreed or strongly agreed with the last statement (both approaching 90%). In this way, they also expressed the principle of learning-by-doing that has been fostered by most textbooks since the introduction of the CEFR and which is consequently probably already well-established among today's learners of foreign languages.
The learners of Italian, on the other hand, were again less convinced about autonomous writing and, again, one-quarter of them (see Fig. 7) seemed to prefer not to do a writing assignment or explicitly did not believe they could practise complex-clause syntax in this way. They seemed to have other needs or preferences, and only with another survey can more precise answers be found among them. There is again a general doubt about whether perhaps the weaker learners expressed their discontent with an autonomous writing assignment in this way, or whether this reflected their general attitude to an active role in the FL classroom.
	Disagree strongly	Disagree	Agree	Agree strongly
	in %	in %	in %	in %
Italian	3	24	54	19
French	2	10	53	35
Spanish	0	14	63	23
Figure 7: "(7) To develop knowledge of complex-clause syntax, it is essential that a learner engages in independent text production" (in %; N=135+92+95=322)
The answers about beliefs concerning the two research statements of the third hypothesis suggest that this hypothesis is also partly confirmed (albeit in apparent contrast with the also confirmed second hypothesis). Again, the great majority of learners of Romance languages quite convincingly expressed their agreement that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be gained non-systematically and on the basis of needs stemming from concrete writing tasks, with some evident reluctance with the last statement from the learners of Italian, who obviously did not find relevant an occasional, non-systematic way of gaining knowledge of and practicing complex-clause syntax.
Because there is much "overlap" between the second and third hypotheses, particularly in the sense that both were confirmed, it should be noted that the learners of all three linguistic groups obviously did not want to exclude either of the two aspects included in the two hypotheses. Hence, systematic and conscious learning leading towards knowledge of complex-clause syntax as well as its usage in writing assignments (whether spontaneously or searched for if needed) was confirmed as being highly important to learners of Romance languages as an FL. They agree that both aspects regarding complex-clause syntax are very important for the quality of their linguistic production.
About one-quarter to one-third of the respondents (depending on individual research statements for certain specific aspects) were - in the last two hypotheses - against the mainstream. However, this would imply (if in further research the reason can be found in the methodological approaches or techniques, not in learners' passive or even work-evading attitude, or even indifference towards FL learning) that some other ways of dealing with writing assignments and syntactic needs should be developed, and such learners - be they "weaker" or "stronger" in foreign languages - should be supported in another way.
That being said, also in this case we could find out the learners' opinions for all the hypothesised statements; only by employing some more research methods (semi-structured interviews with learners and teachers, classroom observation, or the like) can further findings be reached - in particular, pedagogically-driven ones about the desired contents and techniques in the learning process, or ones pertaining to valuable experiences with learning steps regarding complex-clause syntax.
4 CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER DISCUSSION
The main research topic of this article was learners' opinions about knowledge of complex-clause syntax, more specifically, about its relevance for developing the four skills and its explicit or implicit application in the learning process leading towards productive skills (writing). Learners' opinions about this topic can provide important indications about their perceptions of complex-clause syntax as well as implicit insights into their motivation and communication needs.
The results showed that the majority of learners from the third year of secondary schools seem to be well aware of the important role of complex-clause syntax for both receptive and productive skills, and these learners believe the role is even stronger for the latter skills (the 1st hypothesis, FL learners believe that explicit knowledge of complex-clause syntax is more important for comprehending texts and less for producing
texts, was not confirmed). In addition, they showed a clear preference for systematic - that is, more explicit than implicit - dealing with complex-clause syntax in class (the 2nd hypothesis, FL learners believe that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be imparted systematically and explicitly, was confirmed). They also seem to be aware of the benefits that good knowledge of complex-clause syntax brings in terms of higher proficiency in writing skills (in the questionnaire the relation to speaking skills was omitted), as the 3rd hypothesis, FL learners believe that knowledge of complex-clause syntax should be gained non-systematically and on the basis of needs stemming from concrete writing tasks, can be regarded as partly confirmed.
For most of the seven research statements included in the questionnaire (and belonging to the three hypotheses), the preference for systematic complex-clause syntax development and knowledge was, with a large majority, clearly corroborated by student opinions, although in some cases they were less convinced. For example, the learners were surprisingly strongly aware of their disinclination for contrastive comparisons. They did not find them very relevant for developing knowledge of complex-clause syntax or a sort of useful tool for their productive skills (writing assignments).
This is in clear contrast with (mostly psycholinguistic) applied experts and linguistic experts as well as many researchers in the awareness-raising field (Larsen-Freeman 2000 and 2003; van Lier 2001) who believe in the positive value of it; on the other hand, not much research has so far examined if and how the awareness about language/s, of a possible positive transfer and warnings by negative transfer between languages, positively influences language production in the second language, and especially not of how it encourages or reduces the use of complex-clause syntax. Awareness-raising here, however, cannot be achieved without explicitly dealing with it in the FL classroom. In order for learners to become (more) successful lifelong learners, we believe they should also be equipped with such strategic knowledge or knowledge about complex-clause syntax as a powerful tool (how to use it) as a means for upgrading their general, especially productive, mastery of the foreign language/s they are learning.
4.1 Potential benefits and disadvantages
Although the questionnaire responses do not reveal whether complex-clause syntax is taught and, if so, according to which concept/s, or whether the responses perhaps expressed learners' desires and general opinions (based on teaching approaches or methods in the learning of other FL), it is clear that explicit teaching of complex-clause syntax in the FL classroom is seen as beneficial, as confirmed by the learners' responses. In addition to contributing to the development of the four skills by way of general language mastery, some theoretical knowledge is perceived as useful, in particular when related to writing assignments. Yet the student responses indicate that they are aware of the beneficial effect of complex-clause syntax on their writing skills, and it cannot be excluded that they would also have expressed favourable opinions about speaking skills if they had been asked about them.
Despite some benefits complex-clause syntax might bring into the FL classroom, we should - maybe primarily - also be aware of the problems this could cause, in particular
for some learners. Importantly, we should consider pedagogical options for how to appropriately relieve the cognitive load, teach not only to know, but also to use complex-clause syntax to facilitate comprehension and to give support for productive skills, and thereby enhance the learning process. First, learners seem to agree that complex-clause syntax might have an important (and in some cases even a decisive) role, but there are many linguistic topics to be developed in an FL classroom on the path towards a good command of a foreign language.
Accordingly, a possible solution would be to constantly ask learners to be as active as possible while dealing with syntax, and accept it as a sort of benefit (when dealing with it at home and in the classroom) for productive writing assignments. However, a challenge remains: how to make sure that all learners will have completed the complex-clause syntax load at home (for example, if it is made available through online learning platforms), while at the same time maintaining their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Second, the learners did not reveal a keen interest in contrastive aspects as a possible technique for guiding them towards better command of complex-clause syntax when a writing task is assigned. In the past, many experts believed that (strongly cognitive) contrastive approaches solve most learning-related problems (in this respect) and that any other complex-clause syntax approaches are less efficient and/or at least more time-consuming. But teaching praxis also seems to show that by imitating sentences and texts, if they are relevant models, learners can achieve "accelerated" text proficiency. However, we lack research evidence regarding both approaches (bilingual, contrastive and/or "imitative").
As a result of these doubts, more research should be conducted, along with experimenting with a variety of tasks that might be beneficial for the goals; for example, bilingual tasks focused on a comparison between languages contribute to a smaller cognitive load. As stated by Swaffar and Vlatten (1997), an absence of comprehension may cause frustration and increase the level of language learning anxiety, but a "safe" environment (which is supposed to be enhanced by "contrastive" and bilingual approaches) should have a positive effect, resulting in upgraded language knowledge and the mastery of productive skills.
4.2 Limitations and perspectives
The research was conducted among learners in the third year of secondary school and participation in the questionnaire was obligatory. Except for a few individual cases of learners showing discontent (by circling the same answers for all statements), the vast majority of learners was evidently interested in and keen on responding (some also added expressions of interest below the statements). Hence, the serious participation of the respondents is certainly not a significant limitation of this study. The remarks did not provide any information regarding differences in attitudes to complex-clause syntax among different levels of pre-existing language ability.
However, an interesting research challenge could involve exploring whether the "contrastive plus bilingual" vs. "imitative" approach (albeit both in a very systematic way) is in any way related to the pre-existing language ability of learners. In addition,
empirical research would have to explore the efficiency of learning through the use of "contrastive" techniques as compared to the imitation and "creative" elaboration of model texts, with the time spent on each approach being correlated.
Some future empirical studies could also aim to indicate possible answers to questions pertaining to the applied field of foreign language teaching methodology meant for the process of complex-clause syntax learning and also for testing after the completion of lower levels. Such additional testing should focus on examining productive knowledge, as well as on the awareness of some relevant contrastive problems as a contribution to effective knowledge. Another questionnaire for learners might enquire into the role of techniques for teaching complex-clause syntax and their experiences and perceptions of the proper mastery of an FL.
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Abstract
SYNTAX MENTIONED SEVEN TIMES IN THE CEFR -AND HOW MANY TIMES AT SCHOOL, IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS?
In the teaching of foreign languages, complex-clause syntax does not seem to have had an established role over the last 20 years, especially within the communicative approach and, of course, the CEFR. It was previously part of methods which stressed formal approaches to foreign languages and their being taught, but not of natural, acquisition-based methods. With the communicative approach, two important premises were introduced: authentic texts and grammar as a tool when necessary. This is one probable reason why explicit, complex-clause syntax is hardly mentioned in the CEFR, even though it is implicitly present in descriptors, even though it is particularly recognisable in those for writing skills, and even though we know that it can be used for all four skills, as well as to guide learners towards some self-directed learning about language features.
To date, in the era of the communicative approach, not much is known about the role of complex-clause syntax in foreign/second language classrooms, in particular from the learners' viewpoint. In order to bridge this research gap, the paper analyses a questionnaire among learners in secondary schools that looked at their perspectives regarding the (possible) role of syntax. The examined aspects consider its role for the four skills, and the benefits of knowing syntax; implicitly, the paper touches on some affective factors and related methodological approaches, along with problems concerning the teaching of syntax. The findings are based on quantitative data; an evaluation of the need for complex-clause syntax is included, and some pedagogical implications are presented.
Keywords: complex-clause syntax, foreign language learning, writing skills, Romance languages, learners' perspectives.
Povzetek
SEDEMKRAT SKLADNJA V SEJO -IN KOLIKO KRAT V ŠOLI, PRI POUKU TUJIH JEZIKOV?
Za področje poučevanja tujih jezikov se zdi, da v zadnjih dvajsetih letih poučevanje večstavčne skladnje nima (več) svojega mesta, zlasti ne znotraj meja komunikacijskega pristopa, in seveda SEJO. Pred tem je bilo del metod, ki so poudarjale na oblikah os-redinjene pristope k tujim jezikom in k njihovemu poučevanju, toda nikdar del naravnih, na usvajanju utemeljenih metod. S komunikacijskim pristopom, ki ga je utrdil SEJO, sta bili uvedeni dve pomembni področji: avtentična besedila in slovnica kot orodje, ko je potrebno. Morda je prav to razlog, da je eksplicitna, večstavčna skladnja v SEJO komaj kje omenjena, čeprav je implicitno prisotna v opisnikih, zlasti v tistih za pisne zmožnosti. Obenem vemo, da je uporabna za vse štiri zmožnosti, kot tudi za vodenje učencev pri samostojnem učenju o jezikovnih prvinah in pojavih.
Doslej, v obdobju komunikacijskega pristopa, ni veliko znanega o vlogi večstavčne skladnje pri pouku tujih/drugih jezikov, zlasti ne s stališča učencev. Da bi zapolnili to raziskovalno vrzel, se prispevek osredotoča na analizo vprašalnika med učenci v gimnazijah glede njihovih pogledov na (možno) vlogo večstavčne skladnje, in sicer na njeno vlogo pri razvijanju štirih zmožnosti in na prednosti znanja skladnje; implicitno se prispevek dotakne tudi afektivnih dejavnikov in z njimi povezanih metodoloških pristopov in tudi problemov glede učnih vsebin. Ugotovitve temeljijo na kvantitativnih podatkih, ovrednoti se potrebnost poučevanja večstavčne skladnje, predstavljene pa so tudi nekatere pedagoške implikacije.
Ključne besede: večstavčna skladnja, učenje tujih jezikov, pisna zmožnost, romanski jeziki, stališča učencev.
Marija Kusevska
Goce Delcev University-Stip, Republic of Macedonia*
UDK 811.111,243(495.6):37.016(4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.97-112
CONNECTING DEVELOPMENT OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE WITH THE CEFR
1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to look at how the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe 2001) can facilitate research into pragmatic competence development. Developing pragmatic competence in a second/foreign language has been addressed in many articles and publications on cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics (Bardovi-Harlig 1999; Barron 2003; Blum-Kulka/House/ Kasper 1989; Cohen/Ishihara 2005; Ishihara/Cohen 2010; Kasper/Blum-Kulka 1993; McConachy/Hata 2013; Trosborg 2010; Wigglesworth/Yates 2007 etc.), but is still often neglected by practitioners in foreign language teaching and teacher training.
Since its publication, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) has become influential in building understanding of foreign language learners' performance. However, there is a gap between the global description of the communicative language competences at different levels and the level of detail required for syllabus or test design. More detailed description of the particular linguistic means that learners of English are expected to be able to use at different levels is given in the accompanying T-series: Breakthrough (Trim 2009) for A1; Waystage (van Ek/Trim 1998b) for A2; Threshold Level (van Ek/Trim 1998a) for B1; and Vantage (van Ek/Trim 2001) for B2. This problem is to a certain extent addressed by English Profile, a collaborative research programme investigating "what learner English is really like" and working on providing a detailed set of Reference Level Descriptions (RLD) for English to accompany the CEFR. Their publication Language functions revisited: Theoretical and empirical bases for language construct definition across the ability range (Green 2012: 1) addresses "how and how well learners identified as being at different levels of the CEFR are able to use English" in terms of communicative functions.
In this study, we also address this problem of granularity. We focus on the function of expressing disagreement: how it is described in the CEFR and how language learners at B2 level express their disagreement. At B2 level, pragmatic competence becomes more important than at previous levels because learners are expected to "interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party" (Council of Europe 2001: 129). Therefore, their pragmatic errors are taken more seriously by their interlocutors.
Author's address: Univerzitet "Goce Delcev" Stip, ul. Krste Misirkov br. 10-A, 2000 Stip, Republika Makedonija. E-mail: marija.kusevska@ugd.edu.mk
*
This study seeks to answer the following research questions:
1.	What are the strategies and linguistic means that Macedonian learners of English at B2 level use to express disagreement?
2.	How do these correspond to the descriptions given in the CEFR and the accompanying T-series, in particular Vantage by van Ek/Trim (2001)?
3.	What are the most common pragmatic errors made by the learners?
In view of the above, we believe that our research will contribute globally to the broader picture of what learner English is like. Locally, it will provide valuable information for Macedonian teachers on their students' pragmatic development in English and the possible areas of their pragmatic failure.
1.1	Defining pragmatic competence
Pragmatic competence is understood as "the knowledge of the linguistic resources available in a given language for realising particular illocutions, knowledge of the sequential aspects of speech acts, and finally, knowledge of the appropriate contextual use of the particular language's linguistic resources" (Barron 2003: 10). Thus defined, pragmatic competence includes the ability to perform language functions and the knowledge of socially appropriate language use.
Leeche's distinction between sociopragmatic and pragmalinguistic knowledge is helpful in understanding the difficulty that learners may face. Sociopragmatic knowledge refers to the "specific 'local' conditions on language use [...] for it is clear that the Cooperative Principle and the Politeness Principle operate variably in different cultures or language communities, in different social situations, among different social classes, etc." (Leech 1983: 10). Pragmalinguistic knowledge, on the other hand, refers to the particular linguistic resources which a given language provides for conveying particular illocutions.
1.2	CEFR on pragmatic competence
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001) is based on the assumption that the aim of learning a foreign language is communication. In order to do this, learners need to develop a set of communicative competences. Communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences.
According to the CEFR (Council of Europe 2001: 123), pragmatic competences are concerned with the learner's knowledge of the principles according to which messages are:
a.	organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence);
b.	used to perform communicative functions (functional competence);
c.	sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence).
The B2 list of functions which is of our interest in this paper gives a more sensitive sub-categorisation, a greater variety of exponents, and more developed realization of structural values than the lists for the previous levels. In listing the disagreement subcategori-
es, van Ek and Trim (2001) distinguish strong disagreement (Absolute nonsense/rubbish; I couldn t agree less; No way; etc.) and weak disagreement (I'm not so sure; I wonder if that is so; etc.). Strong disagreement is supported by positive, negative and denying statements (I don't agree; That's not right; You're wrong; I don't think so; That isn't true; That is a downright lie; (Most) certainly not; Not at all; etc.). Weak disagreement is supported by inviting agreement (Don't you think it's nice?; Don't you agree she's beautiful?; She is French, isn't she?) and expressing agreement with reservations (I agree with you there; I don't disagree with you there; I agree, but; Perhaps so, but; etc.).
The Threshold (van Ek/Trim 1998a) and Vantage (van Ek/Trim 2001) chapters on sociocultural competence (Chapter 11) also support the development of pragmatic competence. Sociocultural competence is defined as "that aspect of communicative ability which involves those specific features of a society and its culture which are manifest in the communicative behaviour of the members of this society" (van Ek/Trim 2001: 95). These features may be classified as universal experiences (everyday life, living conditions, interpersonal relations, and major values and attitudes) and social conventions and rituals, the latter including non-linguistic (e.g. body language, visiting rituals, eating and drinking rituals, etc.) and linguistic elements (language functions and politeness conventions)1.
Special focus in these chapters is put on politeness conventions. In explaining politeness, van Ek and Trim rely on the concepts of positive and negative politeness (Bro-wn/Levinson [1978] 1987; Arundale 2006; Culpeper/Kadar 2010; Ogiermann 2009; Watts 2003; Linguistic Politeness Research Group 2011):
'Positive' politeness is shown by expressing interest in partners' interests, activities, opinions, beliefs, etc., congratulating them on their achievements, praising their qualities, etc., but also sympathising with their troubles and sharing one's own. It may go together with physical closeness and contact, prolonged eye contact and sharing of emotional signals. Positive politeness contrasts with 'negative' politeness, in which the speaker tries to avoid embarrassment, distress or displeasure by showing an awareness of the demands made on the partner by what the speaker says. In this way, the possibility of overt conflict with possible hurt or offence is avoided or at least reduced (van Ek/Trim 2001: 99).
With respect to this, the authors note that politeness in English can be formulated by the following maxims:
1.	Do not be dogmatic.
2.	Be reluctant to say what may distress or displease the partner.
3.	Do not force the partner to act.
The maxims quoted above give additional explanations which shed light on the nature of the listed exponents. Native speakers modify their utterances with lexical and syntactic linguistic means in order to comply with the above maxims. The maxim "Do
1 In defining communicative competence, the CEFR separates pragmatic from sociolinguistic competence. However, we find it difficult to separate the two in the study of actual speech production, and they necessarily overlap in our research.
not be dogmatic", for example, indicates that the partner may have a different opinion. It implies the use of verbs like I think, I believe, I expect; pragmatic markers like you know, of course, etc.; question tags; etc. The maxim "Be reluctant to say what may distress or displease the partner", among other functions2, offers strategies for reducing the risk of offending the interlocutor:
•	seeking the partner's agreement, (I hope you don't mind my saying so, but ...; Don't you agree that. . .?)
•	apologising for not agreeing (I'm sorry, but I don't agree)
•	expressing regret for not agreeing (I'm afraid that isn't true)
•	implying something unpleasant rather than stating it openly (Your ideas are interesting ..., implying "... but I don't agree with them").
The maxim "Do not force the partner to act", allow him/her to appear to act voluntarily, applies most directly to the speech act of making requests.
Because disagreement is such a complex speech act, involving facework, beliefs, emotions, etc., many more linguistic devices are used. Native speakers may also use some of the exponents that van Ek and Trim (2001) list under "expressing knowledge, memory, belief' (I don't know); "expressing degrees of certainty" (declarative sentences with certainly/definitely/etc.; I'm certain/sure/convinced/etc ); tentative assertions (It seems/appears; perhaps/maybe; I don't think/believe; I could be wrong, but) and hedges (just, sort of, kind of). To these, we can add the use of modal verbs, if-clauses, personal pronouns, questions, discourse markers, etc.
2 DATA COLLECTION AND METHODOLOGY
The analysis of how Macedonian learners of English perform the function of expressing disagreement was carried out on 188 speech acts of disagreement obtained through a Discourse Completion Task (DCT). The DCT consisted of nine tasks that required the students to express an opposing view to the one given in the tasks. The tasks in the DCT prompted the learners to disagree with a colleague, a superior and a friend, as illustrated below (see Appendix for all tasks):
Your manager questions the accuracy of the report you submit. S/he says, "I don't
think this information is correct." However, you are sure it is. You have consulted the
company database, and you have also checked it with several of your colleagues. In
response you say:
In its first version, the DCT consisted of 12 tasks. The tasks were shorter, and they didn't provide the reasons for disagreement. When the DCT was first distributed among students, some of them complained that it was too long, and that the tasks were time-consuming. As a result, they left some of the tasks blank. Before employing the DCT
2 In this part the authors also refer to the functions of complaining, granting permission and apologizing. We do not give more details about them here because they are not relevant for our paper.
in the present study, we removed the tasks that were most often left blank, and we added reasons for disagreement.
The DCT, however, did not instruct learners how strongly to disagree with the given opinion. This was supposed to be their own choice. It was assumed that being able to choose would also influence which linguistic means for formulating the required speech act they would use.
The respondents were university students at B2 level, age 18 to 24. Their level of English was determined by a quick placement test based on the Standard English vocabulary and English grammar that is found in English language learning materials produced by Oxford University Press, Longman/Pearson Education and Cambridge University Press3. Those were the materials that the students used in their previous English classes. The test consisted of 75 multiple choice questions, 15 questions for each of the levels: A1, A2, B1, B2 and C1. Every question was assigned one point. 51 to 65 points were required to qualify for B2 level. The test was developed by the teachers at the University for internal use only.
The speech acts of disagreement were analysed with respect to the exponents and the maxims in Vantage (van Ek/Trim 2001). On the basis of the subfunctions of expressing disagreement and the exponents for the realisation of these functions, we grouped the obtained speech acts into the following types:
1.	expressing strong disagreement, in which we have included expressing disagreement with a statement, negative or positive, as well as with denying statements;
2.	expressing weak4 disagreement, in which we have included expressing agreement with reservations;
3.	direct disagreement, in which we included those speech acts in which disagreement was not prefaced by any statements, and in which the opposing view was formulated as directly stated explanation; and
4.	using hints to express disagreement.
3 RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS
Most of the speech acts of disagreement produced by Macedonian learners of English were formulated as strong disagreement (n=101). 51 of the remaining speech acts expressed weak disagreement, 30 expressed direct disagreement without preface and in only seven speech acts did the learners use hints to express their disagreement
3	State and private language schools in Macedonia use books published by the above named publishers. The most widely used books in state schools are the Headway series (Oxford University Press), the Gold series (Longman/Pearson Education), and English Grammar in Use (Cambridge University Press). Many of the students will have attended language courses in private language schools, which use a wider variety of books, though mostly by the same publishers.
4	The terms "aggravated" and "mitigated" are also used for strong and weak disagreement, respectively. In this paper we use the terms "strong" and "weak" disagreement to comply with the terminology in the CEFR.
3.1 Expressing strong disagreement
Strong disagreement was often bluntly stated with the verbs disagree (n=16) and don't agree (n=14). We were also able to find a limited number of expressions with against (n=5) and don't like (n=10).
(1)	I completely disagree. Taking a language course will help you communicate with people from different countries.
(2)	I don't agree with this.
(3)	I'm against your decision.
Learners' disagreement was also shaped with evaluative expressions questioning the truth of the previous speaker's utterance: That's not true (n=7) and you're wrong (n=11).
(4)	That's not true. Women are even more reliable at work.
(5)	You are totally wrong. They are reliable at work, and they are maybe more assertive than men.
As examples (1) and (5) show, the expressions with disagree were sometimes further intensified with completely and totally. Epistemic sure (n=7) was also used to strengthen disagreement, often internally modified as in the examples I am more than sure; I'm completely sure; I'm pretty sure. Sometimes learners prefaced some of their speech acts of disagreement with an apology (n=13):
(6)	I'm sorry, but I'm totally against it. Those five days are very important for me.
We might expect that sorry would soften disagreement. However, it doesn't because these speech acts contain linguistic means that are used with the aim of strengthening them. Also, learners sometimes used expressions to disassociate themselves from their interlocutor's opinion, as in (7). This may look like expressing agreement with reservations or giving space for other people's opinion. However, the utterance sounds very firm, and with its first part the speaker clearly distances herself/himself from the previous speaker's opinion.
(7)	That is your opinion. I have a different opinion.
In the DCT speech acts produced by Macedonian learners of English, we found 79 occurrences of I think and five occurrences of I don't think. In three of the speech acts I think was preceded by so in order to further strengthen the person's opinion:
(8)	I think people are entitled to a 25-day holiday.
(9)	We are working so hard and we are trying to do completely and successfully all the work in the company. So I think that we deserve five days more for holiday.
In six cases, the learners used the verb believe to strengthen their opinion:
(10)	I do believe the so called modern technology is endangering the environment.
There were two cases all together in which emphatic do was used. Although limited in number, they present evidence that at B2 level, learners are beginning to broaden their understanding beyond the grammatical use of the linguistic means.
3.2 Expressing weak disagreement
As previously stated, we were able to identify 51 speech acts of expressing weak disagreement, 29 of which represented expressing agreement with reservations. Learners used varieties of expressions to formulate disagreement with reservation. Most often it was prefaced with a phrase expressing agreement followed by but: Yes, but; Yes, maybe, but; I agree, but; It's interesting, but; It's not the best, but I would like to go there; I can't say that I totally disagree, but; etc.
(11) Yes, maybe is endangering the environment but also with that modern technology our lives become much easier and also help in avoiding a great catastrophe.
The aim of some of the expressions is to recognize the interlocutor's right to have a different opinion: I don't know about you, but I think; Maybe for you, but; It's okay for you to oppose that, but; For some people yes, but; I think you are right, but I have a different opinion; I understand you don't want to stay later on work, but; etc.
Others have a function of cushioning the disagreement by making a positive remark: I think it's an interesting topic, but; It's nice, but it's not my style; Yes, it is lovely, but I suggest you to try another one; etc.
The speech acts of weak disagreement that were not structured as agreement with reservations were prefaced with different expressions: well; I don't know; I'm sorry; I was hoping; I think; etc. They were also softened with a weak modal verb (can, could, would, might, etc.), epistemic verbs, adjectives and adverbs expressing doubt or uncertainty (I don't know; I'm not sure; maybe; if possible; I was hoping; etc.), limiters (only), and zf-clauses.
The most pervasive are modal verbs. They play a significant role in formulating both strong and weak disagreement. On the basis of their frequency, we classify them into three groups:
1.	Verbs with high frequency: will (n=66);
2.	Verbs with medium frequency: should (n=28), can (n=24)5, would (n=22); and
3.	Verbs with low frequency: must (n=7), need to (n=4), could (n=4), might (n=4), may (n=0) and shall (n=0).
4 DISCUSSION
4.1 Different politeness systems
Our analysis of how Macedonian learners of English express disagreement showed that these learners more frequently used strong disagreement than weak disagreement. This is in compliance with our previous study on expressing disagreement in US English and Macedonian (KyceBCKa 2012), in which we concluded that Macedonian speakers use strong disagreement more often, whereas US speakers use weak disagreement. Accord-
5 The number includes only the examples of epistemic can. However, it also includes the occurrences of can't.
ing to some authors who have studied disagreement (Kakava 2002; Locher 2004 etc.), this is a result of two different politeness systems prevailing in these two languages: positive politeness in Macedonian and negative politeness in US English. In light of this, we may expect that the two maxims postulated in Vantage (2001) - "Do not be dogmatic" and "Be reluctant to say what may distress or displease the partner" - may not be always observed by Macedonian learners. The following excerpt between two colleagues, an American and a Macedonian, is an example of the possible consequences:
(12) A: Perhaps we could prepare another performance.
M: No way. We don't have time and it will be a disaster.
A: I am sorry. I was just suggesting another way of doing it.
M's response sounded harsh, authoritative and rude, although it wasn't meant to be. Macedonian people tend to believe that strong arguments may be more convincing than softened ones. When they argue, they usually want to defend their opinions. Sometimes they use strong words just because they want to emphasize their opinion, defend it, and make the listener understand it.
4.2 Disagreement modification
On the basis of our analysis, we could conclude that the learners are able to internally modify their disagreement. Yet the number of the lexical modifiers they used was quite limited. For strong disagreement it was the intensifying adverbs completely, absolutely, and totally. For weak disagreement it was mostly epistemic verbs, adjectives and adverbs, but their distribution was limited to individual cases. There was one example with a little (It is. But maybe you should look around a little more) and one example with seem (don't seem important). However, no other verbs of hesitation and uncertainty (guess, suppose, assume) or hedges (just, sort of, kind of) were used to formulate disagreement.
Although learners were able to modify their disagreement lexically to a certain degree, they were not able to modify it syntactically. They did not use two very important strategies for expressing weak disagreement: inviting agreement and inviting disagreement with a statement. As a result they did not use any question tags (She is French, isn't she; I like this music, okay), any interrogative sentences (Don't you think it's nice?; Surely you agree?), and neither did they use statements which would invite disagreement (Surely you don't think it's cold?). Learners may rely more on lexical than on syntactic forms because lexical forms are more simple and syntactic forms are more complex. It is also easier for learners to find one-to-one correspondences between the L1 and L2 for lexical than for syntactic linguistic means.
The findings of our study concerning disagreement modification are in congruence with other studies on how learners express opposing views. Nguyen (2008), who studied how Vietnamese learners of Australian English modified their criticisms, and Behnam (2011), who studied disagreement among Iranian EFL learners, also found out that the learners tend to modify their criticisms less frequently than native speakers do. They also concluded that learners tend to rely on lexical forms rather than on syntactic structures in realization of their modifiers.
This analysis of expressing disagreement revealed that Macedonian learners of English do not vary the exponents that they use in relation to the interlocutor. There was no difference in how they expressed their disagreement to a colleague and to a superior. They were more careful only when disagreeing with a friend. In the light of this, all but one of the disagreements involving hinting were with a friend. This supports the claims that learners of foreign languages most often opt for linguistic means with neutrality in meaning (Takahashi and Beebe 1993; Nguyen 2008). Nguyen (2008: 780) also notes that even when learners use modifiers, they do not achieve the same effect as native speakers, "probably because the language that they used was quite neutral and lukewarm".
What also struck us in our analysis was that learners did not use most of the expressions for strong emotions, such as Rubbish; Nonsense; That's a downright lie; Not at all; etc. We suppose that the origins of this failure are multiple. First, the instrument that was used to collect the speech acts elicited written, not spoken real life conversational turns. Second, the data was collected on the University premises, which are perceived as a rather formal environment, and the learners probably thought such language was inappropriate. Third, the learners were expressing themselves in a foreign language.
4.2.1 Modal verbs as modifiers
Our current study shows that modals verbs are a significant characteristic of expressing disagreement by Macedonian learners of English. However, the results differ from our previous research on speech acts of disagreement produced by native US speakers (KyceBCKa 2012), in which we found out that would and can were the most frequent words expressing disagreement. They were followed by could, may, might, will, need and should, in this order, while must had only one occurrence. These findings are similar to the frequency rates of modal verbs found in other corpus-based studies. Biber et al. (2007: 495) assign the low frequency of must to its high command force. Because of this it is often replaced by should, which has weaker force, and which is thus considered more polite in conversation.
With Macedonian learners of English, the frequency rates of specific modal verbs were in the following order: will, should, would, can, must; need to, could and might had very low frequency, while may had zero occurrences. Bardovi-Harlig (1999) gives an example when a non-native speaker addresses a faculty adviser with I will take syntax, which is very different from the native speaker's I was going to take syntax. According to her "The use of will seems to have an opposite effect of a mitigator, operating instead as an aggravator indicating a strong commitment by the student to his suggestion for a course" (Bardovi-Harlig 1999: 694). Our students also widely use will as a marker of the future, and, like the student in the example, they are probably not aware that it additionally conveys a meaning of confidence, firmness and decisiveness, which may not be quite appropriate in this context. Could and might seem to be the most difficult modal verbs for Macedonian learners of English. Generally, could is understood as past tense of can. As a politeness marker, it is properly used in requests (Couldyou help me?). The use of could in future or hypothetical situations, however, is
more problematic. The meaning of might is very elusive and students are not comfortable using it, even at B2 level. May is usually understood to express permission, and learners rarely use it as an epistemic marker.
4.2.2 I think in disagreement
It is interesting that structures beginning with I think were found both in strong and weak disagreement. While many authors list I think as a hedge in expressing politeness (Holmes 1990; Aijmer 1997; Karkkainen 2003; Baumgarten/House 2010), it can also convey the meaning of confidence and persuasion, in which case it does not mitigate the illocution force of the speech act. It is this latter use of I think that is pervasive in the speech acts produced by Macedonian learners of English. We would like to point out that sentence-initial I think is used to intensify rather than soften disagreement. It is often accompanied by intensifiers and strong and medium modal verbs6.
The use of I think seems more tentative only when used in expressing agreement with reservations, but such examples were rare. We noticed only two examples formulated with I think and one example when the interrogative form don't you think was used after the marker but. There was also one example in which think was used with multiple softening devices, including the inclusive pronoun we, maybe and could:
(12) Maybe we could think about another place and another day.
The things that we discussed in this part comply with the metaphor for B2 level in the CEFR, "having been progressing slowly but steadily across the intermediate plateau, the learner finds he has arrived somewhere things look different, he/she acquires a new perspective, can look around him/her in a new way" (CEFR 2001: 35).
5 CONCLUSIONS
The goal of this paper was to investigate how the CEFR can be used as a tool for measuring foreign learners' development of pragmatic competence. The list of functions and their exponents, as well as the explanations on sociolinguistic competence, enabled us to draw valuable conclusions about some behaviours of our learners.
Our research had several limitations: the instrument that was used elicited written responses by the respondents, whereas oral responses would have been more appropriate; it focused on only one of the levels and only one of the functions listed in the CEFR; and our respondents all belonged to the same group. Still, we are convinced that this kind of analysis can enable examiners, material designers, administrators, etc. to work towards monitoring the pragmatic development of their learners.
Thus used, the CEFR and the T-series are useful both for native speaker and non-native speaker teachers. Native speaker teachers have intuition about the language, but the principles that are at play are not always obvious and they need instructions for giving
6 Based on their gradient and scalar strength of meaning, Huddleston and Pullum (2002: 175-177) classify modal verbs as strong, medium, and weak. Hence, must is strong, should is medium and may is weak.
viable explanations. Non-native speaker teachers, meanwhile, provide instructions for appropriate understanding of the situations and communication in a foreign culture.
Finally, we would like to raise two issues that we believe are important for further consideration. One is development of further research across all levels with the aim of better understanding the processes governing the acquisition of pragmatic competence. The other is developing research on what teaching methods and techniques should be employed to facilitate the development of pragmatic competence. Possible points of departure for both are given in the CEFR (2001: 154).
References
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KyCEBCKA, Mapuja (2012)MeiyKynmypuanpa^MamuKa. Hecoznacyeame eoycnama KOMynuKa^ja: amnucKU u MaKedoncKU. CKonje: AKageMCKH neuax
Abstract
CONNECTING DEVELOPMENT OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE WITH THE CEFR
The aim of this paper is to look at how The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) can facilitate research of pragmatic competence development. Central to developing pragmatic competence are the language functions (or speech acts) and the conventions of politeness. In particular, we focus on how Macedonian learners of English at B2 level express their disagreement, and we put their performance in relation to the functions and the politeness maxims postulated in Vantage (van Ek/ Trim 2001) and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001). Data for the analysis was compiled by means of a Discourse Completion Task (DCT) consisting of nine tasks which required the students to express an opposing view to the one given in the tasks. In our analysis, we classified disagreement as strong, weak, direct and hints. We focus on the linguistic means that learners used to express and to modify their disagreement. In particular, we discuss the use of lexical and syntactic modifiers, putting more emphasis on the use of modal verbs and I think. We end the paper with a conclusion that the CEFR and the accompanying books provide a valuable tool not only because they list the exponents of the functions, but also because they explain the principles that these exponents are motivated by. Finally, we raise two issues that we believe are important for further consideration. One is development of further research across all levels with the aim of better understanding the processes governing the acquisition of pragmatic competence. The other is developing research on what teaching methods and techniques should be employed to facilitate it.
Key words: CEFR, pragmatic competence, language functions, politeness, disagreement.
Povzetek
RAZVOJ PRAGMATIČNE KOMPETENCE V POVEZAVI S SEJO
Cilj prispevka je raziskati, kako lahko Skupni evropski okvir za jezike olajša raziskovanje razvoja pragmatične zmožnosti. Osrednjo vlogo v razvoju te zmožnosti imajo jezikovne funkcije (ali jezikovna dejanja) in vljudnostne konvencije. V raziskavi se osre-dotočamo na makedonske govorce, ki so pri učenju angleščine na ravni B2; opazovali smo, na kakšen način izražajo nestrinjanje in njihovo jezikovno performanco povezali s funkcijami in vljudnostnimi načeli, kot so definirana na višji ravni sporazumeval-nega praga, Vantage (van Ek/ Trim 2001) in Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir. Korpus za analizo je bil sestavljen z metodo discourse completion task (DCT) in je vseboval devet nalog, v katerih smo od študentov zahtevali, da izrazijo mnenje, nasprotno mnenju, izraženemu v nalogah. V analizi smo nestrinjanje razvrstili v različne kategorije: močno, šibko, direktno in namige. Osredotočamo se na jezikovna sredstva, ki so jih študentje uporabili, da so izrazili in omilili svoje nestrinjanje, še posebej na leksikalna in sintaktična sredsta, modalne glagole in glagol mislim. Članek sklenemo z mislijo,
da so SEJO in spremljevalni dokumenti dragocena orodja, ne le zato, ker razvrščajo eksponente teh funkcij, pač pa tudi zato, ker razlagajo, kako ti eksponenti nastanejo. Na koncu opozorimo še na dve zadevi, pomembni za prihodnje razprave: prva je nadaljnje raziskovanje na vseh ravneh, s ciljem boljšega razumevanja procesov, ki upravljajo nadziranje pragmatične kompetence, druga pa razvijanje raziskav na področju učnih metod in tehnik, ki lahko omogočijo usvajanje te kompetence.
Ključne besede: SEJO, pragmatična kompetenca, jezikovne funkcije, nestrinjanje.
APPENDIX
Discourse Completion Test
Thank you for participating in this questionnaire.
The information you provide will be used for study purposes only.
Native Language_
Sex: F M | Age: 18-24 25-34 35-44 45 and over
Directions: Imagine yourself in the following situations. Please disagree with the given
statements. Write down what you would say in real life.
1.	You are having coffee with some of your colleagues. You are talking about the new software that is being introduced in your department. A colleague of yours doubts its practicality and says, "I wonder if it is worth the time and money. It will take us ages to learn how to use it. Besides, I wonder if it is reliable at all." However, you disagree. In response you say:
2.	You are at a meeting discussing the next training. A colleague of yours says, "Why don't we hold the training on company premises during the first weekend next month?" You don't like the idea at all. You work long hours during the week and you don't want to spend any of your weekends at work. And the company premises are not suitable for any kind of training. You believe you need a friendlier and more pleasant environment. In response, you say:
3.	In a meeting on introduction of modern technology, one of your colleagues says, "The so-called modern technology is endangering the environment." You don't like his/her attitude. In response you say:
4.	You and your friend are watching a programme on women in society. Your friend says, "Ah, women are not reliable at work. They spend too much time gossiping and worrying about other things. And they are too busy at home." You disagree. In response you say:
5.	You are having coffee with some friends, relaxing and discussing various topics. Someone starts talking about vacations and says, "For me, South East Asia is the best vacation destination in the world." In response you say:
6.	You are out shopping with a friend. She picks a sweater and says, "Isn't it lovely. I hope they have it in my size." You don't think the sweater suits her. In response you say:
7.	People in your company have a 25 day vacation per year. Your boss thinks it is too long and wants to shorten it to 20 days. He says, "We need to discuss paid leave. I'd like to propose a 20 day vacation per year." You are against it. You say:
8.	Your manager questions the accuracy of the report you submit. S/he says, "I don't think this information is correct." However, you are sure it is. You have consulted the company database and you have also checked it with several of your colleagues. In response you say:
9.	At the end of the semester, you have to hand in a paper. You have found an interesting topic and have done some literature review. When talking to your professor about it, s/he says, "Would you consider a different topic?" In response you say:
Pawel Sickinger Klaus Peter Schneider
University of Bonn*
UDK 81Lm'243:37.016(4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.113-127
PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND THE CEFR: PRAGMATIC PROFILING AS A LINK BETWEEN THEORY AND LANGUAGE USE
1 INTRODUCTION
The goal behind the creation of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) was to provide a comprehensive description of "what language learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively" (CEFR 2001: 1). Most notably, it "defines levels of proficiency, which allow learners' progress to be measured at each stage of learning" (CEFR 2001: 1), i.e. the well-known and widely-used proficiency scale, ranging from A1 ("Breakthrough") to C2 ("Mastery"), that is intended to provide "objective criteria for describing language proficiency" (CEFR 2001: 1). Taking this twofold perspective, the CEFR both sets a common standard for the goals of language education, directed at teachers and learners, and offers an inventory of tools for assessing the progress of learners within this framework, in language testing and certification.
Despite its practical, instrumental and explicitly non-obligatory nature, the CEFR nonetheless represents a theory about the scope, structure and contents of language competence, especially given its claims to comprehensiveness, as far as realistically attainable1 (CEFR 2001: 7). Furthermore, it is bound to reify this theory via the influence it demonstrably exerts on institutional practices in language teaching, assessment and certification (see Martyniuk and Noijons 2007). Underlining its influence beyond the provision of proficiency scales, the English Profile research group similarly comments that the CEFR "has underpinned a particular approach to language learning, as the one most commonly recommended, or expected, in language teaching today" (Introductory Guide to the Common European Framework of Reference [CEFR] for English Language Teachers: 2).
What kinds of knowledge and competence does a language learner have to acquire, in order to become proficient in another language? There is ample evidence gathered
* Author's addresses: Institut für Anglistik, Amerikanistik und Keltologie, Bonn Applied English Linguistics, Regina-Pacis-Weg5, 53113 Bonn, Germany. E-mails: k.schneider@uni-bonn.de, pawel.sickinger@uni-bonn.de.
1 See North (2014: 230), however, for a considerably weaker interpretation of the CEFR's comprehensiveness and authority.
in pragmatics and applied linguistics, which we will briefly touch upon in section 2 below, that learning a second or foreign language goes well beyond acquiring additional semantic and grammatical categories and distinctions. Indeed, the aim of language learning ought to go beyond acquiring the competence to produce grammatical sentences in the target language. Most importantly, it should enable learners to produce utterances that are considered functionally and socially appropriate by native speakers, in any given context. This is only indirectly correlated with the correctness of the linguistic forms produced, and certainly not exhaustively covered by a list of set phrases or vocabulary items, to be memorized and reproduced by learners. The two domains are best-considered as two distinct parts of (developing) language competence, in the sense that appropriate communicative behaviour depends on the interaction between both competences. Learners of a language will only then successfully communicate in the target language if both are available, i.e. the necessary inventory of linguistic forms and structures, and knowledge about their appropriate, purposeful use in context. The latter ability is what we would like to call "pragmatic competence" (see section 2).
Fortunately, as far as the CEFR's model of language competence is concerned, potential worries about an extensive bias towards formal aspects of language are unwarranted. The view of language use and learning it endorses is explicitly action-based, focusing on "acts of speech [that] occur within language activities" which, in turn, "form part of a wider social context" (CEFR 2001: 9). Correspondingly, the basic model of communicative language competence presented in the CEFR's main document distinguishes three major domains of competence: linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences (CEFR 2001: 13f), a delineation that is notably similar to, and clearly informed by, linguistic theories of communicative competence (cf. section 2).
We will argue that, while this notably pragmatic perspective on language embraced by the CEFR is laudable, at the same time, it offers little guidance in how to implement this in practice, which is in stark contrast to the wealth of material available for linguistic competence proper, i.e. vocabulary and grammar. While this is understandable, given the lack of tradition, experience and, in many cases, interest for this fundamental aspect of language proficiency in the education system (cf. Lazar et al. 2007: 5), it begs the question how to attune common practice to the CEFR's vision. Before addressing this issue, however, we will first briefly delineate the concept of pragmatic competence as discussed in linguistics (section 2), and why we see it as a quintessential part of language learning that needs to be carried over from the realm of theory and policy to the actual practice of language teaching, testing and certification (section 3).
2 NOTIONS OF PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE
Pragmatic competence has been defined in a number of different ways (cf., e.g., Bachman 1990; Fraser 2010; Ifantidou 2010; Taguchi 2011), and the same applies to pragmatic ability, which is a term sometimes employed as a synonym (cf., e.g., Mc-Namara/Roever 1996; Yule 1996; Yamashita 2008). Attempts to reach a consensus in defining pragmatic competence still continue, as shown by its central role in a number
of recent publications (see e.g. Kasper/Ross 2013; Kecskes 2014: Chapter 3). Below we review two definitions which are immediately relevant to our purposes.
The first definition of pragmatic competence to be discussed was formulated by Jenny Thomas in 1983. In this definition, Thomas contrasts "pragmatic competence" with what she calls "grammatical competence". These two types of competence combine into a speaker's "linguistic competence". In other words, a speaker's overall language competence comprises two complementary components, or "sub-competences", which are here called "grammatical" and "pragmatic", respectively.
A speaker's 'linguistic competence' would be made up of grammatical competence ('abstract' or decontextualized knowledge of intonation, phonology, syntax, semantics, etc.) and pragmatic competence (the ability to use language effectively in order to achieve a specific purpose and to understand language in context) (Thomas 1983: 92).
In this context, the term "grammatical" is, perhaps, misleading as it traditionally refers to morpho-syntax exclusively. In Thomas' conception, however, it is used in a much broader sense. In her view, "grammatical competence" includes not only knowledge of syntax, but also knowledge of phonology and intonation on the one hand, and knowledge of semantics on the other (morphology is not mentioned explicitly in the above definition, but is probably subsumed under "etc."). Moreover, this type of linguistic competence is abstract, in that it is independent of context. Pragmatic competence, by contrast, is context-sensitive. It concerns the production, as well as the comprehension of language relative to social situations. Furthermore, and most importantly, pragmatic competence is the ability to use linguistic means for achieving particular communicative goals. If taken literally, then pragmatic means related to action, and action can be defined as "intentional behaviour". Speakers have intentions. They pursue communicative goals by employing the linguistic devices specified and stored in what Thomas calls "grammatical competence". Her view is perfectly compatible with Leech's conception of linguistics (Leech 1983). He maintains that the nature of language can only be adequately understood if two complementary domains are examined, along with the interaction between them. These two domains are grammar and pragmatics, which are Leech's synonyms for the language system and for language use, respectively (cf. Leech 1983: 4).
The author of the second definition we wish to discuss posits that pragmatic competence, in turn, includes two component parts or sub-competences. Liu (2004: 14) writes:
[...] pragmatic competence consists of (at least) two components: knowledge of a pragmatic system, and knowledge of its appropriate use. The former provides the range of linguistic options available to individuals for performing various acts, while the latter enables them to select the appropriate choice given a particular goal in a particular setting.
These two components, i.e. "knowledge of a pragmatic system" and "knowledge of its appropriate use", reflect a pair of concepts originally introduced, again, by Thomas (1983), and popularized by Leech (1983). The terms they use arepragmalinguistics and
sociopragmatics. Pragmalinguistics specifies the respective devices available in a language to perform a particular communicative act, whereas sociopragmatics details the choices to be made in a given context. According to Leech (1983: 10-13), pragmalinguistics is the interface of pragmatics with the language system (for which Leech 1983 uses the term grammar) and, hence, language-specific. Sociopragmatics, by contrast, is the interface of pragmatics with sociology—it is not language-specific, but culture-specific. Thus, pragmalinguistic competence involves, for example, knowledge about the syntactic constructions and lexical items which can be used in a given language to pay a compliment, while sociopragmatic competence involves knowing what is considered appropriate in a given culture (i.e. society, social group or community of practice), specifically who may compliment whom, on what, and how (cf., e.g., Holmes/Brown 1987). Sociopragmatic competence, thus, seems to roughly correspond to sociolinguis-tic competence as characterized e.g. by Regan et al. (2009), which is the term also used to delineate this aspect of communicative competence in the CEFR.
Liu's explicit mentioning of "acts" in the definition above illustrates that pragmatic competence is often reduced to the speech act level. In our view, however, this level is only one among several levels of discourse (cf., e.g., Schneider/Barron 2008a: 19-21; also Schiffrin 1987: 21-29; Jucker 2008; Kasper/Ross 2013). In this perspective, pragmatic competence includes not only the ability to perform speech acts, but also, for instance, the ability to react to speech acts, to combine speech acts into sequences, and negotiate pragmatic meaning and identities across such sequences, to open and close a conversation, to take turns and hold the floor, to introduce, maintain and terminate topics, and to employ discourse markers. In short, in this less prototypical and less reductionist, but more encompassing and more adequate view, pragmatic competence equips language users to fully participate in discourse on all relevant levels.
As we have already mentioned above, the basic notion of pragmatic competence, delineated via these examples from the linguistic literature, is fairly compatible with the CEFR's description of communicative competence and its subcomponents. At the same time, it considerably overlaps with various notions of intercultural (communicative) competence, as proposed e.g. in Byram 1997, Lázár et al. 2007 and the INCA project (Byram 2004), specifically regarding the dimension of know-how or savoir-faire. Against the background of this strong consensus, it is rather surprising that the implementation of this novel perspective on language learning and education has not been pursued more emphatically and rigorously.
Before discussing this issue in the following section, however, we would like to emphasize that pragmatic competence is of special importance in language learning, as low competence in this area can be a critical source of miscommunication and, specifically, of intercultural misunderstandings. It is well-attested that native speakers expect learners to make lexical and grammatical mistakes. This is considered normal in the acquisition process and is, therefore, tolerated to a certain degree (see e.g. Thomas 1983: 97). At the same time, native speakers assume that learners observe the same pragmatic norms, i.e. that they behave in the same way that native speakers do. Native speakers generally believe, for instance, that all humans apologize for the same kinds of offense.
In essence, they believe that notions of politeness and appropriateness are universally shared. Therefore, violating pragmatic norms is not, as a rule, tolerated (see e.g. Bar-dovi-Harlig/Mahan-Taylor 2003). As has been shown in previous studies, violations of these norms are often interpreted as rude behaviour, or attributed to personality flaws (cf., e.g., Barron 2003; O'Keeffe et al. 2011). However, more often than not, learners do not intentionally violate target culture norms, they may merely follow the pragmatic norms of their native culture (cf. O'Keeffe et al. 2011: 101). In this regard, we would like to emphasise the negative consequences this state of affairs has for learners, their learning process and the development of pragmatic competence in their foreign language. Given a native speaker's perception of a learner's violation of pragmatic norms of the target culture, learners are not likely to receive any helpful feedback, in cases of such pragmatic failure (cf. Thomas 1983: 96-97). Considering divergence from one's own pragmatic norms as a personal deficit in the learner generally precludes corrections of unexpected communicative behaviour, since corrections of this kind would be highly face-threatening and will, therefore, be avoided by the majority of interactants. This situation makes the inclusion of explicit guidance in developing pragmatic competence in the course of foreign language education all the more important for learners (cf. Thomas 1983: 109-110).
3 THE NEED TO EXTEND THE CEFR'S SCOPE
Both the models of linguistic competence reviewed above and the one at the core of the CEFR are descriptions of fundamental structures at a very general level, that - although useful and necessary as an underlying framework - stop short of linking their claims to the level of actual language use. Recalling the CEFR's role as providing guidance to practitioners, with the aim of grounding their actual practice in a common framework, thereby enabling consistency, comparability and a shared standard of quality across institutions and nations, this state of affairs seems critical. In our view, the main problem is that the transition from general guidelines to application is still in the hands of individual practitioners - necessarily without any direct influence by the CEFR, in this part of the process. This means that individual interpretations of CEFR texts and descriptors can, and most likely will, lead to a highly-diverse range of realisations in practice that, nonetheless, suggest direct comparability, by referring back to the common framework. Anthony Green also points to this problem, noting that customisation in practice, although generally welcomed by the CEFR, "is likely to work against the comparability of outcomes from programmes purportedly situated at the same level" (Green 2012: 60).
A 2006 survey on the use and reception of the CEFR correspondingly found that, against the background of an overall strongly-positive evaluation, informants mentioned both a "lack of precision in some of the level descriptors" and a general "difficulty of linking tests to the CEFR" as pressing issues (Martyniuk/Noijons 2007: 7). The Council of Europe, on its website, similarly comments that "for operators, textbook authors and teachers, the specification set out in the CEFR may appear excessively
broad"2, primarily due to the generality of the framework, and points to the need for "transpositions of the CEFR into a given language" to remedy this problem3.
A potential solution has been developed in the form of so-called reference level descriptions (RLDs) that are now being compiled in an attempt to identify "the forms of a given language (words, grammar, etc.), mastery of which corresponds to the com-municational, socio-linguistic, formal and other competences defined by the CEFR", on all six proficiency levels, for national and regional languages4. A number of different research groups are currently pursuing this goal for individual languages, with the English RLD component (the one most relevant to our work) being developed by the English Profile program, based in Cambridge. The English Profile is a "collaborative programme endorsed by the Council of Europe, designed to create a "profile" or set of Reference Level Descriptions for English"5 that comprises several individual research projects, working towards "reliable, detailed description of the actual learner English that is typical of each CEFR level" (Introductory Guide to the Common European Framework of Reference [CEFR] for English Language Teachers: 8). Following the CEFR's basic structure, the English Profile has first started to develop RLDs for the domain of vocabulary, a project that is now completed and accessible online, as a resource for teachers. A second line of research on the gradual improvement of learners' grammatical competence, mapped onto the CEFR proficiency scale, is also in an advanced stage of development (Introductory Guide to the Common European Framework of Reference [CEFR] for English Language Teachers: 8). Notably, however, these two main lines of research only cover what is comprised under "linguistic competence" in the CEFR's model, with sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences not yet thoroughly covered. Although the English Profile already has a background in analysing language "functions", based on previous work in the so-called "T-series" (see Green 2012 for a review), this has not yet been operationalised for RLD-based systematic profiling on par with the vocabulary and grammar components.
Intensive discussion with English Profile members, over the course of three years, convinced us that the role of pragmatic competence (including the sociolinguistic component) in the CEFR is still critically underspecified, even though it is strongly emphasized in its programmatic view of a communicative linguistic competence. One of the problems with further developing this aspect of the CEFR is that it does not lend itself to a methodological approach that parallels what the English Profile has already achieved regarding RLDs for vocabulary and grammar. The main difference is that pragmatic aspects of language use and competence are less rigidly governed by common norms, are generally more context-sensitive, and can be less validly treated as "right" or "wrong", based on native speaker intuition (cf. Kecskes 2014: 62). This fundamental qualitative difference is acknowledged in the CEFR itself, where the lin-
2	https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/dnr_EN.asp (accessed 10 July 2014).
3	https://www.coe.int/t7dg4/linguistic/dnr_EN.asp (accessed 10 July 2014).
4	https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/dnr_EN.asp (accessed 10 July 2014).
5	http://www.englishprofile.org/ (accessed 10 July 2014).
guistic competence subcomponent of communicative language competence is characterised as concerning various dimensions of "language as a system, independently of the sociolinguistic value of its variations and the pragmatic functions of its realisations" (CEFR 2001: 13). Furthermore, the CEFR explicitly acknowledges that the sociolin-guistic and pragmatic components are less easily described in its standard format, i.e. generalised descriptor statements at each level of the scale. The authors concede that the "scaling of items for aspects of sociolinguistic competence proved problematic" (CEFR 2001: 121), and that it "is not feasible to develop illustrative scales for all the areas of competence implied when one talks of functional ability" (CEFR 2001: 128), in effect pointing out the incompatibility between abstract descriptor statements and the highly context-bound, functional aspects of language.
In our view, two challenges to the CEFR, in its current form, present themselves, as far as pragmatic competence is concerned6. On the one hand, a more coherent, less arbitrarily structured and principled treatment of pragmatic competence, on theoretical grounds, would help to further clarify its functional and structural role in a comprehensive model of communicative linguistic competence. On the other hand, this treatment of pragmatic competence has to amount to more than a mere theoretical essay—it has to become transitive towards, and ultimately grounded in, actual language use, e.g. in the form of reference level descriptions. When carried out thoroughly, the latter objective should naturally establish a link between general descriptions of linguistic competences, at the most abstract level, and the practical necessities and interests of practitioners involved in language testing, at the other end of the continuum.
4 PRAGMATIC PROFILING
We are currently pursuing these goals in the context of PRA.PRO (short for Pragmatic Profiling), which is an ongoing research project at the University of Bonn, Germany. There are two major project aims. One is to develop a more comprehensive and, perhaps more importantly, a more detailed definition of pragmatic competence than is currently available. Due to the methodological approach taken in the research project (described in more detail below), the resulting model can be expected to function both from a top-down perspective, informed by theoretical considerations, and a bottom-up perspective, that directly maps empirical data generated in the project onto the structure of the model. The other aim is to create an instrument for assessing pragmatic competence. Currently, we are primarily interested in assessing the pragmatic competence of foreign language learners and, specifically, of German learners of English. At a later stage, other areas of examination may be included, notably assessing the development of pragmatic competence in the native language of young children, and also measuring the pragmatic competence in patients suffering from a neurological disorder, such as Alzheimer's Disease (for earlier approaches, cf. e.g. Lamar et al. 1994; Ball 2000).
6 A similar point could be made regarding some of the more influential models of intercultural communicative competence (e.g. Byram 2004 and Lázár et al. 2007) but, regrettably, a detailed treatment of this issue is beyond the scope of this article.
The profiles prominently mentioned in the project name refer to a set of pragmatic norms of communicative behaviour (in our use of the term this comprises both pragma-linguistic and sociopragmatic aspects) prevalent in the native speaker language community. For rather obvious methodological reasons, these norms cannot be directly observed or elicited, mainly due to the fact that native speakers, perfectly capable of consistently applying them in practice, do not necessarily have any access to, or awareness of, the underlying principles guiding their behaviour. Therefore, we have to resort to gathering behavioural and experimental data, the analysis of which, then, indirectly reveals the underlying norms. This is the basic methodological commitment behind our approach to profiling and comparing pragmatic competence in native speakers and learners, and ultimately testing it in learners. The "ideal" against which learner performance is to be measured has to be derived, inductively, from analysing native speakers' language production, not based on an a priori understanding of what appropriate communicative behaviour in a given language is according to a group of experts. Furthermore, to enable direct comparison between native speaker and learner profiles, their respective performances need to be elicited under rigidly-controlled conditions, so that an explicit measure of similarity and divergence is possible.
With these requirements in mind, data collection for PRA.PRO so far has been carried out using the Questionnaire on English Usage (QEU), a research instrument originally developed by Schneider and Barron (see e.g. Schneider 2005). It comprises a variety of communicative situations for eliciting utterance production in discourse production task (DPT) and dialogue completion task (DCT) format, as well as multiple-choice questions7. Data from native speakers of English has been collected in a number of varieties, including English English, American English, Canadian English and Irish English, with the aim of creating pragmatic profiles for each of these varieties.
This deliberate attempt to capture differences between varieties of English partly owes its existence to the fact that our work on pragmatic competence was developed from a variational pragmatics background (see e.g., Schneider/Barron 2008a), but we also deem it critical for foreign language learning, teaching and assessment (cf. Barron 2005). If learners are expected to (strategically) align their own communicative behaviour with native speaker behaviour in order to use their foreign language appropriately, the question arises regarding whose communicative and cultural norms they are supposed to adopt. Languages are not homogeneous wholes, but characterised by "orderly heterogeneity" (Weinreich et al. 1968: 100). It is a common misconception, especially in the context of language teaching and foreign language learning, that all native speakers of a language behave in the same way, and act uniformly under the same context conditions (cf. Kasper 1995; also Wierzbicka 1985). However, pragmatic variation in language use exists and occurs relative to such factors as region, social class, ethnicity, gender and age (cf., e.g., Schneider/Barron 2008a; Schneider 2012a). Pragmatic norms and language-use conventions differ not only across languages, but also across varieties of the same language, i.e. across social groups and communities of practice or, for short, across cultures.
7 For a more detailed description, see: http://www.linguistics.uni-bonn.de/questionnaire-on-english-usage-qeu/
In addition to the groups of native speakers mentioned above, German learners of English have been tested using the same questionnaire. Additionally, a version for German native speakers has been used for purposes of establishing a pragmatic profile for German, for example, to examine the learner data for hints at negative transfer from first language pragmatic norms. Lastly, a longitudinal study, repeatedly testing the same group of German school students during their stay abroad in Canada, has been carried out with the support of Stepin, a company organising study abroad and similar programmes in English-speaking countries around the world. This strand of the project attempts to track young learners' developing pragmatic competence when exposed to a native speaker environment over an extended time period (cf. Barron 2003 and Schauer 2009 for related empirical work on this topic).
While the data gathered from these different groups of speakers are still being evaluated, a number of selected aspects have already been analysed and covered in earlier publications. Schneider (2005), for example, investigated differences in the use of responses to thanks across English English, Irish English and American English, as part of the overarching attempt to characterise the pragmatic norms of different native speaker varieties of English. He successfully identified differences in pragmatic behaviour, especially concerning the influence of differing levels of formality within varieties. Focusing on the role of pragmatic and intercultural competence in second language education, Schneider (2008b) investigated small talk dialogues, elicited via a DPT task included in the QEU. Noting profound differences across varieties in this particular communicative scenario, he argues that the issue of pragmatic competence and variational differences needs to be properly addressed in second language teaching curricula. In Schneider 2008a, the same small-talk situation was analysed for a female subgroup of the overall population queried with the QEU, again including native speakers of English English, Irish English and American English. The findings show both strongly converging strategies within varieties and marked differences across varieties, a result that Schneider 2011 and 2012b interpret as indicating a reliance on underlying cultural models/behavioural scripts, which can be seen as "the very essence of pragmatic competence" (2011: 32) in production, as well as comprehension.
Most recently, initial results from the longitudinal study on German students exposed to a native Canadian English environment over their time abroad have been presented at the 15th English Profile seminar at Cambridge. The presentation, entitled "Comparing pragmatic profiles of native speakers and foreign language learners of English", exemplarily covered both a comparison between the more recently-added Canadian native speaker data and other varieties, as well as the learner data, contrasted with all native speaker varieties covered in PRA.PRO to date. Looking at data from a small-talk DPT, the findings show that, whereas Canadian pragmatic behaviour is highly similar to the English English profile, the German learners of English behave more like native speakers of American English, in this particular communicative situation. Looking at the development of pragmatic competence over their stay abroad, the results, for example, showed that, while responses to thanks elicited from the German learners did not fully attune to the Canadian native speaker norm, use of "anytime" rose from 0.8% to 15.8% over the full ten month in Canada, thus approximating the fre-
quency in Canadian native speakers' responses to thanks at 20%. Based on these initial findings, we argued that, while the method used does not elicit actual behaviour, but behavioural norms represented in the language users' minds (cf. Schneider 2011 and 2012b), it nonetheless allows us to assess the development of pragmatic competence in English as a foreign language from a data-driven perspective.
Future plans for PRA.PRO include the gathering of further learner data over extended stays abroad, again with the support of Stepin, to provide a more solid empirical basis for developmental analyses. Furthermore, an upcoming project strand will extend the methodological range and triangulate earlier results, by testing them in a perceptional format, eliciting meta-pragmatic judgments from native speakers. This method has already been applied in a parallel research project called EEE (Emerging Email Etiquette), investigating pragmatic norms and recipient expectations in computer-mediated communication, more specifically in email communication between students and university staff (see Schneider 2013). In adopting this method for PRA.PRO, we want to make sure that our interpretation of learner production diverging from native speaker norms actually maps onto judgments of appropriateness in lay perception which is, after all, the most realistic yardstick of communicative success in actual intercultural encounters between learners and native speakers, an issue that both we and the CEFR are centrally concerned with.
5 CONCLUSION
In the present paper, we have outlined a number of challenges that the CEFR will have to face in order to eventually transform the language education landscape, according to its proclaimed vision of communicative competence. While we are pleased to see that the theory of language learning and linguistic competence it advocates broadly reflects the theoretical advances made in linguistic pragmatics over the last few decades, we are also concerned that merely stressing the importance and desirability of pragmatic competence will not automatically lead to advances in practice. Results from our research project, PRA.PRO, can contribute to this enterprise, in that it aims at establishing pragmatic norms for specific varieties of English, in a format that allows for direct comparison with learner performance.
Work on PRA.PRO is still ongoing, but as the project generates further findings, we expect to assemble a catalogue of appropriate native speaker behaviour across a range of representative communicative situations that will eventually result in a proper "pragmatic profile" for the respective variety. Comparing learner performance with these established norms will offer a new metric for assessing developing pragmatic competence that goes beyond correct-incorrect distinctions and intuitive expert ratings. We hope that continued collaboration with the English Profile group will enable us to bring these advances to the attention of the European Council and other institutions concerned with the further development and implementation of the CEFR. If a functional, communicative perspective is to become the driving force behind language learning, teaching and testing as the CEFR claims, then we need to ensure that practi-
tioners have access to both the information and resources necessary to transform their
practices accordingly.
We would like to thank Hannah Aengenvoort for her work on PRA.PRO.
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Abstract
PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND THE CEFR: PRAGMATIC PROFILING AS A LINK BETWEEN THEORY AND LANGUAGE USE
The functional and communicative perspective on language advocated in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), hides the fact that, while the CEFR programmatically emphasises the role of pragmatic competence in language learning, it provides little guidance in how to transform the domain of language learning, teaching and testing, accordingly. In the present paper, we argue for an extended and more detailed treatment of pragmatic competence in the context of the CEFR, that we think is necessary to enable practitioners to implement this conception of communicative competence in their everyday work. Whereas a gap between the CEFR's programmatic vision and practical requirements has been noted and addressed, e.g. by the creation of reference level descriptions (RLDs) for individual languages, the pragmatic component has thus far not been thoroughly covered by the respective initiatives, such as the English Profile.
Based on a review of definitions of pragmatic competence in the linguistic literature, we claim that a customised methodology will be necessary to fully integrate pragmatic competence into CEFR-based descriptions of language competence, especially if these descriptions are to be operationalised in language testing and certification. We then present our own approach to the issue of assessing pragmatic competence, which is part of an ongoing research project called Pragmatic Profiling (PRA.PRO). One of the main goals of this project is to establish pragmatic profiles of different varieties of English based on native speaker communicative behaviour, elicited via a variety of tasks in a standardized questionnaire format (the Questionnaire on English Usage), and other methods. The pragmatic norms derived from this empirical data can be directly compared with learner performance, which will ultimately allow us to assess divergence from native speaker norms and, thereby, evaluate levels of developing pragmatic competence in learners. Our primary concern is to point out that more empirical research is needed to link the levels of theoretical description and concrete communicative performance, and that the methodology employed in PRA.PRO is a promising route to achieving this goal.
Keywords: pragmatic competence assessment, cultural norms, learners of English, appropriateness, native speaker behaviour.
Povzetek
PRAGMATIČNA ZMOŽNOST IN SEJO: PRAGMATIČNO PROFILIRANJE KOT VEZ MED TEORIJO IN JEZIKOVNO RABO
Funkcijska in komunikacijska perspektiva, ki jo zagovarja Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir (SEJO), prikriva dejstvo, da SEJO navkljub načrtnemu poudarjanju pragmatične zmožnosti pri učenju jezika ponuja le malo napotkov za hkratno spremembo jezikovnega učenja, poučevanja in testiranja. V prispevku se avtorja zavzemata za bolj poglobljeno in natančnejšo obravnavo pragmatične kompetence, kakršna je po njunem mnenju za praktike pri uporabi koncepta komunikacijske kompetence pri njihovem vsakodnevnem delu nujna. Medtem ko je bila vrzel med programsko vizijo Skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira in praktičnimi potrebami že zaznana in obravnavana, npr. pri sestavljanju opisni-kov za referenčne stopnje za posamezne jezike, pa pragmatične komponente ustrezne pobude - kot npr. English Profile - še niso ustrezno obravnavale.
Po pregledu definicij pragmatične kompetence v jezikoslovni literaturi avtorja trdita, da bo za popolno vključitev pragmatične zmožnosti v opisnike jezikovne kompetence potrebna prilagojena metodologija, še posebej, kadar so ti opisniki namenjeni uporabi pri testiranju in certificiranju. V nadaljevanju članka predstavljava svoj pristop k vrednotenju pragmatične kompetence; gre za del projekta z naslovom Pragmatično profili-ranje (Pragmatic Profiling, PRA.PRO). Eden od ključnih ciljev projekta je vzpostavitev pragmatičnih profilov za različne zvrsti angleščine, ki bi temeljili na komunikacijskih vzorcih naravnih govorcev in bi bili pridobljeni na različne načine, npr. s standardiziranim vprašalnikom in drugimi metodami. Pragmatične norme, izpeljane iz empiričnih podatkov, lahko takoj primerjamo z dosežki učencev, to pa nam omogoči primerjavo z normo rojenega govorca in s tem oceno stopnje razvoja pragmatične kompetence učenca. Predvsem želita poudariti, da potrebujemo za povezavo med teoretičnim opisom ravni in konkretnim komunikacijskim dosežkom empirične raziskave in da se na poti do zastavljenega cilja metodologija, uporabljena v projektu PRA.PRO, zdi obetavna.
Ključne besede: vrednotenje pragmatične kompetence, kulturne norme, učenci angleščine, primernost, obnašanje rojenega govorca.
Marija Spajic
Alliance française de Zagreb
UDK 811.133.1'243(497.5):37.016(4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.129-152
Yvonne Vrhovac
Université de Zagreb*
CADRE EUROPÉEN COMMUN DE RÉFÉRENCE POUR LES LANGUES: ANALYSE DES COMPÉTENCES DE « PRODUCTION ÉCRITE » DU NIVEAU C1 DANS LE CONTEXTE SCOLAIRE CROATE
1 INTRODUCTION
Paru en 2001, le Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues (CECRL) a marqué un grand renouveau pour l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues. En partant de la perspective que la connaissance d'une langue n'est pas un tout indissociable mais qu'on peut la concevoir comme un ensemble structuré de différentes compétences dont les niveaux de maîtrise varient chez un même utilisateur de la langue, les auteurs du CECRL ont élaboré l'échelle de maîtrise des compétences, articulée en six niveaux (de A1 à C2). C'est précisément pour cette échelle commune, qui se veut indépendante des langues considérées, que le CECRL est le plus connu et le plus sollicité.
Cependant, les auteurs du CECRL soulignent l'importance de la sensibilisation à la notion de la culture et de l'interculturel :
La connaissance, la conscience et la compréhension des relations, (ressemblances et différences distinctives) entre « le monde d'où l'on vient » et « le monde de la communauté cible » sont à l'origine d'une prise de conscience interculturelle (CECRL 2001 : 83).
En effet, dans la pratique de l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues il faut tenir compte du contexte social et culturel de l'apprenant, ainsi que de relations diverses entre son pays et le pays dont il apprend la langue, y compris les relations entre leurs cultures scolaires respectives. Selon nous, celles-ci entrent surtout en jeu quand il s'agit des compétences de production écrite.
Dans les descripteurs concernant la production écrite de l'échelle globale des niveaux communs de compétences, l'utilisateur de la langue du niveau C1 est censé avoir les compétences lui permettant de répondre au profil suivant :
Adresses des auteurs : Francuska alijansa Zagreb, Ulica Ante Kovačica 4, 10000 Zagreb, Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Ivana Lučica 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatie. Courriels : marija.spajic@yahoo.com, yvonne.vrhovac@zg.t-com.hr.
*
Je peux m'exprimer dans un texte clair et bien structuré et développer mon point de vue. Je peux écrire sur des sujets complexes dans une lettre, un essai ou un rapport en soulignant les points que je juge importants. Je peux adopter un style adapté au destinataire (CECRL 2001 : 27).
Il est évident que les compétences nécessaires pour atteindre ce niveau sous-en-tendent un savoir-faire scriptural et une compétence pragmatique assez développés.
Bouchard souligne que
Si le savoir-faire communicatif oral correspond à la culture linguistique de l'individu, en revanche, son expérience de l'écrit trouve son origine dans sa culture scolaire (Bouchard 2005 : 245).
L'activité langagière de production écrite est donc susceptible de donner à repérer les manifestations de cette culture.
Pour ce qui est de l'expérience de l'écrit des apprenants issus du contexte scolaire croate traditionnel, elle est, pour ainsi dire, plutôt pauvre. À la différence du système scolaire français par exemple, où l'enseignement/apprentissage s'appuie largement sur l'explication des textes écrits et où les élèves sont constamment incités à s'exprimer à l'écrit (et également dans le cadre de disciplines non linguistiques), les pratiques scolaires croates se focalisent de préférence sur l'oral. En conséquence, les apprenants croates ne sont pas en mesure de développer, lors de leur scolarisation officielle, des aptitudes cognitives et des compétences discursives nécessaires pour répondre aux exigences des descripteurs de la production écrite pour les niveaux C1 et C2, voire même de ceux du niveau B2. Certes, l'introduction du baccalauréat national en 2010 a dû donner lieu à certains changements puisque, dans le cadre de l'épreuve écrite en langue maternelle, les candidats sont obligés de rédiger une dissertation. Malgré cela, étant donné que le niveau C1 en langue étrangère est rarement atteint à l'issue du lycée, on peut se douter que la plupart des apprenants croates actuels de ce niveau se heurtent à des difficultés dues à leur culture scolaire.
L'objectif de cet article est de reconsidérer les descripteurs de production écrite du niveau C1 dans le contexte scolaire croate. Dans ce but, nous avons conçu la présente recherche en partant de l'hypothèse qu'il faut mettre en question le savoir-faire scriptural et les compétences pragmatiques des apprenants croates quand on leur demande d'atteindre le niveau C1 en production écrite.
Après la présentation de la méthodologie dont nous nous sommes servis pour vérifier notre hypothèse, nous exposerons les résultats obtenus, afin de pouvoir, en conclusion, fournir des pistes de réflexion qui pourraient donner lieu, nous l'espérons, à d'autres recherches sur ce sujet.
2 RECHERCHE
2.1	Méthodologie et sujets
Pour entreprendre notre recherche, nous avons eu recours à :
•	un questionnaire, auquel ont répondu 28 apprenants âgés de 22 à 50 ans. Ils sont 21 à fréquenter un cours de français à l'Alliance française de Zagreb et à l'école des langues étrangères de la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb, et 7 à faire des études de langue et littérature françaises à la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb.
•	deux interviews : l'une avec une enseignante de français à l'Alliance française de Zagreb et l'autre avec une lectrice française enseignant aux étudiants de français croates à la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb.
2.2	Résultats et discussion 2.2.1 Questionn aire
Tous les apprenants ont rempli le même questionnaire1 contenant 17 questions. Dix questions leur proposaient de répondre selon une échelle de 5 degrés (pas du tout, plutôt non, plutôt oui, partiellement, entièrement). À 2 questions il fallait répondre par oui ou par non, 1 question leur proposait d'évaluer l'importance de 4 composantes de la production écrite et 1 question leur demandait d'évaluer leur niveau en compréhension et productions orales et écrites. Finalement, 3 questions donnaient lieu à une réponse libre.
Par la suite nous exposerons et examinerons les résultats qui nous paraissent les plus pertinents2.
1. À quel point connaissez-vous le CECRL et les six niveaux qu'il propose?
1 0
■ Pas du tout (1)
□	Plutôt non (0)
□	Partiellement (5)
□	Plutôt oui (17)
□	Entièrement (5)
17
Graphique 1 - Question 1
1	Voir le questionnaire en annexe.
2	Voir l'annexe pour les graphiques avec les résultats à toutes les questions.
Avec cette première question nous voulions voir à quel point les apprenants étaient familiarisés avec le CECRL et son échelle de maîtrise des compétences. Le graphique nous montre que tous les apprenants connaissent le CECRL, la plupart à un haut degré, ce qui était attendu, vu le profil des apprenants.
Graphique 4 - Question 4
Les apprenants répondaient à la question 4 après avoir lu le descripteur concernant la production écrite de l'échelle globale des niveaux communs de compétences (CECRL 2001 : 27). Nous voulions les amener ainsi à entrer dans la problématique de notre recherche. Le graphique nous montre des résultats partagés, une faible majorité des apprenants ayant répondu par plutôt oui, 13 par partiellement et 1 par entièrement. Seul 1 apprenant ayant répondu par entièrement, les résultats reflètent l'attitude prépondérante des apprenants, selon laquelle ils ne pensent pas posséder les compétences exigées par le descripteur. En outre, ces résultats semblent être quelque peu divergents de ceux de la question 5 (ci-dessous), mais c'est peut-être dû à la façon dont les questions sont formulées, ainsi qu'aux différents savoir-être des apprenants.
Graphique 5 - Question 5
Les résultats de la question 5 confirment nos prévisions : la majorité des apprenants rencontrent des difficultés à attein dre les compétences du descripteur en question.
La question 6 étant ouverte (Si oui, lesquelles ?), les apprenants y répondaient librement. Sept apprenants n'ont rien répondu, ayant choisi non comme réponse à la question précédente. Un apprenant, qui a également répondu négativement à la question 5, a pourtant précisé qu'il ne pensait pas pouvoir assez bien écrire sur des sujets complexes. Cinq apprenants ont répondu que c'étaient la synthèse et l'essai qui leur posaient des difficultés. En effet, l'épreuve de production écrite du DALF au niveau C1 comporte la rédaction d'une synthèse et d'un essai. Quatre apprenants ont cité le vocabulaire, 3 le style adapté au destinataire, 3 la grammaire, 1 « la construction d'un texte clair et bien structuré », et 1 la « communication formelle et informelle ». Trois apprenants ont cité également les difficultés qu'ils rencontrent à exprimer et souligner leurs points de vue de manière claire et simple. Finalement, 1 apprenant a affirmé que les difficultés qu'il rencontre n'ont rien à voir avec la langue, mais avec le sujet, s'il ne le trouve pas intéressant. On pourrait en conclure que la majorité des difficultés citées relèvent du domaine des compétences pragmatiques et sociolinguistiques.
Graphique 6 - Question 7
Graphique 7 - Question 8
Avec les questions 7 et 8, nous voulions vérifier si les difficultés rencontrées étaient liées uniquement à la situation de production écrite en langue étrangère, ou si elles étaient plutôt générales. Les graphiques nous montrent que les réponses à ces deux questions sont quelque peu contradictoires, ce qui est peut-être dû à l'ambiguïté de la question 7, ce dont nous n'avions pas conscience (les apprenants ont pu la comprendre de deux façons suivantes : Ces difficultés les-rencontrez-vous uniquement en situation de production écrite en langue étrangère, ou aussi en situation de production orale, par exemple ? ou : Ces difficultés les rencontrez-vous uniquement en situation de production écrite en langue étrangère, ou aussi en situation de production écrite en général ?). Par ailleurs, le nombre assez élevé d'apprenants qui ont répondu négativement à la question 8 (8 pas du tout et 12 plutôt non) semble contester notre hypothèse. Néanmoins, cette attitude provient peut-être du contexte scolaire dont les apprenants sont issus et où, puisqu'ils se sont rarement trouvés en situation de production écrite comparable à celle de l'épreuve écrite dans le cadre de l'examen de DALF par exemple (rédiger une synthèse ou un essai en suivant des règles bien précises), ils n'ont pas pris conscience de ces difficultés. Par conséquent, en se heurtant à ces difficultés de manière consciente pour la première fois dans le cadre de leur cours de langue étrangère, on peut supposer que c'est pour cela qu'ils ne les relient qu'à ce contexte.
La question 9 (ci-dessous) a également donné lieu à un malentendu imprévu, car 10 apprenants ont évalué l'importance des composantes proposées de manière absolue, tandis que nous nous attendions à une évaluation d'importance où il fallait attribuer les numéros de 1 à 4 à chaque composante proposée, 1 étant le moins important et 4 le plus important. Les réponses des 18 apprenants qui ont procédé comme prévu ont donné le résultat suivant :
COMPOSANTE	Cohérence et				Correction				Orthographe				Richesse du			
	cohésion du				gramma			-					vocabulaire			
		texte				ticale										
Le numéro à attribuer	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4
Le nombre d'apprenants	6	2	1	9	3	5	8	2	8	3	3	4	1	8	6	3
ayant choisi le nombre																
concerne																
Tableau 1 - Question 9 (En situation de production écrite, lesquelles de ces composantes trouvez-vous plus importantes ? Numérotez du plus important au moins important, 1 étant le moins important et 4 le plus important.)
Tandis que le plus grand nombre des apprenants (9) attribue le plus d'importance à la composante discursive (cohérence et cohésion du texte), ils sont quand même assez nombreux à y attribuer le moins d'importance (6). En outre, 8 apprenants placent la correction grammaticale au deuxième rang d'importance, contre 6 qui y placent la richesse du vocabulaire, ce qui semble refléter l'insistance traditionnelle sur la faute morphosyntaxique.
Graphique 8 - Question 10
Ce graphique nous démontre qu'une large majorité pense savoir ce qu'est un texte clair et bien structuré, ce qui semble contester notre hypothèse. Toutefois, il sera intéressant de le réconsidérer plus bas, par rapport aux résultats de la question 13.
Graphique 9 - Question 11
En revanche, les résultats de la question 11 ne nous surprennent pas, seuls 5 apprenants affirmant qu'ils ont le sentiment d'avoir suffisamment développé leurs compétences en production écrite.
12. Avez-vous jamais eu des consignes claires comment bien structurer un texte?
■ OUI (24) □ NON (3)
24
Graphique 10 - Question 12
Quant aux résultats de la question 12, il est intéressant de les envisager par rapport aux réponses de la question 13 (Si oui, dans le cadre de quel(le) matière/cours/autre ?) : seuls 2 apprenants ont cité les cours au lycée, 2 le cours d'allemand, et un autre, âgé de 47 ans, cite la matière « La culture de parler, lire et écrire ». Deux apprenants citent les cours de croate, mais ne précisent pas si c'était au lycée. Deux apprenants citent les cours d'anglais et 1 apprenant un stage de préparation de la documentation pour les affaires européennes (en français). Trois apprenants (étudiants de français à la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb) citent les cours avec les locuteurs natifs enseignants de FLE, engagés à la Faculté, et 3 (aussi étudiants de français à la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb) les cours de langue française. Sept apprenants citent les cours à la faculté, 2 précisant qu'il s'agissait des études en journalisme. Finalement, 14 apprenants ont cité le cours de français comme le contexte où ils ont eu des consignes claires pour bien structurer un texte.
Ces résultats mettent en perspective ceux de la question 10 : si la majorité des apprenants pensent avoir une bonne idée de ce qu'est un texte clair et bien structuré, ce n'est pourtant qu'une minorité qui l'a acquise dans le cadre de leur scolarisation au niveau des cycles du primaire et du secondaire.
Vu les résultats du questionnaire, on pourrait en tirer les conclusions suivantes : la majorité des apprenants interrogés, bien qu'affirmant que certaines compétences du descripteur de production écrite leur posent des difficultés, pensent savoir ce qu'est un texte clair et bien structuré. Toutefois, comme dans la majorité des cas ils n'ont pas eu de consignes claires pour bien structurer un texte dans le cadre de leur scolarité (primaire et secondaire), ils sont obligés d'y remédier ailleurs et/ou ultérieurement, notamment dans le cadre du cours de langue étrangère. Autrement dit, s'il veut atteindre le niveau C1 en production écrite en langue étrangère, un apprenant croate est susceptible de devoir consacrer plus de temps et d'énergie qu'un apprenant provenant d'une culture scolaire plus focalisée sur l'écrit. Cela nous amène à supposer que l'enseignant de langue étrangère joue un rôle très important dans le développement des compétences scripturales des apprenants croates.
2.2.2. Interviews
2.2.2.1 Interview avec Sonja Granic Stevic, enseignante à L'Alliance française de Zagreb
Nous avons fait notre première interview avec Sonja Granic Stevic, enseignante à L'Alliance française de Zagreb disposant d'une grande expérience, qui enseigne le français aux fonctionnaires croates (âgés de 30 à 55 ans) et les motive systématiquement à passer les examens de DELF/DALF. En voici les parties les plus intéressantes :
Quelle est votre expérience générale quand il s'agit de préparer les apprenants pour l'épreuve de production écrite dans le cadre de l'examen de DALF ?
Sans préparations pour les examens de DELF/DALF, il serait pratiquement impossible pour les candidats de réussir la production écrite. Il y avait des candidats qui se sont présentés à l'examen et y ont renoncé parce qu'ils ne savaient pas ce qui les attendait. Le professeur joue un rôle très important.
Issue du contexte scolaire croate, cette génération des apprenants ne connaît pas du tout les éléments se rapportant à la pragmalinguistique ou la sociolinguistique - pour eux les seules choses qui comptent sont la grammaire et le lexique. Ils ne savent pas comment utiliser la langue par rapport au destinataire, personne ne leur a appris la forme, ils n'ont pas du tout développé les compétences nécessaires pour rédiger une synthèse, par exemple. Quand ils rédigent un texte, ils ne se servent que de leur intuition. Ils l'apprennent uniquement dans le cadre de leur cours de français à l'Alliance.
Mon expérience avec les apprenants est presque toujours progressive, je travaille avec eux du niveau A1 au niveau C1/C2. Ceux qui commencent à apprendre le français à l'Alliance française n'ont pas de problèmes, mais ceux qui nous joignent plus tard, au niveau B2 par exemple, et qui n'ont pas de problème quant à leurs compétences linguistiques, ont du mal car ils ne maîtrisent pas bien le métalangage dont je me sers en enseignant.
Quel matériel utilisez-vous en classe ?
Depuis le niveau B1, les fonctionnaires travaillent sur des textes techniques authentiques, grâce à quoi ils développent les compétences linguistiques qui leur permettent d ' »alléger le texte » - nominalisation, passif, gérondif, participes présent et passé, car ces textes abondent en ces contenus grammaticaux. En outre on étudie les discours de personnages publics (François Hollande, Zoran Milanovic, Tony Blair...), pas seulement en français, mais aussi en anglais et en croate. On les compare. Il faut dire aussi que l'approche communicative, dont je suis adepte, est une approche ingrate par rapport au public avec lequel on travaille, car il sont habitués à la façon, pour ainsi dire, traditionnelle d'apprendre une langue : sans éléments pragmalinguistiques, sans prise de conscience de ce qu'on dit et de ce dont on a besoin pour dire quelque chose. Par ailleurs, la faute les paralyse, il est très difficile de dédramatiser la faute morphosyntaxique ou orthographique, de comprendre que la langue sert à communiquer, que le message doit passer et que c'est ça qui compte.
Comment procédez-vous, concrètement, quand vous travaillez sur la production écrite ?
Au début les apprenants sont complètement perdus. On commence avec les conjonctions, on fait des exercices classiques. Pour ce qui est des articulateurs logiques, j'essaye de les « personnaliser » : je les incite à trouver ceux qui conviennent le mieux à leur manière de raisonner3. Puis on travaille sur des textes afin de s'approprier le vocabulaire nécessaire. Avant de se mettre à rédiger un essai ou une synthèse, on lit, on explique et on commente l'introduction à la production écrite et les exemples de ce genre de textes du manuel Réussir le Dalf4. Finalement on s'essaie à rédiger un texte ensemble : j'écris au tableau la consigne, les mots clés et la structure. Ils se battent pour la parole, se corrigent mutuellement. Ou bien ils rédigent un texte comme devoir chez eux. Je corrige les copies, j'en choisis le plus souvent une moyennement réussie et on l'analyse ensemble.
Combien de temps mettez-vous à les préparer, pour qu'ils soient capables de bien rédiger un essai ou une synthèse ?
Nous avons travaillé tout le semestre (environ 70 heures) sur la synthèse. Sur l'essai - non, parce qu'ils l'ont très bien maîtrisé au niveau B2.
D'après votre expérience, les apprenants croates développent peu leur compétence discursive dans le cadre de leur scolarisation et ils sont, en conséquence, obligés d'y remédier dans le cadre du cours de français, s'ils veulent réussir à l'examen de Dalf, par exemple - trouvez-vous que c'est quelque chose de positif ou de négatif?
Je trouve que c'est quelque chose d'absolument positif - d'abord pour moi-même : ce travail m'a révélé de nouveaux horizons, j'ai beaucoup appris, et c'est extrêmement motivant pour notre système scolaire. On devrait s'inspirer du modèle français.
Quelles sont les réactions des apprenants ?
Leurs réactions sont très positives, ils m'ont dit qu'ils m'en étaient reconnaissants et que cela les aide dans leurs études à la faculté ou dans le cadre de leur travail.
2.2.2.2 Interview avec Magali Ruet, lectrice de français au Département des langues romanes de la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb
Notre deuxième interlocutrice était Magali Ruet, depuis trois ans lectrice de français au Département des langues romanes de la Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Zagreb. Elle enseigne la méthodologie de la lecture et de l'écriture en première et en quatrième année d'études de français. Voici les parties les plus intéressantes de l'interview :
3	Il est intéressant d'observer que l'enseignante, en « personnalisant » les articulateurs logiques, essaye de mobiliser le savoir-être de ses apprenants.
4	Réussir le Dalf, niveaux C1 et C2 du Cadre européen commun de référence (2007). Paris: Didier.
Quelle est votre expérience générale avec le travail sur la production écrite avec les étudiants croates ?
J'ai beaucoup réfléchi par rapport à ça. Depuis l'année dernière je fais les cours de méthodologie de la lecture et de l'écriture en première année et en quatrième année avec les étudiants qui se destinent à l'enseignement. J'essaye de travailler sur la structure des textes, en particulier sur l'argumentation. Mon expérience personnelle est que, justement, je me suis moi-même sentie vraiment presque « formatée » à écrire ces textes très structurés quand j'étais au lycée - il fallait absolument faire : introduction, grandi, grand 2, grand 35, conclusion. Quand je suis arrivée ici je me suis rendu compte que les étudiants, au contraire, n'étaient pas du tout formatés pour écrire ce type de textes.
Ce « formatage », c'était pour vous quelque chose de positif ou de négatif?
À l'époque, j'avais une vision plutôt négative, mais aujourd'hui j'ai changé d'avis par rapport à ça parce que je pense que ça m'a permis quand même d'avoir un schéma de raisonnement que je trouve utile, mais je reste un peu négative parce que je pense que c'est un peu trop carré pour les lycéens français. On n'a pas du tout le droit de sortir de ce cadre, et c'est dommage.
Pour en revenir aux étudiants croates, ils savent écrire, ce n'est pas un problème linguistique d'après moi, mais plus un problème d'organisation et de structuration de texte. Je ne sais pas où ils commencent et où ils terminent, il n'y a pas de parties bien définies, c'est très difficile de voir vraiment la structure, et c'est pour ça que je pense que c'est bien de leur enseigner la méthodologie de l'écriture : je me suis dit que je pourrais mettre à profit ce « formatage » que j'ai eu, transmettre aux étudiants ce que j'ai appris.
Quelles sont les réactions des étudiants ? Comment procédez-vous, concrètement, quand vous travaillez sur la production écrite ?
Leurs réactions - souvent ils aiment vraiment bien. On commence par le niveau linguistique, les connecteurs, et après on passe à des textes, puis à des sujets très simples, pour ne travailler que la structure. Ils ont l'air d'apprécier, ça les aide à organiser... Ils sont aussi un peu agacés parfois ! Introduction, développement, conclusion, ça va, mais quand au sein du développement je leur demande d'avoir vraiment une idée essentielle appuyée par un exemple précis, une idée secondaire, etc, j'ai l'impression qu'ils me trouvent trop rigide.
Ma méthodologie pour leur enseigner l'argumentation, c'est que je leur donne un sujet, leur demande de me donner toutes les idées qu'ils ont par rapport à ce sujet que je note au tableau, après je les regroupe en parties qui vont ensemble - parfois ils ont du mal à regrouper les idées.
Est-ce qu'en fin du cours ils ont du succès ?
Ils arrivent bien à écrire. Le développement, c'est encore à voir parfois, mais introduction et conclusion ça va très bien. Nous travaillons plutôt en classe commune, pas à partir des devoirs corrigés. Je ne me focalise pas vraiment sur la langue. Parfois ils doivent
5 C'est à dire, idée essentielle 1, idée essentielle 2, idée essentielle 3.
seulement écrire le schéma de leur argumentation, leurs idées bien organisées (sans les rédiger). Je pense que la rédaction ne pose pas de problème, contrairement à la structure.
J'ai toujours pensé que la méthodologie n'était pas ce que je choisirais, mais maintenant je la trouve vraiment intéressante à enseigner.
En quatrième année, on travaille aussi sur la structure du mémoire de diplôme - ils trouvent ça vraiment utile, ils ont des problèmes par rapport à ça. Je pense que ça les aide à organiser leur écrit, mais pour organiser son écrit il faut organiser sa pensée, et pour ça il faut organiser son travail. Pour moi aussi, c'était utile de l'apprendre quand j'ai commencé mes études.
Est-ce que vous avez remarqué des différences chez les étudiants en première année ?
Oui, avec l'introduction du baccalauréat national j'ai déjà eu l'impression de voir une différence avec les étudiants de première année, ils savent qu'il faut faire introduction, développement, conclusion.... Ce n'est pas la même réception des cours.
En analysant les interviews, on observe que les témoignages des deux enseignantes coïncident sur plusieurs points : en premier lieu, les deux affirment que les compétences pragmatiques (discursives) des apprenants ne sont pas développées et que, par conséquant, c'est sur ces compétences-ci qu'il faut se focaliser, plutôt que sur les compétences linguistiques. Ensuite, pour travailler ces compétences, les deux procèdent de manière comparable (travail en classe commune). Finalement, les deux considèrent leurs expériences comme positives.
Toutefois, le fait que les enseignantes interviewées proviennent de cultures scolaires différentes entraîne des divergences concernant leurs expériences respectives : l'enseignante française, « formatée » à écrire des textes structurés, cherche à transmettre son savoir-faire scriptural à des étudiants dont la culture scolaire est bien différente de la sienne. Au contraire, l'enseignante croate, issue du contexte scolaire croate, a dû d'abord s'approprier elle-même les compétences discursives lui permettant de travailler, par la suite, sur celles de ses apprenants.
Pour en savoir plus sur les changements observés par l'enseignante française, dûs peut-être à l'introduction du baccalauréat national, nous nous sommes adressés à deux enseignantes de croate au lycée. On apprend de leurs témoignages qu'en effet, ces dernières années, on se focalise plus sur la production écrite afin de préparer les élèves à l'épreuve écrite en langue maternelle de l'examen du baccalauréat. Cependant, les deux enseignantes ne pensent pas que cela ait apporté de changements profonds et trouvent la structure exigée trop rigide, ne faisant pas la part belle à la créativité. Quant aux raisons pour lesquelles, dans le contexte scolaire croate traditionnel, on néglige la production écrite, les enseignantes évoquent le programme traditionnel, surchargé d'après elles d'histoire de la littérature et de contenus grammaticaux, et réservant, en conséquence, trop peu, et de loin, de temps au développement des compétences discursives (scripturales) des élèves. Il en résulte que l'affirmation suivante : « Une grande partie de l'enseignement de la langue maternelle est consacrée à l'acquisition des capacités discursives » (CECRL 2001 : 96), ne s'applique pas bien au contexte croate.
Toutefois, on apprend également qu'un programme expérimental d'enseignement de croate est mis en oeuvre depuis l'année scolaire 2013/2014 dans environ 60 lycées croates. Ce dernier se veut plus fonctionnel, mettant beaucoup plus l'accent sur, entre autres, les compétences pragmatiques et scripturales des élèves. De ce fait, on pourrait peut-être s'attendre à des changements plus profonds de la culture scolaire croate dans le futur.
3 CONCLUSION
Les auteurs du CECRL soulignent le point suivant :
Afin de mener à bien les tâches et activités exigées pour traiter les situations com-municatives dans lesquelles ils se trouvent, les utilisateurs et les apprenants utilisent un certain nombre de compétences acquises au cours de leur expérience antérieure (CECRL 2001 : 82).
En outre, parmi les stratégies de production, qui « supposent la mobilisation des ressources et la recherche de l'équilibre entre des compétences différentes - en exploitant les points forts et en minimisant les points faibles - afin d'assortir le potentiel disponible à la nature de la tâche » (CECRL 2001 : 53), ils classent la construction sur un savoir antérieur. Par notre recherche, nous avons voulu voir à quel point les apprenants croates sont en mesure de puiser dans leur savoir antérieur quand il s'agit de l'activité langagière de production écrite au niveau C16, surtout par rapport au savoir-faire scriptural et aux compétences pragmatiques.
Les résultats du questionnaire montrent que la majorité des apprenants interrogés n'ont pas acquis pendant leur parcours scolaire un savoir-faire qui semble être présupposé dans les descripteurs du CECRL. Faute de ce savoir-faire requis, ils sont obligés de développer leurs compétences pragmatiques (scripturales) dans un autre contexte, le plus souvent dans le cadre du cours de langue étrangère. En conséquence, le rôle de l'enseignant de langue étrangère s'avère fondamental, ce que prouvent les témoignages des enseignantes interviewées.
L'introduction récente de l'examen du baccalauréat national ne semble pas, pour le moment, avoir apporté de profonds changements dans les compétences scripturales des apprenants croates. Cela n'est pas étonnant, vu que le développement de celles-ci est susceptible d'exiger des années d'un travail systématique, ainsi que des efforts faits à travers la formation continue des enseignants et des recherches scientifiques. Tout de même, les témoignages des enseignantes de croate donnent à voir que, avec
6 En effet, Beacco estime « que les effets de la méconnaissance des conventions textuelles sont d'autant plus forts que la compétence langagière est élevée : à des niveaux comme B2, les productions verbales des apprenants/utilisateurs étant comparables à celles d'un "natif", par certains de leurs aspects, leur discours est comme naturalisé et son acceptabilité est susceptible d'être évaluée selon les normes des locuteurs "natifs" et non plus comme étant celui d'un allophone » (Beacco 2007 : 215). De même, les auteurs du CECRL précisent que : « Aux niveaux supérieurs, le développement de la compétence discursive dont les composantes sont inventoriées dans cette section devient de plus en plus important » (CECRL 2001 : 96).
le programme expérimental de l'enseignement de croate, la situation a déjà commencé
à progresser dans ce sens. En conclusion, nous espérons que la présente recherche y
contribuera un tant soit peu et donnera lieu à d'autres recherches sur ce sujet.
Bibliographie
BEACCO, Jean-Claude (2007) L'approche par compétences dans l'enseignement des langues. Paris : Didier.
BEACCO, Jean-Claude/Jean-Louis CHISS/Francine CICUREL/Daniel VÉRONIQUE (eds) (2005) Les cultures éducatives et linguistiques dans l'enseignement des langues. Paris : Presses Universitaires de France.
BESSE, Henri (2011) « Six remarques autour et au-delà de la contextualisation du CECR. » Le français dans le monde. Recherches et applications 50, 150-163.
BOUCHARD, Robert (2005) « Cultures 'linguistiques-scolaires' et production écrite en français d'étudiants étrangers. » In : J.-C. Beacco/J-L. Chiss/F. Cicurel/D. Véronique (eds), 245-267.
Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, évaluer (2001). Paris : Editions Didier.
GOULLIER, Francis (2011) « L'utilisation du CECR pour les langues : une tension entre la réponse aux besoins de chaque contexte spécifique et la promotion de valeurs communes. » Le français dans le monde. Recherches et applications 50, 19-27.
GOULLIER, Francis (2005) Les outils du Conseil de L'Europe en classe de langue. Cadre européen commun et Portfolios. Paris : Didier.
HAYDÉE, Silva (2011) « De l'illusion d'univocité à la revendication de la polyphonie : pour des lectures plurielles du Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues. » Synergies Europe 6, 27-39.
VRHOVAC, Yvonne (2009) « Quelques réflexions sur la réception du CECR en Croatie ». Conférence au colloque La contextualisation de l'enseignement des langues étrangères : le Cadre + le plurilinguisme et le pluriculturalisme + l'apprentissage autonome à l'aide des TIC et du portfolio. Kyoto.
VRHOVAC, Yvonne et coll. (eds) (2010) Introduire le Portfolio européen des langues dans des classes croates et françaises de langues étrangère. Expérience des enseignants et activités avec des apprenants de 8 à 14 ans. Zagreb : FF press.
VRHOVAC, Yvonne (ed.) (2012) Introduire le Portfolio européen des langues dans des classes croates et françaises de langues étrangères. De l'usage de la langue à la conscience linguistique. Zagreb : FF press.
Résumé
LANGUES: ANALYSE DES COMPÉTENCES DE « PRODUCTION ÉCRITE » DU NIVEAU C1 DANS LE CONTEXTE SCOLAIRE CROATE
L'article a comme objectif la présentation des résultats d'une recherche menée auprès des utilisateurs de FLE du niveau C1 se rapportant à des descripteurs de production écrite dans le contexte didactique croate. Nous sommes partis de l'hypothèse qu'il faut mettre en question le savoir-faire scriptural et les compétences pragmatiques des apprenants croates quand on leur demande d'atteindre le niveau décrit par les descripteurs de ce niveau. En évaluant les compétences des utilisateurs de langues étrangères selon les descripteurs proposés, nous estimons qu'il faut prendre en considération les différents contextes scolaires dans lesquels se développent les compétences des utilisateurs de différents pays. Pour vérifier notre hypothèse nous avons eu recours à un questionnaire structuré et une interview avec des enseignants. En conclusion nous avons présenté les résultats de notre recherche.
Mots clés : descripteurs, production écrite, niveau C1, compétences discursives, savoir-faire scriptural, culture scolaire.
Abstract
COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES IN CROATIA: AN ANALYSIS OF WRITING COMPETENCE AT LEVEL C1
The aim of the article is to present the results of a research conducted with advanced (C1 level) learners of French as a foreign language in Croatia, in which their writing competence was studied according to the CEFR descriptors. Our hypothesis was that reaching level C1 demanded that a considerable amount of effort be invested in the development of learners' writing and pragmatic skills. In the evaluation of these skills, characteristics of culture-specific learning contexts are to be taken into account. To test our hypothesis, we used a structured questionnaire and interviews with teachers. The results of our research are presented in the conclusion.
Keywords: descriptors, written production, C1 level, discourse skills, scriptural know-how, educational culture.
Povzetek
SKUPNI EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI OKVIR V HRVAŠKEM KONTEKSTU: ANALIZA ZMOŽNOSTI PISNEGA IZRAŽANJA NA RAVNI C1
Cilj prispevka je predstaviti rezultate raziskave, ki smo jo glede na opisnike za vrednotenje pisne zmožnosti izpeljali na vzorcu hrvaških študentov na ravni C1. Izhajali smo iz predpostavke, da bodo pri hrvaških študentih - če bomo želeli, da dosegajo raven C1 glede na opisnike - problem zastavljale zmožnost pisnega izražanja in pragmatične zmožnosti. Menimo, da je treba ob vrednotenju dosežkov učencev upoštevati različne kontekste, v katerih se zmožnosti razvijajo v posameznih državah. V zaključku prispevka predstavljamo rezultate izpeljane raziskave.
Ključne besede: opisniki, pisno izražanje, raven C1, diskurzivne zmožnosti, pravopisna zmožnost, kultura izobraževanja.
Annexe 1 QUESTIONNAIRE
		Pas du tout	Plutôt non	Partiellement	Plutôt oui	Entièrement
1	À quel point connaissez-vous le CECRL* et les six niveaux qu'il propose ?	1	2	3	4	5
2	Êtes vous au courant qu'un apprenant peut auto-évaluer (évaluer lui-même) ses compétences grâce aux descripteurs proposés dans le CECRL?	1	2	3	4	5
3	Savez-vous ce que c'est qu'un descripteur et qu'il en existe pour tous les niveaux (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) et pour toutes les quatre compétences (compréhension orale, production orale, compréhension écrite et production écrite) ?	1	2	3	4	5
Lisez le descripteur de production écrite du niveau C1 figurant dans la grille pour l'auto-évaluation du CECRL (p. 26) :
Je peux m'exprimer dans un texte clair et bien structuré et développer mon point de vue. Je peux écrire sur des sujets complexes dans une lettre, un essai ou un rapport, en soulignant les points que je juge importants. Je peux adopter un style adapté au destinataire.
Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues.
		Pas du tout	Plutôt non	Partiellement		Plutôt oui	Entièrement
4	Pensez-vous posséder les compétences de ce descripteur ?	1	2	3		4	5
5	Certaines compétences vous posent-elles des difficultés ?	OUI			NON		
6	Si oui, lesquelles ?						
		Pas du tout	Plutôt non	Partiellement		Plutôt oui	Entièrement
7	Ces difficultés les rencontrez-vous uniquement en situation de production écrite en langue étrangère ?	1	2	3		4	5
8	Ces difficultés persistentelles même en situation de production écrite en langue maternelle ?	1	2	3		4	5
		Cohérence et cohésion du texte	Correction grammaticale	Orthographe	Richesse du vocabulaire
9	En situation de production écrite, lesquelles de ces composantes trouvez-vous plus importantes ? Numérotez du plus important au moins important, 1 étant le moins important et 4 le plus important.				
		Pas du tout	Plutôt non	Partiellement		Plutôt oui	Entièrement
10	Avez-vous une idée claire de ce que c'est qu'un texte clair et bien structuré ?	1	2	3		4	5
11	Pendant votre parcours scolaire, avez-vous eu le sentiment d'avoir suffisamment développé vos compétences en production écrite ?	1	2	3		4	5
12	Avez-vous jamais eu des consignes claires comment bien structurer un texte ?	OUI			NON		
13	Si oui, dans le cadre de quel(le) matière/cours/ autre ?						
		Pas du tout	Plutôt non	Partiellement		Plutôt oui	Entièrement
14	Connaisssez-vous toutes les parties que doit contenir une lettre, un essai ou un rapport ?	1	2	3		4	5
15	Rencontrez-vous des difficultés en adoptant un style adapté au destinataire ?	1	2	3		4	5
		Compréhension orale	Production orale	Compréhension écrite	Production écrite
16	Pensez-vous avoir atteint le niveau C1 dans toutes les compétences ? Évaluez (Auto-évaluez) votre niveau en écrivant A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 ou C2 dans la case correspondante.				
17	Si vous pensez ne pas encore avoir atteint le niveau C1 en production écrite, souhaitez-vous l'atteindre ? Pourquoi le souhaitez-vous ? Comment pensez-vous le faire et jusqu'à quand ?				
Âge :
Sexe : F / M
Formation : Collège Lycée BAC+2 Licence Master ou doctorat
Annexe 2
4. Pensez-vous posséder les compétences de ce descripteur? 1 0 0
13
14
■ Pas du tout (0)
□	Plutôt non (0)
□	Partiellement (13)
□	Plutôt oui (14)
□	Entièrement (1)
15. Rencontrez-vous des difficultés en adoptant un stylo adapté au destinatire?
01
ï
12
■ Pas du tout (1)
□	Plutôt non (12)
□	Partiellement (10)
□	Plutôt oui (5)
□	Entièrement (0)
Mateja Dagarin Fojkar
University of Ljubljana*
UDK 811.111'243(075.2):81'35 DOI:10.4312/lmguistica.54.L153-166
LITERACY DEVELOPMENT IN COURSE BOOKS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH IN THE SECOND CYCLE OF SLOVENIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL
1 INTRODUCTION
Literacy is a fundamental human right, and the foundation for lifelong learning (Unesco 2014). Its development generally starts early on, in the family, and continues throughout one's life, with its peak arriving in the early years of primary school. However, as Baker (2001) notes, exactly what constitutes literacy has been a topic of debate for several decades. Some definitions place an emphasis on reading, others on reading and writing, while still others include the socio-cultural, historical and political context of the learner (ibid.). In the present article, the main focus is on developing the reading skills of young learners of English.
In Slovenia, foreign language (FL) literacy development has not been dealt with in a sufficiently systematic and thorough way. This is reflected in the results of the Sur-veyLang final report, in which reading is the least-developed skill of Slovenian ninth graders, with 12% failing to achieve A1 level (European Commission 2012: 42).
The present article focuses first on defining literacy skills within the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR 2001), and on the development of literacy skills in English as the mother tongue (MT) and as an FL, as well as the challenge this poses to Slovenian learners. Since course books offer a hidden curriculum in FL teaching (Cunningsworth 1995), in the empirical part of the article, course books used for teaching English in the second cycle of Slovenian primary schools are analysed with regard to literacy development, particularly phonological, orthographic and orthoepic competences. In the conclusion, a more systematic approach is recommended in developing early literacy skills in English as a foreign language.
2 DEFINING LITERACY WITHIN THE CEFR
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) divides all of the competences of the language user into general competences (including declarative knowledge, skills and know-how, existential competence and the ability to learn) and communicative language competences, which are further divided into linguistic competences, sociolinguistic competences and pragmatic competences (CEFR 2001).
Author's address: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: mateja.dagarin@guest.arnes.si

Linguistic competences refer to the "knowledge of, and ability to, use the formal resources from which well-formed, meaningful messages may be assembled and formulated" (ibid: 109). The subcomponents of linguistic competence are lexical, grammatical, semantic, phonological, orthographic and orthoepic (ibid.). Literacy is an essential part of communicative language competences, but is more clearly evident in the following linguistic competences (ibid.):
a)	Phonological competence: knowledge of, and skill in, the perception and production of phonemes, the phonetic composition of words (syllables, the sequence of phonemes, word stress), sentence phonetics (e.g. sentence stress, rhythm) and phonetic reduction;
b)	Orthographic competence: knowledge of, and skill in, the perception and production of the symbols with which written texts are composed (e.g. spelling, punctuation);
c)	Orthoepic competence: the ability to produce correct pronunciation from the written form (e.g. reading aloud).
The following chapter presents the reading methods and approaches that contribute to the development of these three competences of language learners.
3 DEVELOPING LITERACY IN ENGLISH AS THE MOTHER TONGUE
AND AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
In recent years, there has been an increased focus on the teaching of literacy skills to children learning English as a foreign language. Reading is gradually being recognised as a valuable source of input and, lately, literacy has not been viewed simply as the development of reading and writing skills, but as a complex process that includes listening and oral skills, as well. This is especially important when developing literacy with young language learners, where the focus is, initially, on developing listening and speaking skills. Young learners need to be exposed to the language in large amounts, and they should be given plenty of opportunities to play with the language. Early child literacy also needs to include activities for phonological and phonemic awareness (Griffith and Olson 1992; Share 1999 among others). Phonological awareness is the ability to recognise that words are made up of a variety of sound units. It encompasses skills such as recognising and using rhyme, breaking words into syllables, blending phonemes into syllables and words, identifying the beginning and ending sounds, and so on. Phonemic awareness is an aspect of phonological awareness dealing with the smallest unit of sound, i. e., the phoneme. It includes skills, such as the ability to recognise different sounds, to segment words into sounds, and to isolate, blend and manipulate sounds.
Phonological awareness has a primary role in reading acquisition. In fact, Share (1999) states that the main problem of reading acquisition is phonological recording, the ability to independently generate pronunciations for novel orthographic strings. According to Share (ibid.), the orthographic lexicon develops with increasing reading experience and "self-teaching". Goswami and Bryant (1990) likewise claim that onset
and rime-level correspondences, in particular, are central to early reading development. Nijakowska (2010) summarises the findings of other experts dealing with teaching foreign languages to children with specific learning differences, stating that explicit phonological awareness training is necessary for children with dyslexia, who fail to sufficiently develop phonological awareness skills. In her research, Zrimsek (2003) also demonstrates the importance of phonemic awareness training in Slovenian as the mother tongue, as well as the influence of musical abilities on phonemic awareness, especially on aural discrimination. She suggests including activities for the development of phonemic awareness in preschool education, and in the first years of primary school education. Cunningham (1990), however, has established that merely focusing on phonemic awareness is not enough, and that tasks need to be meaningful, and to make sense to children, as well.
Children learning to read in their mother tongue are, more or less, fluent in speaking and understanding the language, and they can always depend on the oral language that they have acquired and build on that. The majority of the words they are learning to read are already present in their vocabularies. Children learning English as a FL, on the other hand, do not have the oral language to fall back on, and may be complete beginners in all four skills.
Another issue that causes problems for native speakers, and even more for FL learners, is the fact that English is a language with deep orthography (Skela, Sesek and Dagarin Fojkar 2009). English is an extreme example of a language in which morphological information is also coded in spelling, which creates inconsistency in graphemephoneme correspondences (Aro 2004). In English, the written script does not fully represent the phonemic structure of the spoken language. There are 26 letters in the alphabet and 44 phonemes, which can be written in as many as 2501 different combinations. Not only do graphemes have many different pronunciations, a given phoneme can be spelled with numerous different graphemes. Slovene, on the other hand, is a language of shallow orthography, where the grapheme-phoneme correspondences are regular and symmetrical, which makes the development of literacy skills much faster, compared to English orthography (Skela, Sesek and Dagarin Fojkar 2009).
Despite the differences in developing literacy in the mother tongue and a foreign language, there are some similarities, too. These need to be explored and exploited in teaching, in order to help children acquire the written form of the language. Lucas and Katz (1994) and Cummins (1991) state that there is a strong relationship between children's prior native language literacy, and their development of English literacy, and that we can simultaneously build on literacy skills in both the mother tongue and a foreign language. Children who can already read in their mother tongue can benefit from the application of transferable skills to FL reading.
Over the years, numerous approaches to teaching reading have appeared. They can be roughly divided into two main categories: part-centred (or bottom-up), and socio-psycholinguistic (also called meaning-emphasis or top-down) (Weaver 2002).
Socio-psycholinguistic approaches emphasise the construction of meaning from whole texts, and draw on children's schemata and personal experiences. One of the
most well-known top-down approaches is the Whole Language Approach. It is a method of teaching reading by recognising words as whole pieces of language. Proponents of the whole language philosophy believe that language should not be broken down into letters and combinations of letters, and decoded. Instead, they believe that language is a complete system of making meaning, with words functioning in relation to each other in context (Moats 2007). The opponents of this method claim that one cannot (visually) remember as many words by heart as are used in everyday communication, and that it is much easier to remember the rules, and then apply them when reading new words.
Some of the main part-centred approaches are the phonics approach and the sight word or look-say approach. The sight word or look-say approach teaches children to recognise whole words, often using flashcards or other techniques, to help them quickly identify words. It is based on the belief that, if children can recognise approximately one hundred of the most frequently occurring words, they will be able to read about half of the words they encounter in most texts (Ediger 2001). The main rationale behind the phonics approach (also sometimes referred to as the skills approach) is that children will be able to read independently, if they can match the letters of the alphabet to their specific pronunciations. Therefore, children are explicitly taught sound-symbol patterns. The phonics approach has proved to be especially effective in teaching dyslectic children, due to the fact that developing phonological awareness is one of the main principles of the approach (see above). The Phono-Graphix approach is a step ahead of the phonics approach, its main principle being that letters do not make sounds, but rather represent sounds. It stems from what children already know (sounds) and teaches them the letters made by these sounds (McGuinness and McGuinness 1998).
The main criticisms of part-centred approaches are that the English language is too unpredictable, and that these approaches include practicing with stilted, unnatural sentences, which are usually taken out of context and written only for the sake of practising certain sounds. Nevertheless, new materials have recently been developed that try to bridge this gap, by including stories and activities that appeal to children (e.g. Sounds and Letters 2011).
Despite this constant battle of approaches, Ehri (2003: 10) determined, in a national UK study, that "systematic phonics instruction produced superior performance in reading compared to all types of unsystematic or no phonics instruction", and, as is reported in a 2006 UK national report (Rose 2006), a recent Australian report (National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy 2005) came to much the same conclusion.
Brown (2007) summarises the recent research, claiming that a combination of top-down and bottom-up processing (also called interactive reading) is a primary ingredient in successful teaching methodology, as both processes are important. Nuttall (1996: 17) agrees, saying that "in practice, a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says". Weaver (2002) also calls this a "whole-to-part-to-whole" approach, which is engaging and rich with meaning, but focuses systematically on specific textual features, so that children can draw their own conclusions about language and apply them to their reading and writing. Furthermore,
different words will be read in different ways: some words will be decoded, while others will be sight-read, especially words that cannot be decoded (e.g., "the"). Hamayan (1994) points out that, because FL students represent a very diverse group of learners, they require a range of approaches. However, this is not usually the case in FL teaching. As Skela et al. (2009) observe, most teachers of English in Slovenia think that English orthography is too unpredictable to be taught systematically and, therefore, literacy in English as an FL is mostly developed through the Whole Language Approach, expecting learners to remember the spelling of countless words by heart.
Ultimately, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) in the U.S. identified five essential components of effective reading programmes: phonemic awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary development and reading comprehension. There is no doubt nowadays that a balanced-literacy approach is the best, including different methods/approaches for different reading purposes and immersing the child in the language with plenty of books, meaningful reading activities and the like. Ediger (2001) suggests some other strategies to facilitate foreign language literacy development: to expose students to the many uses of print around them, to provide opportunities for children to read more extensively, to provide authentic purposes for reading and writing, to provide scaffolding for learning, to use oral skills to support reading and writing development and, finally, to focus students' attention on reading and writing strategies.
4 THE STUDY
4.1 The Aim and Scope of the Study
As Skela (2009: 247) puts it, "probably nothing influences the content and nature of institutionalised teaching and learning more than the textbooks". Course books depict changes taking place in FL methodology, authors' views on language learning, learning in general and social context, which Cunningsworth (1995) calls the "hidden curriculum" in FL teaching. Course books often replace syllabi in teaching, or are used on par with them. Tomlinson (2012: 144) notes that "given how important language-learning materials are, it is surprising how little attention they have received, until recently, in the literature on applied linguistics".
The analysis in the present article is a content-orientated, in-depth evaluation (facilitated by a checklist of key indicators) of course books used for teaching English in the second cycle of Slovenian primary schools, with regard to literacy development. Five accredited course books for each grade in the second triad of Slovenian primary schools were selected and analysed (a total of 15 course books1).
Since the final consensus on reading approaches is that an eclectic approach is best for acquiring literacy skills, both in English as the mother tongue and as a FL (see previous section), and since it is generally assumed that developing English literacy skills in Slovenia is based on top-down approaches (with the Whole Language Approach pre-
1 The complete list of the analysed course books can be found at the end of the article.
vailing), the present article focuses on exploring the elements of bottom-up approaches in course books, including phonological awareness, and indirectly on the development of the competences defined in the CEFR as phonological, orthographic and orthoepic.
The study attempts to answer the following research questions (RQ):
RQ1. Does the course book explicitly demonstrate or illustrate sound-letter combinations and offer practice of such combinations?
RQ2. Does the course book include guided exercises to practise sounds, word or sentence stress, syllabication and intonation?
RQ3. Does the course book include rhymes (e.g., in rhyming songs/chants or poems)?
RQ4. Does the course book include sound games, texts or sentences with the same repeating sound, alliteration (e.g. tongue twisters), searching for words beginning/ending with the same sound/letter (e.g. I spy), and the like?
RQ5. Does the course book introduce the English alphabet?
In the following section, the data is presented for each course book and grade.
4.2 Data Analysis
	RQ1	RQ2	RQ3	RQ4	RQ5
Happy Street 1	X	X	V (4 rhyming chants/ songs)	X	X
My Sails 1 New	X	X	V (19 rhyming chants/ songs)	V ( a story with a repeating sound)	V
Hi there 4!	X	X	V (2 rhyming chants/ songs)	V (I spy game)	X
New Chatterbox 1	X	X	V (2 rhyming chants/ songs)	V (tongue twisters)	V
Reach for the Stars 4	X	X	V (9 rhyming chants/ songs)	V (I spy game)	V
Table 1: Analysed course books - 4th grade
The results of the analysed course books for the 4th grade show that none of the books include (explicit) demonstrations or exercises to practise awareness of soundletter combinations. Similarly, none of the course books include exercises to practise sounds, stress or syllabication. However, some elements of phonological awareness are developed implicitly, through chants and songs that include rhymes. It is interesting to note the difference in the number of such rhymes: some course books include as few as two, whereas one book has as many as nineteen. The course books that have fewer rhyming chants/songs usually do not have abundant songs/chants in general. Interestingly, the course books written by Slovene authors feature significantly more rhyming
songs/chants, compared to those written for the global market. As far as sound games are concerned, most accredited course books for the 4th grade include one or two such games, frequently an "I spy" game, which may cause problems for pupils because they need to look for the words with the initial alphabetic names, rather than the initial letter sounds of the word. Three out of five of the analysed course books mention the English alphabet, probably because the 4th grade is the first year of formal English instruction, and some pupils may not know those letters of the English alphabet that the Slovene alphabet does not have (Q, X, Y and W).
	RQ1	RQ2	RQ3	RQ4	RQ5
Happy Street 2	X	X	V (4 rhyming chants/songs)	V (I spy game)	V
My Sails 2	X	X	V (23 rhyming chants/songs)	V (words on a letter)	V
Hi there 5!	X	X	V (6 rhyming chants/songs)	X	V
New Chatterbox 2	X	X	V (8 rhyming chants/songs)	V (tongue twisters)	X
Reach for the Stars 5	X	X	V (16 rhyming chants/songs)	V ( a part of a story with a repeating sound)	X
Table 2: Analysed course books - 5th grade
The results of the analysed course books for the 5th grade are similar to the results of those for the 4th grade, in that none of the books include explicit demonstrations or exercises to practise sound-letter combinations or sounds, though they do include rhymes, which help pupils to remember some words with the same sounds. Again, the course books written by Slovene authors offer, by far, the greatest number of such chants and songs, even exceeding the quantity in the 4th grade, probably because more attention is devoted to the development of reading skills in the second year of learning. Some course books mention the English alphabet only in the second year of formal learning of English, which can be a little late, as pupils are required to use its letters from the 4th grade onwards.
	RQ1	RQ2	RQ3	RQ4	RQ5
Messages 1	X	V (reading words with the same sound, word stress, pronunciation of plural nouns, sentence stress, intonation, reading and matching words with the same vowels)	V (1 rhyming poem)	X	V
My Sails 3	X	V (finding rhyming pairs, reading/classifying words with the same/different sound)	V (12 rhyming chants/songs)	V ( a story with repeating sound)	V
Project 1	X	V (reading words with the same/different sound, matching sounds to words, classifying letters that make the same sound, writing correct sounds, finding rhyming pairs, word stress, sentence stress, intonation, syllabication)	V (7 rhyming chants/songs)	V (tongue twisters)	V (phonetic alphabet)
Touchstone 6	V	V (reading words with the same/different sound, pronunciation of plural nouns, classifying words with the same/ different sound, writing the missing letters, silent letters)	V (19 rhyming chants/songs)	X	V
Reach for the Stars 6	X	V (reading words with the same/different sound; classifying words with the same sound, matching the same vowels)	V (8 rhyming chants/songs)	X	V (vowels of the alphabet)
Table 3: Analysed course books - 6th grade
The analysis summarised in Table 3 reveals a different picture in the 6th grade. All of the course books encompass exercises for practising the different sounds of the English language, mostly in the form of listening to and reading words that have a certain sound, and matching or classifying words with the same sound. Almost all of the course books include exercises where pupils have to distinguish between two similar sounds (e.g., long vs. short vowels). Most of the course books have one such exercise per unit,
with one exception, Touchstone 6, which has at least two pages of such practice per unit. Touchstone 6 is also the only course book that illustrates sound-letter combinations (letters in a word that make a certain sound are written with a different colour). There are fewer rhyming songs in the course books for the 6th grade, compared to the first two grades of the second cycle, but those included are longer and linguistically more demanding. All of the course books include the alphabet, which represents revision for most pupils at this stage. One course book introduces the English phonetic alphabet, which can help learners with reading new words. This book does not, however, offer a systematic approach to learning about sound-letter combinations.
5	DISCUSSION
The analysis has shown that only one of the fifteen analysed course books for teaching English in the second cycle of primary school explicitly illustrates sound-letter combinations, although almost all of them implicitly include some elements of bottom-up approaches to reading, mostly in the form of rhyming songs/chants, the introduction of the alphabet and, only in the 6th grade, the limited use of exercises aimed at helping pupils develop orthographic reading skills.
Nevertheless, the mere presence of these implicit elements (e.g. rhyming songs and chants) in the course books does not mean that they are used efficiently, for the purpose of learning literacy. It depends on the teacher and his/her way of using them, to make pupils more aware of the matching sounds and spelling. Slovene teachers of English generally use songs, games or tongue twisters for practising listening/speaking skills, and not for developing reading skills, which could be done with a more explicit focus on the rhyming, or repeated sounds and their spelling.
Regarding the learning of the alphabet, which is included in the course books at all levels of learning English in the second cycle of primary schools, it needs to be stressed that learning the alphabet per se may actually interfere with children trying to learn the sound system, because letter names are not predictive of their sounds. The alphabet should be used only for introducing those English letters to the students that are not present in the Slovene alphabet, and to practise their writing.
The analysis indicates that the course books do not deal systematically with teaching reading and writing skills, and do not help pupils become more aware of soundletter combinations. Pupils are left to their own devices to decode the unpredictable and inconsistent grapheme-phoneme correlations, and some of them struggle with English reading and writing throughout their entire primary schooling.
6	CONCLUSION
Literacy in a FL should be developed gradually, with the incorporation of all four linguistic skills, and exposure to plenty of varied and motivating reading materials and challenging activities, most particularly with the inclusion of both top-down and bottom-up reading approaches.
The analysis of the accredited course books for teaching English in the second cycle of primary school has shown that some exercises are included to practise the different sounds of the language, particularly through singing rhyming songs and, in the 6th grade, listening to and reading words with the same sounds, but there is no systematic explanation of which sounds are represented by which letters. Teachers can, of course, include such sound-letter awareness activities in their lessons, especially with the sounds that pupils are struggling with. They can expose pupils to texts with the same repeated sound, and let pupils guess which sound is repeated and how it can be written down. Similarly, they can ask pupils to think of other words with the same sound, or let them write their own rhymes or stories featuring that sound (see Skela 2002 and Daga-rin Fojkar et al. 2011 for more of such activities). Through such activities, pupils focus their attention on more systematic reading and writing strategies, enabling them, with the aid of interesting reading materials and authentic purposes for reading, to become fluent and independent readers in English.
References
ARO, Mikko (2004) Learning to read. The effect of orthography. Unpublished dissertation. Jyvaskyla: University of Jyvaskyla. BAKER, Colin (2001) Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (3rd ed.).
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DAGARIN FOJKAR, Mateja/Urška SEŠEK/Janez SKELA (2011) Sounds and Letters. Priročnik k delovnemu zvezku za razvijanje opismenjevanja v angleščini kot tujem jeziku. Ljubljana: Tangram. EDIGER, Anne (2001) "Teaching Children Literacy Skills in a Second Language." In: M. Celce-Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3rd ed.). London: Heinle & Heinle Thomson Learning, 153-169. EHRI, Linnea C. (2003) Systematic Phonics Instruction: Findings of the National Reading Panel. Paper presented at the DfES seminar on phonics on 17 March 2003 in London.
EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2012) First European Survey on Language Competences: Final Report. Brussels: European Commission. 20 May 2014. http://www. surveylang.org/.
GOSWAMI, Usha/Peter BRYANT (1990) Phonological skills and learning to read. Exeter: Erlbaum.
GRIFFITH, Priscilla/Mary W. OLSON (1992) "Phonemic Awareness Helps Beginning Readers Break the Code." Reading Teacher 45/7, 516-523.
HAMAYAN, Else (1994) "Language development of low-literacy students." In: F. Genesee (ed.), Educating second language children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 278-300.
LUCAS, Tamara/Anne KATZ (1994) "Reframing the Debate: The Roles of Native Languages in English-Only Programs for Language Minority Students." TESOL Quarterly 28/3, 537-561.
MCGUINNESS, Carmen/Geoffrey MCGUINNESS (1998) Reading Reflex: The foolproofphonographix method for teaching your child to read. New York: The Free Press.
MOATS, Louisa (2007) Whole-Language High Jinx. How to Tell When 'Scientifically-Based Reading Instruction'Isn t. Washington, DC: Thomas B. Fordham Foundation.
NATIONAL INQUIRY INTO THE TEACHING OF LITERACY (2005) Teaching Reading: Report and Recommendations. Commonwealth of Australia: Australian Government, Department of Education, Science and Training.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (2000) Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction: Reports of the Subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 30 May 2014. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Pages/smallbook.aspx.
NIJAKOWSKA, Joanna (2010) Dyslexia in the Foreign Language Classroom. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
NUTTALL, Christine (1996) Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language (2nd ed.). Oxford: Heinemann.
ROSE, Jim (2006) Independent review of the teaching of early reading. Final report. 30 May 2014. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100526143644/http:/ standards.dcsf.gov.uk/phonics/report.pdf.
SHARE, David L. (1999) "Phonological Recoding and Orthographic Learning: A Direct Test of the Self-Teaching Hypothesis." Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 72, 95-129.
SKELA, Janez (2002) "Multi-literacy: literacy acquisition, (creative) reading and writing in a foreign and/or second language." In: V. Sollars (ed.), Issues in multi-literacy. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 11-53.
SKELA, Janez (2009) "Tujezikovna učna gradiva za pouk v otroštvu." In: K. Pižorn (ed.), Učenje in poučevanje dodatnih jezikov v otroštvu. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, 246-289.
SKELA, Janez/Urška SEŠEK/Mateja DAGARIN FOJKAR (2009) "Opismenjevanje v tujem/drugem jeziku na zgodnji stopnji." In: K. Pižorn (ed.), Učenje in poučevanje dodatnih jezikov v otroštvu. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, 220-245.
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WEAVER, Constance (2002) Reading Process and Practice (3rd ed.). Portsmouth: Heinemann.
ZRIMŠEK, Nataša (2003) Začetno opismenjevanje: Pismenost v predšolski dobi in prvem razredu devetletne osnovne šole. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta.
List of Course Books Analysed
4th grade:
MAIDMENT, Stella/Lorena ROBERTS (2010) Happy Street 1 (New Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press, Mladinska knjiga.
MARANGON, Claudio/Cristina RICHIERI (2006) Hi there! 4. Ljubljana: Rokus.
JESENIK, Nevenka/Janez SKELA/Viljenka ŠAVLI (2011) My Sails 1 New. Maribor: Obzorja.
STRANGE, Derek (2006) New Chatterbox 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Mladinska knjiga.
NOVAK, Magdalena/Jožica NUČ (2003) Reach For The Stars 4. Ljubljana: DZS.
5th grade:
MAIDMENT Stella/Lorena ROBERTS (2012) Happy Street 2 (New Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press, Mladinska knjiga.
MARANGON, Claudio/Cristina RICHIERI (2006) Hi there! 5. Ljubljana: Rokus.
JESENIK, Nevenka/Janez SKELA/Viljenka ŠAVLI (2003) My Sails 2. Maribor: Obzorja.
STRANGE, Derek (2010) New Chatterbox 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Mladinska knjiga.
NOVAK, Magdalena/Jožica NUČ (2004) Reach For The Stars 5. Ljubljana: DZS.
6th grade:
GOODEY, Diana/Noel GOODEY (2005) Messages 1. Ljubljana: Rokus.
JESENIK, Nevenka/Viljenka ŠAVLI (2005) My Sails 3. Maribor: Obzorja.
HUTCHINSON, Tom (2011) Project 1 (Third Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press, Mladinska knjiga.
MIHELAČ, Bojana/Danica Š. NOVOSEL (2006) Reach For The Stars 6. Ljubljana: DZS.
SKELA, Janez/Alenka GVARDJANČIČ/Dunja MARGUČ (2009) Touchstone 6. Maribor: Obzorja.
Abstract
LITERACY DEVELOPMENT IN COURSE BOOKS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH IN THE SECOND CYCLE OF SLOVENIAN PRIMARY SCHOOL
In recent years, there has been an increased focus on the teaching of reading to children, and the development of their literacy skills in their mother tongue and foreign languages.
The theoretical part of the article introduces literacy, and its role within the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Literacy is part of the linguistic competences (particularly phonological, orthographic and orthoepic competences) that need to be acquired for successful communication. Unlike Slovene, English is a language with deep orthography, therefore, the development of literacy skills in English poses a considerable challenge to Slovenian learners.
In the empirical part of the article, course books used for teaching English in the second cycle of Slovenian primary schools have been analysed with regard to literacy development, especially phonological, orthographic and orthoepic competences. This includes activities for developing orthographic reading skills, phonological and phonemic awareness, and the like. The research has shown that this area is approached to a greater or lesser extent in course books, and that literacy skills are mostly developed in an unprincipled way, without any systematic planning. Finally, a more systematic approach is recommended in developing early literacy skills in English as a foreign language.
Keywords: literacy, orthographic and orthoepic competences, phonics, young foreign language learners, course books.
Povzetek
RAZVIJANJE OPISMENJEVANJA V UČBENIKIH ZA UČENJE ANGLEŠČINE V DRUGEM TRILETJU SLOVENSKE OSNOVNE ŠOLE
Poučevanje branja ter razvijanje opismenjevanja v maternem in v tujih jezikih je v zadnjih letih bolj poudarjeno kot nekdaj.
V	teoretičnem delu članka je tako predstavljena pismenost in njena vloga v Skupnem evropskem jezikovnem okviru. Pismenost je del jezikovnih zmožnosti (še posebej fonološke, pravopisne in pravorečne zmožnosti), ki jih moramo usvojiti za uspešno sporazumevanje. Angleščina je za razliko od slovenščine jezik z zapleteno ortografijo, zato razvijanje opismenjevanja v angleščini slovenskim učencem pogosto povzroča težave.
V	empiričnem delu članka je predstavljena analiza učbenikov za učenje angleščine v drugem obdobju osnovne šole z vidika razvijanja opismenjevanja, s poudarkom na analizi fonološke, pravopisne in pravorečne zmožnosti. Raziskava med drugim vključuje analizo aktivnosti za razvijanje ortografskih/pravopisnih bralnih spretnosti ter fo-nološkega in fonemičnega uzaveščanja. Raziskava je pokazala, da se to področje v
učbenikih ne razvija v enaki meri in da opismenjevanje v tujem jeziku večinoma poteka nenačrtovano in nesistematično. V zaključku članka je podan predlog za bolj sistematičen pristop k razvijanju opismenjevanja v angleščini kot tujem jeziku.
Ključne besede: pismenost, pravopisna in pravorečna zmožnost, fonična metoda, mlajši učenci tujega jezika, učbeniki.
Daša Stanič	UDK 81,373.7:811.131.1,243(075)
Universitá di Ljubljana*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.167-187
LE UNITÁ FRASEOLOGICHE NEI LIBRI DI TESTO D'ITALIANO COME LINGUA STRANIERA
ANALISI DI LIBRI DI TESTO GRADUATI SECONDO I LIVELLI DI COMPETENZA LINGÜISTICA DEL QUADRO COMUNE EUROPEO DI RIFERIMENTO PER LA CONOSCENZA DELLE LINGUE (QCER)
I	INTRODUZIONE
Sia il Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue (QCER) sia moltissimi articoli ed altre fonti nel campo della fraseologia, e in particolar modo della didattica della fraseologia (anche: fraseodidattica), sottolineano l'importanza dell'inse-gnamento esplicito1 delle unitá fraseologiche (cfr Howarth 1998: 30; Wray 2000: 463; Ellis 2005: 210; Cardona 2005: 20; López Vázquez 2010: 531; Brown 2011: 94; López-Jiménez 2013: 334; Timofeeva 2013: 323). Alcuni ritengono che l'insegnamento/appren-dimento delle unitá fraseologiche (UF)2 sia necessario giá ai livelli iniziali dello sviluppo della competenza linguistica. E stata, indubbiamente, anche l'affermazione del concetto della competenza comunicativa a dare alla fraseologia un posto notevole nell'insegna-mento/apprendimento della lingua straniera (LS), almeno in teoria. Le UF dovrebbero es-sere incluse, secondo vari autori, nell'insegnamento/apprendimento di una lingua straniera per la loro frequenza d'uso nella comunicazione quotidiana e per il loro essere il mezzo di comunicazione con cui si ottiene la vera agilitá, scioltezza, precisione e naturalitá del discorso (cfr. Wood 2002: 6; Wood 2004: 34; González Rey 2006: 131; Millar 2011: 129).
II	dominio della dimensione fraseologica e, dunque, necessario per una comunicazione eficiente e autentica con i parlanti madrelingua.
Infatti, un parlante non madrelingua si riconosce, secondo Lennon (1998: 12), proprio dal suo discorso non-idiomatico. Le UF rappresentano per gli apprendenti di una LS un problema abbastanza grande anche ai livelli piu avanzati di competenza
Indirizzo dell'autore: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: dasa.stanic@ff.uni-lj.si.
Le unitá fraseologiche possono essere trattate nei libri di testo in due modi: implicito (le unitá fraseologiche sono solamente presenti in testi/dialoghi/registrazioni ma non vengono trattate) ed esplicito (le unitá fraseologiche sono presenti e inoltre ci sono spiegazioni/esercizi per il loro insegnamento/apprendimento).
Anche se nel QCER si usa il termine espressioni fisse abbiamo deciso, a fronte di una molteplicitá di espressioni usate da vari esperti del campo, di chiamare unitá fraseologiche (UF) tutte quelle espressioni che fanno parte della fraseologia di una lingua. L'espressione "unitá fraseologica" é, a nostro parere, l'espressione adatta per riferirsi ad un gruppo cosi vasto di espressioni.
*
1
lingüistica (cfr. Nesselhauf 2007: 306; Lesniewska 2006: 96; Gouverneur 2008: 223; Wray 2002: 199) in cui lo studente, secondo il QCER, riconosce la maggioranza delle espressioni idiomatiche e ne ha buonapadronanza (QCER 2002: 137, 149). Tuttavia, il QCER non spiega o specifica in che modo si raggiunga la cosiddetta buona padronanza. Per l'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF il QCER offre agli utenti (autori di libri di testo, insegnanti, case editrici) solo una cornice non precisamente definita con alcune linee guida generali con cui è impossibile, anche volendo, cominciare a costruire già dai primi livelli pure una certa competenza fraseologica. Gli autori di libri di testo, quindi, anche per mancanza di altre fonti scientifiche, hanno mano libera nel decidere non soltanto quali UF inserire in un libro di testo, ma anche la loro frequenza, il modo di presentarle, i livelli di competenza lingüistica in cui si dovrebbe iniziare con l'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF e, infine, quali sono i livelli in cui si deve dare maggiore rilievo all'insegnamento/apprendimento esplicito delle UF.
Questo contributo presenta una ricerca basata sull'analisi di alcuni libri di testo d'i-taliano come LS con cui si mira a stabilire che tipo di UF, a quali livelli e in che modo vengano inserite nei libri di testo usati per l'insegnamento/apprendimento dell'italiano come LS nell'ambito del sistema scolastico sloveno, in tutto il percorso dalla scuola primaria all'università. Verranno, dunque, analizzate le unità dei libri e le attività che mirano all'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF. Siccome è stato scoperto, esaminan-do i libri di testo di altre lingue, che il modo di introdurre le UF nei libri di testo non è uniforme (Koprowski 2005: 330; Gouverneur 2008: 240; López-Jiménez 2013: 344) ci aspettiamo una situazione parallela anche in italiano. È possibile, quindi, supporre che esistano molte differenze sia tra i vari livelli del QCER sia tra i vari libri dello stesso livello. Inoltre, ci aspettiamo che ai livelli più alti venga data più attenzione alla fraseologia che ad altri livelli.
La ricerca si propone inoltre di stabilire la relazione tra il QCER e le proposte di inserimento della fraseologia nei libri di testo analizzati e di valutare, infine, se i libri di testo usati in Slovenia possano essere un possibile punto di partenza verso una buona competenza fraseologica.
2 LE UNITÀ FRASEOLOGICHE E LE LORO CARATTERISTICHE
Anche se esiste un notevole consenso sull'importanza del ruolo della fraseologia nell'apprendimento di una lingua straniera (Cardona 2005: 20; López Vázquez 2010: 531; Brown 2011: 94; López-Jiménez 2013: 334), gli studiosi non sono concordi sul-le caratteristiche delle UF, sulla loro classificazione, sulla maniera di identificarle e nemmeno su come chiamarle. Analizzando varie fonti sul tema ci troviamo davanti innumerevoli espressioni usate per riferirsi a UF, per esempio: espressioni idiomatiche, locuzioni polirematiche, locuzioni idiomatiche, espressioni pluriverbali, espressioni fisse, chunks lessicali, strutture fisse e inoltre formule routinarie, formule frastiche, collocazioni, ecc.
Le UF sono, secondo Corpas Pastor (1996: 15), fenomeni lessicali il cui limite va dal sintagma formato da almeno due parole alla frase composta. La complessità della
fraseología si manifesta specialmente a causa delle caratteristiche principali delle UF, tra cui Corpas Pastor (1996: 19-30) individua le seguenti:
•	alta frequenza d'uso,
•	alta frequenza di co-apparizione degli elementi integranti,
•	istituzionalizzazione o convenzionalizzazione/stabilità (fissazione e specializza-zione semantica),
•	specifica particolarità semantica o sintattica,
•	idiomaticità/opacità semantica,
•	la possibilità/impossibilità di variazione.
In aggiunta è necessario ricordare anche la loro alta frequenza d'uso nella lingua di tutti i giorni, il loro alto grado di specificità culturale e la loro dipendenza da altri fattori extralinguistici (cfr. Corpas Pastor 1996: 20; González Rey 2006: 139; López Vázquez 2010: 532-533).
3 LE UNITÀ FRASEOLOGICHE NEL QCER
Le UF vengono incluse nel QCER a due livelli: in quello analitico, cioè nella parte che presenta le competenze linguistico-comunicative, e in quello sintattico, ossia nei descrittori dei sei livelli di competenza. Nel QCER le competenze linguistico-comuni-cative vengono divise in tre gruppi: competenze linguistiche, competenze sociolingui-stiche e competenze pragmatiche. Le UF fanno parte di tutti e tre i gruppi.
Il maggiore rilievo viene dato alle UF nel gruppo delle competenze linguistiche in cui le UF, chiamate nel QCER espressioni fisse, rientrano nel sottogruppo della "competenza lessicale" Sono definite come espressioni consistenti in più parole usate e apprese in blocco e divise nei seguenti quattro gruppi (QCER 2002: 136):
•	formule frastiche: saluti, proverbi ed espressioni arcaiche (Buongiorno!, Come stai?, ...);
•	espressioni idiomatiche: metafore semanticamente opache, "bloccate", e intensifi-catori (farefiasco, bianco come la neve, ...);
•	strutture fisse, memorizzate e usate come un insieme (Laprego di...., Mipermet-ta di ..., ...);
•	altre espressioni fisse: locuzioni verbali, collocazioni fisse, preposizioni fisse (prendere freddo, cercare casa, passoperpasso, di bene in meglio, vicino a, ... ).
La classificazione non spiega o definisce in dettaglio i vari gruppi e i sottotipi delle UF, ne dà solo qualche esempio.
Analizzando i descrittori della competenza lessicale ci si rende presto conto che per le UF esistono dei descrittori solo per i tre livelli più alti e che questi descrittori si riferiscono solamente alla padronanza di espressioni idiomatiche e a volte colloquiali. Sono, invece, completamente esclusi tutti gli altri tipi di UF. I descrittori dell'Ampiezza del lessico per le UF sono:
livello C2: Lo studente ha buona padronanza di un repertorio lessicale vastis-simo che comprende espressioni idiomatiche e colloquiali (QCER 2002: 137). livello C1: Buona padronanza di espressioni idiomatiche e colloquiali (QCER 2002: 137).
Nella seconda categoría, competenza sociolinguistica, le UF vengono descrit-te come elementí línguístící che segnalano í rapporti socíalí, le rególe dí cortesía, le espressioni della saggezza popolare e le differenze di registro. I descrittori dell'Appro-príatezza socíolínguístíca che includono le UF sono:
livello C2 Ha una buona padronanza di espressioni idiomatiche e colloquiali ed e consapevole dei livelli di connotazione semantica (QCER 2002: 149).
livello C1 E in grado i riconoscere un'ampia gamma di espressioni idiomatiche e colloquiali e coglie i cambiamenti di registro; puópero a volte aver biso-gno che venga confermato qualche particolare. E in grado di comprendere film in cui si fa ampio uso di espressioni gergali e idiomatiche (QCER 2002: 149).
Nel QCER viene menzionata la difficoltá che si verifica al momento di decidere quale sia la gradazione delle componenti sociolinguistiche. Inoltre, viene esplicitamen-te affermato che é possibile parlare di un modo di comunicare socio-linguisticamente appropriato solo a partire del livello B2 (QCER 2002: 150). Per questa ragione viene dato all' utente il compito di scegliere le UF di cui gli apprendenti avranno bisogno (QCER 2002: 184).
Nella categoría delle competenze pragmatiche le UF vengono incluse nella competenza discorsiva (capacitá di organizzare un testo coerente) e in quella funzionale (scioltezza o fluenza e precisione delle asserzioni). Nei descrittori delle competenze pragmatiche le UF non vengono menzionate, pero possono essere dedotte da alcuni descrittori:
livello C2 [...] flessibilitá nel riformulare concetti usando forme linguistiche diverse, a seconda della situazione e dell'interlocutore (QCER 2002: 152).
livello C1/ livello B2 [...] e in grado di adattare ció che dice e il modo di esprimersi alla situazione e al destinatario, e in grado di realizzare un discorso coerente e coeso, ecc. (QCER 2002:154).
Secondo González Rey (2006: 123) il QCER rappresenta il primo passo in avanti per quello che riguarda la didattica della fraseologia proprio per aver incluso le UF dandogli cosi la stessa importanza assegnata ad altri elementi della lingua. In questa maniera ha, difatti, determinato che le UF vanno studiate. D'altronde, come si é verificato dall'analisi delle competenze e dei descrittori, il QCER offre per l'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF agli utenti solo una cornice con delle linee guida, fatto che senza dubbio non aiuta glí autorí dí líbrí dí testo e í professorí che sí trovano a dover decídere autónomamente come trattare le UF nell'insegnamento/apprendimento perché gli apprendenti possano costruirsi una buona competenza fraseologica, quella di cui il QCER parla ai livelli C1 e
C2. Si deve pero sottolineare a questo punto che il QCER è pensato come una base co-mune per tutte le lingue europee e percio non ci si puo aspettare di trovare tra i descrittori indicazioni specifiche che devono, invece, essere stabilite altrove.
4 I LIBRI DI TESTO, L'INSEGNAMENTO/APPRENDIMENTO E LE UNITÀ
FRASEOLOGICHE
4.1	I libri di testo
I libri di testo sono un elemento importantissimo nell'insegnamento/apprendimento di una LS dato che sono il primo, e per molto tempo anche l'unico o uno dei pochi punti di contatto che gli apprendenti hanno con la lingua che stanno imparando. Essi rappresentano, quindi, per loro il modello di quella LS. Sono inoltre una guida base e un riferimento organizzato su cui si fonda l'insegnamento (cfr. Mezzadri 2003: 95; Schmitt 2008: 329; Brown 2011: 86). Per tutte queste ragioni McDonough e Shaw (2003) credono che i libri di testo siano addirittura l'anima della maggioranza di corsi.
Le analisi finora pubblicate sul tema della fraseologia nei libri di testo in altre lingue hanno rivelato che se da una parte il ruolo della fraseologia nei libri di testo è diventato assai più rilevante con l'implementazione dell'approccio comunicativo e del QCER, dall'altra parte ci sono ancora molte lacune, specialmente ai livelli più bassi e in rela-zione alla scelta delle UF da introduire nei libri di testo. López-Jiménez (2013: 344) parla della mancanza di sistematicità e rigore scientifico nel modo di includere le UF nei libri di testo. L'autrice (ibid.: 345) ha individuato tre problemi: i criteri adottati nella scelta delle UF, il tradizionalismo nell'insegnamento (che considera i livelli più alti quelli più adatti per l'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF) e la mancanza di attività comunicative per l'apprendimento/insegnamento delle UF. Gouverneur (2008: 240) ha analizzato alcuni libri di testo d'inglese e ha concluso che gli esercizi per le UF sono pochi e poco variati. Inoltre esistono notevoli differenze tra i diversi livelli e i diversi libri di testo per quello che riguarda la scelta delle UF e il modo di includerle nell'ap-prendimento. Dall'analisi di Koprowski (2005: 330) è emerso che sul totale comples-sivo di 822 le UF presenti nei tre libri analizzati, i tre testi ne avevano in comune solo 7, cioè meno dell'1 %; si tratta di una percentuale preoccupante ma comprensibile dato che la scelta delle UF incluse nei libri di testo si basa su criteri estremamente soggettivi.
4.2	La fraseologia nell'insegnamento delle LS
Poiché presumibilmente difficili da spiegare e apprendere le UF occupano spesso un posto secondario o addirittura marginale nell'insegnamento/apprendimento della LS e inoltre vengono incluse spesso solo in modo implicito nell'insegnamento/apprendi-mento, in particolar modo ai livelli più bassi del QCER.
Benché esista un alto consenso sull'importanza della fraseologia nell'insegnamen-to/apprendimento di una LS, si riscontrano ancora pareri molto diversi a proposito del livello in cui iniziare a introdurre le UF nell'insegnamento: alcuni (ad es. Wray 2002) affermano che si dovrebbe iniziare già al livello A1, altri invece pensano che la cosa migliore sia iniziare a uno dei livelli intermedi (López-Jiménez 2013: 338).
Wray (2002: 200), uno dei sostenitori dell'inserimento precoce, sottolinea l'importanza dell'inserimento delle UF gia dai livelli iniziali dato che per ottenere una buona padro-nanza di tali unita si deve esporre l'apprendente (in modo implicito ed esplicito) piu volte a una UF concreta durante l'apprendimento, altrimenti sara difficilissimo per lui riportare alla memoria questa stessa UF a livelli piu avanzati. López-Jiménez (2013: 337) ritiene che sia importantissimo insegnare le UF in modo esplicito per favorire in seguito la scioltezza nell'espressione orale e lo sviluppo della coesione testuale nell'e-spressione scritta. Inoltre, la padronanza della dimensione fraseologica e necessaria per una comunicazione efficiente e piu autentica con i parlanti madrelingua.
Non mancano proposte su come insegnare le UF, solo che la maggioranza di esse non e pensata per praticare l'uso delle UF in un contesto comunicativo reale (López-Jiménez 2013: 338). La gran parte degli esercizi e compiti si concentra sul significato delle UF e fa sviluppare solo la comprensione (compiti di tipo ricettivo). Inoltre viene ricordato da Nesselhauf (2007: 309) il problema delle collocazioni che sono in inglese fonte di molti errori per gli apprendenti, che spesso non le usano in contesti appropriati, fatto che dovrebbe obbligare gli insegnanti e gli autori di libri di testo a dedicare atten-zione anche e soprattutto all'uso delle UF. Laufer e Girsai (2008: 700) hanno scoperto che gli apprendenti delle LS fanno errori nelle collocazioni che a prima vista non pa-iono problematiche. Ma si rivelano tali a causa delle differenze che ci sono tra la L1 e l'inglese. Molte volte, infatti, gli equivalenti della collocazione nella L1 includono almeno una parola diversa, il che rappresenta un problema per l'apprendente. Per queste ragioni alcuni autori propongono, in particolar modo per le lingue affini, un approccio contrastivo nell'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF. Wood (2002: 9), inoltre, sottolinea l'importanza dell'input nell'apprendimento delle UF. Lo studente dovrebbe esse-re, secondo l'autore, esposto durante l'apprendimento a una grande quantita di discorso naturale, cioe a dialoghi, testi e registrazioni/video autentici proprio per il fatto che le UF sono un elemento chiave della lingua naturale e autentica. Aiuta in particolar modo un'esposizione ripetuta in una gamma di contesti appropriati (ibid: 12) tra cui viene menzionata anche l'interazione con i parlanti madrelingua.
Vista la complessita delle UF e facile capire perché rappresentino un grande problema per gli apprendenti e gli insegnanti di una LS anche ai livelli avanzati. Tutta-via, il fattore della difficolta non dovrebbe essere determinante per l'assenza delle UF dall'insegnamento ai primi livelli. Siamo d'accordo con Nesselhauf (2007: 309-310), che sostiene che gli elementi lingua piu difficili e piu frequenti avrebbero bisogno di piu approfondimento nell'insegnamento/apprendimento di una LS. Questo vale anche per le UF.
5 ANALISI DI LIBRI DI TESTO 5.1 Metodología e ipotesi
Per la ricerca sono stati selezionati 13 libri di testo d'italiano
METODO (M) / LIVELLO QCER	A1	A2	B1	B2	C1	C2
M1	A1.1	A2.1	B1.1			
M2	A1.2	A2.2	B1.2			
M3 (i livelli C1 e C2 sono nello stesso volume)	A1.3	A2.3	B1.3	B2.3	C1.3	C2.3
M4 (tutti e tre i livelli sono nello stesso volume)	A1.4	A2.4	B1.4			
M5					C1.5	
Tabella 1: Libri analizzati a seconda del metodo e dei livelli QCER
Sono stati presi in considerazione solo libri:
•	per adulti e/o adolescenti,
•	in linea con i principi del QCER che coprono un livello preciso della competen-za lingüistica,
•	usati per l'insegnamento/apprendimento dell'italiano come LS nell'ambito del sistema scolastico sloveno3,
•	che si basano, secondo quanto sostenuto dagli autori, su principi metodologici moderni e il cui scopo principale è lo sviluppo delle capacità comunicative.
La ricerca è stata articolata nelle seguenti fasi:
1)	Analisi degli indici dei libri di testo con l'intenzione di scoprire se negli indici le UF vengono menzionate, con che frequenza, a che livello, e con quale tipo di denominazione.
2)	Analisi dei libri di testo: sono state cercate nei testi, nei dialoghi e negli esercizi tutte le UF (presenti in modo implicito ed esplicito) che sono state in seguito divise nei 4 gruppi di classificazione del QCER.
3)	Analisi degli esercizi mirati all'apprendimento delle UF: si sono individuati la tipologia degli esercizi e gli aspetti delle UF messi a fuoco negli esercizi.
Sulla base delle ricerche compiute e delle linee guida del QCER è possibile ipotiz-zare che nei libri di testo il problema dell'insegnamento/apprendimento delle UF non venga affrontato in modo sistematico e uniforme, fatto che si rispecchia negli indici e
3 L'unica eccezione é rappresentata dai primi tre livelli (da A1 a B1) del Metodo 3 che non vengono usati nell'ambito del sistema scolastico sloveno. Sono stati comunque presi in considerazione perché i livelli B2, C1 e C2 si usano all'universitá per gli studenti di italianistica e, inoltre, si tratta dell'unico metodo esistente che ricopre tutti e sei i livelli ed é elaborato dagli stessi autori.
nelle unità dei libri di testo. Si presuppone, inoltre, che esistano notevoli differenze sia per quel che riguarda il numero di UF incluse nei libri di testo analizzati sia per il modo in cui vengono incluse. Ai livelli più avanzati si darà più spazio alla fraseologia, ai li-velli più bassi la fraseologia avrà, invece, un ruolo marginale e sarà presente soprattutto in modo implicito. Infine, quanto al tipo di UF presenti nei libri di testo, è possibile ipotizzare che ai primi tre livelli le UF più frequenti saranno le formule frastiche, le strutture fisse e le collocazioni, e che, ai livelli più avanzati, saranno trattate nei libri di testo anche UF di significato opaco (espressioni idiomatiche e locuzioni).
5.2 Risultati e discussione Le UF negli indici dei libri di testo
Le UF vengono menzionate negli indici dei libri di testo sotto varie categorie: sotto les-sico o sotto comunicazione - intenzioni comunicative in conformità con il QCER che menziona le UF sotto la competenza lessicale e quella socio-linguistica.
	espressioni per le UF	Altro
A1.1		saluti e formule d'augurio
A1.2		
A1.3	espressioni	saluti
A1.4		
A2.1		
A2.2		
A2.3	espressioni, formule tipiche, espressioni fisse, modi di dire	
A2.4		
B1.1	espressioni per parlare di...	espressioni per parlare di...
B1.2		
B1.3	espressioni, espressioni fisse, modi di dire	espressioni
B1.4		
B2.3	collocazioni, sintagmi, espressioni	
C1.3	modi di dire, espressioni, collocazioni, sintagmi,	
C1.5	espressioni metaforiche, metafore, modi di dire, espressioni idiomatiche	
C2.3	collocazioni, metafore, sintagmi, espressioni	
Tabella 2: Le UF negli indici dei libri di testo.
Legenda:
F - frequenti, P - poco frequenti
S - nome, Agg (aggettivo), V - verbo, prep. - preposizione
		UF presenti nel libro in modo implicito ed esplicito (dalle più alle meno frequenti)	UF negli esercizi	Altre osservazioni sulle unitii dei libri
A1.1	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule frastiche e strutture fisse. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuo-co: significato e a volte anche forma e uso.	Unita composte da dia-loghi e testi brevi, adat-tati e semplificati senza espressioni idiomatiche e con poche locuzioni.
	P	collocazioni (specialmente di tipo sostantivo S+(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg ' locuzioni avverbiali (di tempo) quasi assenti UF di significato opaco		
A1.2	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse in rela-zione con le tematiche delle unità		Le unita sono composte da dialoghi e testi brevi o di lunghezza media che anche se adattati non escludono le UF.
	P	collocazioni (special-mente di tipo S +(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg locuzioni avverbiali, pochissime locuzioni di altri tipi quasi assenti le espressioni idiomatiche		
		UF presenti nel libro in modo implicito ed esplicito (dalle più alle meno frequenti)	UF negli esercizi	Altre osservazioni sulle unità dei libri
A1.3	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse in rela-zione con le tematiche delle unità, collocazioni (di tipo S +(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg,...	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule fra-stiche e strutture fisse Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e produttivo. Le UF vengono sempre prese da testi proposti. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato, a volte anche forma e uso.	Le unità sono composte da dialoghi e testi brevi o di lunghezza media che non escludono le UF anche se sono adattati e semplificati.
	P	locuzioni (avverbiali, verbali,...) alcune citazioni, pro- verbi, pochissime espressioni idiomatiche - tutte presenti in modo implicito		
A1.4	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse in rela-zione con le tematiche delle unità, collocazioni (special-mente di tipo S+(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg) locuzioni (avverbiali, verbali,.)	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule fra-stiche e strutture fisse. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e a volte produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato ma anche forma e uso.	È proprio questo tra i libri del livello A1 il più difficile: contiene testi e dialoghi molto auten-tici e meno adattati che negli altri libri e offre per questa ragione il maggior numero di UF di diverso tipo. Le UF vengono trattate quasi esclusivamente in modo implicito.
	P	pochissime espressioni idiomatiche e altre locu-zioni presenti in modo implicito		
A2.1	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse collocazioni (special-mente di tipo S +(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg) locuzioni avverbiali	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule fra-stiche e strutture fisse. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato e l'uso.	Le unità sono composte da dialoghi e testi corti, molto adattati e sempli-ficati.
	P	UF di significato opaco e altri tipi di locuzioni (in modo implicito)		
		UF presenti nel libro in modo implicito ed esplicito (dalle più alle meno frequenti)	UF negli esercizi	Altre osservazioni sulle unità dei libri
A2.2	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse collocazioni (special-mente di tipo S +(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg) locuzioni avverbiali	Esercizi presenti per: formule frastiche, strutture fisse e anche alcuni esercizi per le UF di si-gnificato più opaco. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e produttivo. Le UF sono sempre prese dai testi/dialoghi e di seguito presentate. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato e l'uso.	Le unità del libro sono composte da dialoghi e testi autentici anche se semplificati. Vari tipi di UF sono presenti in modo implicito ed esplicito già dalla prima unità. Presente anche un numero note-vole di UF di significato opaco.
	P	espressioni idiomatiche altri tipi di locuzioni		
A2.3	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse collocazioni locuzioni	Esercizi presenti per: formule frastiche, strutture fisse e anche esercizi per le UF di significato più opaco. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioran-za) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato e uso	Le unità sono composte da dialoghi e testi che sono adattati ma comun-que paiono autentici e includono parecchie UF anche di significato opaco. Ci sono anche spazi del libro dedicati solo alla fraseologia con il titoloModi di dire con...
	P	espressioni idiomatiche, alcune locuzioni e pro-verbi non sono frequenti ma vengono già trattati in modo esplicito		
A2.4	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse collocazioni (special-mente di tipo S +(prep.)+S, V + S, S + Agg) locuzioni	Esercizi presenti per: formule frastiche e strutture fisse. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e qualche esercizio produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato, a volte forma e uso.	Le unità del libro si basano spesso su testi e dialoghi autentici con molte UF (poche formule routinarie, parecchie collocazioni e locuzioni di vario tipo) presenti pero solo in modo implicito.
	P	alcune espressioni idio-matiche presenti solo in modo implicito		
		UF presenti nel libro in modo implicito ed esplicito (dalle più alle meno frequenti)	UF negli esercizi	Altre osservazioni sulle unità dei libri
Bl.1	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse collocazioni avverbiali locuzioni	Esercizi presenti per: formule frastiche e strutture fisse. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioran-za) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significa-to, a volte uso.	Le unità sono composte da dialoghi e testi corti, molto adattati e sempli-ficati. Le UF di significato opaco sono poche e presenti nel libro solo in modo implicito.
	P	espressioni idiomatiche, alcuni tipi di locuzioni, proverbi, citazioni (tutti presenti in modo implicito)		
Bl.2	F	formule frastiche strutture fisse in rela-zione con le tematiche delle unità collocazioni locuzioni	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule frastiche e strutture fisse e qualche esercizio per altri tipi di UF. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioran-za) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato e uso.	Nei dialoghi e nei testi che sono il centro delle unità del libro e sono molto autentici sono presenti in modo implicito molte UF di vari tipi (in maggioranza formule frastiche, strutture fisse, collocazioni e locuzioni), anche di significato opaco (buttarsi nella mischia, mettere in gioco, non esserci verso....).
		espressioni idiomatiche sono poco frequenti ma trattate in modo espli-cito		
Bl.3	F	formule frastiche collocazioni strutture fisse	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule frastiche, strutture fisse e anche esercizi per le UF di significato più opaco. Sono presenti anche proverbi. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (maggioranza) e produttivo. Le UF sono sempre prese dai testi e dialoghi presenti nelle unità e di seguito trattate nelle spiegazioni e negli esercizi. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato e a volte uso.	Le unità del libro con-tengono testi e a volte anche dialoghi autentici che sono fonte di molte UF.
	P	anche espressioni idio-matiche, espressioni colloquiali e proverbi, trattati anche in modo esplicito		
		UF presenti nel libro in modo implicito ed esplicito (dalle più alle meno frequenti)	UF negli esercizi	Altre osservazioni sulle unità dei libri
B1.4	F	formule frastiche collocazioni strutture fisse in rela-zione con le tematiche delle unità espressioni idiomatiche espressioni colloquiali	UF incluse in modo esplicito: formule frastiche, strutture fisse. Per le UF ci sono pochissimi esercizi che sono tutti di tipo ricettivo e mirano al significato delle UF.	Le UF sono molto fre-quenti nei testi/dialoghi ma nella maggioranza dei casi sono presenti solo in modo implicito.
	P	proverbi		
B2.3	F	collocazioni espressioni idiomatiche espressioni colloquiali	UF incluse in modo esplicito: espressioni idiomatiche, locuzioni di vari tipi, collocazioni, proverbi; c'è anche qualche esercizio per le strutture fisse. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (mag-gioranza) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato e, anche se non cosi spesso, uso.	La base delle unità è costituita da testi auten-tici e pieni di UF che sono molto presenti in tutto in libro in modo implicito, alcune ven-gono anche trattate nelle spiegazioni e negli esercizi.
	P	proverbi strutture fisse formule frastiche		
		UF presenti nel libro in modo implicito ed esplicito (dalle più alle meno frequenti)	UF negli esercizi	Altre osservazioni sulle unità dei libri
C1.3	F	collocazioni espressioni idiomatiche espressioni colloquiali	UF incluse in modo esplicito: espressioni idiomatiche, locuzioni di vari tipi, collocazioni; ci sono pochi esercizi per gli altri tipi di UF. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (mag-gioranza) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato, solo a volte anche uso.	Nel libro ci sono testi/ dialoghi/video presi da giornali, libri, TV quindi l'apprendente è tutto il tempo a contatto con una lingua autentica che è fonte di un numero grande di UF presenti in tutti i testi in modo implicito. Alcune vengono di segui-to trattate in modo espli-cito negli esercizi.
	P	proverbi strutture fisse formule frastiche		
C1.4	F	collocazioni espressioni idiomatiche espressioni colloquiali proverbi citazioni		Il libro, composto da molti testi presi da giornali, siti internet italiani e anche dalla narrativa, presenta all'apprendente una lingua autentica in contesti molto attuali, diversi e interessanti. Nella parte del libro denominata Entrare in lessico ci sono esercizi mirati all'apprendimen-to della fraseologia.
	P	strutture fisse formule frastiche		
C2.3	F	collocazioni espressioni idiomatiche espressioni colloquiali proverbi	UF incluse in modo esplicito: espressioni idiomatiche, locuzioni di vari tipi, collocazioni; ci sono pochi esercizi per gli altri tipi di UF. Esercizi: di tipo ricettivo (mag-gioranza) e produttivo. Aspetti messi a fuoco: significato, solo a volte anche l'uso.	La parte centrale di ogni unità è un testo autentico, ci sono, inoltre anche dialoghi e brani audiolvideo autentici. L'apprendente è tutto il tempo a contatto con una lingua autentica, con frequenti UF. Alcune vengono trattate in modo esplicito negli esercizi.
Tabella 3: Le UF nei libri di testo
L'analisi di diversi libri di testo italiani mostra, per quel che riguarda l'inclusione di UF, un'immagine generale molto simile a quella emergente dalle analisi di libri di testo di altre lingue (cfr. Lopez-Jiménez 2013; Gouverneur 2008; Koprowski 2005). I risultati suggeriscono che le UF non vengono incluse nei libri di testo in modo uniforme, esistono infatti differenze cosi tra i vari metodi dello stesso livello come tra i vari livelli del QCER. Le differenze più evidenti si presentano indubbiamente tra i tre livelli più bassi e i tre livelli più altri del QCER. Esse sono dovute, a nostro parere, in parte ad alcune proprietà delle UF (come per esempio l'opacità semantica, l'impossibilità di variazione e l'istituzionalizzazione) e in parte anche alla mancanza di linee guida più specifiche (descrittori per i primi tre livelli nel QCER e altre linee guida più partico-lareggiate) per gli autori di libri di testo. È già l'esame degli indici dei libri a fornirci dei dati significativi: le UF sono, infatti, quasi assenti dagli indici dei primi tre livelli del QCER. L'assenza delle UF dagli indici puo sembrare forse un problema marginale, ma, a nostro avviso, non va del tutto trascurato. Ci sembra, in effetti, importante che gli apprendenti e gli insegnanti siano consapevoli del fatto che le UF sono un fenomeno linguistico speciale, essendo pertanto trattate a parte. E vanno, quindi, anche studiate a parte. Si dovrebbe iniziare a costruire questa consapevolezza già dal primo contatto dell'apprendente con il libro, cioè dall'indice. Un apprendente e un insegnante consa-pevoli della presenza delle UF nel libro fanno, a nostro parere, più attenzione a questo tipo di espressioni, il che aiuta il primo nella costruzione di una buona competenza fraseologica e obbliga il secondo a trattare un tema difficile. Del tutto diversa è la situazio-ne negli indici per gli ultimi tre livelli: le UF sono, infatti, presenti negli indici di tutti i libri anche se la terminologia manca di coerenza. A volte, infatti, lo stesso libro usa due o più termini che si sovrappongono o provengono da due classificazioni diverse. Cosi troviamo in uno dei libri analizzati per le UF le seguenti espressioni: espressioni metaforiche, metafore, espressioni figurate ed espressioni idiomatiche.
Esaminando più dettagliatamente i risultati ci rendiamo conto che ai primi tre livelli (A1 - B1) le UF più frequenti sono le formule frastiche e le strutture fisse (in re-lazione con le tematiche delle unità) che sono anche le uniche UF che vengono trattate in modo esplicito in tutti i libri ai primi tre livelli. Gli altri tipi di UF (in special modo le UF di significato opaco) vengono inclusi in alcuni libri solo in modo implicito (come per esempio nel M1 e M4), in altri, invece, già dal livello A1/A2 anche in modo espli-cito, con presentazioni, spiegazioni di significato ed esercizi (M2 e M3). Purtroppo gli esercizi per le UF ai primi tre livelli non sono molto diffusi. In alcuni di questi libri sono frequenti anche le collocazioni e le locuzioni, ma poche volte in modo esplicito. Sembra che la presenza o l'assenza di UF nei libri di testo sia da attribuire almeno in parte anche ai testi/dialoghi/registrazioni presenti nelle unità dei libri e più precisamente ai loro adattamenti. Pare che ci siano da una parte quegli autori che scelgono di sem-plificare i testi anche "depurandoli" di UF, specialmente di quelle di significato opaco, come accade nel M1, e dall'altra parte quelli che decidono di fare meno adattamenti: in questi libri il numero complessivo di UF è maggiore. Tuttavia, il grado di adattamento non influisce necessariamente sul modo di includere le UF nei libri di testo: nei libri che fanno riferimento al M1 i testi sono molto adattati e con poche UF che non vengono
trattate in modo esplicito, i metodi M2 e MS presentano dei testi meno adattati, con parecchie UF che vengono trattate anche in modo esplicito, il M4, invece, propone i testi/dialoghi/audio più autentici (e difficili) con molte UF che sono pero presenti solo in modo implicito. Anche se le formule frastiche, le strutture fisse e alcune locuzioni av-verbiali (in particolar modo quelle di tempo) coincidono notevolmente in tutti in libri, non è possibile sostenere lo stesso per gli altri tipi di UF, cioè per le collocazioni, altre locuzioni ed espressioni idiomatiche che vengono scelte dagli autori in modo soggetti-vo. Ogni libro presenta quindi una gamma propria di diverse UF. L'aspetto a cui viene dato maggior importanza, cioè il significato, determina anche la tipologia degli esercizi che sono prevalentemente di tipo ricettivo (anche ai livelli più alti).
Agli ultimi tre livelli (da Bl a Cl) viene dato, invece, nei libri di testo alla fraseologia un ruolo abbastanza importante. È possibile notare subito che le formule frasti-che e le strutture fisse perdono il loro ruolo principale per lasciarlo alle collocazioni e specialmente alle espressioni idiomatiche e locuzioni che in tutti i libri analizzati non solo sono presenti in modo implicito ma vengono anche trattate in modo esplicito. Tut-tavia, anche gli esercizi ai livelli avanzati mirano in maggioranza all'apprendimento del significato delle UF tralasciando gli altri due aspetti, la forma e l'uso. Sono molti gli esercizi di abbinamento o completamente e pochi gli esercizi per praticare l'uso delle UF in un contesto comunicativo, aspetto ritenuto centrale perché necessario per una comunicazione autentica con i parlanti madrelingua (cfr. López-Jiménez 2013; Nes-selhauf 2007; Laufer e Girsai 2008). L'uso è, ovviamente, per un apprendente di LS, l'aspetto più difficile ed è, come già ricordato nella parte iniziale, fonte di molti errori anche ai livelli avanzati proprio per l'alto grado di specificità culturale e situazionale: diventa, cosi, quel fattore che fa la differenza tra un parlante madrelingua e un parlante non madrelingua (Lennon 1998: 12). Proprio per questa ragione gli si dovrebbe dare più spazio nei libri di testo.
Ai livelli avanzati è ancora più ovvia la soggettività degli autori per quel che riguar-da le singole UF introdotte nei libri. È stato possibile osservare, in linea generale, che sono pochissime le UF che i quattro libri di testo dei livelli B2 - C2 hanno in comune. Siamo del parere che la scelta delle UF dipenda in particolar modo da due fattori: dagli argomenti trattati nelle unità da una parte e dai testi scelti dall'altra.
Come già ricordato, sono emerse differenze anche tra i vari metodi dei singoli livel-li. Queste differenze sono significative in particolar modo ai tre livelli più bassi. Se tutti i libri dei livelli Al - Bl trattano in modo esplicito le formule frastiche e le strutture fisse, solo alcuni tra questi libri (M2 e M3) iniziano a introdurre, anche se in quantità limitata, in modo esplicito anche gli altri tipi di UF già al livello A1. Una differenza tale non si verifica ai livelli avanzati dove sono stati rilevati scostamenti tra i libri dello stesso livello specialmente nella scelta delle singole UF.
Pare che, almeno ai livelli A1, A2 e B1, gli autori dei libri di testo spesso sottovalu-tino le proposte di quegli studiosi e insegnanti che parlano della necessità di introduire e praticare le UF in modo esplicito già dai livelli iniziali. È il metodo M3 quello che, secondo noi, cerca di seguire, il più rigorosamente possibile, almeno ai primi tre livelli, questi suggerimenti. Inoltre, viene trascurato a tutti i livelli il problema maggiore che
hanno gli apprendenti con le UF, cioè il loro uso in situazioni comunicative concrete. La maggioranza degli esercizi è, infatti, di tipo ricettivo e si limita a trattare solo il significato delle UF. Mancano, senza dubbio, proposte valide su come introdurre le UF nell'insegnamento/apprendimento in un modo veramente comunicativo. Rimane cosi un peso grande sull'insegnante che in base ai propri criteri sceglie se e in che modo trattare anche l'uso delle UF in situazioni appropriate.
È possibile, a questo punto, mettere in correlazione il QCER e i libri di testo che, secondo noi, si incontrano in due punti: i libri di testo, che seguono negli ultimi anni sempre più rigorosamente il QCER, iniziano a dare, in linea di massima, maggior im-portanza alle UF proprio al livello a cui il QCER lascia più spazio alla fraseologia so-stenendo che a quel livello (B2) l'apprendente è già in grado di esprimersi in un modo sociolinguisticamente appropriato. Sono, inoltre, secondo il QCER, gli utenti quelli che devono decidere quali sono le UF importanti e necessarie per gli apprendenti, il che porta a una situazione abbastanza caotica (le UF sono incluse nei libri seguendo criteri soggettivi degli autori) non tanto a causa del QCER ma piuttosto a causa della mancan-za di altre proposte e linee guida specifiche. Vale la pena ricordare a questo punto che il QCER include linee guida generali e valide per tutte le lingue europee, percio non ci si puo aspettare di trovarvi indicazioni specifiche per quello che riguarda le UF da includere nei libri di testo. Queste proposte si dovrebbero elaborare per ogni lingua se-paratamente stabilendo quali sono le UF più frequenti, usate e utili per gli apprendenti di italiano (e di ciascuna altra lingua) come LS. Si potrebbe, d'altra parte, aggiungere nel QCER ai primi tre livelli almeno qualche descrittore per le UF per dare almeno una vaga immagine di come un'apprendente di LS arrivi a una buona competenza fraseologica, difficile da costruire proprio perché dipende spesso da caratteristiche culturali e altri fattori extralinguistici. Si è constatato che la situazione della fraseologia nei libri di testo è trattata in modo non uniforme per quel che riguarda il livello e il modo di inclu-dere le UF nell'insegnamento/apprendimento dell'italiano come LS. È possibile dare un parere sui libri di testo solo per i singoli metodi e non in generale. È sicuramente positivo il fatto che esistano metodi che cercano, anche se in base a criteri soggettivi, di introdurre le UF (oltre alle formule frastiche e strutture fisse) già dai primi livelli e iniziano in questo modo a sviluppare la competenza fraseologica dell'apprendente dai primi contatti con la lingua che sta studiando.
Libri di testo
Al.l DIACO, Mimma Flavia/Maria Gloria TOMMASINI (2013) Spazio Italia 1. To -
rino: Loescher Editore. A2.l DIACO, Mimma Flavia/Maria Gloria TOMMASINI (2013) Spazio Italia 2. To -
rino: Loescher Editore. Bl.l DIACO, Mimma Flavia/Maria Gloria TOMMASINI (2013) Spazio Italia S. To -
rino: Loescher Editore. Al.2 BALI, Maria/Luciana ZIGLIO (2003) Espresso l. Firenze: Alma Edizioni. A2.2 BALI, Maria/Luciana ZIGLIO (2003) Espresso 2. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
B1.2 BALI, María/Luciana ZIGLIO (2003) Espresso 3. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
A1.3 GUASTTALLA, Carlo/Ciro Massimo NADDEO (2012) Domani 1. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
A2.3 GUASTTALLA, Carlo/Ciro Massimo NADDEO (2012) Domani 2. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
B1.3 GUASTTALLA, Carlo/Ciro Massimo NADDEO (2012) Domani 3. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
B2.3 GUASTTALLA, Carlo/Ciro Massimo NADDEO/Alessandra DE GIULI (2013) Nuovo Magari B2. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
C1.4/C2.4 GUASTTALLA, Carlo/Ciro Massimo NADDEO/Alessandra DE GIULI (2013) Nuovo Magari C1/C2. Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
C1.5 COSTA BOZZONE, Rosella/Monica PINATONI/Elena SCARAMELLI/Chiara GHEZZI (2012) Nuovo Contatto C1. Torino: Loescher Editore.
A1.4/A2.4/B1.4 PIOTTI, Danila/Giulia DE SAVORGNANI (2007) Universitalia.
Firenze: Alma Edizioni.
Bibliografia
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Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per le lingue: apprendimento, insegnamento, valutazione (2002). Milano: La Nuova Italia-Oxford.
CARDONA, Mario (2005) "Applicazioni dell'approccio lessicale nell'insegnamento dell'italiano L2." Babylonia 3/5, 19-23.
CORPAS PASTOR, Gloria (1996) Manual de fraseología española. Madrid: Gredos.
ELLIS, Rod (2005) "Principles of Instructed Language Learning." System 33, 209-224.
GONZÁLEZ REY, María Dolores (2006) "A fraseodidácticabe o Marco europeo común de referencia para as linguas." Cadernos de Fraseoloxía Galega 8, 123-145.
GOUVERNEUR, Céline (2008) "The Phraseological Patterns of High-Frequency Verbs in Advanced English for General Purposes." In: F. Meunier/S. Granger (cur.), Phraseology in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 223-246.
HOWARTH, Peter (1998) "Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency." Applied Linguistics 19/1, 24-44.
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LÓPEZ VÁZQUEZ, Lucía (2010) La competencia fraseológica en los textos de los manuales de ele de nivel superior. 1 giugno 2014. http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenan-za/biblioteca_ele/asele/asele_xxi.htm.
NESSELHAUF, Nadja (2007) "The path from learner corpus analysis to language pedagogy: some neglected issues." Language and Computers 62, 305-315.
MCDONOUGH, Jo/Cristopher SHAW (2003) Materials and methods in ELT. A Teacher s Guide. Oxford: Blackwell.
MEZZADRI, Marco (2003) I ferri del mestiere. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni.
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SCHMITT, Norbert (2008) "Instructed second language vocabulary learning." Language Teaching Research 12/3, 329-363.
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WOOD, David (2002) "Formulaic Language in Acquisition and Production: Implications for Teaching." TESL Canada Journal 20/1, 1-15.
WOOD, David (2004) "An Empirical Investigation into the Facilitating Role of Automatized Lexical Phrases in Second Language Fluency Development." Journal of Language and Learning 2/1, 27-50.
WRAY, Alison (2000) "Formulaic Sequences in Second Language Teaching." Applied Linguistics 21/4, 463-489.
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Riassunto
LE UNITÀ FRASEOLOGICHE NEI LIBRI DI TESTO D'ITALIANO COME LINGUA STRANIERA: ANALISI DI LIBRI DI TESTO GRADUATI SECONDO I LIVELLI DI COMPETENZA LINGUISTICA DEL QUADRO COMUNE EUROPEO DI RIFERIMENTO PER LA CONOSCENZA DELLE LINGUE (QCER)
L'articolo affronta il tema delle unità fraseologiche nell'insegnamento/apprendimento dell'italiano come lingua straniera. A tale scopo vengono analizzati alcuni libri di testo d'italiano basati sul QCER per stabilire quando, in che modo e in quali contesti vengo-no introdotte e studiate le unità fraseologiche, e per determinare in che misura i libri di testo d'italiano scelti rappresentino un supporto efficace nel processo di insegnamento/ apprendimento.
A causa delle loro caratteristiche le unità fraseologiche sono fonte di notevoli dif-ficoltà per i non madrelingua, in particolare se di provenienza non romanza. Prima
dell'approccio comunicativo - ma anche successivamente - la glottodidattica delle lingue straniere dava relativamente poco spazio alla fraseologia; si presumeva che questa si sviluppasse imitando, e pareva che fosse un aspetto da valorizzare solo ai livelli alti di conoscenza linguistica. Invece, la necessita di introdurre in modo sistematico e consapevole le unita fraseologiche nell'apprendimento/insegnamento di una lingua straniera gia a partire dal livello A1 pare convincente. Nel QCER le unita fraseologiche vengono presentate e classificate come un elemento importante nell'ambito della com-petenza lessicale, mentre risultano prevalentemente trascurate nei descrittori dei singoli livelli. Questo approccio sembra lasciare senza criteri comuni e oggettivi i creatori di libri di testo che paiono decidere secondo un criterio discrezionale se e come includere queste conoscenze nel loro manuale.
Parole chiave: unita fraseologiche, libri di testo, italiano, QCER.
Abstract
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS IN ITALIAN TEXTBOOKS: AN ANALYSIS OF ITALIAN TEXTBOOKS RANKED BY THE LEVELS OF LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY OF THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES (CEFR)
This paper investigates the treatment given to phraseological units in the teaching/ learning of Italian as a foreign language. For this purpose, some textbooks of Italian based on the CEFR were analysed to determine when, how and in what contexts phraseological units are introduced and studied, and to determine to what extent the selected textbooks represent an effective support in the process of teaching/learning Italian as a foreign language.
Because of their characteristics, phraseological units represent a stumbling-block for non-native speakers, especially if their L1 is not one of the Romance Languages. Until the advent of the communicative approach - but also later - phraseology received only little attention in the teaching and learning of foreign languages; it was assumed that a student would develop a phraseological competence through imitation, and it seemed that phraseological units were to be treated only at higher levels of language proficiency. On the contrary, as many recent studies convincingly suggest, phraseological units should be systematically and explicitly taught/learnt from level A1 on. In the CEFR phraseological units are presented as an important element of lexical competence, while they are mostly neglected in the level descriptors. This approach seems to leave no objective criteria for textbook authors who consider whether and how to incorporate phraseology in their textbooks.
Keywords: phraseological units, textbooks, Italian, QCER.
Povzetek
FRAZEOLOŠKE ENOTE V UČBENIKIH ZA ITALIJANŠČINO KOT TUJ JEZIK ANALIZA UČBENIKOV GLEDE NA RAVNI SKUPNEGA EVROPSKEGA JEZIKOVNEGA OKVIRA (SEJO)
Članek obravnava problematiko frazeoloških enot v poučevanju/učenju italijanščine kot tujega jezika. V ta namen so bili sistematično analizirani nekateri učbeniki, osnovani na podlagi SEJO, in sicer z namenom ugotoviti, kako in v katerih kontekstih so frazeološke enote prisotne in obravnavane, ter določiti, v kolikšni meri so izbrani učbeniki za italijanščino učinkovita opora v procesu učenja/poučevanja.
Prav zaradi njihovih značilnosti so v italijanščini frazeološke enote za nematerne govorce vir precejšnjih težav, še posebej takrat, kadar njihova materinščina ni eden od romanskih jezikov. Do uveljavitve komunikacijskega pristopa in tudi kasneje je didaktika tujih jezikov namenjala frazeologiji le malo pozornosti; predpostavljalo se je, da se ta razvija s posnemanjem ter da gre za aspekt, ki ga velja obravnavati le na višjih ravneh jezikovne zmožnosti. Kljub temu novejše raziskave kažejo, da je eksplicitna in sistematična obravnava frazeoloških enot pri poučevanju/učenju tujega jezika nujna že od ravni A1 naprej. V SEJO so frazeološke enote sicer obravnavane kot pomemben element znotraj leksikalne zmožnosti, vendar so skoraj izvzete iz opi-snikov za posamezne ravni. Zdi se, da tak pristop pušča brez skupnih in objektivnih kriterijev avtorje učbenikov, ki se o tem, če in kako vključiti frazeologijo v učbenike, odločajo precej subjektivno.
Ključne besede: frazeološke enote, učbeniki, italijanščina, SEJO.
Mojca Jarc
University of Ljubljana*
UDK 811.133.1'243(07S):37.016(4) DOI: 10.4312llinguistica.S4.1.189-210
THE CEFR PERSPECTIVE ON GENRE INFORMATION IN FRENCH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES TEXTBOOKS
1 INTRODUCTION
In an era of increased international mobility, the acquisition of genre knowledge in a foreign language has become one of the prerequisites for successfully participating in professional communication. This trend has largely been observed in international environments where English is used as a lingua franca, while a revived interest in the French for specific purposes (FSP) programmes has been noted especially after the European Union's enlargement to Eastern European countries (Quotb 2009). In the past 20 years, the results of genre-based studies have been introduced into the programmes of languages for specific purposes (LSP) (Swales 1990; Mourlhon-Dallies 2008) and even genre-based approaches have been used to teach LSP (Burns 2013)1. However, little is known about the application of these results in FSP textbooks.
Research into genres in textbooks is particularly relevant because the LSP tradition has always highlighted the role of writing materials and especially the role of written genres (Belcher 2006). Harwood (2010) showed that scientific analysis of teaching materials is not only useful for teachers who want to make informed decisions while designing their own materials, but also for teachers who adapt ready-made materials to their local context. Textbooks remain the primary source of language material and a foundation for language practice in the classroom (Tomlinson 2012). They also point to the key features of the adopted pedagogical approach (Jin/Cortazzi 2011) and enhance students' intellectual growth, among other things, by exposing learners to a rich repertoire of genres and text types (Tomlinson 2008). The Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR) perspective can contribute to an understanding of the position of genre in textbooks because it has been recognised as an important tool and reference in the process of elaborating textbook materials (Beacco et al. 2004; Martyniuk/Noijons 2007). In the FSP context, textbooks remain less explored than in
Author's address: Fakulteta za družbene vede, Univerza v Ljubljani, Kardeljeva ploščad 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: mojca.jarc@fdv.uni-lj.si.
Discourse and genre are highly polysemous terms. In the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) tradition, Bhatia views discourse as "language use in institutional, professional or more general social contexts" (Bhatia 2004: 3). Tardy (2011: 55) defines genre as "a typified form of discourse". Although different genre analysis orientations put different degrees of emphasis on the surrounding context, Tardy (ibid.) notes that they all view genres as socially situated; intertextual, not isolated; carried out in multiple modes of communication; and related to power relations in communities.
*
1
Anglophone contexts. Quotb (2009) labels commercially available FSP textbooks as often inadequate in terms of meeting users' needs. From a methodological perspective, Gajewska (2011) argues that discourse analysis has been accepted as part of the conceptual framework of the language teaching but has not yet been operationalised. The challenge facing the FSP teacher is to evaluate the degree of support the textbooks can offer in developing students' genre competences.
Existing research into genres included in textbooks has mostly concentrated on comparing language syllabi in specific genres with real-life data in order to evaluate the degree of suitability of materials. Harwood (2010) notes that these studies point to the inexistent or insufficient integration of research results into pedagogy. To our knowledge, no study has concentrated on genre repertoires and on their variability across CEFR levels.
This article reports on a study carried out to examine which types of written genres are explored in FSP textbooks and how the genre repertoires included in those textbooks enhance students' genre competences across CEFR levels and LSP fields. In order to establish a level of compatibility between the CEFR and LSP approaches, we start by identifying genre-related parameters in the CEFR and compare them with the LSP genre tradition. Basing ourselves on the established parameters, we describe the results of a textual analysis conducted in our corpus. We uncover how genre knowledge is built up through written texts and through tasks included in the textbooks. The results of the analysis are discussed and pedagogical implications are suggested.
2 THE CEFR AND LSP PERSPECTIVES IN CONTACT
Starting from Bakhtin's (1986: 60) definition, according to which genres as "relatively stable types of [...] utterance" are related to particular "spheres in which language is used", we set out to explore the role of genre in the CEFR and Anglophone LSP traditions. The analysis of the convergences and differences between the two approaches will serve as a framework for a description of genre-related elements in the selected sample of FSP textbooks.
Several concepts in the CEFR point to the possibility of integrating the LSP perspective, and particularly the genre perspective within the CEFR. To begin with, it should be noted that the expression "language for specific purposes" is not to be found in the CEFR. However, this does not mean that reference is not made to concepts and to situations which are relevant to the LSP and to genre. The first of such concepts is domain. Domains can be approximated to Bakhtin's term spheres. Domains are defined as "[...] the broad sectors of social life in which social agents operate" (CEFR 2001: 10). The CEFR identifies four crucial domains in language teaching: the educational, occupational, public and personal. What is seen as a domain in the CEFR cannot be directly linked with the LSP perspective. The LSP perspective distinguishes between languages for academic purposes and languages for occupational purposes, covering different disciplines, such as medical language, diplomatic language, etc. Nevertheless, it may be claimed that domains as well as disciplines form the context in which genres are produced.
The next parameter relevant to language learning in the CEFR is the level of language proficiency. In the CEFR, language competences are divided into three basic lev-
els, which are further broken down into six levels spanning from A1 to C2. The descriptors for individual language competences are given for the six levels and some of them make reference to professional or academic contexts, especially under levels B2 to C2. However, references to particular genres are rare. Descriptions for the French language have been made for individual levels where the relevant genres were listed (Beacco et al. 2004) and described in terms of functions, morpho-syntax and distributional characteristics, but the given genre descriptions rarely refer to precise genres since they are merged into larger categories (i.e. correspondence). As opposed to this categorisation, the LSP tradition views genres as a means to realise the shared goals of a community. In Swales' terminology, the category correspondence would thus represent "a suprage-neric assembly of discourse", while a "good news" letter as a response to an application would constitute a genre (Swales 1990: 53). As noted by Beacco (2010), genre descriptions yielded by his project cannot cover all genres and cannot be used as general guidelines because some grammatical or other functional categories are not exclusively linked to a specific genre, and because they are common to several genres. Instead, they are offered as a source of ideas for programme designers. Finally, Beacco et al. (2004) contend that genres cannot be categorised into individual CEFR levels since the difficulty of text production or text reception cannot be attributed exclusively to genre. In the LSP needs-based environment, the situation is further complicated by the profile of the user who may face high socio-cultural professional expectations while having a low level of general language competences. For example, an Erasmus exchange student with low language competences may be required to write an academic essay in French. The two parameters seem to be mutually exclusive in the CEFR (Petit 2006).
Further references to the concept of genre can be found in Chapters 4 and 5 of the CEFR, for these chapters provide descriptors of activities and competences. Text (in written or oral form) is seen as a key element in an individual's communication activities and processes, although the concept of genre has a somewhat limited scope. When the term genre is used, the stress is put on the classificatory function of genres as general categories into which different text types can be assigned, meaning that genre is predominantly seen as an output. Texts are related to the macrofunctions they perform (e.g. description) and to the media they are carried by, while some other genre characteristics (such as communicative purposes) are not explicitly dealt with. It seems that the terms text type and genre are in some cases even used as synonyms (CEFR 2001: 160). Similarly, genre analysis is only given indirect credence: Swales (1990) is mentioned among the references for Chapter 4, but the concept itself is not used in the text. In Chapter 7, the following definition of text type is proposed:
text type: familiarity with the genre and domain (and with assumed background and sociocultural knowledge) helps the learner in anticipating and comprehending text structure and content; the concrete or abstract nature of the text is also likely to play a role; for example, concrete description, instructions or narratives (particularly with adequate visual supports), for example, are likely to be less demanding than abstract argumentation or explanation [...] (CEFR 2001: 165).
This definition seems to favour the link between genre and text types, while recognising the broader implications of the term genre as part of the user's sociocultural knowledge. As opposed to the CEFR, it is precisely this context-centeredness that made the notion of genre particularly relevant to LSP teaching (Mourlhon-Dallies 2008; Bha-tia et al. 2011).
Another parameter that characterises both the CEFR and the LSP is the insistence on action-based linguistic activities in language teaching and learning. The idea of an inherent link between text and activity is mirrored in established LSP practice, which sees language as a tool for communication (Nunan 2004). From the genre perspective, the multidimensional research into genre has been an integral part of genre theory and of genre-based pedagogy, which views genre as a social practice (Bakhtin 1986; Beacco 2004) related to a given professional or academic activity (Swales 1990; Bhatia 2004) or, more generally, as action (Bazerman 1994). Language users are seen as social actors performing tasks. While the LSP tradition does not seem to question this approach, the CEFR remains prudently conservative by introducing the expression action-oriented approach. In order to carry out tasks, users have to be equipped with an array of competences, which are activated in the process of task completion. The CEFR distinguishes between general competences and communicative language competences. For "matters often dealt with under genre", the CEFR refers interested readers to the section entitled Pragmatic competences. According to the CEFR, this competence is relevant at higher levels of proficiency. However, the link between the rhetorical structure and the functional aspect of genre, highlighted by the LSP perspective (Swales 1990), is not dealt with in the CEFR.
On the basis of this analysis, it could be claimed that throughout the CEFR approach and the LSP approach the insistence on the dynamic aspect of texts has resulted in the targeted development of competences. The genre tradition sees genres as complex, interactive and dynamic entities in which the ability to deal with both text and context contributes to genre competence (Bawarshi/Reiff 2010). Under the CEFR terminology, this would mean that LSP genre users would need to have acquired several types of competences and relevant knowledge of the world: socio-cultural knowledge, communicative language competences as well as sociolinguistic competence. To achieve these aims, task-based teaching is promoted.
The main difference between the CEFR and the LSP genre perspective lies in the perception of the user as a social actor. As observed by Piccardo et al. (2011), the CEFR highlights the centrality of tasks as a nexus between an individual's everyday life and communication on the one hand, and language learning on the other. At the same time, the term task is only used with reference to concrete personal experiences while neglecting the cultural and anthropological aspects of tasks as an integral part of relations to groups. In genre theory, the shift is clearly made to discourse as a social practice.
Based on a comparison of the genre-related parameters in the two studied approaches (for a summary of the results, see Table 1), we proceed to a description of the selected sample of FSP textbooks.
Parameter	CEFR	LSP tradition
Domain	4 domains: educational, occupational, public and personal	Special purposes: academic and/or occupational purposes
Genre as text type	The link between genre and text type is prioritised	Genre is seen as a text type in its context
Language level	Levels of socio-cultural competences increase with levels of linguistic competences	The level of the user's linguistic competences may be lower than the level of their academic or professional competencies
Task	The mobilising agency in situations soliciting a personal response in view of the task completion	The mobilising agency in situations where language is used as a communication tool in a discourse community
Competence	A stress on communicative competence	The ability to deal with text and context
Table 1: Genre-related parameters in the CEFR and LSP traditions
3 RESULTS OF TEXTBOOK ANALYSIS
Seventeen textbooks were selected from the total of 33 textbooks listed in Latour (2013). Textbooks exclusively addressing oral communication were not included in the corpus because we restricted our analysis to written genres. In addition, the focus on the soft sciences as opposed to the hard sciences was chosen in order to avoid genre diffusion or possible differences of approach due to differences in the functioning of discourse communities. For a general overview of the textbooks' characteristics at the macro-level, see Table 2 in the Appendix.
In order to analyse how the precepts of the CEFR are implemented in written genre-related contents of the textbooks studied, we adopted a qualitative criterion-based approach (Mol/Tin: 2008; Gray: 2010). We proceeded through various stages. We started at the macro-level of the textbooks and gradually moved to smaller units, concentrating on different texts pertaining to different written genres, and to exercises accompanying these texts. At the macro-level, we first identified the scope of the textbooks in terms of the CEFR levels and domains. Then we made a list of the genres covered by the textbooks at individual CEFR levels and analysed those genres with respect to their presence in individual disciplines. We further identified the sources of those genres in order to determine their authenticity and the link between the genre and the LSP field in question. In our analysis of genre-related tasks, we aimed to describe the required competences and the nature of the required response. Figure 1 shows the model we used for the analysis of genre-related information in the textbooks.
textbook level
step 1	step 2	step 3
Identification of LSP field	Identification of CEFR levels	Identification of LSP domains
genre / text type level
step 4	step 5	step 6
Identification genres	Classification of genres	Description of genre
and text types	into domains	repertoires
task level
step 7 Task description
Figure 1: Model for the analysis of genre-related information in FSP textbooks LSP fields, domains and CEFR levels
The FSP textbooks included in our corpus fall into the following categories: Business; Diplomacy and Administration; Tourism; and Law. The first category proved to be by far the largest in our corpus. The prevailing focus on business language is a trend that can also be observed in other languages and is thus not unique to French LSP textbooks (St John: 1996). This evidence is not surprising if we bear in mind the imperative of commercial success in publishing policies and therefore also its influence on the choice of LSP fields. As seen in Section 2 above, the concepts of LSP fields and the CEFR domains do not overlap. To determine the extent to which professional genres are included in the textbooks it was necessary to analyse which domains are covered within individual textbooks. Following the CEFR conceptualisation of domains, our analysis showed that the avowed LSP focus does not prevent the textbook writers from going beyond the occupational domain towards personal, educational and public domains (see Table 2). Most textbooks in our corpus tend to combine different domains, either within the same activity or across activities and topics. Written genres can be found in the educational, occupational and also the public domain, with constant parallels between the personal domain and the other three domains, thus allowing for continuous shifts of perspective between the language learner as an individual and the language learner as part of a professional community.
The textbooks included in the corpus range from levels A1 to B2 in the CEFR. Two interesting phenomena can be observed with reference to the textbook levels: the dominant
ambition to cover two levels in a single textbook and the absence of textbooks covering some CEFR levels. The tendency to include two levels in a single book is a finding that runs counter to the precept of LSP short intensive courses (Mangiante/Parpette 2004). All of the textbooks that start at A1 also cover the A2 level. None of the textbooks in our corpus exclusively covers the A1 level and none covers levels above B2. While the absence of A1 textbooks could stem from a widely held belief that the LSP courses are predominantly meant for more advanced levels, it is more difficult to understand why there are no FSP textbooks targeting learners who have achieved the higher levels of language competence, where genre references are the richest in the CEFR.
Text types and genres included in the FSP textbooks
The genres in the textbooks help form students' discursive repertoires. Regardless of the domain they originally pertain to, all the texts in a textbook can be viewed as educational in purpose. Bhatia (2004) believes that a textbook is a genre colony. This means that a textbook includes genres which are embedded (Bhatia 2004; Làhdesmâki 2009) in it at different levels of structure. The communicative purposes of embedded genres are globally reframed to fit with the general purpose of the textbook as an instructional genre. The textbook user is aware that the texts carry a linguistically pedagogical value. Beyond this general orientation, each text type can be identified as originally pertaining to a given CEFR domain. For the distribution of written genres across domains, see Table 3 in the Appendix.
Genres pertaining to the occupational domain are supposed to be the distinguishing characteristic of FSP textbooks. These genres mould the identity of the textbooks by their contextual link with a particular LSP field. As expected, the professional genres form the richest repertoire among the four domains offered to an LSP learner. Our analysis showed that not a single professional written genre is common to all of the textbooks studied. Moreover, the number of different professional genres varies across textbooks. Although the mere number of different text types does not tell us much about the approach to genres, it does define the potential for the development of the user's genre repertoire and, consequently, contributes to the user's communicative competence. It is interesting to note that in the FSP textbook from the field of administration professional genres are almost exclusively replaced by the educational genre of textbook topic presentation. The professional profile drawn through such a genre repertoire would in this case probably better correspond to the profile of a (French native speaker) undergraduate student of the French administration system than to that of a non-native FSP user. On the other hand, some FSP textbooks, i.e. in the field of tourism, diplomacy and business, offer vast genre repertoires to learn from.
Contrary to our expectations, the richness of the genre repertoires does not consistently increase with the CEFR level. Some textbooks covering the lower levels (e.g. Objectif Diplomatie Al / A2, Français.com, Comment vont les affaires) offer richer genre repertoires than B1/B2 textbooks (e.g. Carte de visite, Le Français du monde de travail). The richness of the genre repertoires was also found to vary across FSP fields and within a single field. While variation across fields may be partly attributable to the epistemic nature of the field, we observed that in some textbooks where task-based
approaches were not systematically observed the choice of text types is more concentrated on the educational domain (e.g. Adminsitration.com, Diplomatie.com).
Further consideration of the nature of professional genres gives the teacher some insight into how professional identities are portrayed via genre inclusion in the textbooks. In our corpus, three tendencies were observed in the presentation of genre repertoires: the insistence on larger, generic categories of text types, the generalised use of the most widely used text types, and the dispersion of more specific genres across LSP fields and CEFR levels. The presentation of larger categories favours the analysis of text types at very general levels of analysis, including criteria such as the type of media (e.g. e-mail, SMS message), their physical presentation (paragraphs, photos, titles) and format. These text types appear in textbooks at CEFR levels A1 to B2 and in all of the studied FSP fields. They present genre information as being less important than the content-related "message" it carries for the textbook user. The learner's attention is not explicitly drawn to the genre features of these texts, which is in line with the increased emphasis on genres at higher CEFR levels.
Among the most widely used genres, the consistent presence of genres like forms and official documents can be noted. Moreover, correspondence seems to create an important terrain for exploring different genres and for identifying the textbook user with his/her professional context. Two types of correspondence seem to dominate. The first type is organised around the context of a job application. A real genre chain extending beyond the borders of written genres is formed in this case (i.e. job offer - job application letter - CV - positive response - job interview - job resignation letter). This type of genre is found across textbooks at all levels from A1 to B2, and in three of the analysed LSP fields. Surprisingly, the two fields in which this type of genre chain is absent are Law and Administration. The second type could be labelled standard business letters, which are limited to the field of business and tourism French. Correspondence offers numerous possibilities for the creation of genre chains in which contextual elements can intervene. In our corpus, professional correspondence is more consistently covered in the fields of business and tourism than in diplomacy, administration or law.
Several more dispersed professional genres can be found, especially at the higher CEFR levels (B1, B2). These genres are linked with specific situations, activities and texts that are characteristic of a given LSP field (e.g. an end-of-year statement in business, a press release in diplomacy, a court decision in law). In comparison with text types that chiefly highlight the generic professional situations, these genres constitute a narrower professional identity of the textbook user. They have an added value because they allow users to enrich their discursive repertoire and to experience it in a pedagogi-cally recreated context. They have the potential to develop insights into the specificities of the target professional community for the newcomers and offer more experienced learners the possibility to share their specific professional expertise.
Within the educational domain, three groups of written genres can be distinguished: lecture-related genres, secondary literature genres and language evaluation genres. Lecture-related genres mimic the context of a lecture with the necessary carrier content, which may be complemented by additional authentic documents, examples and anno-
tated lists of relevant website addresses. Secondary literature genres usually feature in the appendices of a textbook. They are part of the textbook macrostructure and include genres that are used in a language learning context, such as multilingual glossaries and grammar outlines, as well as field-related genres, such as lists of abbreviations and special purpose maps. Glossaries and lists of abbreviations are the most pervasive feature of FSP textbooks in all of the studied disciplines and CEFR levels. Language evaluation genres implicitly or explicitly direct a student towards an evaluation of the acquired knowledge. They include progress evaluation tests, competence grids, and portfolios. While the last types aim at developing students' self-assessment and lifelong learning evaluation skills used for formative purposes, the tests are not only meant as progress evaluation instruments but also as instruments to deal with the context of summative evaluation. Even though the majority of textbook introductions present the system of external testing, few textbooks provide sample general language tests (DELF, DALF) at lower levels of language proficiency (A1, A2). Only the textbook Français du tourisme presents LSP tests where the tasks aim to aid preparation for officially recognised FSP proficiency tests offered by authorised test centres. These tests familiarise students with the context of testing as well as the types of tasks included in the test and give them instructions to successfully deal with the testing situation.
In spite of the LSP nature of the textbooks, learners are also presented with some genres from personal and public domains. Genres pertaining to the personal domain vary greatly across the textbooks. Generally, they are in some way related to the user's professional life (i.e. paraprofessional situations, such as the user consulting a menu during a business trip), but some have hardly anything to do with it (i.e. a recipe or novel extract in a business textbook). Genres within the public domain seem to appear only accidentally, except in the fields of law and diplomacy, where they could be linked to the requirements of the profession. Finally, another feature appeared in our study of the FSP textbooks. Even though the occupational domain genres impart a specific identity to a textbook, and the genres pertaining to other domains are deemed to be secondary in this sense, the domains should not be viewed as static or impenetrable. In our corpus, there are numerous examples in which a professional genre is used as a trigger for a personal conversation and vice versa. FSP textbooks are therefore far from exclusively profession-oriented. Based on the analysis of genre identity within different domains, it could be claimed that FSP textbook authors view textbook users not only as professionals but as general language learners whose language learning experience is extended into the four CEFR domains.
The CEFR does not take any theoretical stances regarding the choice of suitable texts, but the reference to authentic texts or situations always ranks high among the presented possibilities to acquire the communicative competence in a foreign language (CEFR 2001: 143-154). Even though the textbook authors explicitly highlight the authenticity of materials, the vast majority of the genre-related materials in the FSP textbooks studied is not authentic but was redrafted or even written specifically for the textbook. While the choice of written genres points to the authors' efforts to deal with authentic LSP situations, the choice of authentic materials is either not always
explicitly recognised or remains highly limited. This is to some extent understandable since complex, lengthy and linguistically demanding texts can be difficult to handle in a classroom situation. As a result, they are often shortened and changed to highlight only the critical discourse features. Moreover, some occluded genres are difficult to obtain in their original form (e.g. cables in diplomatic correspondence). Regardless of these limitations, it could be hypothesised that the enhanced authenticity of genre materials would further contribute to students' genre awareness. This could be achieved not only at the text level but also at the sentence, lexical, and morpho-syntactic levels of language analysis. In recent years, LSP research has benefitted from corpus-based results which have allowed for a deeper insight into the discourse of a given field. However, the information on the data collection methods used was not to be found in the textbooks studied. The reality to which the user is allowed to accede via the textbook information about written genres is therefore not easily verifiable.
Tasks involving written genres
In the FSP textbooks, written professional genres have different functions. As observed earlier, the first function is related to the specific LSP field. By their mere presence in a textbook, genres offer the possibility to establish a broader framework for the language learner who will be able to use different text types as a leverage to identify his/her role in a given professional situation and to grasp the professional reality through the analysis of actors, processes and activities as well as the analysis of discourse features and of social or (inter)culturally conditioned implications of genre practice. But we can observe that additional purposes are attributed to the selected professional genres or text types through the tasks involving written genres.
The most common function of genres as text types in FSP textbooks is what we may call the contextualisation function. Here, the acquisition of genre competence itself is not targeted as a pedagogical objective. Instead, genre is used to establish a suitable context in which the user is assigned a purely linguistic task in order to make a language-teaching point. For example, a gap-fill exercise embedded in an administrative letter can serve as a pretext to ask the learner to reuse the target vocabulary or language structures in a given situation. The overall purpose of this exercise is therefore not related to the genre itself. The required learner competences will logically have to match the nature of the tasks. While in this case the genre use allows for a framework of situated learning, the specific aim is to mobilise an aspect of learners' language competence in performing a pedagogical, linguistic task.
The contextualisation effort should be seen as a continuum which involves genre processing at different stages of the learning process. In some cases, the relevance of contextualisation can be questioned: e.g. the learner is presented with an introductory text written in a genre and is later required to produce a text in this genre, but the context is not related to the professional situation of the learner and therefore the genre output is not in a pedagogical focus. In one textbook (Frangais.com), the learner is presented with an extract from an article on a cultural aspect of a phenomenon. After the comprehension check phase, the learner is instructed to write an article about the
same phenomenon in his/her culture. It can be assumed that the real pedagogical focus is the cultural phenomenon and not the genre.
If genres are often used only as triggers for activities that have little to do with genre itself, at the other extreme of this continuum are those FSP textbooks that propose tasks that require students' productive genre competence without even pre-teaching it in any way. For example, in the FSP textbook for law students and experts the learner is asked to produce a conference paper and an abstract for conference proceedings, without any previous preparation. The general instruction provides limited orientation by inviting the learner to observe a three-part structure with the introduction, body and conclusion while using the linking words to ensure the coherence of the text. In the latter case, the genre product is the final output of a simulation exercise in which the context has been artificially built around the chosen specialised topic, and the pedagogical stress is placed on the propositional content rather than on the genre structure, style or purpose.
Within the second group of pedagogically conditioned functions, written genres or extracts from written genres feature as short introductory texts, which are followed by instructions that trigger activities based on the primary use of receptive skills. The use of genres in this function shifts the focus from a limited linguistic question to raising genre awareness through reading tasks. These are usually composed of classical reading comprehension questions checking the global and detailed understanding of the text. It may be claimed that the aim of these exercises is more to develop learners' general reading strategies than specific genre competences, but this kind of exercise might result in some passive acquisition of genre patterns.
In the next group, genres are used as prompts in tasks that trigger the mobilisation of general productive skills. The majority of writing tasks in our corpus aims at developing general writing skills. An example of such a task would be summary writing, which sometimes follows the reading of comprehension questions (Objectif Diplomatic A2 / B1). In this task, the learner is required to sum up the whole text or part of the text, and this can remain a purely pedagogical task without any reference to real-life situations. In some professional contexts, summary writing may be seen as an important writing skill, which is also useful in professional genres, but this skill is not uniquely related to the development of genre competences. Another type of task, where genre also plays the role of a support document for the mobilisation of general productive skills, is tasks requiring interaction in a given situation. The required response to these documents may shift from a written genre to another channel of information, e.g. an oral presentation of a person based on their identity card or, vice versa, completing the record of a telephone conversation form after having listened to an oral document.
The degree to which productive skills are mobilised varies across genres. Some genres, e.g. different types of forms, administrative documents and cards, are presented as such and the user is not allowed to creatively intervene in the genre structure. Due to the nature of these genres, the learner is expected to use receptive skills in order to retrieve the relevant information or category of data in the text. Productive skills are employed to complete a form and to develop an oral interaction. However, for some written genres text construction skills are required. This is especially seen in corre-
spondence, where learners' writing skills are developed through genre building tasks.
In considering the nature of these tasks, we distinguish between the process and the product approach, which is recognised in the genre tradition (Flowerdew 1993) and in the CEFR. While the process approach allows learners to discover the genre structure on their own and gives them the possibility to observe different factors influencing the interplay between genre as text and context, the product approach focuses on the structure of the text, and the text sample functions as a prototype. The prototype supports learners in producing their own response to a genre situation. In our corpus, traces of the process and the product approaches can be found, although the product approach seems to prevail. As far as genre-related information is concerned, a pronounced insistence on the product is expressed through the presentation of sample documents, especially sample letters to be studied by the learner. Textbook authors see these text exemplars as the necessary cannon to introduce the learner to the French culture and, more specifically, to the culture of a given professional community. The text-type structures are meant to be learned by the students through sample texts. In carrying out the genre-building tasks the learner is often guided by instructions of good use, which explicitly list individual moves taken by the genre author to achieve rhetorical objectives. Sample texts are offered to the learner as models to be followed for the completion of a task. The modelling and the reconstruction of text are entirely performed by the textbook author. The move structure and sequencing is shown as stable and unchangeable. Sometimes these steps are accompanied by theoretical descriptions of common grammatical difficulties. The information on genre structure is either integrated in the assignment structure or it is suggested in the appendices or in the Key to exercises, where the user is directed to search for ideal versions of the task solutions/genre performance without being given the possibility to compare different versions. Most of the textbooks studied also provide explicit culturally related "civilisation" or professional information. In some cases, the learner is invited to make comparisons between the structure of the same genre in the French language and in his/her first language. But cultural information is not systematically related to genres and is not always integrated in the presentation of genres. Overall, this type of contents in FSP textbooks could be seen as a response to the broad CEFR requirement to develop students' intercultural skills and to address their socio-cultural needs.
In our corpus, a combination of the process and product approaches can be seen in authentic task-based activities. These activities are usually presented in the form of end-of-unit simulations where the participants are given more or less detailed information and even scenarios for the staging of a real-life situation. In interaction with other participants and under appropriate teacher control, they can not only plan and discuss their outputs but also creatively explore the potential to use the communicative strategies, express adequate propositional content and their identity.
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Previous research has pointed to the importance of developing principled criteria in the evaluation of materials (Tomlinson 2012). We suggested that a double perspective on textbooks, namely taking the CEFR as a general framework for the analysis, while concentrating on genres as staged, socially conditioned text types, can prove to be relevant for the FSP teacher who sets out to evaluate an FSP textbook. The analysis of the genre-related parameters showed that the CEFR offers several parallels with LSP teaching. On the other hand, clear differences were observed when the precepts of the CEFR are to be applied to the LSP course design with a genre perspective. In both traditions the communicative competence, which is the goal of language learning, has to embrace the ability to function in society and to use the language, but the CEFR has a more limited approach to the conceptualisation of genre-related parameters, focusing to a lesser extent on the user as a social actor and remaining at a more general level as far as the types of texts are concerned. Evaluation frameworks would therefore have to take these differences into account.
Written genres included in textbooks point to the macrofunction of the textbook as an instructional genre. LSP textbooks intending to support the development of genre competences need to include relevant occupational genres, which would allow for the development of complex genre competences (Swales 1990; Bhatia 2004; Johns 2011). The analysis of genres in FSP textbooks gave us an insight into the way textbooks authors understand the issues of specialised discourse. Several findings, pointing to possible gaps in the genre information, emerged through this analysis. In general, considerable variation in the presented genre realities was observed across the CEFR levels and disciplines. With reference to the CEFR levels, we showed that the majority of the textbooks studied cover two CEFR levels in one book while the highest CEFR levels, where the genre competences are likely to be the most relevant to the FSP learner, are not even represented in textbook form. This implies that teachers who are about to choose a suitable textbook will have to take into account that the approaches to language learning in these materials are highly selective and that some level of adaptation to the target audience might therefore be needed not only from the genre perspective but also from other perspectives, i.e. the language level of the target audience, the pedagogical approach etc.
The second finding relates to the role of genres in textbooks. The assumption that the occupational genres would always function as the pivotal domain in the FSP textbooks was not confirmed, even though the professional domain genres seem to predominate in most of the FSP textbooks studied. Textbooks developers see specialised discourse as being intertwined with other types of discourse, extending to educational, private and public domains and the textbook user is expected to move freely across domains and communities. A panoply of different groups of genre types was identified in each of the domains included in the FSP textbooks. Within the occupational domain, the FSP textbooks tend to rely on the more general categories of text types; they mostly deal with general professional situations and the pertaining genres which are characteristic of professional life across LSP fields, e.g. a job application. These genres are often used in situations where they form genre chains, including switches between oral and
written genres. The richest text type variation between LSP fields and CEFR levels was observed in the group of discipline-specific genres, although these genres only appear at the higher CEFR levels. Our study further suggests that students' communicative competence is rarely developed through the use of authentic materials and that the general precept of authenticity is not systematically followed in the FSP textbooks. It thus confirms the results of previous studies by Lahdesmaki (2009) for ELT textbooks and by Lah (2012) for FLT textbooks.
Finally, we revealed that the genres and genre-related tasks are closer to the conceptualisation of the CEFR than to the Anglophone LSP genre tradition. In the FSP textbooks, genres are predominantly dealt with as text types and are not always included with a view to developing genre competences. Four functions of genres as text types were identified: contextualisation, raising genre awareness through reading, mobilisation of general productive skills, and the genre-building function. Tasks that present genres as staged activities, related to professional situations, problems to be solved or missions to be accomplished enhance purposeful action-based linguistic behaviour within a given professional community and offer the possibility of a genre-building experience in which the learners can move beyond the reuse of linguistic structures and the mimicry of presented sample text types. These tasks usually appear in textbooks which propose end-of-unit simulations. The analysis of the genre-related tasks suggests that genres are mostly conceptualised from the prescriptive perspective. The perceived aim of this exercise for students is to mimic as faithfully as possible the text type characteristics in their linguistic or sometimes more broadly communicative activities. This knowledge is operationalised through tasks that favour reproduction of the given exemplars. The stress on this function can be explained by the nature of the textbooks themselves, which can generally be viewed as prescriptive genres (Piccardo et al. 2011). Less attention is devoted to the development of the process skills and to the dynamic aspect of written genres.
Our analysis offers a general insight into the role of genres in the FSP textbooks studied, but the results can be transferred to other FSP situations. Teachers planning to choose an FSP textbook in a given LSP field will have to consider its suitability with a specific needs analysis in mind. In order to be able to carry out this analysis, the set of criteria suggested above (Section 3) would be useful in the evaluation stage. Apart from considering the questions of authenticity, teachers will also have to determine whether the textbook provides a broad perspective on the functioning of genres. With reference to tasks, they will have to establish whether the learner is offered the possibility to develop the process and the product-related skills. These insights should help teachers better integrate the findings of the genre-based approaches into their teaching practices and to supplement the existing materials with additional genre samples or with additional approaches and thus allow the user to integrate their genre knowledge through a holistic genre experience.
Our study primarily focused on how textbooks can inform an FSP teacher about the written genres FSP students will have to deal with. However, it has some limitations in terms of scope and depth. When talking about genre, written text is only one of the challenges the teachers making decisions about the role of genre in their programme will be faced with. Our findings are concentrated on the teacher perspective in evaluating the role
of genres. Further research is needed to integrate the learner's perspective and to evaluate
how the genre practices are enhanced through the actual use of FSP textbooks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their advice and comments on
earlier versions of this article.
Textbooks included in the corpus
BASSI, Claude/Anne-Marie CHAPSAL (2005) Diplomatie.com. Paris: CLE International.
BASSI, Claude/Anne-Marie SAINLOS (2005) Administration.com. Paris: CLE International.
BLOOMFIELD, Anatole/Béatrice TAUZIN (2001) Affaires à suivre. Cours de français professionnel de niveau intermédiaire. Paris: Hachette.
CALMY, Anne-Marie (2004) Le Français du Tourisme. Paris: Hachette.
CHERIFI, Soade/Bruno GIRARDEAU/Marion MISTICHELLI (2009) Travailler en français en entreprise. Niveaux A2/B1 du CECR: Méthode de français sur objectifs spécifiques. Paris: Didier.
CLOOSE, Eliane (2009) Le Français du monde du travail. Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble.
CORBEAU, Sophie/Chantal DUBOIS/Jean-Luc PENFORNIS (2004) Tourisme.com. Paris: CLE International.
DECLOS, Jacques/Bernard LECLERCQ/Merja SUVANTO (2000) Carte de Visite: Français des relations professionnelles. Paris: Didier.
DUBOIS, Anne-Lyse/Béatrice TAUZIN (2009) Objectif express: Le monde professionnel en français 2. Paris: Hachette Livre.
GILLMANN, Bernard (2007) Travailler en français en entreprise. Niveaux A1/A2 du CECR. Méthode de français sur objectifs spécifiques. Paris: Didier.
GRUNEBERG, Anne/Béatrice TAUZIN (2000) Comment vont les affaires?: Cours de français professionnel pour débutants. Paris: Hachette.
PENFORNIS, Jean-Luc (2002) Français.com: Méthode de français professionnel et des affaires. Paris: CLE International.
RIEHL, Laurence/Michel SOIGNET/Marie-Hélène AMIOT (2006) Objectif diplomatie. Le français des relations européennes et international. Paris: Hachette.
RIEHL, Laurence/Michel SOIGNET/Marie-Hélène AMIOT/Isidore NDAYWEL E NZIEM (2008) Objectif diplomatie: Le français des relations internationales. Afrique- Océan indien. Paris: Hachette.
SOIGNET, Michel (2003) Le Français Juridique: Droit - Administration - Affaires. Paris: Hachette.
SOIGNET, Michel (2011) Objectif diplomatie: Le français des relations européennes et internationales. Paris: Hachette.
TAUZIN, Béatrice/Anne-Lyse DUBOIS (2006) Objectif express: Le monde professionnel en français. Paris: Hachette.
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Abstract
THE CEFR PERSPECTIVE ON GENRE INFORMATION IN FRENCH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES TEXTBOOKS
In the past twenty years, the results of genre-based studies have been introduced into programmes of languages for specific purposes and even genre-based approaches have been used to teach languages for specific purposes. At the same time, the CEFR has been recognised as an important tool and reference in the process of materials design. However, the relationship between these two powerful frameworks has not been fully explored. In this article, we aim to analyse this relationship in order to reveal how genre knowledge is presented through written texts and through tasks included in textbooks.
Based on the results of qualitative text analysis, we argue that the integration of the CEFR and genre perspectives yields valuable information concerning the role of genres at different CEFR levels and in different domains. We offer an insight into the genre identities portrayed in French for Specific Purposes textbooks and identify the possible types of gaps that may arise when the user's professional identities are considered through the genres included in textbooks.
Keywords: genre, genre competence, French for Specific Purposes textbook, CEFR levels, CEFR domains.
Povzetek
POGLED NA ŽANRSKE VSEBINE V UČBENIKIH FRANCOSKEGA JEZIKA
STROKE Z VIDIKA SEJO
V preteklih dvajsetih letih so učitelji začeli vključevati izsledke žanrsko zasnovanih raziskav v programe tujega jezika stroke, pri poučevanju jezikov stroke pa so se začeli uporabljati celo žanrsko zasnovani pristopi. Hkrati se je SEJO uveljavil kot pomembno orodje in referenca v procesu priprave študijskih gradiv. Vendar pa je odnos med tema dvema vplivnima okviroma malo raziskan. V članku analiziramo vzorec učbenikov francoskega jezika stroke, da bi razkrili, kako učbeniška gradiva gradijo učenčevo znanje o žanrih preko pisnih besedil in nalog, vključenih v učbenike.
Z uporabo kvalitativne tekstovne analize smo pokazali, da s povezovanjem SEJO in žanrske perspektive lahko pridemo do koristnih podatkov o vlogi žanrov na različnih ravneh in v različnih domenah SEJO. Ponudili smo vpogled v to, kako se žanrske identitete izrisujejo v učbenikih jezika stroke in izpostavili vrzeli, ki se lahko pokažejo, ko uporabnikovo poklicno identiteto opazujemo preko žanrov, vključenih v učbenike.
Ključne besede: žanr, žanrska kompetenca, učbenik francoskega jezika stroke, ravni SEJO, domene SEJO.
APPENDICES
Textbook title	Author(s)	Publisher	CEFR Level	LSP field	CEFR domains
Objectif express. Le monde professionnel en français.	Riehl, Laurence, Soignet, Michel and Amiot, Marie-Hélène	Hachette	A1, A2	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Objectif diplomatie. Le français des relations internationales. Afrique- Océan indien	Riehl, Laurence, Soignet, Michel, Amiot, Marie-Hélène and Ndaywel e Nziem, Isidore	Hachette	A1, A2	diplomacy	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Objectif diplomatie. Le français des relations européennes et internationales	Tauzin, Béatrice and Dubois, Anne-Lyse	Hachette	A1, A2	diplomacy	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Travailler en français en entreprise. Niveaux A1/A2 du CECR. Méthode de français sur objectifs spécifiques.	Gillmann, Bernard	Didier	A1, A2	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Administration. com	Bassi, Claude and Chapsal, Anne-Marie	CLE International	A2	administration	Occupational, Educational
Comment vont les affaires	Gruneberg, Anne and Tauzin, Béatrice	Hachette	A2	business	Occupational, Personal Educational
Tourisme.com	Corbeau, Sophie, Dubois, Chantal and Penfornis, JeanLuc	CLE International	A2	tourism	Occupational, Educational
Diplomatie.com.	Bassi, Claude and Chapsal, Anne-Marie	CLE International	A2, B1	diplomacy	Occupational, Educational
Textbook title	Author(s)	Publisher	CEFR Level	LSP field	CEFR domains
Français.com. Méthode de français professionnel et des affaires	Penfornis, JeanLuc	CLE International	A2, B1	business	Occupational, Public Educational
Objectif express. Le monde professionnel en français 2	Dubois, Anne-Lyse and Tauzin, Béatrice	Hachette	A2, B1	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Travailler en français en entreprise. Niveaux A2/B1 du CECR	Cherifi, Soade, Girardeau, Bruno and Marion Mistichelli		A2, B1	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Le Français du Tourisme	Calmy, Anne-Marie	Hachette	B1	tourism	Occupational, Educational
Affaires à suivre. Cours de français professionnel de niveau intermédiaire	Bloomfield, Anatole and Tauzin, Béatrice	Hachette	B1, B2	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational
Le Français du monde du travail	Cloose, Eliane	Presses Universitaires de Grenoble	B1, B2	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational Public
Objectif diplomatie. Le français des relations européennes et internationales	Soignet, Michel	Hachette	B1, B2	diplomacy	Occupational, Personal, Educational Public
Le Français Juridique: Droit -	Administration -	Affaires	Soignet, Michel	Hachette	B2	law	Occupational, Personal, Educational Public
Carte de Visite: Français des relations professionnelles	Declos, Jacques, Leclercq, Bernard and Suvanto, Merja	Didier	B2	business	Occupational, Personal, Educational Public
Table 2 General overview of the macro-level characteristics of the 17 books under study
Educational	Personal	Public	Professional/
domain	domain	domain	occupational domain
General language	SMS message	Administrative letter	E-mail, fax
test	Weather fore-	Tax return form	Business homepage
LSP test	cast	Tract	Timetable/personal agenda
Competence grid	Memoirs	Visa application form	Memo, circular note
Presentation of	Tourist guide	Communiqué	Forms, documents, cards
exams Portfolio	Recipe	Newspaper article	Report
	Novel	Specialised article	Job offer, cover letter
Lecture	Personal letter		Standard letters (apology,
Lecture notes	Letter to the		questions, answers to ques-
Annotated list	editor		tions, quotations)
Grammar descrip-	Newspaper ar-		Commercial correspond-
tions and other	ticle		ence, reply to damages claim
types of language	Timetable		Administrative letter
descriptions	Personal mail		CV, application for intern-
Glossary	Homepage		ship, salary increase letter,
Abbreviations list	Menu		resignation, personality test,
			letter of acceptance (job offer), request for study leave
Educational	Personal	Public	Professional/
domain	domain	domain	occupational domain
	Forms		Terms and conditions of sale
	Plan, map		Price list
	Postcard		End-year statement
	Invitation		Graphic charts
	Advertisement		Invitation
	Flyer		Speech
	Classified ad		Minutes of a meeting
	(rental homes)		Official journal
	Instructions for		Convention
	use		Presidential correspondence
	Questionnaire		UN charter
	Internet forum		Presidential speech
			Resolution
			Customer satisfaction survey
			Specialised article
			Order
			Conference programme
			Hotel reservation
			Internal rules
			Questionnaire
			Advertisement
			Specialised book
			Communiqué
			Statutes
			Agenda
			Protocol
			Diplomatic cable
			Airplane public address
			Tourist guide
			Contract
			Flyer, brochure
			Menu
			Legal act (law, EU directive)
			Conference paper
			Specialised dictionary
			Civil code
Table 3 Text types and written genres across domains
Nives Lenassi	UDK 81,37:[811.131.1'243:33](075)
Università di Ljubljana*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.211-228
ASPETTI LESSICALI E SEMANTICI NEL QUADRO COMUNE EUROPEO DI RIFERIMENTO PER LE LINGUE E LA LORO PRESENZA NELL'INSEGNAMENTO DELLA CORRISPONDENZA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA
1 INTRODUZIONE
Il Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per le lingue (da ora in poi QCERL ovve-ro Quadro) ha avuto un ruolo notevole sia nel campo della política lingüistica (cf. per esempio Mazzotta 2006; Mezzadri 2006; Vedovelli 2008; Byram/Parmenter 2012), sia per quanto riguarda vari aspetti e processi dell'apprendimento e dell'insegnamento (cf. Skela 2011a), dell'elaborazione di programmi e di curricola (cf. Stoks 2006), di esami e di valutazione (cf. Bolli 2006; Mertelj 2010; Hawkins/Filipovic 2012), della stesura dei libri di testo (Ivkovic/Mikic 2009), ecc. Alcuni autori avvertono che il Quadro presenta delle carenze, dovute a numerosi fattori tra cui l'eterogeneità della didattica nelle scuole, la stesura frettolosa e superficiale (cf. Balboni 2006: 25) del documento che andrebbe integrato e completato a causa di quelle indicazioni generiche presenti in alcuni campi (Bolli 2006: 244), inoltre la sua lingua risulta spesso complessa e poco chiara; bisogna considerare che il testo è stato prodotto in un periodo non ancora cosi caratterizzato dall'epoca cibernetica e conseguentemente alcune sue parti potrebbero risultare obsolete (cf. Skela 2011b: 5, 14), ecc. (cf. anche Byram/Parmenter 2012: 1). Ció nonostante, il documento rimane uno strumento spesso consultato da coloro che sono in qualche modo coinvolti nelle attività di programmazione, insegnamento, acqu-isizione/apprendimento, valutazione, ecc. delle lingue moderne, tra cui anche l'autrice del presente contributo, che in qualità di docente d'italiano alla Facoltà di Economia di Ljubljana ha preso in esame alcuni tratti del Quadro e in particolare quelli che risultano di maggiore interesse per l'insegnamento della lingua commerciale italiana. L'indagine si è posta l'obiettivo di stabilire il rapporto tra i suggerimenti avanzati nel QCERL e la loro effettiva presenza nella prassi glottodidattica, vale a dire nei libri di testo1, limi-
* Indirizzo dell'autore: Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Kardeljeva ploščad 17, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: nives.lenassi@ef.uni-lj.si .
1 Si tratta di queste unita qui siglate:
LT 1: CHERUBINI, Nicoletta (1992) L'italianoper gli affari. Roma: Bonacci; LT 2: MAFFEI, Sabrina/Sandra RADICCHI/Vera VETRIH (1993) L'italiano per operatori economici. Ljubljana: Izobraževalni center za tuje jezike in Gospodarski vestnik; LT 3: BERETTA, Nicoletta/Fabia GATTI (1997) Italia in affari. Torino: SEI; LT 4: PELIZZA, Giovanna/Marco MEZZADRI (2002) L'italiano in azienda. Perugia: Guerra; LT 5: DOBNIK, Nadja/Nives LENASSI (2002) Affari in italiano. Ljubljana: Ekonomska fakulteta; LT 6: LENASSI, Nives/Sandro PAOLUCCI
tandosi, pero, alla problematica semantica e lessicale nell'ambito delle attività relative alla corrispondenza commerciale. Con cio si è voluta presentare anche una panoramica dello stato delle cose nel campo preso in esame, il che puo offrire una molteplicità di proposte per una futura elaborazione dei materiali didattici.
L'interesse per il lessico, oggetto del presente contributo, puo essere attribuito al fatto di poter constatare le frequenti incertezze degli studenti di economia sloveni nel campo lessicale, inoltre, all'importanza del lessico in generale (cf. Mertelj/Stanič 2013) e nella lingua speciale (cf. Zanasi 2012: 58) ovvero alla centralita del lessico (cf. Bettoni 2007: 110) e al peso che i madrelingua attribuiscono agli errori lessicali commessi dai non madrelingua (cf. James 1998: 144)2.
2 I TEMI INDIVIDUATI NELLE ANALISI IN CONFRONTO AL QCERL
Il raffronto tra i temi trattati nel QCERL e quelli individuati nei libri di testo esaminati procederá partendo dalla presentazione del QCERL che affronta la problematica semantico-lessicale, in particolare a pagina 136 (5.2.1.1 competenza lessicale), a pagina 141 (5.2.1.2 formazione delle parole), a pagina 142 (5.2.1.3 competenza semantica), e alle pagine 147/148 (5.2.2.4 scelta dell'espressione in base al registro). Bisogna subito segnalare che nel QCERL, cosi come nella comunicazione reale, le varie competenze sono spesso copresenti e isolabili solo in modo artificiale, per ragioni di analisi3.
2.1 Cominciamo, a questo punto, con la presentazione della competenza lessicale che secondo il prontuario consiste "nella conoscenza e nella capacità di usare il lessico di una lingua, che si compone di elementi lessicali e di elementi grammaticali"4. Il raffronto tra i suggerimenti e la situazione glottodidattica relativa alla corrispondenza commerciale sarà realizzato usando il modulo del QCERL illustrato con il materiale linguistico specifico, preceduto dalla sigla cci (corrispondenza commerciale italiana).
Ci limiteremo solo agli elementi lessicali che comprendono: a. espressioni fisse tra cui formule frastiche, ad esempio saluti (cci: Gentile signore, Egregi signori, Spettabile ufficio, ecc.), proverbi, espressioni arcaiche (cci: cercasi, offronsi, ecc.), espressioni idiomatiche, intensificatori, strutture fisse (cci: La prego di, Voglia gradire, ecc.), locu-zioni verbali (cci: presentare una candidatura, effettuare un pagamento/ una vendita//
(2000) Argomenti d'italiano commerciale. Ljubljana: Ekonomska fakulteta; LT 7: GOMBAČ, Erika/Cvetka BAJEC (2011) Poslovni tuji jezik II. Italijanščina. Ljubljana: Zavod IRC. 8 luglio 2014. http://www.impletum.zavod-irc.si/sl/gradiva.
2	A questo va aggiunta anche la constatazione di Jesenovec (2004: 37) che in base alla bibliografia esaminata avverte che i madrelingua capiscono meglio i messaggi con un lessico adeguato, seppur inadeguati dal punto di vista grammaticale, di quelli che sono corretti per quanto riguarda l'aspetto grammaticale, pero inadeguati dal punto di vista lessicale.
3	Tale carenza nelle indagini linguistiche è stata spesso ribadita dalla prof.ssa Tjaša Miklič cui porgo i miei più vivi ringraziamenti per le osservazioni relative ad alcuni aspetti del QCERL che sono state di particolare interesse per il presente contributo.
4	Per elementi grammaticali si intendono le classi lessicali chiuse (articoli, pronomi, numerali, dimostrativi, ecc.).
un trasporto, ecc.), collocazioni fisse (cci: consegna merci), preposizioni ; b. parole isolate, ad esempio parole polisemiche (cci: liquidazione: l. del debito vs. l. della società).
Qui bisognerebbe aggiungere una categoria lessicale molto importante per la mi-crolingua nell'ambito aziendale e cioè quella delle abbreviazioni. L'intensità della loro presenza nei testi della cci richiede un'accurata conoscenza del loro significato. Il materiale glottodidattico specifico dovrebbe quindi contenere adeguate attività dedicate alla suddetta tematica (cf. par. 3.1).
2.2	Un altro aspetto rilevante nel lessico della corrispondenza è rappresentato dalla formazione delle parole (cf. par. 3.2). Il QCERL che in base ai processi formativi classifica le parole in semplici, derivate e composte inserisce questo aspetto dell'or-ganizzazione interna delle parole nel capitolo sulla competenza grammaticale ovvero nella morfologia.
2.3	La maggior parte dei tratti linguistici rilevanti per lo sviluppo della padronan-za lessicale e individuati nella ricerca fa parte della competenza semantica. Cosi il QCERL specifica che oltre al rapporto tra la parola e il contesto generale (cioè la re-ferenza, la connotazione e la marcatura di nozioni specifiche di ordine generale), la semantica lessicale si occupa dei rapporti tra le parole, quali sinonimia/antinomia (cf. par. 3.3), iponimia, collocazione (cf. par. 3.5), rapporto tra le singole parole e il tutto (cf. par. 3.6), analisi componenziale e equivalenze nella traduzione (cf. par. 3.7). Nei materiali oggetto di studio non sono state rilevate le attività concernenti l'iponimia e l'analisi componenziale. Qui bisognerebbe aggiungere un'importante categoria per l'Italiano per gli affari e cioè quella delle definizioni (cf. par. 3. 4).
2.4	Infine, vari aspetti del lessico della microlingua si intrecciano anche nella competenza sociolinguistica, o più precisamente, interessano le differenze di registro. Il QCERL specifica che il termine registro si riferisce alle differenze sistemiche esistenti tra le varietà di linguaggi che si usano in diversi contesti. Tali diversità sono riflesse bene anche nelle attività oggetto della presente indagine (cf. 3.8).
2.5	Che le categorie sopra presentate siano rilevanti nella glottodidattica è confer-mato non solo dalla loro presenza nel Quadro, ma anche dagli studi che trattano vari aspetti della competenza lessicale e semantica nell'insegnamento di una lingua stra-niera, per esempio nell'ambito della formazione delle parole (James 1998: 150-151; Nation 2001: 269-281), delle collocazioni (James 1998: 152-154), del rapporto tra le singole parti e il tutto (Tremblay/Garrison 2010), della traduzione (Nation 2001: 289290; Plos 2010) e del registro (Onesti 2010). Oltre alle categorie sopra menzionate, alcuni autori i cui contributi sono dedicati alla tematica semantica e lessicale nell'ottica glottodidattica, hanno individuato anche sinonimi, antonimi, iponimi (Menna/Nucce-telli 2008: 274; Pavičic 2005: 572) oltre alle definizioni (Pavičic ibid) che pero non figurano nel Quadro.
3 LE ATTIVITÀ VOLTE ALLO SVILUPPO E AL CONSOLIDAMENTO DEL
LESSICO NEI LIBRI DI TESTO
I materiali didattici analizzati a scopi di ricerca contengono in totale 314 attività volte a mettere in luce vari aspetti della competenza linguistico-comunicativa relativa alla com-prensione e alla produzione di vari generi testuali nati nell' ambito aziendale. Tra queste attività ce ne sono 81 incentrate su vari aspetti salienti del campo lessicale, illustrate sinteticamente nell'Appendice che ne registra la presenza numerica in ciascun manuale.
L'indagine non si è soffermata su particolari aspetti tipici dei livelli di competenza linguistico-comunicativa (A1, A2, ecc.) prevista per i singoli libri di testo, dato che si è posta come fine primario quello di constatare le categorie lessicali giudicate im-portanti nell' italiano per gli affari (abbreviazioni, sinonimi, collocazioni, ecc.) e le azioni che gli apprendenti svolgeranno per acquisirne una conoscenza adeguata (ad esempio, sostituire i termini dati con le relative abbreviazioni/sinonimi/antonimi, formare nomi/verbi/aggettivi in base a un elemento dato, ecc.)5. Naturalmente non ci sono dubbi sull'importanza di una distinzione tra i livelli soprammenzionati, pero ulteriori approfondimenti di detta tematica saranno oggetto di future ricerche che si baseranno sui risultati presentati in questa sede.
Per quanto concerne alcune caratteristiche delle attività presenti nel materiale di-dattico analizzato, in alcuni casi si nota un rapporto sproporzionato tra il significato delle singole unità lessicali e il relativo contesto. Infatti, alcune attività non offrono alcun contesto, tranne qualche messaggio riportato precedentemente, il che ostacola il processo di memorizzazione negli apprendenti6.
Un'altra osservazione che riguarda le peculiarità delle attività, concerne le istruzio-ni: a volte queste non sono abbastanza precise7 e non forniscono informazioni in merito a dove ricercare i termini previsti. Non di rado il testo di riferimento si trova due o più pagine prima dell'attività stessa e cio rende l'esecuzione poco stimolante. A questo proposito va osservato che il QCERL a pagina 173 (6.3.3) avverte che ci si aspetta dagli autori dei libri di testo che vengano fornite istruzioni precise per i compiti da svolgere in classe e/o individualmente e per le attività che si basano sul materiale presentato.
Quanto alle conoscenze ricettive e produttive del lessico previste nelle opere studi-
5	Per comodità di identificazione e lettura, nel presente articolo ci si riferisce alla tematica e alle azioni da svolgere con un'unica denominazione, cioè attività. Cf. anche le attività di apprendimento linguistico (Balboni 200S: 79), le attività per lo sviluppo della competenza lessicale (Menna/ Nuccetelli 2008: 265), pero i compiti e la loro funzione nell'insegnamento delle lingue (ingl. tasks and their role in language teaching) nel capitolo 7 del QCERL vs. attività e strategie di comunicazione linguistica (ingl. communicative language activities and strategies) nel capitolo 4.4. Per la problematica della denominazione compito nel Quadro cf. anche Zorzi 2006.
6	Balboni (2008: 24) fa notare che la memorizzazione avviene a livello di significati: il lessico viene immagazzinato nella memoria semantica solo se considerato all'interno di un testo e di un contesto. Di conseguenza viene esclusa la possibilità di ricordare utilmente e stabilmente liste di parole che non di rado appaiono nelle attività.
7	In alcuni casi, data la mancanza del contesto adeguato, le attività possono essere svolte soltanto usando il dizionario e cio non viene esplicitato nelle istruzioni.
ate, non e stata condotta una ricerca approfondita, pero alcune attivita dimostrano che non si distingue suficientemente tra i due aspetti delle dette conoscenze. Corda e Ma-rello (2004: 48) notano che le nuove unita lessicali vanno prima usate al livello ricet-tivo e appena dopo a livello produttivo. Questo implica che non tutte le unita lessicali saranno conosciute nello stesso modo: in alcuni casi gli apprendenti saranno in grado di dare una traduzione o definizione nella propria lingua o di associare un termine a una determinata immagine, mentre negli altri casi saranno in grado di usare un termine con il significato specifico e in una determinata situazione.
I singoli materiali didattici presi in esame presentano interessanti tendenze per quanto riguarda il numero delle relative attivita. Il numero piu basso dell'LT 1 (con 4 attivita) puo essere attribuito al fatto che quest'opera e destinata agli utenti con una conoscenza linguistica meno spiccata rispetto agli utenti degli altri manuali. Dal lato opposto, invece, troviamo l'LT 2 (con 30 attivita) in cui e stato rilevato il numero piu alto delle attivita oggetto del presente studio. Quest'opera, difatti, si rivolge agli utenti con una conoscenza elevata dell'italiano. Le differenze nel numero delle attivita possono essere ascritte anche all'approccio adoperato dagli autori dei materiali: mentre l'LT 1 usa l'approccio comunicativo in senso lato, l'LT 2 mette in primo piano soprattutto l'aspetto lessicale e grammaticale della lingua commerciale.
Prima di passare in rassegna le categorie identificate e le relative attivita, e importante precisare che queste verranno presentate solo in forma riassuntiva. La decisione di presentarne soltanto una sintesi e dovuta al fatto che le attivita esaminate sono state descritte dettagliatamente altrove (Lenassi 2010: 126-145)8.
3.1 Abbreviazioni
Le abbreviazioni vengono spesso usate nella corrispondenza commerciale. Il loro uso frequente e visibile sia nei modelli prototipici che nei testi autentici analizzati allo scopo della presente ricerca. Esse tendono all'economia nella lingua e aiutano a dare al testo uno stile conciso e breve (cf. Stambuk 2005: 124; Kompara 2011: 22). Benché le abbreviazioni possano risultare poco rilevanti, dato che il loro uso nella corrispondenza non e indispensabile, esse pur sempre sostituiscono unita lessicali abbreviate. Suben-trano quindi alle parole semanticamente piene e pertanto alcuni libri di testo presi in esame gli attribuiscono un'importanza adeguata in forma di attivita, come per esempio la sostituzione di intere unita lessicali con le abbreviazioni e viceversa, per esempio Spett.le per Spettabile, Egr. per Egregio, Avv. per Avvocato, Rag. per Ragioniere, Ing. per Ingegnere, ecc. (LT 4, 6/23).
I sette libri di testo analizzati offrono quattro attivita (cf. Tabella 1) il cui obiettivo e quello di consolidare la conoscenza delle abbreviazioni che vengono inserite in un contesto adeguato, cioé nell'ambito di testi interi, o appaiono prive del contesto. Se le
8 L'analisi delle attivita rappresenta solo una parte di una piu ampia ricerca volta a scoprire dei fattori necessari per un insegnamento quanto piu efficace della corrispondenza commerciale italiana (cf. Lenassi 2010). Nel periodo in cui la ricerca e stata condotta erano stati pubblicati, e dunque esaminati, solo i primi sei libri di testo elencati nella nota 1, mentre l'ultimo libro e uscito dopo la conclusione della ricerca ed e stato analizzato piu tardi.
abbreviazioni vengono presentate nel contesto, cioé in un messaggio, appaiono in esso assai raramente. Vista la loro scarsa occorrenza in testi interi, ci si chiede, quindi, se sia opportuno presentarle in messaggi di corrispondenza commerciale riportati integralmente. Risulta, infatti, piu proficuo inserirle in singole proposizioni o addirittura in singoli sintagmi, addensando in questo modo la loro ricorrenza e di conseguenza sensibilizzando l'interesse degli studenti per il fenomeno osservato.
Le attivitá incentrate sui termini abbreviati appaiono solo in pochi materiali didattici analizzati. Ció significa che da alcuni autori tali elementi non vengono visti come rile-vanti in quanto il loro uso nella stesura della corrispondenza non é indispensabile. Anche al livello ricettivo non creano difficoltá ai non madrelingua: dato il loro significato non ambiguo, non é difficile constatare quale termine non abbreviato sostituiscono.
3.2 Formazione delle parole
I libri di testo invitano gli apprendenti a svolgere le attivitá relative alla formazione delle parole soltanto in due attivitá (cf. Tabella 2) e ambedue appaiono nella stessa opera, cioé nell'LT 2. I singoli termini osservati non dispongono del contesto adeguato, rimanendo cosi al livello delle singole unitá lessicali, che peró si riferiscono ai messaggi precedentemente riportati. L'apprendente viene invitato a completare lo schema dei termini dati con le parti del discorso non date. Si tratta di un compito che mette in risalto la grammatica della formazione delle parole nel campo delle famiglie di parole:
LT 2, 2.1./28 Completate lo schema con le categorie grammaticali mancanti.
(Chiavi: sostantivo: distributore, distribuzione, distributivitá; aggettivo: distributivo, distribuzi-onale)
Le attivitá relative alla formazione delle parole sono scarsamente presenti nelle opere analizzate. Nel caso di una loro maggiore frequenza, gli apprendenti potrebbero essere meglio incoraggiati a prestare piu attenzione nel formare i singoli termini o usare dizionari classici o elettronici (cf. anche Corda/Marello 2004: 102). Dalle analisi dei testi redatti dai non madrelingua negli ambiti di lavoro reali, difatti, emerge che le persone con una competenza lingüistica meno spiccata dimostrano notevoli insicurezze in questo campo, pertanto, durante il processo di insegnamento, risulta opportuno rilevare spesso l'importanza dei vari processi della formazione delle parole.
a)
SOSTANTIVO 1.
b)
VERBO distribuire
c)
AGGETTIVO
/... /
3.3	Sinonimi e antonimi
Le attività con i sinonimi sono relativamente bene presentí nei testi analizzati e l'atti-vità più frequentemente proposta dagli autori dei materiali risulta quella in cui è necessa-rio sostituire dati termini con i sinonimi (cf. Tabella 3). A questo punto va osservato che in qualche caso i singoli termini non possono essere considerati sinonimici, dato che due unità possono essere ritenute equivalenti solo se osservate nell'ambito degli stessi generi testuali. Cosi, per esempio, in una lettera di referenze positive gli apprendenti vengono stimolati a far equivalere i termini come rispondendo con facendo seguito, siamo contenti con siamo lieti, brava con capace/dotata. Il primo esempio in cui sono ritenuti equivalenti facendo seguito e rispondendo non è adeguato: la prima unità è una delle specifiche formule introduttive nella corrispondenza, equivalente alle tipiche con riferimento a e in risposta a. La variante proposta rispondendo è idonea dal punto di vista semantico, dal punto di vista pragmatico, invece, non altrettanto, poiché tale verbalizzazione non appare mai tra le formule introduttive nella corrispondenza. Neanche i termini siamo lieti/siamo contenti e dotata/brava possono essere visti come sinonimi nell'ottica pragmatica, in qu-anto gli aggettivi contento e bravo non vengono usati nella corrispondenza per descrivere lo stato d'animo o le caratteristiche di una persona. In detti casi si tratta di deviazioni dalle istruzioni date, quindi gli esempi presentati andrebbero usati altrove, ad esempio, in un'attività orientata alla sensibilizzazione ai registri (cf. par 3.8)9.
In questa sezione troviamo anche gli antonimi, che pero vengono proposti soltanto in due attività in cui gli apprendenti sono invitati a scrivere i contrari dei termini dati, per esempio, all'ingrosso vs. al minuto/al dettaglio, mettere in vendita vs. ritirare dal mercato, a lungo termine vs. a breve termine, ecc. (LT 2, 2.1./46).
Le attività qui presentate stimolano l'ampliamento del repertorio lessicale, il che rappresenta la base di una comunicazione creativa, pero, sempre rispettando le pecu-liarità del genere testuale in questione10. Una vasta scelta dei termini a disposizione permette di produrre dei messaggi conformi con gli obiettivi della comunicazione e delle circostanze che nel mondo del lavoro cambiano rapidamente.
3.4	Definizioni
Le attività che stimolano l'uso delle definizioni (cf. Tabella 4) sono raramente proposte nei materiali didattici, anche se offrono preziosi strumenti per la produzione orale e scritta. La ricorrenza alle definizioni potrebbe essere vista come l'uso delle strategie della compensazione con cui l'apprendente adotta "un atteggiamento positivo alle ri-sorse di cui dispone: fare approssimazioni e generalizzazioni in un linguaggio genera-lizzato; parafrasare e descrivere alcuni aspetti di cio che vuol dire [...]" (cf. QCERL 2007: 80). Sebbene le definizioni non vengano direttamente prese in considerazione
9	Impostata in questo modo, l'attivita potrebbe dare risultati controproducenti negli apprendenti con una competenza linguistico-comunicativa meno spiccata; questi spesso fanno equivalere tratti linguistici che dal punto di vista pragmatico non possono essere ritenuti sostituibili.
10	Allora/Marello (2008: 17) precisano che saper usare sinonimi é una delle abilitá che il vasto pubblico associa con l'essere facondi.
nel Quadro, nell'ambito dei descrittori relativi all'attivitá di compensazione, l'opera specifica che l'apprendente al livello B1 "é in grado di definire11 le caratteristiche di un oggetto di cui non ricorda il nome" (cf. QCERL 2007: 81). Nel linguaggio specialistico le definizioni o (eventualmente) le approssimazioni di esse, possono costituire espe-dienti importanti per sopperire alle lacune lessicali, come per esempio attribuzione di compiti per mansione, attestazione di conseguimento di un titolo di studio per diploma, compenso spettante alprestatore d'opera per retribuzione, ecc. nell'LT 2, 2.2./29.
3.5 Collocazioni
Le collocazioni sono uno dei punti dell'acquisizione e dell'apprendimento del lessi-co che spesso creano notevoli difficoltá ai non madrelingua: l'inserimento di nuove unitá lessicali nelle complicate reti collocazionali é un processo complesso e specifico di singole lingue e linguaggi specialistici. Tenendo conto del fatto che gli errori dovuti alle combinazioni di varie unitá lessicali spesso per i madrelingua risultano piu distur-banti che gli errori grammaticali e che tali errori appaiono non di rado nei testi pro-dotti dai non madrelingua, nel corso dell'insegnamento a tale problematica andrebbe prestata un'attenzione particolare (cf. anche Gorjanc/Jurko 2004: 57; Vrbinc 2001: 57; Vrbinc 2009: 153)12.
La Tabella 6 dimostra che solo tre libri di testo offrono le attivitá in cui gli appren-denti cercano le opportune combinazioni di basi e di collocatori, come per esempio ampliare/acquisire/approfondire conoscenze (LT 5, 19/219). In tutti i casi si tratta delle attivitá di tipo ricettivo in cui di solito il collocatore dato si riferisce a una base usata nel testo riportato prima.
Le opere esaminate offrono 6 attivitá ripartite in tre libri di testo, e in particolare sol-tanto in quelli che sono stati pubblicati in Slovenia13. Questo significa che gli autori slo-veni si rendono conto dell'importanza del comportamento collocazionale delle singole parole: i parlanti sloveni dell'italiano, appunto in quanto stranieri, spesso incontrano delle difficoltá nell'unire gli elementi linguistici in un insieme. Molte volte é difficile prevedere quali combinazioni in una lingua straniera siano possibili e accettabili, in quanto l'equivalente nella lingua madre frequentemente non é adatto. Presumibilmente gli autori italiani evitano la tematica delle collocazioni poiché le loro opere sono scritte ovvero concepite per un mercato internazionale dove - considerando la lingua madre degli apprendenti - sorgono incertezze specifiche per quanto riguarda le possibilitá collocazionali.
11	La parola é stata messa in corsivo dall'autrice.
12	Per quanto riguarda l'importanza delle collocazioni nella microlingua cf. anche Gruntar Jermol 2013.
13	Verosímilmente perché gli autori si rendono conto dei problemi relativi all'apprendimento di lingue straniere, mentre i libri di testo pubblicati in Italia, pur essendo destinati agli stranieri, non testimoniano una tale consapevolezza.
3.6 Il rapporto tra le singole parti e il tutto
In questa categoria sono state raggruppate le attività che prevedono l'uso del lessico adeguato nelle singole proposizioni e nei testi (cf. Tabella 6). Spesso i materiali analizzati propongono di completare le singole proposizioni o testi con i termini dati (ingl. word bank) o meno o - in un solo caso - suggeriscono di formare proposizioni servendosi di alcuni input stimolo, come per esempio nell'LT 2, 4.9.I78. Si tratta di un'attività di tipo produttivo che presuppone un notevole livello di autonomia linguisti-ca. Gli apprendenti sono invitati a formare le proposizioni con le polirematiche quali grati per, ci duole, dolenti di, con vivo rincrescimento, ecc., rilevanti nei messaggi che abbiano un tono cortese. Impostata in questo modo, l'attività stimola la creatività degli apprendenti, pero sempre nei limiti del registro (cf. par. 3.3), e supera il livello lessi-cale. Cio nonostante viene inserita nel gruppo delle attività presentate in questa sede siccome nella maggior parte dei casi gli input stimolo rimangono al livello di singole unità lessicali prive di contesto.
Una maggiore importanza, in termini quantitativi, viene attribuita alle attività in cui sono da completare le singole proposizioni. I termini da usare possono essere già proposti (in ordine o non in ordine alfabetico) o meno. Un esempio di questo tipo è il seguente:
LT 2, 2.6.I30 Completate le seguenti frasi con le parole e le espressioni appropriate.
1.	Spero che vogliate_in considerazione la mia domanda d'impiego.
2.	Ho lavorato presso l'Istituto di Formazione Professionale "A. Manzoni",_a Genova.
3.	Mi sono occupato di_dati presso la ditta "Computer Più", quindi non avrei nessuna
difficoltà ad usare un_. I...I
(Chiavi: 1. prendere, 2. con sede, 3. elaborazione, PC)
Più spesso, invece, gli apprendenti sono invitati a completare gli spazi lasciati vuoti nei messaggi della corrispondenza commerciale, cioè cloze14 in cui gli autori non danno una word bank. Le parti del testo cancellato a volte permettono di inserire più di una variante". In questi casi alcuni autori dei libri di testo offrono soltanto una proposta nelle chiavi, mentre altri ne danno due o più. Gli apprendenti spesso propongono le so-luzioni non previste dall'autore del cloze, che tuttavia sono adeguate dal punto di vista linguistico e pragmatico. Siccome non è possibile anticipare tutte le proposte avanzate dagli apprendenti, gli autori si limitano a fornire una sola opzione ovvero la più proba-bile. Quindi, spetta all'insegnante il compito di esaminare ed eventualmente accettare
14	Cf. anche la denominazione completamento di testi mutilati (Balboni 2008: 82).
15	Come indicato in Benulič et al. (1993: 74), si seguono due metodi nel correggere e valutare i cloze: secondo il primo sono ritenute corrette soltanto le parole che sono state cancellate nel testo originale (ing. exact word method), mentre il secondo tiene conto anche di sinonimi accettabili (ing. acceptable word method). Gli autori sono dell'opinione che il secondo metodo sia più adeguato, dal momento che valuta la competenza linguistico-comunicativa generale dell'apprendente in un modo più globale.
le soluzioni suggerite dagli apprendenti e non date da chi ha redatto i materiali didattici (cf. anche QCERL 2007: m).
3.7 Equivalenze nella traduzione
Nonostante la traduzione sia sostanzialmente un'esercitazione testuale (cf. Ožbot 2004: 49), le attività concernenti le equivalenze traduttive sono state inserite nell'ambito lessicale dato che nella maggior parte dei casi i materiali studiati mettono in primo piano le singole unità lessicali o brevi parti delle proposizioni selezionate. Cosí, per esempio, concentrandosi sulle singole unità lessicali indicate, gli apprendenti sono invitati a cercare nei testi precedentemente riportati gli elementi che potrebbero presentare interessanti spunti per una sensibilizzazione alle peculiarità linguistiche dei messaggi italiani, come per esempio slov. v priponki imaš/in allegato trovi, slov. mi lahko sporočiš...?/potresti co-municarmi...?, slov. nekatere številke niso ažurirane I alcuni numeri non sono aggiornati (LT 7, d/64). Le attività di questo tipo sono solo 4 e tutte offerte soltanto nell'ultimo dei libri di testo (LT 7) che è stato prodotto in Slovenia e che in molti altri punti dell'opera avverte gli apprendenti degli aspetti particolari contrastivi tra lo sloveno e l'italiano.
Oltre alle attività in cui gli apprendenti cercano gli equivalenti partendo dalla propria madrelingua, i materiali analizzati offrono solo un'attività (nel manuale realizza-to in Italia) in cui vanno trovati gli equivalenti dei termini dati nella lingua materna dell'apprendente. Per poter svolgere l'attività l'apprendente è invitato a servirsi del dizionario per la traduzione dei termini quali servizio post-vendita, coordinate ban-carie, cambiamento numero fax, ecc. (LT 4, 3/32). Questa è l'unica attività in tutte le opere esaminate che stimola esplicitamente la consultazione del dizionario; l'assenza di opportuni riferimenti al dizionario nei manuali puo essere attribuito al fatto che l'in-segnante puo incoraggiare gli studenti ad usare questo strumento in qualsiasi momento durante il processo di insegnamento. Dall'altra parte, pero, non va dimenticato che un'attività, proposta nel libro, obbliga gli studenti in una misura maggiore a osservare le differenze tra la lingua d'arrivo e la madrelingua.
La prassi didattica conferma che gli apprendenti sono relativamente restii ad usare il dizionario siccome credono che il tempo dedicato alla consultazione di un dizionario elettronico o classico non sia adeguatamente correlato al risultato finale della consulta-zione16. Inoltre, date le poche esperienze acquisite nella consultazione dei vocabolari, gli apprendenti spesso non trovano equivalenze adeguate nella lingua madre. Di con-seguenza, le opinioni sull'importanza dell'uso dei dizionari in classe sono divergenti e probabilmente proprio per questo motivo nei manuali esaminati troviamo una sola attività che stimola il ricorso al dizionario17.
16	Nonostante tale atteggiamento, sarebbe necessario convincere gli studenti dell'utilità dei dizionari e cercare di stimolarli nel loro uso; tali attività andrebbero accompagnate da una presentazione di diversi altri strumenti di ricerca lessicale, tra cui, ad esempio, i testi paralleli (cf. anche Ožbot 2GG4: 49).
17	Partendo da varie ricerche e dalle esperienze degli insegnanti di lingue straniere Corda e Marello (2GG4: 83) constatano che in alcuni casi l'uso del dizionario puo avere effetti positivi, mentre in altri ha effetto nullo o persino negativo: dopo aver dedicato un notevole periodo di tempo alla
3.8 Differenze di registro
Anche se la conoscenza dei diversi registri fa parte della competenza sociolinguisti-ca (cf. par. 2.4), nel presente contributo le attività che sensibilizzano alla dimensione sociale dell'uso linguistico sono presentate nell'ambito dell'aspetto lessicale dato che nella maggior parte dei casi mettono in primo piano le singole unità lessicali o breve parti di proposizioni selezionate. Queste unità o parti di proposizioni spesso rivelano particolari incertezze dei non madrelingua, quali un uso frequente dei tratti della lingua comune o di un linguaggio familiare dove in date circostanze andrebbero usati termini appartenenti al registro formale. Pertanto, le attività volte a sensibilizzare gli appren-denti all'importanza dei diversi registri nella lingua vanno introdotte nei materiali dida-ttici con una maggiore frequenza (cf. Tabella 8).
Le attività comprese in questo paragrafo invitano gli apprendenti a scrivere i termini della lingua comune che corrispondono ai termini specialistici, ad abbinare i vocabo-li del campo specialistico a quelli della lingua comune, a sostituire le unità lessicali facenti parte della lingua comune con quelli della microlingua e a spiegare i termini evidenziati con le proprie parole. L'ultima attività incoraggia, quindi, a servirsi della strategia di compensazione, già menzionata in precedenza (cf. par. 3.4) ed è stretta-mente connessa con l'abilità di parafrasare, spesso trascurata nell'insegnamento delle lingue straniere (cf. Balboni 1998: 65).
4 CONCLUSIONI
In base allo studio condotto, si puo constatare che la maggioranza delle categorie individuate nei libri di testo trova piena presenza nel Quadro come la formazione delle parole, i sinonimi e gli antonimi, le collocazioni, il rapporto tra le singole parole e il tutto, le equivalenze nella traduzione e le differenze di registro. Inoltre, nei materiali per l'insegnamento della lingua commerciale sono state rilevate anche due categorie che non figurano nel prontuario, cioè le abbreviazioni e le definizioni, che pero sono di rilievo nella microlingua presa in esame. Oltre a cio si è potuto osservare che le attività sull'iponimia, collocata nel documento tra gli elementi della semantica lessicale, sono completamente assenti nei materiali didattici oggetto di studio. In vista di una futura elaborazione dei materiali per l'insegnamento della lingua italiana ai futuri economisti sloveni, gli iponimi sono indubbiamente una delle categorie da non trascurare.
Per quanto riguarda le attività (con i dati forniti cosi nel par. 3 come nell'Appendi-ce), possiamo dire che queste offrono numerose, diverse e pertinenti proposte di lavoro nell'ambito delle singole categorie esaminate sebbene in alcuni casi ci sarebbero delle modifiche da apportare. Tali proposte, poi, sono anche in concordanza con le linee guida offerte nel capitolo 7 del QCERL dove viene trattato il tema delle attività ovvero
consultazione del dizionario, gli apprendenti offrono soluzioni che rispetto al contesto non sono adeguate. Per quanto riguarda il lavoro con il dizionario in classe cf. anche Vrbinc/Vrbinc 2004 e Heid 2007.
dei compitiiS, offrendo una serie di suggerimenti relativi all'impostazione dei compiti di comprensione e di produzione.
La stragrande maggioranza dei libri di testo oggetto di analisi, ovverosia sei su sette, sono stati prodotti in un periodo in cui il QCERL non era ancora stato realizzato o non era ancora conosciuto (dal 1992 fino al 2002). Benché, come sottolineato, gli autori delle opere esaminate non conoscessero il volume, grazie alle esperienze da essi maturate nell'attività d'insegnamento, si erano ciononostante già resi conto dei bisogni degli apprendenti riguardo le tematiche da trattare in classe in forma di attività. Cio significa che il Quadro non è un documento atto a rivoluzionare l'insegnamento delle lingue, ma un valido strumento di ausilio nella programmazione glottodidattica e i cui presupposti concordano con quelli seguiti già precedentemente in diverse prassi d'insegnamento linguistico.
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Riassunto
ASPETTI LESSICALI E SEMANTICI NEL QUADRO COMUNE EUROPEO DIRIFERIMENTO PER LE LINGUE E LA LORO PRESENZA NELL'INSEGNA-MENTO DELLA CORRISPONDENZA COMMERCIALE ITALIANA
Partendo dai suggerimenti avanzati nel Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per le lingue (QCERL), il contributo presenta sinteticamente i risultati di uno studio volto a individuare la loro presenza in sette libri di testo usati per l'insegnamento dell'italiano commerciale. Data l'importanza del lessico nella microlingua osservata, si sofferma in particolare su alcuni aspetti lessicali e semantici della corrispondenza commerciale, quali formazione delle parole, sinonimi e antonimi, collocazioni, rapporto tra le singole parole e il tutto, equivalenze nella traduzione e differenze di registro. Dalle analisi emerge che gli autori dei materiali esaminati hanno saputo cogliere bene - anche se in maniera diversa e con una frequenza oscillante nei singoli manuali - gli aspetti men-zionati, nonostante nella stragrande maggioranza dei casi le loro opere fossero state prodotte nel periodo in cui il QCERL non era ancora esistente ovvero conosciuto. Oltre a cio hanno anche individuato e proposto in forma di attività due categorie che non sono presenti nel Quadro, ma che sono (pero) caratteristiche della lingua commerciale. Si tratta delle ricorrenti abbreviazioni e delle definizioni (ovvero delle loro approssimazi-oni rispetto alla conoscenza linguistico-comunicativa acquisita) che l'apprendente puo usare per colmare le lacune lessicali.
Parole chiave: Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per le lingue, lessico, semantica, libri di testo, corrispondenza commerciale.
Abstract
LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC ASPECTS IN THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES AND THE TEACHING OF ITALIAN BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
The article is based on the guidelines of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL). It presents the results of a study aimed to determine to what extent they are taken into account in seven textbooks used for teaching business Italian. Given the importance of vocabulary in this type of language teaching, the article focuses on certain lexical and semantic aspects of business correspondence such as wordformation, synonymy, antonymy, collocations, part-whole relations, translation equivalence, and register differences. The analyses show that the authors of the materials covered these aspects well (albeit in different ways and to different extents in individual textbooks) despite the fact that in most cases the textbooks were written before the CEFRL was published or was known. In addition, two categories not present in the Framework but characteristic of business language were also recognized as important
by the authors of the textbooks and presented in the task sections. These are some frequently used abbreviations and definitions (or their approximations considering the communicative language competence acquired) that learners can use to fill lexical gaps.
Keywords: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, vocabulary, semantics, textbooks, business correspondence.
Povzetek
LEKSIKALNI IN SEMANTIČNI VIDIKI V SKUPNEM EVROPSKEM JEZIKOVNEM OKVIRU IN NJIHOVA PRISOTNOST PRI POUČEVANJU ITALIJANSKE POSLOVNE KORESPONDENCE
Prispevek izhaja iz napotkov, ponujenih v Skupnem evropskem jezikovnem okviru (SEJO), in zgoščeno predstavi rezultate raziskave, opravljene z namenom ugotoviti njihovo prisotnost v sedmih učbenikih za poslovni italijanski jezik. Glede na pomen besedišča v opazovanem jeziku stroke se osredinja na nekatere leksikalne in semantične vidike poslovne korespondence, kot so besedotvorje, sopomenke in protipomenke, ko-lokacije, odnos celota: del, prevodna ustreznost in razlike v jezikovnih registrih. Analize so pokazale, da so avtorji proučenih gradiv dobro zajeli omenjene vidike (čeprav v posameznih učbenikih na različne načine in v različni meri), kljub temu da je velika večina njihovih del nastala v času, ko SEJO še ni bil napisan oziroma poznan. Poleg tega so prepoznali kot pomembna in ju ponudili v obliki nalog še dva vidika besedišča, ki nista predstavljena v Okviru, vendar sta za poslovni jezik značilna. To so pogoste okrajšave in definicije (oz. njihovi približki glede na usvojeno sporazumevalno jezikovno zmožnost), ki jih učenec lahko uporabi, da zapolni vrzeli v besedišču.
Ključne besede: Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir, besedišče, semantika, učbeniki, poslovna korespondenca.
APPENDICE
Tipo di attivita	LT 2	LT 3	LT 4
1. sostituire i termini dati con le abbreviazioni	2	1	
2. sostituire le abbreviazioni con i termini non abbreviati			1
Tabella 1: Abbreviazioni			
Tipo di attività			LT 2
1. cercare le unità lessicali facenti parte della stessa famiglia lessicale			1
2. formare nomilverbilaggettivi partendo da un elemento dato			1
Tabella 2: Formazione delle parole
Tipo di attività	LT 1	LT 2	LT 4	LT 6
1. sostituire i singoli termini con i sinonimi adeguati	2	s	2	8
2. cercare i sinonimi adeguati scegliendo tra le proposte offerte		1	1	1
3. cercare antonimi dei termini dati		2		
Tabella 3: Sinonimi e antonimi
Tipo di attività	LT 2	LT 4	LT 5
1. cercare le definizioni adeguate ai termini dati scegliendo tra le definizioni offerte	1		
2. cercare i termini corrispondenti alle definizioni date	1	1	1
3. cercare le definizioni dei termini dati	1		
Tabella 4: Definizioni
Tipo di attività	LT 2	LT 5	LT 6
1.cercare i collocatori adeguati alle basi date	3	2	1
Tabella S: Collocazioni
Tipo di attività	LT 1	LT 2	LT 3	LT 4	LT 5	LT 6	LT l
1. produrre singole proposizioni servendosi dei termini dati		l					
2. completare opportunamente le proposizioni date		4				l	
3. completare singole proposizioni scegliendo i termini dati nella word bank		l					
4. completare opportunamente il testo	l	2	l	l	6	l	
5. completare il testo scegliendo i termini dati nella word bank			S	2	2	l	S
6. completare opportunamente il riassunto del testo		l	l				
Tabella 6. Rapporto tra le singole parole e il tutto
Tipo di attività	LT 4	LT l
1. cercare gli equivalenti dei termini sloveni dati nel testo italiano		4
2.tradurre i termini dati nella madrelingua dell'apprendente	l	
Tabella 7: Equivalenze nella traduzione
Tipo di attività	LT 1	LT 2	LT 5
1. cercare i termini di lingua comune corrispondenti ai termini del registro formale		ll	l
2. cercare i significati dei termini specialistici nella lingua comune		l	
3. sostituire i termini del registro informale con quelli del registro formale		l	
4. spiegare i termini dati con il lessico padroneggiato dell'appendente	l		
Tabella 8: Differenze di registro
Claire Bourgignon
Université de Rouen*
UDK 81'243:37.091.279.7 DOI: 10.4312/lmguistica.54.L229-239
DU CONTRÔLE DES CONNAISSANCES À L'ÉVALUATION DE LA COMPÉTENCE : CHANGEMENT DE PARADIGME ET MODIFICATION DES REPRÉSENTATIONS
Le problème [n'est pas seulement] l'objet de connaissance ; c'est aussi le problème de la méthode de connaissance nécessaire à cet objet (Morin 1986 : 232).
1 INTRODUCTION
En 1999, P. Chardenet écrivait :
Il est remarquable de voir comment l'ensemble des acteurs du système éducatif, de l'Administration du Ministère de l'Education à travers son discours, aux enseignants dans leurs pratiques et leurs discours, utilisent la notion d'évaluation comme valeur implicitement partagée. Mais d'un côté nombre d'enseignants nomment « évaluation » des procédures qu'ils appelaient hier « test » ou « contrôle », et d'un autre, l'administration, dans le règlement de ses nombreuses procédures de mesure de compétences, a recours à une terminologie parfois aléatoire (1999 : 19).
Il a fallu du temps pour que cette réalité s'estompe dans le domaine de l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues et que commence à s'effectuer un glissement du contrôle vers l'évaluation. À cet égard, précisons que lorsque nous nous référons au « contrôle » et à l' « évaluation », c'est en tant qu'acte, c'est à dire en tant que démarche et non en tant qu'activité, c'est à dire en tant que situation d'évaluation.
L'objectif de cet article est, dans un premier temps, de montrer pourquoi il est impossible de substituer le contrôle à l'évaluation sans une réelle réflexion d'ordre épistémologique.
Dans un deuxième temps, il s'agira de comprendre pourquoi le glissement s'est effectué au plan terminologique bien avant qu'une réelle évolution n'apparaisse dans la pratique et quel a été l'élément déclenchant de cette évolution.
Enfin, nous terminerons en proposant la forme la plus aboutie de l'évaluation de la compétence en langue aujourd'hui.
Adresse de l'auteur : 1 Rue Thomas Becket, 76821 Mont-Saint-Aignan, France. Courriel : claire. bourguignon@univ-rouen.fr.

2 DU CONTRÔLE DE CONNAISSANCE DE LA LANGUE À L'ÉVALUATION DE LA COMPÉTENCE EN LANGUE : UN CHANGEMENT DE PARADIGME
Pour articuler et organiser les connaissances, et par là reconnaître et connaître les problèmes du monde, il faut une réforme de la pensée. Or cette réforme est paradi-gmatique et non programmatique : c'est la question fondamentale de l'éducation, car elle concerne notre aptitude à organiser la connaissance (Morin 2000 : 35).
Il est impossible de parler de « contrôle » ou d' « évaluation » sans se poser des questions d'ordre épistémologique. De fait, les deux démarches impliquent des choix clairs sur la nature de la connaissance.
D'un côté, le contrôle, lié au processus d'enseignement, s'effectue à partir des savoirs transmis par l'enseignant. Ceci suppose que la connaissance objective de l'objet langue suffit à garantir l'aptitude à être usager de la langue. Le contrôle, dans cette logique « sanctionne » des connaissances.
D'un autre côté, l'évaluation, liée au processus d'apprentissage, fait partie intégrante du projet d'apprentissage et est intégrée à la progression. Dans cette logique, les connaissances ne sont pas un « déjà-là » mais « sont construites et reconstruites en permanence par la réflexion que [chacun] construit pour élaborer et justifier sa propre action » (Le Moigne 2002 : 15). L'objectif de l'enseignant, dans ce cadre, est de faire atteindre au plus grand nombre d'élèves les objectifs fixés. Ainsi, l'évaluation se fait par paliers et régule l'apprentissage en vue d'une maîtrise opératoire des connaissances. C'est cette maîtrise opératoire des connaissances que nous appellerons compétence.
Ceci signifie que l'évaluation apporte un éclairage nouveau sur le savoir1. Ce n'est plus l' « objet » transmis, le « savoir » qui est au cœur de la relation enseignant / apprenant, c'est le « sujet » qui s'approprie ce savoir, c'est-à-dire l'apprenant.
Dans cette logique, le « contrôle » se situe résolument sur le paradigme de la connaissance. Il s'effectue par rapport à un programme concernant le code, l'objet langue, conçu comme un système extérieur à son utilisateur. Il porte sur l'amont (ce qui a été appris) et se base sur ce qui est produit par le candidat pour attribuer des notes (mode quantitatif) en fonction des lacunes constatées dans les connaissances (perspective négative de la sanction). Le contrôle s'effectue sur un mode binaire très réducteur par rapport à la communication réelle ; on y considère que la connaissance du système de la langue permet de préjuger de l'aptitude à l'utiliser : c'est pourquoi on peut parler dans ce cas d' « extrapolation maximale ».
L' « évaluation » place au cœur de son dispositif non plus la connaissance de l'objet langue mais le sujet dans son aptitude à utiliser la langue en situation (sa compétence). Elle ne porte pas exclusivement sur le linguistique (la correction formelle) mais elle intègre le pragmatique, c'est à dire l'adéquation entre la langue utilisée et son contexte d'utilisation (registre de langue adéquat à la situation et aux interlocuteurs, respect des codes socioculturels,...), ainsi que l'efficacité du message transmis. Elle ne porte pas
1 Nous appelons « savoir », l'objet extérieur au sujet et « connaissance », le savoir fait sien par le sujet.
sur un programme mais se réfère à un référentiel conçu en termes d'objectifs opérationnels en langue. Elle est positive parce qu'elle valide ce que le candidat sait faire plutôt que de sanctionner ce qu'il ne sait pas. Elle apprécie sa performance à partir de critères déclinés en indicateurs de performance. Les tâches demandées aux candidats sont proches de celles qu'il aura à réaliser, et c'est pourquoi on peut parler dans ce cas d' « extrapolation minimale ».
Nous résumerons notre propos sous la forme du tableau ci-dessous :
« Contrôle » (paradigme de la connaissance)	« Évaluation » (paradigme de la compétence)
Connaissance	Compétence
Ce qu'on apprend	Celui qui apprend
Code	Message
Linguistique	Pragmatique
Correction	Pertinence, adéquation, efficacité
Niveau de connaissances	Degré d'opérationnalité
Programme (en termes de contenu)	Référentiel (en termes d'objectifs)
Amont	Aval
Apprentissage	Usage
Orientation produit	Orientation processus
Perspective négative (sanction)	Perspective positive (validation)
Mode quantitatif (notes)	Mode qualitatif (critères, indicateurs de performance)
Extrapolation maximale	Extrapolation minimale
: Concepts intégrés
Les parties grisées mettent en exergue la relation « dialogique »2 que la compétence entretient avec la connaissance, c'est-à-dire que la compétence n'exclut pas la connaissance mais elle l'inclut et la dépasse. Dès lors, si contrôler les connaissances en langue est un acte simple qui vise à mettre en regard un résultat attendu et un résultat produit, c'est aussi un acte réducteur puisque connaître un code n'a jamais permis de l'utiliser de manière adéquate.
Ce tournant épistémologique que représente le passage du contrôle des connaissances à l'évaluation des compétences n'a pas échappé aux discours officiels qui se succèdent depuis presque 30 ans et pourtant, force est de constater que les choses peinent à changer dans les pratiques.
Nous pensons que la difficulté vient du décalage entre le tournant épistémologique imposé par le concept même d' « évaluation » et repris par le discours officiel d'un côté
2 Relation à la fois antagoniste et complémentaire (Morin).
et la représentation sociale et professionnelle de l'enseignement des langues en France, ce que nous nous proposons d'analyser dans la partie suivante.
3 LA DIFFICULTÉ À CHANGER DE PARADIGME OU « LE DILEMME DE L'ADAPTATION HUMAINE »
En comparaison des autres espèces humaines, les êtres humains disposent de peu de réponses naturelles préalables. Par contre, ils disposent de moyens de les construire au contact de la réalité. Leur adaptation peut être ainsi, à terme, plus étendue, plus profonde, se construisant en relation aux évolutions mêmes de leurs environnements changeants. Ils auront à décider dans quelle mesure les réponses inventées, doivent être sélectionnées, conservées, transmises. Le plus souvent c'est sans décision expresse que cela se fera, en fonction du cours plus ou moins insistant, semblable ou différent de leur expérience. Si tout change vite, la sélection, la conservation, la transmission n'auront pas de sens (Demorgon 2004 : 10).
Passer du contrôle à l'évaluation, c'est accepter que l'erreur fasse partie du processus d'apprentissage ; c'est accepter que le savoir académique ne soit pas au cœur du dispositif scolaire mais que ce soit l'apprenant, c'est-à-dire celui qui s'approprie le savoir ; c'est accepter de ne pas être, en tant qu'enseignant, exclusivement un détenteur de connaissances mais aussi un facilitateur de l'appropriation de ces connaissances ; c'est valider un niveau de compétence en langue plutôt que de sanctionner une mauvaise connaissance du système linguistique.
Pour ce qui concerne la France, cela veut dire remettre en cause la représentation que tout citoyen français a de l'enseignement de la langue qui, depuis un siècle, passe par la connaissance de règles de grammaire et de mots de vocabulaire !
Ceci ne sera pas démenti par un rapport de l'Inspection générale des langues3 consacré à l'évaluation, selon lequel,
la langue apprise en milieu scolaire est par définition objet d'enseignement puisqu'elle a le statut de discipline scolaire inscrite à l'emploi du temps des élèves. De ce fait, elle est abordée en tant que système qu'il faut acquérir, avec ses codes et ses règles, souvent au détriment de la fonction pragmatique qui est la raison première d'exister d'une langue.....
C'est sa double nature - objet d'étude et outil de communication - qui constitue un défi en milieu scolaire car les finalités sont inversées : alors qu'en milieu naturel l'usage de la langue a pour but de communiquer et d'agir, en milieu scolaire la pratique de la langue a pour visée l'apprentissage de la langue elle-même. D'où un retour, par effet de miroir, sur le système linguistique lui-même qui détourne l'usage de la langue de sa fonction première (IGEN 2007 : 26).
3 En France, l'Inspection générale impulse les orientations pédagogiques dans les établissements scolaires.
Le paradoxe évident que soulignent les propos précédents participe à la situation de « crise » dans laquelle se trouve l'enseignement des langues aujourd'hui. La réalité à laquelle se trouvent confrontés les enseignants aujourd'hui n'est pas la même qu'il y a 30 ans, à l'époque où s'amorçait dans les textes officiels le passage de la connaissance à la compétence et du contrôle à l'évaluation. La réalité du terrain a évolué, le contexte d'enseignement n'est plus le même, l'exposition à la langue n'est plus réservée exclusivement au « cours de langue » et les besoins ont changé.
Si aujourd'hui le terrain semble favorable à la mise en place d'une réelle culture de l'évaluation c'est que, comme le dit Demorgon, chaque acteur cherche à construire « ses réponses au contact de la nouvelle réalité ».
Les résultats en langue des élèves français les placent dans les derniers au niveau européen, ces mêmes élèves sont démobilisés et beaucoup d'enseignants sont découragés ; dans ce contexte, repenser l'enseignement/apprentissage/évaluation des langues n'est plus une question de discours, c'est véritablement une évidence.
De fait, comme le souligne, de manière paradoxale, le même rapport de l'Inspection générale des langues précédemment cité:
Si l'on admet que c'est la finalité qui donne du sens à l'action, il y a sûrement là une part d'explication à la faible motivation des élèves pour l'apprentissage des langues en milieu institutionnel (IGEN).
Ces quelques lignes soulignent un point central aujourd'hui, celui de la finalité et donc de sens de l'apprentissage des langues auquel ne peut échapper toute réflexion sur le contrôle et sur l'évaluation.
En effet, si au début du XXe siècle, l'objectif formatif4 de l'enseignement des langues et donc le contrôle des connaissances étaient une évidence, ce qui n'est absolument plus le cas aujourd'hui. Le public a changé et, si apprendre les langues est devenu une nécessité, les apprenants de langue ne voient pas véritablement le sens de l'apprentissage.
De fait, l'apprentissage de la langue trouve son sens dans la représentation que l'apprenant a de l' « objet langue ». Il devient « non-sens » ; il ne signifie rien si l'apprenant ne trouve aucun intérêt à cet objet qui, dès lors, devient inerte et sans vie.
Ceci tend à prouver que l'accès au savoir n'est pas simplement une question d'assentiment rationnel. Comme le souligne de manière pertinente Bernard Rey,
un savoir a un sens, cela ne signifie pas qu'il produit du sens. Un savoir ne produit rien ; c'est un objet, il n'est qu'un assemblage réglé et organisé de signes. Pour qui sait lire et le comprendre, il est porteur de sens. Mais les difficultés pratiques de tout enseignement montrent assez que l'accès au sens d'un savoir est un processus qui n'a rien d'automatique. Au regard de l'accès au sens, les savoirs sont des problèmes, non des solutions (Rey 2000 : 118).
4 L'enseignement des langues se caractérise par trois objectifs prioritaires : l' « objectif pratique » : l'enseignement / apprentissage de la langue sera à visée utilitaire ; l'objectif formatif : l'enseignement / apprentissage sera « désintéressé », c'est à dire à visée purement intellectuelle; l'objectif culturel : l'enseignement / apprentissage vise principalement à découvrir la culture des pays dont on apprend la langue (voir Bourguignon C. 2005/2014).
Le « non-sens » de l'apprentissage s'accompagne d'un refus d'apprendre et donc d'une « mauvaise note au contrôle » qui sanctionne l'apprentissage, amplifiant ainsi le non-sens.
4 L'ÉVALUATION DE LA COMPÉTENCE EN LANGUE : UN LEVIER DE L'APPRENTISSAGE
Il ne s'agit pas d'abandonner la connaissance des parties pour la Connaissance des totalités, ni l'analyse pour la synthèse ; il faut les conjuguer (Morin 2000 : 48).
4.1 Une question fondamentale : la dichotomie « apprentissage » / « usage »
Reprenons les propos tenus dans le rapport de l'Inspection générale,
alors qu'en milieu naturel l'usage de la langue a pour but de communiquer et d'agir, en milieu scolaire la pratique de la langue a pour visée l'apprentissage de la langue elle-même (IGEN).
La disjonction « apprentissage », « usage » nous amène au cœur de notre débat : faut-il « apprendre pour apprendre » et faire, comme dit précédemment, de l'objectif formatif la finalité de l'enseignement des langues ?
De ce fait, faut-il contrôler la connaissance de la langue, d'un système, à travers des tâches d'apprentissage puisque
la langue apprise en milieu scolaire est par définition objet d'enseignement puisqu'elle a le statut de discipline scolaire inscrite à l'emploi du temps des élèves. De ce fait, elle est abordée en tant que système qu'il faut acquérir, avec ses codes et ses règles (IGEN).
Faut-il, au contraire, que l'usage soit le moteur de l'apprentissage et que l'évaluation du degré d'appropriation du savoir5 linguistique se fasse à travers des tâches d'usage ? De ce fait, faut-il penser que c'est la « double nature de la langue »,
objet d'étude et outil de communication- qui constitue un défi en milieu scolaire car les finalités sont inversées : alors qu'en milieu naturel l'usage de la langue a pour but de communiquer et d'agir, en milieu scolaire la pratique de la langue a pour visée l'apprentissage de la langue elle-même (IGEN).
Le véritable « défi » ne serait-il pas de décloisonner « apprentissage » et « usage » pour redonner du sens à l'apprentissage et de faire ainsi de l'évaluation de la compétence un véritable levier de l'apprentissage ?
5 Nous appelons « savoir » un objet extérieur au sujet et « connaissance » un savoir que le sujet s'est approprié.
4.2 .....Une réponse : les orientations du Cadre européen commun de référence
Le Cadre européen commun de référence sur lequel sont ancrées les dernières Instructions Officielles nous propose de relever le défi à travers la « perspective actio-nnelle » qu'il propose.
La perspective privilégiée [...] est, très généralement aussi de type actionnel en ce qu'elle considère avant tout l'usager et l'apprenant d'une langue comme des acteurs sociaux ayant à accomplir des tâches (qui ne sont pas seulement langagières) dans des circonstances et un environnement donné, à l'intérieur d'un domaine d'action particulier. Si les actes de parole se réalisent dans des actions langagières, celles-ci s'inscrivent elles-mêmes à l'intérieur d'actions en contexte social qui seules leur donnent leur pleine signification (CECRL 2001 : 15).
Le CECRL nous invite à « conjoindre » ce qui traditionnellement a toujours été « disjoint », c'est-à-dire « apprenant/usager », « apprentissage/usage », « tâches langagières/tâches sociales (= actions) ».
Ceci n'est pas une invitation à supprimer l'apprentissage de l' « objet langue » mais une invitation à donner du sens à l'apprentissage en le reliant à l'usage de la langue. Il s'agit de se focaliser non plus seulement sur l'authenticité du document utilisé, mais aussi - et surtout - sur l'authenticité de la situation d'apprentissage. Nous avons personnellement suggéré que l'apprentissage se fasse à travers le « unité d'action » (Bourguignon 2010).
Nous ne développerons pas cet aspect qui nous amènerait à déborder notre propos. Nous nous intéresserons essentiellement, dans le cadre de cet article, aux implications en termes d'évaluation.
Si Francis Goulier parle du « projet » comme étant « la forme la plus aboutie de la démarche actionnelle » (Goulier 2005 : 21), la forme la plus aboutie de l'évaluation de la compétence en langue dans la perspective actionnelle est le Diplôme de Compétence en Langue6, c'est la raison pour laquelle, nous avons jugé intéressant de présenter cette démarche d'évaluation.
La tâche demandée au candidat dans le cadre du Diplôme de compétence en langue est la suivante : il a une mission à accomplir qui consiste à faire une proposition par rapport à un objectif clairement défini et des contraintes qui doivent le guider dans sa prise de décision.
Pour accomplir cette tâche, il doit successivement effectuer un certain nombre de micro-tâches faisant appel aux cinq activités de communication langagière précédemment mentionnées : les deux activités de réception, l'activité d'interaction, les deux activités de production.
6 Le Diplôme de Compétence en Langue (DCL) est une certification de l'Éducation Nationale mais n'est pas un diplôme conférant un titre ; il s'agit d'une certification externe. Dans l'ouvrage Pour préparer au Diplôme de Compétence en Langue - clés et conseils par Claire Bourguignon (Paris : Éditions Delagrave, 2011), le DCL illustre de manière approfondie les caractéristiques de l'évaluation dans la perspective actionnelle.
Les activités de communications sont non seulement reliées entre elles mais les activités de réception sont au service des activités de production. Dans cette logique, à travers les activités de réception, le candidat devra repérer les informations nécessaires à l'accomplissement de sa mission en liaison avec les contraintes imposées.
Ceci signifie que ce ne sont pas tant à des stratégies cognitives qu'il doit faire appel qu'à des stratégies constructivistes de mise en relation fin-moyen. L'accomplissement de la tâche relève donc d'un processus qui sera évalué au regard du degré d'accomplissement.
La compétence de communication étant au service de l'accomplissement de la tâche, le degré d'accomplissement dépendra du niveau de compétence.
La performance ainsi comprise ne se réduit pas à la performance linguistique mais à une manifestation de la compétence dans l'action. Il s'agira donc d'évaluer un degré d'opérationnalité dans la langue sur une échelle construite en liaison avec les niveaux de compétence du Cadre et non pas de comparer un résultat à un niveau du Cadre.
L'opérationnalité en langue reposant À LA FOIS sur la composante linguistique ET sur les composantes pragmatique et sociolinguistique, ces deux composantes seront évaluées.
Il est évident qu'une telle démarche d'évaluation ne peut reposer sur des « exercices type adaptés à chaque niveau ». Le support d'évaluation sera un scénario, c'est-à-dire « une simulation constituée de l'enchaînement d'une série de tâches communicatives effectuées en vue d'aboutir à l'accomplissement d'une mission complexe en fonction d'un objectif donné. Les tâches communicatives transversales constituent le fil conducteur de la construction du scénario » (Bourguignon/Delahaye/Puren 2007 : 79).
L'activité demandée au candidat perdrait tout son sens sans une démarche d'évaluation orientée processus à l'aide de grilles d'évaluation critériée. Ces grilles permettent de positionner l'apprenant sur un continuum en fonction de son degré d'accomplissement de la tâche. C'est ce qu'on appelle l' « évaluation positive ». Même si le niveau visé n'est pas atteint, il apparaît à l'apprenant qu'il a quand même atteint un niveau et qu'il a acquis un certain nombre de connaissances et de capacités. Par ailleurs, il prend conscience du chemin qui lui reste à parcourir et, tout en donnant du sens à l'évaluation à travers des critères précis, cela le responsabilise par rapport à son apprentissage.
5 CONCLUSION
Il y a inadéquation de plus en plus ample, profonde et grave entre, d'une part, nos savoirs disjoints, morcelés, compartimentés et, d'autre part, des réalités ou problèmes de plus en plus polydisciplinaires, transversaux, multidimensionnels, transnationaux, globaux, planétaires (Morin 2000 : 36).
Pour conclure, nous dirons, avec J. Demorgon, que l'évolution d'une tradition ne peut se faire que si les acteurs concernés n'ont pas l'impression que l'on cherche à usurper leur « culture » en leur imposant un discours.
Ainsi, le passage progressif d'une culture du contrôle de la connaissance de l'objet langue à une culture de l'évaluation de la compétence en langue n'a pu réellement s'effectuer qu' « en relation aux évolutions [des] environnements changeants », à savoir
l'impasse dans laquelle se trouve l'enseignement des langues et les nouvelles orientations préconisées par le Cadre européen commun de référence.
Pour autant, nous avons montré que ce changement de culture impose un changement de paradigme, donc une autre représentation du métier d'enseignant et ainsi une autre démarche que nous avons illustrée à travers l'exemple du Diplôme de compétence en langue. Cela signifie qu'au-delà de l'adaptation progressive de chacun, il est nécessaire de mettre en place un accompagnement à cette adaptation à travers des formations adaptées. Il est aussi nécessaire de réfléchir à la cohérence entre enseignement/apprentissage et évaluation qu'il s'agisse des examens dans un cadre scolaire ou des certifications extérieures, mais ceci est un autre débat auquel il ne sera pas possible d'échapper.
En effet, comme nous l'avons montré, la réflexion sur l'évaluation de la compétence en langue est complexe et, de ce fait, elle échappe à la recherche purement analytique. Il s'agit d'une recherche systémique. La construction de la connaissance sur l'évaluation de la compétence en langue vient de l'interaction entre l'image de l' « objet langue » et les sujets utilisateurs.
Bibliographie
BOURGUIGNON, Claire (2005) « L'évaluation de la compétence en langue : un objectif commun pour des publics différents. » Ela, revue de didactologie des langues-cultures et de lexiculturologie 140, 459-475. BOURGUIGNON, Claire (2005, nouvelle édition 2015) La démarche didactique en
anglais. Du concours à la pratique. Paris : PUF. BOURGUIGNON, Claire (2006) « De l'approche communicative à l'approche commu-nic'actionnelle : une rupture épistémologique en didactique des langues-cultures. » Synergie Europe 1, 58-73. BOURGUIGNON, Claire (2007) Apprendre et enseigner les langues dans la perspective actionnelle : le scénario d'apprentissage action. 15. 7. 2014. http://www.aplv-languesmodernes.org/spip.php?article865. BOURGUIGNON, Claire (2010, nouvelle édition 2014) Pour enseigner les langues
avec le CECRL - clés et conseils. Paris : Editions Delagrave. BOURGUIGNON, Claire (2011) Pour préparer au Diplôme de compétence en langue
- clés et conseils. Paris : Editions Delagrave. BOURGUIGNON, Claire/Philippe DELAHAYE/Christian PUREN (2007) Évaluer dans une perspective actionnelle : l'exemple du Dilpôme de compétence en langue. Le Havre : Éditions Delbopur. Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues : apprendre, enseigner, évaluer
(2001). Paris : Editions Didier. CHARDENET, Patrick (1999) De l'activité évaluative à l'acte d'évaluation. Paris :
Editions L'Harmattan. DEMORGON, Jacques (2004) Complexité des cultures et de l'interculturel. Contre les
pensées uniques. Paris : Editions Economica. GOULIER, Francis (2005) Les outils du Conseil de l'Europe en classe de langue. Paris : Éditions Didier.
INSPECTION GENERALE DE L'EDUCATION NATIONALE (IGEN) (2007) L'évaluation en langue vivante : état des lieux et perspective d'évolution. Rapport N° 2007-009. Ministère de l'éducation nationale, de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche.
LE MOIGNE, Jean-Louis (2002) Le Constructivisme - TomeII, Epistémologie de l'interdisciplinarité. Paris/Budapest/Torino : L'Harmattan.
MORIN, Edgar (1986) La Méthode, Tome 3. Paris : Editions du Seuil.
MORIN, Edgar (1990) Introduction à la pensée complexe. Paris : ESF Éditeurs.
MORIN, Edgar (2000) Les sept savoirs nécessaires à l'éducation du futur. Paris : Editions du Seuil.
REY, Bernard (2000) « Un apprentissage du sens est-il possible? » In : Barbier/O. Ga-latanu (eds), Signification, sens, formation. Paris : PUF, 107-126.
Résumé
DU CONTRÔLE DES CONNAISSANCES À L'ÉVALUATION DE LA COMPÉTENCE : CHANGEMENT DE PARADIGME ET MODIFICATION DES REPRÉSENTATIONS
À travers cet article, il apparaîtra que la recherche sur l'évaluation de la compétence en langue échappe aux critères classiques de la recherche analytique et se situe dans une logique systémique.
L'évaluation de la compétence en langue est un domaine complexe qui marque un tournant épistémologique dans l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues et bouscule les représentations traditionnelles du contrôle des connaissances. Aussi, après avoir présenté les concepts clés qui sous-tendent la démarche d'évaluation et les incidences sur l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues, nous montrerons qu'un discours à lui tout seul ne peut faire changer les représentations et donc les pratiques. Les enseignants n'appliqueront pas un cadre théorique qui leur échappe. C'est pourquoi la réflexion sur l'évaluation doit nécessairement s'accompagner d'une réflexion sur la formation à l'évaluation qui permette aux enseignants de s'approprier un nouveau paradigme.
Mots-clés: évaluation, évaluation de la compétence en langue, recherche, représentations.
Abstract
FROM EVALUATION OF KNOWLEDGE TO EVALUATION OF COMPETENCE: A CHANGE OF PARADIGM AND OF IDEAS
This article shows that research on competence-oriented assessment does not meet the criteria of analytic research but is to be considered as systemic.
Indeed, competence-oriented assessment is complex and marks an epistemologi-cal turning point in the field of language learning and teaching. It thus upsets the traditional representations based on knowledge assessment. After a presentation of the fundamental concepts of competence-oriented assessment and its impact on language learning and teaching, an explanation is given of why words are not enough to bring about changes in perspective. Teachers will not apply a theoretical framework which does not fit in with their ideas. This is why it seems difficult to envisage any research on competence-oriented assessment without reflecting on how teachers can adapt to a new paradigm.
Keywords: assessment, competence-oriented assessment, research, representations.
Povzetek
OD VREDNOTENJA ZNANJ DO VREDNOTENJA ZMOŽNOSTI: SPREMEMBA PARADIGME IN PREDSTAV
V članku bomo pokazali, da raziskovanje na zmožnosti osredotočenega vrednotenja ne ustreza kriterijem analitičnega, pač pa sistemičnega raziskovanja.
Vrednotenje jezikovne zmožnosti je kompleksno področje, ki v poučevaju/učenju jezikov označuje epistemološko spremembo in spreminja tradicionalno pojmovanje vrednotenja znanj. Po predstavitvi osnovnih konceptov in njihovega vpliva na poučevanje in učenje jezikov, bomo pokazali, da le z besedami ni mogoče spremeniti predstav in z njimi prakse. Učitelji ne bodo uporabljali teoretičnega okvira, ki ga ne razumejo in se jim izmika. Zato je potrebno razmislek o vrednotenju pospremiti z razmislekom o izobraževanju za vrednotenje, ki bi učiteljem omogočilo, da usvojijo novo paradigmo.
Ključne besede : preverjanje, ocenjevanje, preverjanje/ocenjevanje zmožnosti, raziskovanje, predstave.
Karmen Pižorn	UDK [811.111'243:373.3]:37.091.279.7
University of Ljubljana*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.241-259
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CEFR-BASED SCALE FOR ASSESSING YOUNG FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS' WRITING SKILLS
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last two decades, many countries across the globe have begun providing foreign language instruction at primary schools, typically with English as the target language. However, English-dominant countries have also started to introduce the statutory provision of foreign language education in primary schools (DfES 2002; Evans/Fisher 2012), with the aim of ensuring that their citizens become efficient lifelong language learners.
As foreign language instruction at primary school has gained popularity worldwide, educational researchers, language specialists and policymakers have expressed concern over the accountability of these programmes, and especially about the inadequate training of their teachers. Unfortunately, there are still many countries that lack appropriately trained teachers. In Vietnam, for instance, Nguyen (2011) reports that most primary school English teachers are not formally trained to teach English at the primary school level. Even where there are enough teachers, such as in Bangladesh or Nepal, many are not adequately trained, nor do they have adequate English language skills (Hamid 2010; Phyak 2011). Hasselgreen, Carlsen and Helness (2004) found that even teachers trained as language specialists expressed a great demand for training in various areas of assessment, such as "defining criteria" and "giving feedback". Thus it seems that teachers involved in primary school foreign language teaching require assistance and support in both teaching and in assessing young foreign language learners, especially when it comes to giving appropriate feedback.
While learners seem to be well-motivated for communicative, humanistic and learner- and content-based teaching approaches, their language progress needs to be monitored and assessed. Some educational systems (Finland, Sweden etc.) avoid traditional large-scale achievement tests at the primary school level and, instead, strongly promote classroom-based (teacher) forms of assessment. It has been noted that the application of teacher assessment appears to vary tremendously from teacher to teacher (Goto Butler/Lee 2010). On the whole, however, teachers need to assess the performance of individual students in a way that leads to further learning. In this way, teachers are able to improve their own instruction and satisfy the different needs of young language learners. It is the purpose of this article to describe the process of developing an assessment
Author's address: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: karmen.pizorn@pef.uni-lj.si.
*
instrument which should support foreign language teachers in assessing writing skills and giving helpful feedback in such a way that learners will be able to develop their language proficiency.
2 ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
Assessment covers all of those activities performed by teachers that enable the measurement of the effectiveness of teaching and learning processes. Any kind of assessment should provide a reliable answer to the question Have the students learnt what they were supposed to learn? There are three main purposes of assessment: (1) to make schools and teachers accountable for their work, (2) to issue certificates confirming students' attainment, and (3) to advance student learning and help them to improve (usually termed "assessment for learning" or "formative assessment") (Black/Harrison/ Lee/Marshall/Wiliam 2004: 10). The present article focuses mainly on the third of these purposes, which reflects the main aim of the Assessment of Young Learner Literacy (AYLLIT) project, on which this article reports.
Assessment for learning has been defined as "any assessment for which the primary aim is to fulfil the purpose of enhancing students' learning" (Black/Harrison/Lee/Mar-shall/Wiliam 2004: 10). The information derived from the assessment process should be applied by teachers and students alike. In other words:
An assessment functions formatively to the extent that evidence about student achievement is elicited, interpreted and used, by teachers, learners or their peers to make decisions about the next steps in instruction that are likely to be better, or better founded, than the decisions they would have made in the absence of that evidence (Wiliam 2011: 43).
General principles that underlie assessment for learning, and thus enable students to improve, include:
•	the provision of helpful and constructive feedback to students;
•	the active involvement of students in their own learning;
•	teacher adjustments to future instruction, based on the outcome of the results of the assessment;
•	making learners aware of the success criteria that need to be met, in order to do well in the assessment activity (Faxon-Mills/Hamilton/Rudnick/Stecher 2013).
Assessment for learning is essential for several reasons: (1) a thoughtful and well-informed classroom assessment practice ensures that students are able to achieve their educational potential; (2) formative ways of assessing students take into account variation in students' needs, interests and learning styles, and attempt to integrate assessment and learning activities; (3) a number of research studies have shown that the use of assessment to develop students' future learning makes a substantial difference, not only to students' attainment but also to their attitude towards learning, their engagement with the subject matter, and their motivation to strive for better results at school
(Black/William 1998; Hattie 2012; Murphy 1999); and (4) assessment for learning is viewed as closely related to instruction, and is needed to help teachers make decisions about learning and teaching processes. However, the success of any assessment process depends on the effective selection and use of appropriate tools and procedures, as well as on the proper interpretation of students' performance.
3	ASSESSING WRITING SKILLS OF YOUNG LANGUAGE LEARNERS
AND THE IMPORTANCE OF VALID FEEDBACK
Writing seems to be a straightforward and easy skill to assess. It provides the teacher with documentation of what the student can produce at a given time. Corrective feedback on errors may be given, and the writing may be discussed with the student and retained, to allow for subsequent comparisons between earlier or later performances. However, without a thoughtful, planned and systematic way of carrying out this assessment, it may have little formative value and can lead to imprecise summative information. For example, Stobart (2006: 141) explored conditions that may prevent the assessment from leading to further learning, and underlined the quality of feedback as critical. He established five preconditions for valid feedback to occur in the classroom: (1) it is clearly linked to the learning goals; (2) the student is able to understand the success criteria; (3) it gives an indication, at appropriate levels, on how to bridge the gap; (4) it focuses on the task, rather than the student; (5) it challenges and inspires students to do something about their progress, and it is achievable.
In order to help students develop their writing skills, teachers need to be able to provide appropriate (corrective) feedback. This should be based on criteria shared between the teacher and the students (Bitchener/Ferris 2012: 124). Moreover, the student should be able to assess his/her own performance using the set criteria, and to assess his/ her progress by placing a piece of writing at a level or target point that consists of a description (descriptors) and a sample (benchmark), which illustrate the level in question. For both teacher and students, it is vital that the descriptors are interpreted in the same way. However, it is not just criteria that influence students' progress in FL writing, but also the tasks set by the teacher. Writing tasks have to be designed in a way that allows students to demonstrate their writing abilities. For example, if the task is not close to a young learners' life experiences and interests, it will not stimulate them to show their true communicative competence. The AYLLIT project, therefore, focused on the following vital issues: (1) the development of criteria, (2) the design of guidance for teachers on giving feedback to students, and (3) the design of guidelines for preparing writing tasks (AYLLIT 2007-2011).
4	WHY THE LINK WITH THE CEFR?
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) is a useful and increasingly-known and used tool for the assessment of languages in the classroom. It has two broad aims: to act as a stimulus for reform, innovation and reflection, and to provide
Common Reference Levels, to assist communication across institutional, regional and linguistic boundaries. Before the publication of the CEFR, dialogue about levels of language competence was hindered because each school, institution, testing centre or ministry described, targeted and achieved language levels in their own terms. The CEFR helps to overcome these barriers by providing a common framework for the description of levels, course planning, assessment and certification. It is used for specifying content (what is taught and assessed) and stating criteria (how performance is interpreted).
It is a frame of reference, and must be adapted to fit a particular context. Linking to the CEFR means relating the features of a particular context of learning and teaching to it. Not everything in the CEFR is relevant to any given context, and there are features that may be important for a particular context, but which are not addressed by the CEFR. This is particularly true for young learners, who are not very well-covered in the descriptive scales, as these scales were developed with adults in mind, and do not take into account the cognitive stages prior to adulthood. Adaptation of the CEFR for young learners has been undertaken in many ways: for example, through primary school versions of the European Language Portfolio (ELP), and through national language curricula (Little 2006; Pizorn 2009). However, this is not a straightforward task. Papp and Salamoura (2009) report that assessors attempting to relate Cambridge Young Learners of English examinations to the CEFR found it difficult to map young language learners' performances and tasks against CEFR scales and descriptors.
One of the main, and most influential, parts of the CEFR is its descriptive scheme, which embraces general competence (knowledge or skills, know-how or existential competence, and the ability to learn) and communicative language competence (linguistic, pragmatic, socio-linguistic and sociocultural). It distinguishes four categories of language activity (reception, production, interaction and mediation), four domains of language use (personal, public, occupational and educational), and three types of language use (situational context, text type, and conditions or constraints) (CEFR 2001; Little 2007). For the purposes of classroom assessment, it is necessary to be able to establish not only which tasks the student can perform but also, and importantly, how well s/he can perform them. One of the principal aims of this project was, therefore, to adapt the already-existing ELP scales, with their functional focus, by producing a CEFR-based scale with a linguistic focus.
5 THE PRE-PHASES OF THE AYLLIT PROJECT
The AYLLIT materials were developed in three phases. The first, known as ECML's Bergen "Can Do" project, resulted in a scale that was a forerunner of the AYLLIT scale. The second phase was a preliminary project undertaken immediately prior to the AYL-LIT project, and the third phase was the AYLLIT project itself.
In the first phase, two CEFR-based scales of descriptors were developed in Norway for the assessment of writing, as part of the National Testing of English (NTE) in 20042005 (Helness 2012). The first focused on the functional aspect of writing, while the second had a linguistic focus and was not task-specific. The latter consisted of four ca-
tegories - textual structure, grammar, words and phrases, and spelling and punctuation - and was primarily based on the CEFR scales of descriptors. The bands of descriptors were only formulated for whole levels (A1, A2, B1, B2), and shaded areas between these levels were given (A1/A2). Next, teachers were asked to rate the scripts using the scale. Hasselgreen (2013) reports that, on the English tests for Grade 10, the inter-rater correlation between experts and teachers was 0.81. For Grade 7, the raters were generally close in their ratings: 34% were in complete agreement, while 40% differed by only half a CEFR level. Hasselgreen (2013) gives further evidence for using the scale, by reporting on teachers' perceptions of the usefulness of the training in the use of the scale, with only 3% answering that it was not useful, while all of the others found it (very) applicable. Teachers also commented that the scale would be very useful for classroom assessment of students' writing. Thus the NTE scale proved to have a high degree of near-agreement in placing students on a CEFR-based scale, and was regarded as useful to teachers in assessing writing. However, the NTE scale was not ready to be used in the AYLLIT project, due to the levels included, and the fact that the descriptors were primarily intended for testing purposes, rather than classroom assessment.
The second phase refers to a preliminary project carried out one year before the AYLLIT project, involving two Grade 5 classes (10-11 years old) in Norway. The project had two purposes. The first was to identify what students of this age could be expected to write, and what kind of assessment tools teachers would find useful. The second was to adapt the NTE scale into a form that both teachers and the project leader would find better-suited to the classroom assessment of students' writing. On the NTE scale, each band of descriptors represented a whole CEFR level, from A1 to B2. According to the research findings (Hasselgreen 2013), it was agreed that the level B2 may be cognitively beyond the reach of students at this age. Furthermore, it was felt that, in order to provide meaningful feedback and allow progress to be shown, descriptors at in-between levels should be provided. As a result, the scale was revised and six bands of descriptors (A1, A1/A2, A2, A2/B1, B1, and above B1) were included. The decision was also made to adjust the categories to include some indication of the functions a student may be expected to perform. These categories were renamed Overall Structure and Range of Information, Sentence Structure and Grammatical Accuracy, Vocabulary and Choice of Phrase, and Misformed Words and Punctuation. This work resulted in a pre-scale leading to the final AYLLIT project scale.
6 THE AYLLIT PROJECT 6.1 Introduction
The third phase refers to the AYLLIT project itself, which was part of the 2008-2011 medium-term programme of the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML), and was aimed at designing CEFR-linked guidelines and materials for primary school foreign language teachers to use in their classroom assessment of their students' reading and writing skills. The guidelines and materials for teachers were finalised following a workshop with participants from 30 European countries. Although research in the AYLLIT project
was qualitative, the AYLLIT material was thoroughly discussed and revised in the project group, and with teachers and students from all of the participating countries, until it was perceived to be appropriate for the context of classroom assessment.
The AYLLIT project team consisted of four experts representing Lithuania, Norway (coordinator), Slovenia and Spain. Two classes of students (aged 9 at the beginning) and their teachers in each country took part in the project, over a two-year period. The common foreign language for the main part of the project was English. In each of the four countries, it was assumed that children, at this stage, are able to read and write English. There was close cooperation and regular contact between the team members and the teachers in their respective countries. The role of the teachers was to be closely-involved in the whole process: administering, assessing and commenting on writing tasks, and collecting the reactions of students. The role of the team members was to draft and assign writing tasks and procedures, to revise the scale of descriptors using samples of students, to assess students' scripts already assessed by teachers, to send scripts to schools abroad, and to collect comments from teachers using the materials. The data consisted of tasks designed and revised by team members and teachers, as well as students' writing scripts, teachers'/experts' comments, and ratings of students' texts by teachers and experts. Finally, before finalising the materials, a workshop with 30 participants (most of whom were not part of the project) was organised.
6.2 AYLLIT writing process
Curricula for literacy in English in the four countries proved to be quite diverse. However, concerning foreign language writing skills, students were expected to be able to write communicatively, and at some length, on personal topics, in a descriptive and narrative way. Learners at this age should do tasks that are intrinsically motivating and challenging (McKay 2006: 250-251; Wilford 2000: 1). Cameron (2001: 156) argues in favour of writing for real communication. The idea that children are motivated when they are encouraged to talk about themselves, and to share such information with their peers from other countries through writing, was crucial to the way writing was conducted in the AYLLIT project. The writing tasks that the team designed for students reflected "can do" statements for the appropriate levels in the countries' ELPs. The initial tasks were descriptive in nature, such as introducing oneself, and sending letters and postcards from the students' towns, with attached drawings. They did not require language ability higher than around A2 on the CEFR scale, which was a fairly typical upper level for the students involved in the project. Later, the tasks became more narrative in nature, such as describing one's summer holidays. Thus, students were able to demonstrate their ability as far as B1, or slightly beyond.
The students wrote three or four tasks per year. Guidelines, with rough procedural steps, were prepared for the teachers. The students were first involved in the pre-writing phase, in the form of classroom discussion and/or Power Point presentations, which helped to activate students' schematic knowledge. The pre-writing stage requires more activities on the activation of the schematic knowledge than the other two stages: the writing stage and the post-writing stage (revising and editing). In the pre-writing pro-
cess, the teacher should consciously activate the students' content and formal schemata (Zheng/Dai 2012: 86). After the first stage, the students received feedback and guidance from their teachers, and revised their texts to make them suitable to be sent to students from another country—for example, the Norwegian students sent their texts to the Slovene students, the Slovenes sent theirs to the Spanish, the Spanish to the Lithuanian, etc. Thus, as well as being a potential source of pleasure and discovery, writing can be a major source of language development. The actual assessment of the scripts was undertaken by the students' own teacher and a corresponding expert.
6.3 Revision of the assessment scale and feedback profile
The revision of the scale of descriptors was the other major task of the AYLLIT project (see Appendix 1). The most significant revisions occurred as a result of analysing individual students' writings. Sets of three or four scripts were collected longitudinally, from a large number of students over a two-year period. A selection was then made of several of these sets, representing different students, countries and relative levels. The texts were then closely analysed, with the team members constantly referring to the drafted descriptors, and trying to answer the question, What has Student A demonstrated in his/her most recent text that s/he did not demonstrate in the previous text? In this way, valuable insight was gained into the development of the individual student's writing ability and his/her language progress.
In revising the scale, other materials were used, including school curricula, comments collected from teachers, and the team members' own experiences in using the descriptors. It was also essential to ensure that the essence of the CEFR levels was preserved. Similar to the findings by Papp and Salamoura (2009: 17), it was identified that a number of students were only able to copy words or write phonetically (see Figure 1) and did not satisfy the criteria for the A1 level. It was therefore necessary to introduce a new level labelled "Approaching A1", which in some other educational contexts is referred to as the pre-A1 level (Negishi/Takada/Tono 2012).
MAJNEJMIZ XXXX (a boy) AJLIV IN XXXX AJM 10 JERZ OLD AJM IN 4 KLAS
AJHEB 1BRADR END 1 SISTER
AJHEB PEC: 1DOG, 2 KEC, 6 BRC IND 4 FIS.
Figure 1: Example of a feedback profile
In order to give appropriate feedback, teachers need to be aware of the assessment criteria and learning goals. They also have to understand how to recognise and judge what constitutes writing ability, how students develop in writing, and how to use this feedback in such a way that it will actively help students to improve. Moreover,
teachers need to be able to assess the overall level of students' writing ability, so that students can see how they are progressing. In the AYLLIT project, teachers were asked to decide on a rough level, and only refer to the part of the scale that extended slightly above and below the selected level. It was recommended that the teacher shade all of the descriptors that seemed to apply to the student's script, in order to construct a writing profile that demonstrated the student's writing abilities.
By being presented with only the relevant part of the scale, the student was able to observe the degree to which s/he had developed his/her writing skills, compare his/her own writings, and identify where s/he was heading, without being pressured by the group's achievement. This profile was intended to be used as a basis for giving feedback to students, and making learners aware of the success criteria (Faxon-Mills/Hamilton/ Rudnick/Stecher 2013: 419). The feedback was intended to reflect the four scale criteria (Overall Structure and Range of Information, Sentence Structure and Grammatical Accuracy, Vocabulary and Choice of Phrase, and Misformed Words and Punctuation) and to draw the students' attention to what they could already do, and to what further work remained to be done. Teachers were also strongly encouraged to provide feedback, in spoken interaction with the student, in the most encouraging and positive way. This is in line with a study carried out by Bitchener and Ferris (2012), which found that the combination of written and conference feedback had a significant effect on the accuracy levels of specific grammatical structures. Furthermore, Fluckiger/Vigil/ Pasco/Danielson (2010) claim that such feedback is typically formative and, as such, is intended to help students to develop, not merely to grade their performance in a task. The absence of a summative grade can reduce student anxiety and encourage risk-taking, as students perceive their errors merely as part of a work in progress. In addition, teachers were advised to give the student corrective communicative tasks related to the key weaknesses disclosed. A sample of writing, accompanied by its profile and written feedback, is given in Figure 2.
Summer Holiday (a girl)
This is about my summer holiday. First i travelled to xxx (a city) in xxx (a country), for one week. I travelled with my mom, dad and my hamster. But then we found out that we couldn't take the hamster with us to Denmark. But fortunately we found a nice girl who worked in the animal hospital. She offered to take care of my hamster for one week, while we were in Denmark. We travelled with car and boat to Denmark. We rented a holiday house in Denmark. It was a nice house. After one or two days we drove to a beautiful beach. It was very windy. It is not mountains in Denmark so the wind just blew everywhere. Then we went to Legoland. It was so incredible! Many LEGO houses .... So cool! And a big, cool Rollercoster. It rained that day so I didn't do so much. Then we went to Odense zoo. It was fun but the animals had to little space to walk and play! And after a while we travelled to Germany. Just for a short visit. Then at the last day in Denmark we went to see the famous Moonfish. Then we travelled back to Bergen.
From xxx
Levels	Overall Structure and Range of Information	Sentence Structure and Grammatical Accuracy	Vocabulary and Choice of Phrase	Misformed Words and Punctuation
Above B1	Is able to create quite complicated texts, using effects such as switching tense and interspersing dialogue with ease. The more common linking words are used quite skilfully.	Sentences can contain a wide variety of clause types, with frequent complex clauses. Errors in basic grammar only occur from time to time.	Vocabulary may be very wide, although the range is not generally sufficient to allow stylistic choices to be made.	Misformed words only occur from time to time.
B1	Is able to write texts on themes which do not necessarily draw only on personal experience and where the message has some complication. Common linking words are used.	Is able to create quite long and varied sentences with complex phrases, e.g., adverbials. Basic grammar is more often correct than not.	Vocabulary is generally made up of frequent words and phrases, but this does not seem to restrict the message. Some idiomatic phrases used appropriately.	Most clauses do not contain mis-formed words, even when the text contains a wide variety and quantity of words.
A2/B1	Is able to make a reasonable attempt at texts on familiar themes that are not completely straightforward, including very simple narratives. Clauses are normally linked using connectors, such as and, then, because, but.	Sentences contain some longer clauses, and signs are shown of awareness of basic grammar, including a range of tenses.	Vocabulary is made up of very common words, but is able to combine words and phrases to add colour and interest to the message (e.g., using adjectives).	Clear evidence of awareness of some spelling and punctuation rules, but mis-formed words may occur in most sentences in more independent texts.
This is quite a long narrative text, which has complicating factors, such as the episode with the hamster and how it was resolved. There is good linking, e.g., after a while, including the use of adverbs such as fortunately. We get a clear sense of what happened and her reactions, including her reservations: It was fun but the animals had to little space. She provides reasons for things: It is not mountains in Denmark so the wind just blew everywhere. Her grammar is generally correct, apart from it/there error, and travelled with car. The text lacks a certain fluency, with many very short sentences which are not well linked to the adjacent ones. The vocabulary seems sufficient to allow her to fully tell her story, and there are a few quite idiomatic phrases, such as she offered to take care of.... Her spelling is good, the only errors being 'i'and to (too).
Figure 2: Sample script for B1 level, example of profile and feedback form
The actual assessment process of students' scripts was performed by teachers and experts. All scripts were assessed by a teacher, team member and coordinator, independently. It should be noted that the difference between levels assigned to a student's script rarely exceeded half a CEFR level, or one level in the scale. As Hasselgreen (2013: 426) notes, "Any bigger differences tended to be sporadic rather than systematic, and the three raters were all given access to each other's ratings, which acted as a form of training for all involved".
In conjunction with this, a workshop was organised, attended by 30 participants from 30 countries, all of whom were directly involved in primary school language education. The focus of the workshop was to validate the scale of descriptors, discover its potential usefulness in assessing texts, and try out its appropriateness as a basis for providing feedback. The participants were asked to deliver texts written by their students. Working in groups of five, the participants were first familiarised with the CEFR. They were asked to assign isolated AYLLIT descriptors to the levels set by the AYLLIT writing assessment scale. The participants agreed with the levels assigned to the descriptors by the AYLLIT team and, thus, this activity served as a validating procedure of the descriptors/levels, as they all proved to be recognisable as belonging to the intended CEFR levels.
Next, the participants were asked to assign seven texts (selected as benchmarks) to each of the AYLLIT levels, thus relating the descriptors to real texts. It was clear that the participants mostly agreed with the levels assigned by the AYLLIT team, as the overall levels never differed by more than one level above or below the level assigned by the AYLLIT team. This activity was followed by the participants working in groups with their own texts, and assigning them to the AYLLIT levels. They found this activity very useful and were able to identify appropriate descriptors in the AYLLIT scale that mirrored their students' achievement in writing. Prior to the central workshop, an online workshop took place, in which participants, with no training other than reading the material provided, rated scripts according to the AYLLIT levels. It was not surprising that there was little agreement in rating the scripts, which underlines the importance of training teachers in the use of assessment scales (Becker/Pomplun 2006: 720).
The second part of the workshop aimed at providing feedback using the AYLLIT profiles. The AYLLIT team first designed samples of AYLLIT feedback (eight scripts with feedback), after which the samples were discussed in smaller groups of participants. The discussion within the groups proved beneficial in composing the final version of the AYLLIT scale, feedback profiles and guidelines.
7 OUTCOMES OF THE AYLITT PROJECT
The outcomes of the AYLLIT project consist of assessment material and guidelines for its use (Hasselgreen/Kaledaite/Pizorn/Maldonado 2011 and the ECML/AYLLIT project website [AYLLIT, 2007-2011]). The key achievement is the scale of descriptors (Appendix 1), accompanied on the website by eight sample texts ranging from pre-A1 to above B1 levels. Each text is linked to its feedback profile. The guidelines
for assessing writing are found in Chapter 2 of the handbook (Hasselgreen/Kaledaite/ Pizom/Maldonado 2011), where teachers can find information on the assessment of young language learners' literacy, writing processes in primary school, their own needs regarding the assessment of writing, and the use of the materials and methods in the classroom. Teachers can learn how to construct a profile of the student's writing based on the AYLLIT scale, how to use this profile to stimulate learners to improve their writing abilities, how to give corrective feedback (see Figure 3), and how to use the criteria in self-assessment. As experienced teacher trainers themselves, AYLLIT team members believe that many teachers prefer face-to-face training. Thus, a step-by-step guide for teacher trainers, who wish to give workshops to novice and inexperienced teachers, is available as part of the online downloadable handbook.
Summy!
My summar holiday.
Aim hvas in Mallorca and am sunbrathling, that was very fun! That was a experienle of the live, and am stay as a camping place, wit my Grandmum and my Grandad, and we fising and have fun that summer. We also play Gitar_and Singing and 1 day we go to shopping I don't bay so much.
±. -Spelling: copy these words cflrefully
<S uwjM.tr
Was Fishutg guitar "B=u.y With
Now correct the spelling of the words ¿haded ut your text.
2. CfraiM.iM.ar: wheiA, we teiL about things that happened at a time itA, the past, we use the past teiA.se of verbs. The uviderllyied verbs iw, the text should be Iia, the past tew-se. Fi^d the past tecise of these verbs awd write thei^ Lia. the phrases below. The -first o\At is clothe for you.
we have "we had" I am.
we stay i piny we go I doivt
Now correct ail the verbs uv^d&rliv^ed your text.
Figure 3: Example of corrective feedback (Hasselgreen/Kaledaite/Pizorn/Maldonado 2011: 30)
8 DISCUSSION
The decisive question is whether the AYLLIT outcomes enable teachers to assess their students' writing skills in a valid way - to stimulate further learning. Stobart (2006: 141) identifies five factors that must be established, in order to provide valid feedback. The first factor refers to the clear linking of feedback to the learning goals/intentions. Here the feedback is based on the AYLLIT scale, which consists of four criteria: (1) overall Structure and range of information; (2) sentence structure and grammatical accuracy; (3) vocabulary and choice of phrase; and (4) misformed words and punctuation. These criteria are generally recognised in the literature on (assessing) writing (Weigle 2002; Lee 2007). Moreover, the progression within the AYLLIT scale and its levels is derived from the descriptors in the CEFR, as well as being closely linked to the goals for writing described in the curricula of the four countries concerned. Therefore, the feedback can be regarded as clearly linked to the goals/intention of learning to write, due to the perception of writing in the research literature, its roots in the CEFR and its close linkage to curricular goals.
The second factor refers to the requirement that a learner should understand the success criteria. Stobart (2012: 236) adds another dimension to the comprehension of the criteria: in order for formative assessment to lead to learning, the classroom climate has to be supportive. Some of the AYLLIT project teachers reported that learners needed some time to become accustomed to feedback profiles using the AYLLIT scale. However, after a few months' experience, and with oral support and encouragement from the teacher, in the form of so-called oral conferences (Bitchener/Ferris 2012), students gained a deeper insight into the individual descriptors, and were able to identify their own strengths and weaknesses, as well as setting their own individual writing goals, to bridge the gaps between the levels. In addition, they were highly motivated by writing texts for "real" people who would read and respond to their texts.
Valid feedback should also give signals at appropriate levels, and indicate how to bridge the gap between one level and another. Stobart's (2006) requirements include the following cues: metacognitive, deep learning and task learning. All three cues are part of the corrective feedback tasks prepared by the teacher, and completed by students on their own (see Figure 3). Students need to be cognitively-involved in the task, in order to accomplish it successfully. A number of deep learning processes are necessary: for example, understanding and applying the grammatical rule about forming the past tense, identifying and correcting spelling mistakes, paying attention to certain ways of spelling words, etc.
The next factor underlying the provision of valid feedback concerns whether feedback predominantly focuses on the task or on the learner. The AYLLIT feedback profile is distinctly focused on the task itself (see Figure 2). The feedback is based on the descriptors used in the AYLLIT scale (evidence- and criterion-based assessment). Such feedback encourages teachers to compare students' writing products with the criteria, and not with other students. It also supports teachers and students in providing evidence and arguments for their decisions: for example, in assigning a certain level to the student's overall writing ability. It is recommended that teachers apply overall
levels with great caution (Hasselgreen/Kaledaite/Pizorn/Maldonado 2011: 27-30), as writing is a complex process, and a one-off product cannot reliably indicate which (AYLLIT/CEFR) level the student has reached. There are further factors influencing the writing process that teachers should be aware of, such as students' motivation, task purpose (authenticity), task cognitive demands, the background knowledge required to complete the task, vocabulary and grammar knowledge, classroom climate, the status of language, L1 literacy development, etc.
The final (fifth) factor in establishing valid feedback refers to the following: Feedback needs to be challenging, it should require action, and it has to be achievable. As can be seen in Figure 3, when students are given corrective feedback, rather than receiving it passively, they should act upon it. They need to understand, apply the rules, correct, identify and check relevant linguistic forms, etc. This requires students to work on their errors. Developmental psychologist, Reuven Feuerstein, and his colleagues (1980, 2006) have indicated that dealing with error should be seen as a mark of respect for the learner. Errors cannot be viewed solely as failures: their origin and reason must be pursued.
In doing so the teachers demonstrate their respect for the student as a thinking being who has arrived at a response through reasons that may not correspond to the task, but which, nonetheless, exist and must be explored. (Feuerstein/ Feuerstein/Falik/Rand 2006: 353).
Furthermore, while reading the shaded descriptors that the teacher has highlighted in the AYLLIT scale, students need to be able to relate them to their own writing, and find evidence for the descriptors selected.
Thus, the feedback resulting from the materials and guidelines of the AYLLIT project can be regarded as achieving the five conditions proposed by Stobart (2006) for establishing validity. They also follow the general principles of assessment for learning, established by Faxon-Mills, Hamilton, Rudnick and Stecher (2013), which presuppose the provision of helpful and constructive feedback (the AYLLIT scale descriptors, samples of corrective feedback), active involvement of students in their own learning (the revision of corrective feedback, self-assessment of writing abilities), teacher adjustments to future instruction based on the outcomes of the results of the assessment (the guidelines for assessing writing produced in the AYLLIT project), and making students aware of the success criteria needed to do well in the assessment activity (students' comprehension of the AYLLIT scale descriptors). Moreover, the materials and guidelines of the AYLLIT project, if applied appropriately do, in fact, promote assessment for learning, as they also support the development of students' metacognitive and linguistic skills.
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Abstract
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CEFR-BASED SCALE FOR ASSESSING YOUNG FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNERS' WRITING SKILLS
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) was designed with adults in mind, which is clearly reflected in the six levels encompassing a range of proficiency that represents lifelong learning. Therefore, any use of the CEFR levels as a basis for describing the ability of young learners requires adapting the content of each level, as well as identifying which levels on the scale are appropriate for children.
The present article examines the contribution that feedback, in the form of an assessment scale, can make to valid classroom assessment of the writing of young learners, in the age group of 9-13 years. It shows that a scale of descriptors adapted from the CEFR can play a central role in this assessment. The article presents the AYLLIT (Assessment of Young Learner Literacy) research project, which developed a CEFR-based writing scale and guidelines for teachers, enabling them to provide their students with feedback, and to gain a clearer insight into their students' progress. After describing the procedures followed in the project, the article examines the extent to which its outcomes may enable teachers to give feedback that could contribute to valid classroom assessment.
Keywords: language assessment, young learners, writing skills, CEFR.
Povzetek
RAZVOJ OCENJEVALNE LESTVICE, PRILAGOJENE NA OKVIR SEJO ZA OCENJEVANJE PISNIH SPRETNOSTI MLAJŠIH UČENCEV
Ko so oblikovali Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir (SEJO), so imeli v mislih predvsem odrasle uporabnike (tujega) jezika, kar se odraža tudi v šestih ravneh opisnikov, ki se nanašajo na znanja, ki jih posameznik pridobi v času vseživljenjskega učenja. Zato je prilagajanje vsebine in števila SEJO ravni (opisnikov) za potrebe mlajših učencev nujno.
Članek preučuje možen prispevek povratne informacije v obliki ocenjevalne lestvice pri jezikovnem preverjanju/ocenjevanju v razredu mlajših učencev v starosti 9 do 13 let.
Avtorica predoči, da lahko opisniki kot del ocenjevalne lestvice, prilagojene na SEJO, igrajo pomembno vlogo pri preverjanju/ocenjevanju znanja v razredu. V članku je predstavljen raziskovalni projekt AYLLIT (and. Assessment of Young Learner Literacy; slo. Preverjanje/ocenjevanje pismenosti mlajših učencev jezika), v okviru katerega so strokovnjaki razvili ocenjevalno lestvico za preverjanje pisne spretnosti in jo prilagodili na ravni in opisnike SEJO ter oblikovali smernice za učitelje. Ti so s tem pridobili orodje za podajanje povratne informacije, ki naj bi jih opolnomočila pri prepoznavanju učenčevega napredka. Avtorica opiše postopek raziskave in evalvira možnosti uporabe lestvice kot pomoč učiteljem pri dajanju povratnih informacij učencem pri pisnih izdelkih, ki lahko izboljšajo veljavnost preverjanja in ocenjevanja pisnih spretnosti v razredu.
Ključne besede: jezikovno preverjanje/ocenjevanje, mlajši učenci, pisne spretnosti, SEJO.
APPENDIX 1: AYLLIT scale of descriptors (AYLLIT, 2007-2011)
Levels	Overall Structure and Range of Information	Sentence Structure and Grammatical Accuracy	Vocabulary and Choice of Phrase	Misformed Words and Punctuation
Above B1	Is able to create quite complicated texts, using effects such as switching tense and interspersing dialogue with ease. The more common linking words are used quite skilfully.	Sentences can contain a wide variety of clause types, with frequent complex clauses. Errors in basic grammar only occur from time to time.	Vocabulary may be very wide, although the range is not generally sufficient to allow stylistic choices to be made.	Misformed words only occur from time to time.
B1	Is able to write texts on themes which do not necessarily draw only on personal experience and where the message has some complication. Common linking words are used.	Is able to create quite long and varied sentences with complex phrases, e.g., adverbials. Basic grammar is more often correct than not.	Vocabulary is generally made up of frequent words and phrases, but this does not seem to restrict the message. Some idiomatic phrases used appropriately.	Most sentences do not contain misformed words, even when the text contains a wide variety and quantity of words.
A2/B1	Is able to make a reasonable attempt at texts on familiar themes that are not completely straightforward, including very simple narratives. Clauses are normally linked using connectors, such as and, then, because, but.	Sentences contain some longer clauses, and signs are shown of awareness of basic grammar, including a range of tenses.	Vocabulary is made up of very common words, but is able to combine words and phrases to add colour and interest to the message (e.g., using adjectives).	Clear evidence of awareness of some spelling and punctuation rules, but misformed words may occur in most sentences in more independent texts.
Levels	Overall Structure and Range of Information	Sentence Structure and Grammatical Accuracy	Vocabulary and Choice of Phrase	Misformed Words and Punctuation
A2	Can write short straightforward coherent texts on very familiar themes. A variety of ideas are presented with some logical linking.	Is able to make simple independent sentences with a limited number of underlying structures.	Vocabulary is made up of very frequent words but has sufficient words and phrases to get across the essentials of the message aspired to.	Some evidence of knowledge of simple punctuation rules, and the independent spelling of very common words.
A1/A2	Can adapt and build on a few learnt patterns to make a series of short and simple sentences. This may be a short description or a set of related facts on a very familiar personal theme.		Can use some words which may resemble L1, but on the whole the message is recognisable to a reader who does not know the L1. Spelling may be influenced by the sound of the word and mother tongue spelling conventions.	
A1	Can write a small number of very familiar or copied words and phrases and very simple (pre-learnt) sentence patterns, usually in an easily recognisable way. The spelling often reflects the sound of the word and mother tongue spelling conventions.			
Approaching A1	Makes an attempt to write some words and phrases, but needs support or model to do this correctly.			
Cvetka Sokolov
University of Ljubljana*
UDK 811.111243:37.091.279.7(497.4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.261-275
SELF-EVALUATION OF RATER BIAS IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION ASSESSMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
Assessing students' written performance consistently and objectively is one of the main challenges with which teachers of foreign languages are faced. Objective assessment "[reflects] student ability rather than factors unrelated to that ability such as rater biases" (Schaefer 2008: 465). But raters are not machines - despite their putting a lot of effort into being objective, they will subconsciously respond to the writer's gender, nationality, the content of the paper being assessed, its length, its layout, and the like; in short, raters will be influenced by "a wide range of factors that threaten the validity and fairness of the assessment outcomes" (Eckes 2012: 270; cf. Hamp-Lyons 1990: 81; McNamara 2000: 37; Moss/Walters (1993) 1995: 362, 360). The final grade is thus, in Tim McNamara's (2000: 37) words, "a reflection, not only of the quality of the performance, but of the qualities as a rater of the person who has judged it".
It is obviously impossible to entirely avoid rater bias. Of course, this is not to say that a blind eye should be turned to it. On the contrary, "[t]here is general consensus that consideration of bias is critical to sound testing practice" (Standards 2002: 74). Rater subjectivity can be reduced considerably by raters being trained and made aware of the causes of rater bias (see for example Schaefer 2008: 469). The research presented in the present article focuses on the latter. To begin with, various types of rater bias are listed and explained. Afterwards, background information and research methods are described. The following section deals with the findings concerning the way raters in the research group evaluate the extent to which they are influenced by various causes of rater bias when assessing students' written compositions. Although self-evaluation has its drawbacks, the results reveal interesting, relevant and important information on aspects which make written composition assessment less reliable and valid. Being aware of bias is prerequisite to fighting it.
2 TYPES OF RATER BIAS
Thomas Eckes (2012 : 273) defines rater bias as "a systematic pattern of rater behaviour that manifests itself in unusually severe (or lenient) ratings associated with a particular aspect of the assessment situation". Rater bias results in a grade which
Authors address: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: cvetka.sokolov@guest.arnes.si.
*
reflects a particular rater's characteristics and values rather than the objective quality of the written product itself (cf. Eckes 2008: 155). The most common causes of rater bias are listed and discussed systematically in Vicki Spandel and Richard J. Stiggins's (1990: 68-72) Creating Writers: Linking Assessment and Writing Instruction. Other theorists and researchers have contributed to the understanding of various causes of rater bias (see for example Connors/Glenn 1995; Cushing Weigle 2002; Eckes 2008; Koretz 2008; Standards 2002). The following subsections of Section 2 present a list and short explanations of the most common types of rater bias.
2.1	Not Complying (Enough) with the Marking Criteria
Eckes's (2008: 177) research leading to his classification of rater types showed that raters differed from one another significantly when asked how important they felt it was to comply with the accepted marking criteria (ibid.). The extent to which the marking criteria are taken into account depends also on a particular rater's circumstances: on the one hand, raters evaluate students' work more smoothly after they have "warmed up" but, on the other, they get tired after a while, which makes their following of the marking criteria less consistent - more lenient or harsher over time.
Faced with many essays to grade, for example, one scorer may become crankier and hence more severe over time, while another may become more lenient, just wanting to finish the work. And yet another may produce a progressive narrower range of scores as time goes on (Koretz 2008: 151).
2.2	Subjective Interpretation of the Marking Criteria
Eckes's (2008: 177) research led to another conclusion: "Raters' perceptions of the scoring criteria lacked common ground." Some raters will attribute unclear ideas to coherence problems, whereas others will blame them on inaccurate language use, for example. In fact, differences in the perception of the construct (that is, what is being tested/assessed) are unavoidable, even in seemingly clear-cut and/or agreed-upon cases, due to the reader's, "the human instrument's", subjective nature (Hamp-Lyons 1990: 81; cf. Elbow 2010: 1; Shi 2001: 134-317).
We have long known that readers bring their own diverse values to what they read -indeed, they help construct the very meanings they find in a text. [...] Thus we shouldn't be surprised that even the most skilled readers characteristically disagree with one another not only in their valuings of a text but even about its meanings (Elbow 1996: 121; cf. Holdstein 1996: 219; White 1996: 16; Wilson/Hanna 1993: 236; Yu 2007: 541).
2.3	Differential Weighting of Criteria/Biased Use of Scoring Criteria
Some raters are prone to committing the so-called "trait error" - they tend to attribute more weight to a particular aspect or aspects of student performance than the scoring criteria justify because of their subjective conviction that these are more important than others (cf. Koretz 2008: 151; Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 68). Their grade will thus be influenced mostly, or even exclusively, by language accuracy, for example. Such selective attention to performance features results in either the raters' neglecting other
aspects of good writing reflected in the criteria, or in their grading them more severely or more leniently (see, for example, Hughes 2003: 103; Hyland 2003: 229; Bacha 2001: 375; Lewthwaite 2008: 6; Weir 1993: 375). Research on assessing essays on literary works within the matura exam conducted in Slovenia showed that fluent language use tended to be considered so important by the raters that they treated unclear development of ideas and poor paragraphing more leniently in papers displaying a good command of Slovene (Cokl/Cankar 2008: 65). Essays written in foreign languages are even more problematic in this respect since impressive mastery of a foreign language is more likely to divert the rater's attention from other important aspects of the candidate's written performance.
2.4	The Topic of the Essay and the Task/Text Type
Raters can be influenced by the topic of the written composition which they are marking, too. If they are not interested in it, for instance, their grading may be harsher (see for example Cushing Weigle 2002: 91-94; Eckes 2008: 158). Raters' harshness/ leniency depends also on the nature of task types as a study conducted by Edward Schaefer (2008: 467) has shown.
There appears to be a complex relationship between raters and tasks, in that raters base their judgements of writing on their expectations for a specific task as well as on the attributes of the specific texts they are judging (Cushing Weigle 2002: 72).
Raters tend to be more lenient with more demanding tasks, "unconsciously rewarding test takers who choose the more difficult prompt, or may have lower expectations for that topic" (Hamp-Lyons/Matthias 1994 and in Cushing Weigle 2002: 66).
2.5	The Personality Clash/Disagreement with Content
When test takers present opinions contradicting their teachers'/raters' views on a particular matter in their essays, it can be difficult for the latter to evaluate such papers objectively (see for example Carr 2000: 211; Eckes 2008: 158; Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 69). "Ethnographic studies of essay readers [...] have shown that readers make judgements about affective and moral facets of the writer. They 'read the writer' as they read the text, unless carefully trained not to do so" (Hamp-Lyons 1990: 78). Raters are likely to be harsher in such cases: if aware of the trap, they could worry about their bias so much that this could make them compensate for their personal feelings of disapproval by scoring the paper more leniently.
Maybe to the writer a motorcycle symbolizes freedom and individuality, while to the rater it signifies irresponsibility, disdain for authority, and mindless rebellion. What winds up being scored - the paper on the cross-country trip to Baja or the student's choice of topic? Raters can also try too hard to compensate for a bias that they know influences their scoring, for example, 'I know I hate motorcycle papers, so I'll automatically kick all the scores up a point' (Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 69).
2.6	Vulgar, Explicit Language/Offensive Content
A student may well have a good reason to use vulgar language in a particular paper. If his or her aim is primarily to shock the reader/teacher, however, explicit language will probably not comply with register demands, which does justify a lower grade. Nevertheless, a student's impertinence alone is not reason enough for the rater to opt for a lower grade - after all, the teacher should be assessing the student's writing skills, and not his or her character/manners (cf. Carr 2000: 211; Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 70).
2.7	The Sympathy Score
A teacher may be tempted to assign a sympathy score to a student writer when he or she feels that the student has been trying hard, has made a lot of progress, was not quite him or herself on the exam day, or that his or her future depends on the test score (cf. Connors/Glenn 1995: 83; Koretz 2008: 152; Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 70). Personal affection and/or emotional content are risk factors, too, exposing the teacher/rater to the danger of the sympathy score bias. This is one of the reasons why experts on testing employed by Cambridge University have complied lists of essay topics to be avoided such as war, death, family problems, and the like (Shaw/Weir 2007: 130-131).
Some teachers like to grade in part on the students' level of effort (e.g., rewarding the amount of writing done or the time spent rather than the quality of the writing). They believe that this approach encourages hard work. We all value hard work, but if students receive the message via their grades that they don't have to perform well as long as they look like they're trying hard, you can predict the results as well as we can. Besides, effort is a vague concept that can be difficult to measure objectively. If all teachers measure effort differently, we wind up making grades more subjective than ever (Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 118).
2.8	Knowing the Writer
Knowing the writer whose work we are assessing can be seen as having good and bad sides to it (see for example Connors/Glenn 1995: 83; Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 71). A lot of teachers feel that following and acknowledging a particular student's progress are generally beneficial (although many experts on testing hold the view that rewarding students on the basis of the progress which they have made is a type of bias in itself since, as already established above, progress does not affect the actual objectively measureable quality of the text). Since teaching and learning foreign languages are interactive, teachers gradually learn a lot about their students, gaining insight into their private lives to some extent, too. This can lead to serious bias - to judging students' work either too leniently or too harshly on the basis of their personality and the rater's experience with them rather than their actual performance (cf. Koretz 2008: 151).
This type of bias can overlap with other types of bias to some degree such as the personality clash and the sympathy score. Similarly, the teacher's knowledge of a particular examinee's general proficiency level and past achievements can also be problematic (cf. Eckes 2008: 180; Goldstein 2006: 83), even if it represents second-hand knowledge. "Diederich (1974) found that raters gave higher scores to the same L1
essays when they were told that the essays were written by honours students than when they were told the essays were written by average students" (Cushing Weigle 2002: 72).
3 TEACHER BIAS IN LANGUAGE IN USE CLASSES AT THE FACULTY OF
ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA: SELF-EVALUATION
3.1 Background Information and Information on the Questionnaire
The author of the present article has researched the extent to which certain causes of bias influence the group of 11 teachers teaching practical English classes Language in Use at the Department of English and American Studies at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. The average age of 9 female and 2 male participants in the study was 41, ranging from 27 to 50. The average number of years of teaching experience in the group researched was 15, the least experienced participant having acquired 6 years of teaching experience, the most experienced 25. Most participants pointed out in the questionnaire that they were more or less "self-taught raters", gaining their knowledge of testing mostly from teaching experience (4.3 points on average on a five-point scale), sharing their concerns and knowledge about assessment practices with colleagues (3.9 points), and studying books and articles written by experts on testing (3.8 points). In fact, they felt that their formal university studies contributed the least to their knowledge of testing (1.6 points).
The participants in the study were asked to self-evaluate the extent to which their scoring of written compositions is affected by selected causes of rater bias. In addition, two students were interviewed to throw light on students' view of their teachers' bias. The research involving eleven lecturers teaching Language in Use is a part of a much larger project which has resulted in the author's PhD thesis.
The research method used was questionnaire. It was supplemented with interviews which were conducted to verify the researcher's understanding and interpretation of the respondents' answers to the questionnaire (see for example Vogrinc 2008: 101; Weir/ Roberts 1994: 142) in the period from 31 January 2012 to 11 December 2012.
The respondents were asked to evaluate the impact which the listed causes of bias had on their scoring of students' written compositions on a zero-to-five scale (no impact to extremely strong impact). The causes of bias listed below were included:
a.	The rater knows the student writer.
b.	The rater is familiar with the student writer's general proficiency.
c.	The task is (un)demanding.
d.	The rater is scoring a new draft based on the teacher's or a peer's feedback.
e.	The rater is scoring a home assignment vs. an essay written under exam conditions.
f.	The student writer has made much/little/no progress.
g.	The student writer is new in class, and may have been exposed to a different approach to (teaching) writing when taught by another teacher.
h.	The rater is scoring a very personal essay with distressing content.
i. The paper contains ideas which the rater strongly disagrees with (for example, intolerant ideas).
j. The rater feels well/unwell; the rater's personal circumstances interfere with the scoring process.
k. The setting in which the scoring takes place affects the scoring process (un) favourably.
Causes (a) and (b) fall under the type of bias labelled "Knowing the Writer", and are discussed under section 2.8. above, causes (c) and (d) cover "The Task Type" (see 2.4. above), causes (e), (f), (g) and (h) often result in "Sympathy Scores" (see 2.7. above), cause (i) triggers "The Personality Clash" and/or influences the score unfavourably due to "Disagreement with Content" and/or "Vulgar, Explicit Language/Offensive Content" (see 2.5 and 2.6. above), whereas causes (j) and (k) can lead to "not complying with the marking criteria (enough)" (see 2.1. above).
Some other types of bias that do not lend themselves to self-evaluation on a zero-to-five scale (no impact to extremely strong impact) were covered and/or exposed in other parts of the questionnaire. The information on them was obtained by other means, such as by eliciting the participants' opinion on balanced weighting of all the categories assessed (content, vocabulary, grammatical accuracy and structure/coherence). The participants were asked to justify their answers. Their explanations provide valuable insight into the differential weighting of criteria (see 2.3. above) within the group researched; the inquiry (meant to aid revision of the criteria currently in use) reveals whether equal weight is really attributed to all the aspects of the construct (what is being assessed) or not.
The question about the extent to which the respondents use the approved scoring criteria regularly and consistently is another case in point. In addition, the answers to the part of the questionnaire asking the respondents to interpret individual descriptors in the marking criteria could be seen as giving information on subjective interpretation of the criteria (see 2.2. above) but also on lack of more rigorous standardization concerning the criteria use; therefore, their more detailed treatment is beyond the scope of this paper.
3.2 The Reliability of the Research Method
It should be taken into account that both the questionnaire and the interviews disclose the participants' perception and views, which are not necessarily a reliable reflection of the actual circumstances (Henning et al. 2009: 94). Apart from that, respondents are likely to (un)willingly tailor their answers to what they perceive as the expert community's/the researcher's expectations to make a good impression (cf. Nijstad 2009: 13), especially when asked to self-evaluate their work/themselves. "There is a known tendency among respondents to wish to provide what they think is wanted of them" (Weir/Roberts 1994: 141). Finally, the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee can lead to biased responses, resulting in inaccurate data (ibid.: 143). The researcher needs to bear the drawback in mind when interpreting the results.
It is important to remember that neither interview nor survey data can claim to represent the actual facts of the matter, but only facts as the participants believe them to be. Combining survey and interview research can give the action researcher both breadth and depth of insight (Henning et al. 2009: 29).
The most illuminating answers in the questionnaire and the interviews were those giving the respondents' firm convictions,+ which they felt so confident about that they responded sincerely, without self-censoring themselves. The reliability of some other data gathered is confirmed by the raters' officially-approved assessment policy, which is documented in the minutes of the groups' standardisation meetings. Other types of bias could be verified by the researcher analysing papers marked by individual raters (which is, again, beyond the scope of this paper).
The reliability of teachers' self-evaluation can also be appraised if compared to students' evaluation of their inclination to various types of bias. The possible discrepancy between the two does not necessarily provide evidence of the inadequacy of the teachers' self-evaluation since the students' perception is affected by a number of factors, too. By highlighting the fact that self-evaluation is subjective, however, it encourages the researcher to draw tentative conclusions, preferably verifying them by employing other methods as well, the most reliable being statistical analysis of numerical data (if available). Even when this is not feasible, the results still give relevant information on the educational setting in which the teachers/raters operate.
Our information about bias is often incomplete. Bias, like validity, is somewhat elusive. Techniques for identifying it are limited, and evaluations of potential bias are often imperfect. The evaluation of potential bias, like other aspects of validation, is an ongoing process (Koretz 2008: 279).
3.3 Results
The answers as to what extent individual lecturers believe themselves to be inclined towards the types of bias listed above (see 3.1.) when marking their students' written compositions are given in Table 1, and presented graphically in Graph 1.
Lecturer	SOURCE OF BIAS										
	Rater knows student	Student's general proficiency	Task difficulty	Second draft	Homework vs. exam	Progress	New teacher	Distressing content	Writer's opinion	Rater's circumstances	Setting
A	3	3	2	3	3	3	0	0	0	1	1.5
B	2	2	3	3	3	2	1	0	1	1	1
C	2	1	3	5	3	3	2	2	1	0.5	3
D	3	1	4	/	5	4	1	4	5	2	4
E	4	5	4	5	4	3	1	2	2	0	0
Lecturer	SOURCE OF BIAS										
	Rater knows student	Student's general proficiency	Task difficulty	Second draft	Homework vs. exam	Progress	New teacher	Distressing content	Writer's opinion	Rater's circumstances	Setting
F	3	3	3	4	3	3	2	3	3	0	0
G	1	1	3	4	5	3	1	0	4	0	0
H	1	1	2	4	3	4	0	0	2	2	2
I	3	2	4	/	3	4	3	/	/	0	0
J	?	0	3	3	4	2	3	0	5	0	3
K	3.5	2	2	2	2	2	1	4	3	2	1
Average	2.3	1.9	3	3	4.3	3	1.4	1.4	2.4	0.8	1.4
Table 1: Sources of Bias in Assessment: Self-Evaluation
NOTE: / means that the lecturer does not expect students to write a second draft/does not grade papers with distressing content. ? suggests that the respondent could not decide on the extent of the bias's impact on him or her.
Graph 1: Sources of Bias in Assessment: Self-Evaluation
As already stated, other parts of the questionnaire also elicited information on assessment bias in the group researched. Responses to the question about raters' reliance on the scoring criteria, for example, disclose that only 5 lecturers keep referring to the scoring criteria while marking papers, whereas 5 check them only occasionally and
fleetingly because, as they explain in the questionnaire, they know them well enough without having to consult them unless in doubt. 1 lecturer relies exclusively on his or her memory of the scoring criteria. Obviously, more than a half of the participants (6 out of 11) are likely not to comply with the marking criteria to some extent (see 2.1. above) due to their reliance on memory rather than printed scoring criteria.
The question concerning the (un)even distribution of weight between the categories assessed (content, vocabulary, grammatical accuracy, structure/coherence) reveals which category is deemed more important than others by some raters (see 2.3 above). Although the four aspects assessed are to be treated as carrying equal weight at the moment, the raters who would like to change this in future are very likely to be biased in favour of a particular category. In fact, 8 lecturers (73%) stated that they thought the distribution should not change, but their elaboration on this issue showed that 3 (27%) actually think that language use should carry more weight, whereas 3 (27%) attribute more importance to content and coherence. This is bound to lead to subjective interpretation of the criteria at least to some degree. Less than half of the raters (46%) support the view that all categories are equally important, although they should be treated as such by all raters as only this would be in accordance with the officially approved scoring criteria.
3.4 Interpretation of the Results
The results show (see Table 1 and Graph 1 above) that raters are affected by the setting in which student writers create their papers to the highest extent - 4.3 on average, with the values ranging from 2 to 5. The most common value is 3 (6 raters), whereas 4 and 5 were chosen by 4 raters. One rater estimated the difference in his or her handling of home assignments vs. exam papers by assigning it 2 points. The high average estimate of this influence reflects different use of the same scoring criteria in two different testing contexts. Strictly speaking, this implies biased scoring since the setting in which the writing takes place does not change the actual objective quality of the paper itself. Other most influential factors are the stage in the writing process at which the paper was handed-in (second drafts are graded more harshly than first drafts), the task difficulty and the student writer's progress. Again, if the quality of the essay is to be judged objectively, the grade should not depend on any of the bias-mongering factors. In addition, the estimation of the task difficulty is very subjective, and the teacher's may not necessarily agree with the student's. Although there are some theorists who speak in favour of rewarding a student's progress (see for example Connors/Glenn 1995: 93, 95), this is generally dismissed as unacceptable by experts on testing (see for example Butt 2010: 69; Spandel/Stiggins 1990: 118).
On the other hand, writing a second draft on the basis of one's teacher's and/or peers' feedback requires skills that could/should be evaluated, too - for example, making a well-informed decision as to which recommendations for improvement to take into account and which to ignore. Similarly, one could argue that writing at home differs from taking writing tests so much that teachers/raters are entitled to expect more from home assignments (the use of a wider range of sources, more sophisticated vocabulary, more
complex language constructions, no spelling mistakes, and the like). However, this implies that the scoring criteria should be adjusted to match the particular testing context, or at least that their application in different testing situations should be negotiated and agreed upon in the particular group of raters.
The following type of bias, which received an average of 2.4 points, concerns teachers' being influenced by student writers' (intolerant) views expressed in their papers. The score is slightly less reliable than others, though, since the respondents interpreted the statement given in the questionnaire in two different ways: a respondent who explained that he or she supported his or her lower content grade, by providing the evidence that the writer's argumentation was poor (rather than opposing his or her point of view, to which everybody is entitled) marked the influence by 1, meaning "I don't grade anybody's opinion, just their argumentative skills", whereas another one (following the same line of reasoning) estimated that the influence was as strong as 5 points, meaning "I fight such opinions rigorously by proving they don't hold water". A respondent who estimated the intensity of influence upon him or her by assigning it 5 points felt strongly that "developing academic tolerance" is, and should be, one of a university teachers' teaching objectives and should, therefore, be graded as well. If we accept this view, penalising students for expressing intolerant opinions becomes a part of the construct (what is being assessed), and should not be considered biased as such any more, with the rider that raters working in the same teaching context should negotiate the interpretation of "unaccept-ably intolerant views". "Harmless" personal opinions differing from those of teachers do not fall under this category, of course. Leaving a paper with delicate content unmarked should be avoided, while grading just the categories of vocabulary use and grammatical accuracy, which one of the respondents resorts to in such cases, means a serious violation of the principle of validity in assessment. The analysis of the respondents' explanations, elaborating on their self-evaluation points, shows that raters involved in the study are less uniform in their response to the students' views with which they disagree/which they disapprove of than the average estimate of the bias's impact on them (2.4) would suggest.
Knowing the student and his or her language proficiency are the two causes of bias which gained the average of 2.3 and 1.9 points, respectively. They are more clear-cut than the ones discussed so far and thus easier to detect. The relatively low estimate of their impact can be understood more readily in the light of many raters' suggestion that students should use codes rather than sign their papers. Nevertheless, two respondents still believe that they are influenced by the two factors to the highest possible degree (5 points).
The sympathy grade resulting from students getting a new teacher to whose expectations they are not used is awarded relatively seldom (1.4 points), which is good news, since basing one's grade on the subjective feeling of what another teacher may have expected from his or her former students increases the subjectivity of assessment. The only fair answer to this dilemma is assessment standardisation.
Distressing content leaves the raters quite unaffected, too (1.4 points), partly because, as they explain in the questionnaire, they think carefully beforehand of what kind of topics to assign, avoiding those which could encourage students to share very personal stories with their reader/teacher/rater. If a student submits a paper disclosing
his or her emotional state/distress anyway, there are teachers who will leave the essay unmarked if they assume that the grade is likely to add to the young writer's misery.
The factors which have little influence on the raters (0.8 points) include their not feeling well and their personal circumstances, which the respondents, as they state in the questionnaire, can put aside successfully when marking students' papers. The impact of the setting in which the marking takes place seems to be stronger, although the participants' explanations suggest that their estimates depended on their individual interpretation of the particular impact. Most of them point out that they make sure that the setting is peaceful and quiet, but their estimate of the bias's influence ranges from 0 to 4.
4 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The study shows that the most common source of bias for raters who were included in the research is the setting in which students have written the paper being graded. The influence of the task difficulty, the number of drafts and the particular student's progress is weaker, but still substantial. It has to be pointed out that the sources of bias had not been perceived as problematic before the study was embarked upon. On the contrary, they had represented the group's approved assessment policy. As already stated, some experts on testing actually hold the view that rewarding students' progress, for example, is not only perfectly acceptable, but even desirable.
Other causes of bias discussed in the article are much more definite. Knowing the student and his or her proficiency in English turns out to be rather problematic, whereas the raters seem to be quite well-equipped against getting too emotional over distressing content in students' essays. They are even more professional when it comes to not letting a bad day influence their grading, and to securing a peaceful and quiet setting for their work, as they tell us in the questionnaire.
As already mentioned, two raters' self-evaluations were compared with two students' evaluations of bias (gained in interviews) in the very same teachers' assessment. Despite considerable overlap, especially at the bottom of the scale, the students' responses confirm the assumption that students perceive teacher biases rather differently in some respects than teachers themselves do/would like them to be perceived. Greater discrepancies in the case of more pronounced sources of bias assert their more problematic nature. Obviously, self-evaluation should be interpreted tentatively - the whole truth is much more complicated than the scale used would suggest. Subjective aspects of assessment are difficult to measure objectively. Further research involving a detailed analysis of papers written by the students, and assessed/graded by the teachers, would provide more tangible results. To obtain more conclusive information, a representative sample of student respondents would have to be included. A statistical analysis of the data gathered and its interpretation would verify both evaluation sets' reliability.
It is more than obvious that bias in writing assessment cannot be avoided entirely. It can and should, however, be diminished. "Users of tests should be alert to the possibility that human issues involving examiner and examinee may sometimes affect test fairness" (Standards 2002: 73). Becoming aware of possible causes of bias and
understanding them are prerequisite to taking measures to alleviate their negative effect on scoring. Therefore, proper and regular in-service teacher training in the field should be provided (see for example Eckes 2012: 287; Hamp-Lyons 1990: 81; Lewth-waite 2008: 6-7; Rezaee/Kermani 2011: 112; Schaefer 2008: 469). It should definitely include explicit treatment of causes of bias. Increased awareness of the possibility of unfair scoring is bound to reduce the extent to which papers are graded subjectively in the long run (cf. Schaefer 2008: 469) by helping more teachers/raters to recognise their own personal biases against (or for) particular students, encouraging them to "take a variety of steps ranging from seeking a review of test interpretation from a colleague to withdrawal from the testing process" (Standards 2002: 84) when/if they realise that biased scoring is difficult or even impossible for them to combat.
I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers who have contributed to the final version of the text by commenting on it and giving valuable suggestions for its improvement.
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Abstract
SELF-EVALUATION OF RATER BIAS IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION ASSESSMENT
No assessment is entirely free of bias. This paper presents findings concerning the way raters in the research group evaluate the extent to which they are influenced by various types of rater bias when grading their students' written compositions. The sources of bias covered in the article include the teacher's knowing the student writer and his or her proficiency in English, the difficulty of the writing task, distressful content likely to trigger the rater's emotional reaction, the test taker's views clashing with those of the rater, students' progress, and the like. The data were gathered by the participants in the study via a questionnaire. In addition, the researcher's interpretation of the respondents' answers was verified through interviews. Although the two research methods and self-evaluation have their drawbacks, the results reveal interesting, relevant and important information on aspects which make written composition assessment less reliable and valid. The findings confirm the need to raise raters' awareness of the causes of bias to which they are most susceptible, bringing them closer to effectively addressing the problem of assessment bias. The research involving eleven lecturers teaching Language in Use at the Department of English and American Studies at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, is a part of a much larger project based on the author's PhD thesis.
Keywords: rater bias, types of rater bias, self-evaluation, increased awareness, reliable and valid assessment.
Povzetek
SAMOVREDNOTENJE PRISTRANSKOSTI OCENJEVALCEV PISNIH SESTAVKOV
Vsako ocenjevanje je do neke mere subjektivno. Članek predstavlja izsledke raziskave, ki išče odgovor na vprašanje, pod kakšnim vplivom različnih oblik pristranskosti so po lastni presoji ocenjevalci in ocenjevalke, ki so v raziskavi sodelovali. Do kakšne mere na končno oceno vplivajo dejavniki, kot na primer težavnost naslova/naloge, pretresljive in osebne vsebine v sestavku, ki utegnejo pri ocenjevalcu/ocenjevalki sprožiti čustven odziv, avtorjevo/avtoričino stališče, s katerim se ocenjevalec/ocenjevalka ne strinja, študen-tov/študentkin napredek in dejstvo, da ocenjevalci/ocenjevalke avtorja/avtorico besedila poznajo in da vedo, kako dobro obvlada angleščino? Podatke smo zbrali s pomočjo vprašalnika, interpretacijo odgovorov udeležencev v raziskavi pa smo preverili z intervjuji. Čeprav imajo tako obe raziskovalni metodi kot samoocenjevanje določene pomanjkljivosti, prinašajo rezultati raziskave zanimiva, relevantna in pomembna spoznanja o vidikih ocenjevanja, ki zmanjšujejo njegovo zanesljivost in veljavnost. Raziskava potrjuje potrebo po ozaveščanju ocenjevalcev in ocenjevalk o različnih oblikah pristranskosti in jih spodbuja k razmisleku, za katere vplive so sami posebej dovzetni. Seznanjenost z možnimi viri pristranskosti in kritičen pretres lastnih ravnanj/odločitev v procesu ocenjevanja učitelje in učiteljice približata cilju - čim bolj objektivnemu ocenjevanju. Raziskava zajema 9 lektoric in 2 lektorja, ki na Oddelku za anglistiko in amerikanistiko Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani učijo predmet Jezik v rabi. Gre za del mnogo obsežnejše raziskave, obdelane v avtoričini doktorski disertaciji.
Ključne besede: pristranskost ocenjevalcev, vrste pristranskosti, samoocenjevanje, višja stopnja ozaveščenosti, zanesljivo in veljavno ocenjevanje.
Ina Ferbežar	UDK 811.163.6,243:37.016(4)
Nataša Pirih Svetina	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.L277-291 Mateja Lutar
University of Ljubljana*
THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE: A REFERENCE FOR SLOVENE
1 INTRODUCTION
The document Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR), which was published in 2001 by the Council of Europe and translated into Slovene in 20111, "provides a common basis for elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe" (CEFR 2001: 1). It therefore facilitates the transparency and international comparability of language curricula, as well as of testing and the issuing of certificates in foreign and second languages. For this reason, in recent years the majority of European educational institutions have been trying to link their language curricula, and particularly their examinations, to the CEFR scales (see for example Martyniuk/Noijons 2007). Slovenia is no exception to this2. Thus, from 2010 to 2013 at the Centre for Slovene as a Second/Foreign Language at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana (Centre for Slovene)3, steps were taken to ensure that acquiring Slovene language proficiency, as well as the system of testing and certifying it, were aligned with the CEFR and consequently comparable with systems in other European countries. The ultimate goal was a new educational programme for adults in Slovene as a second and foreign language which would replace, after 14 years, the previous officially recognised programme Slovene for Foreign Learners4. This programme was the basis for the official testing of Slo-
Authors' addresses: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Center za slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik, Kongresni trg 12, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mails: ina.ferbezar@ff.uni-lj.si, n.pirih@ff.uni-lj.si, mateja.lutar@ff.uni-lj.si.
Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir: učenje, poučevanje, ocenjevanje (2011). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo RS za šolstvo in šport, Urad za razvoj šolstva. 22 May 2014. http://www.mizks.gov.si/fileadmin/ mizks.gov.si/pageuploads/podrocje/razvoj_solstva/Jeziki/Publikacija_SEJO_komplet.pdf. The Slovene National Examination Centre (30 June 2014, www.ric.si) has already linked English tests at the final school examinations (national assessment of knowledge and the matura) and English examinations for adults to the CEFR (Bitenc Peharc/Tratnik 2014); examinations for other languages are now also in the linking procedure.
The Centre for Slovene operates within the Department of Slovene Studies. Its main objective is to develop infrastructure for attaining, examining and certifying Slovene language proficiency; since 1994 the Centre for Slovene has been the government-appointed commission for these activities. 23 September 2014. http://www.centerslo.net/.
Slovenščina za tujce. 22 May 2014. http://programoteka.acs.si/PDF/slo_za_tujce.pdf.
*
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2
3
4
vene language proficiency and for the issuing of the related certificates. The first steps were taken at the Centre for Slovene in 2010, when the language proficiency descriptors in the existing Slovene for Foreign Learners programme were compared with those in the CEFR (cf. Centre for Slovene Annual Report 2010)5. Further activities connected with linking Slovene examinations and coursebooks to the CEFR, and the issues that arose, are described in detail below. Throughout, the procedure relied heavily on the Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Manual).6 This included familiarisation with the CEFR and standard setting, as well as benchmarking examples of written and spoken language production collected at Slovene examinations in line with the methods set out in the Manual. At different stages of this process, a total of 15 experts were involved.
2 LINKING SLOVENE LANGUAGE EXAMINATIONS TO THE CEFR 2.1 Receptive skills
In Slovenia, Slovene as a non-native language is tested and certified according to a three-level system, which is determined by the current officially recognised programme for adult learners, Slovene for Foreign Learners. The three levels are basic, intermediate and advanced. The examinations consist of four or five components (subtests) of equal value: listening comprehension, reading comprehension, writing and speaking, while at the intermediate and advanced levels grammar in use is also tested (cf. Ferbezar/Pirih Svetina 2004a; Ferbezar 2009a and 2012).
Because the Centre for Slovene would like to ensure that the system for testing and certifying Slovene language proficiency is comparable with those elsewhere in Europe, in 2011 the trial linking of examinations against the CEFR began7. This was first applied to the tasks in the Slovene examination at the basic level. In the case of tasks that test reading and listening comprehension, it was necessary to align the following features: the rubrics, the text and individual items connected with it; in short answer tasks, input questions as well as the expected answers or output also had to be linked8. Example 1 shows a short answer listening task.
5	Annual report. 1 July 2014. http://www.centerslo.net/l2.asp?Ll_ID=7&L2_ID=95&LANG=slo.
6	Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. 22 May 2014. http://wwwxoe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/ManualRevision-proofread-FINAL_en.pdf.
7	The Centre for Slovene was also encouraged to do this by its membership of the Association of Language Testers in Europe, ALTE. 29 May 2014. http://www.alte.org/.
8	In this paper, vocabulary of language testing is used according to Ferbezar et al. 2004b.
Example 1
Rubrics:
Pozorno poslušajte anketo o gledanju televizije in glede na informacije, ki jih boste slišali, v izpitni poli na kratko odgovorite na vprašanja, kot kaže primer. Anketo boste slišali dvakrat.
Text (extract)9:
Ne vem, bi rekel da televizijo gledam kakšne tri do štiri ure na dan, predvsem ponoči. A se vam zdi to veliko? V glavnem gledam tuje programe, ker na slovenskih televizijah bolj redko prikazujejo tisto, kar rad gledam. Zakaj rad gledam televizijo? Da se kaj naučim. Zelo rad imam dokumentarne oddaje, o naravi, pa tiste o popotovanjih v daljne dežele. Te oddaje so zelo poučne pa še občutek dobim, da sem bil tudi sam že tam.
Items:
1.	Koliko časa na dan Aleš posveti gledanju TV?
2.	Zakaj gleda TV?
The experts involved in the procedure of linking (panellists)10 had to place each of the features on a scale (the selected scales in the above example were Overall listening comprehension and Listening to audio media and recordings) and, finally, to link the whole task to the appropriate CEFR level. Where panellists disagreed, discussion was followed by a further attempt to align the task, while the final alignment was determined as the average of all the alignments (intermediate alignments were also possible, e.g. between A2 and B1).
Even at the trial phase, certain shortcomings of the examination tasks were noted, both in the receptive and the productive parts of the test. Thus, for instance, a discrepancy arose between the alignment for the rubrics (which were often very comprehensive and more complex than the tasks themselves), the texts (in listening, for example, the alignment was dependent on the speed of speech, not just the language structures and vocabulary in the text), input questions (how demanding in terms of language and content) and expected output (for instance, whether it was necessary to write only a specific piece of information or, more demandingly, to summarise the text or a part of it in the answer). In the case of the example 1, this is shown in the diagram:
9	The task involves four texts in all, spoken by four speakers, and for each text there are two questions.
10	They were all experts in foreign language teaching and testing, in particular in Slovene.
Diagram: The linking of examination tasks and their average alignment from Example 111
Trial linking encouraged the staff at the Centre for Slovene to reconsider the existing testing of Slovene language proficiency according to the state of the art in language testing and, consequently, to revise the examinations12. Revision towards greater congruity with the CEFR was also probably one of the reasons that, in linking new examinations, no great discrepancies arose in the alignment of the individual characteristics of tasks. In developing new examination tasks item-writers relied primarily on, in addition to previous experience and sample tests in other languages, descriptors (can do statements) from the relevant CEFR scales. In the case of listening, for example, the scales for Overall listening comprehension, Understanding conversation between native speakers, Listening to audio media and recordings, and Listening to announcements and instructions were used. In choosing texts, the item-writers relied a great deal on the content analysis grids offered by the Manual (2009: 29-30, 153-179), in which texts are classified according to source, authenticity, discourse type, length, abstract-ness of content, vocabulary, grammatical structures and so on, as well as the level needed for comprehension.
After developing new tests, the tasks within them were aligned with the CEFR according to the above-described procedures and piloted on a representative population13. After piloting the receptive parts of tests (indirect subtests with a numerical score:
11	Similar procedures were applied in the linking of coursebooks and so similar questions arose there - see section 3.
12	This included leaving out tasks in the receptive part of the examination involving short answer questions, since lengthy experience had shown that the level of errors in grading answers was very high, regardless of the fact that markers were systematically trained for such grading.
13	One (free of charge) exam administration (March 2013) was completely devoted to piloting. If participants passed the examination in line with the criteria of the existing programme (Slovene for Foreign Learners), then the Centre for Slovene issued them with the appropriate certificate. The testees' answers and their results were used for further analysis.
listening and reading), a statistical analysis was carried out on the results using the classical test theory method, through which one ascertains the difficulty of individual test items, their discrimination (i.e. the characteristic of a test item which shows how well it discriminates between different candidates within the task, in each sub-test and the whole test) and the reliability of the tasks and the whole test. Test items for listening and reading were then sequenced in the ordered item booklet (from the easiest to the most difficult) and the panellists had to determine the cut-off score which should determine the performance standard and thus the pass/fail score. Because the number of panellists was rather small (10) and because the ultimate goal of the procedure was the development of a new programme and the revision of existing examinations rather than linking tests with the CEFR itself, it was decided to make use of a somewhat simplified method14: on the basis of how individual tasks and tests as a whole were aligned with the CEFR, a borderline or minimally acceptable person was defined15. The panellists marked in the ordered item booklet the border or test item that two out of three borderline persons would not be expected to answer correctly. The first standard setting was followed by discussion and after the second standard setting the cut-off score was finally set as a simple ratio; no specific statistical analysis was used. In this process there was a high level of agreement among the panellists, which was a consequence of close familiarity with the CEFR and above all consistent interpretation of the descriptors (achieved at the familiarisation stage).
It is worth mentioning that in the Slovene context establishing such standards is rather problematic: the test population is very specific, with the great majority of test takers being speakers of one of the South Slavic languages closely related to Slovene16. In receptive parts of the test at the basic level, this population achieves very good results (cf. the Centre for Slovene Annual Reports), considerably higher on average than the minimally acceptable person defined according to CEFR descriptors. The question thus arises as to how reliable the perception of the borderline person among panellists with experience of this (real) population is and what their expectations are with regard to the performance of the minimally acceptable person and whether, as a consequence - in spite of standardisation - they lower or raise the cut-off score.
14	The standard setting methods are precisely described in the Manual (2009: Ch. 6).
15	If, for example, a test is aligned at level B1, we imagine that the minimally acceptable person is someone whose performance is at the lower B1 level, or on the border between A2 and B1 (this is a person who, according to CEFR descriptors, is on the border between understanding "sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance", as well as "the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc."). This question remains unanswered: whether it is better for panellists to imagine a real, specific person that they know well, or to take an abstract description as their starting point (cf. Manual 2009: 62).
16	Especially Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian.
2.2 Productive skills
During the preparation of a new learning programme, experience of benchmarking examples of written and spoken production in relation to the CEFR proved particularly valuable, since this provided a basis for the development of new rating scales and cutoff scores for test performance in productive skills. Examples of written and spoken production were collected at the pilot examination and special checklists were developed for their alignment with the CEFR. In this way, the panellists were able to analyse specific production according to different language categories and to benchmark them with the appropriate scales.
Example 2
Example of written production at advanced level17:
Po javnih raziskavah, morebitni uvod davka na mastno hrano in sladke pijače bi imel tako pozitivne, kot negativne posledice. Komentarije posameznikov so zelo različne. Po eni strani, z uvodom davka se bo polnila državna blagajna, ter, z višjo ceno na tako produkcijo, se bo zmanjšala uporaba masne hrane in sladke pijače in z tem poboljšanje načina prehrane prebivalstva.
1. Res je da mastna hrana in sladke pijače negativno vplivajo na zdravje uporabnikov take hrane. Z uživanjem teh produktov se povečuje problem prekomerne teže prebivalstva, ter različne bolezni. Vse to ima negativne posledice tudi na sistem zdravstva v Sloveniji.
Ne glede na to, mislim, da davka na tako produkcijo nebi bilo potrebno uvajati. Hrana v Sloveniji že tako predraga, in za ljudje z nizko stopnjo dohodkov nekatere produkte (kot sladke pijače, meso, sir) postale luksuz. Z uvodom davka se bo zmanjšala že tako slaba kupna moč prebivalstva. Tudi za podjetja, ki proizvajajo take produkte, morebitni uvod davka bi imel negativne posledice. Dvig cen na svoje izdelke - pomeni zmanjšanje prodaj.
Moje mnenje, da glavni cilj uvoda davka na mastno hrano in sladke pijače je polnenje državne blagajne z denarjem davkoplačevaljcev, ne pa zaskrbljenost o negativnem vplivu na zdravje prebivalstva.
17 The example is an exact transcription of the text. The task included the following rubrics: Ali bi morali uvesti davek na mastno hrano in sladke pijače ali ne?
DA: Mastna hrana in sladke pijače negativno vplivajo na zdravje in njihova uporaba ima dolgoročno velike posledice ne samo za posameznike, ampak tudi za državo. NE: Raven maščobe bi morali določati v laboratorijih, to pa bi bilo za državo predrago. Tudi mleko je mastno, pa nihče ne pravi, da ni zdravo. Vsak se mora sam odločiti o načinu svoje prehrane. Informacij o možnih posledicah je dovolj.
Komentirajte oba navedena argumenta, napišite svoje mnenje o izbrani temi in ga utemeljite ter ponudite rešitev. Besedilo naj bo dolgo od 220 do 250 besed.
Ocenjuje se:
•	upoštevanje vsebine in izpolnitev naloge (komentiranje, izražanje mnenja in utemeljevanje),
•	jezikovna pravilnost,
•	povezanost besedila v celoto.
Ljudje zelo dobro obveščeni o posledicah na zdravje mastne hrane in pijače. V vsakem zdravstvenem domu /ustanovi lahko najdemo informacije o tem. Zato, mislim, da bi tudi sami mogli odločati (illegible) načinu prehrane.
The written production from Example 2 was benchmarked by seven panellists with individual categories or scales, as shown in the table, which also shows the average of all seven panellists for individual language categories:
Category/ scale	General linguistic range	Coherence and cohesion	Grammatical accuracy	Creative writing	Reports and essays	Together
Range of alignments18	between A2 and B2	between A2 and B2	between lower A2 and B1	between A2 and C1	between A2+ and B2	between A2 and B2
Average	B1+	lower B2	A2+	B1	lower B2	B1
Table: Benchmarking of written production from Example 2 by language category
This example involves the typical written production of someone taking the Slovene examination who is a speaker of a language closely related to Slovene. It demonstrates significant deviation with regard to the alignment of different categories with the CEFR; particularly noticeable is grammatical accuracy, which, as can be seen from the table, is on average aligned lower than the other categories. During the linking process, this kind of uneven ("unflat") profile has proven to be unsuitable for a benchmark19, but is typical for Slovene as a second/foreign language test performance. It is worth emphasising here that the CEFR scales were specifically developed so that different skills and language categories within them could be bench-marked at different levels, which is usually in line with real language use. But this leaves open the question how to give an overall alignment for production that is on the one hand marked by quite elaborate cognitive processes, but on the other strongly deviates from explicit norms (see also Ferbezar and Stabej 2014) and which is typical for speakers of languages closely related to Slovene who do not learn Slovene systematically (that is, the majority of those sitting the examination in Slovene). This also applies to examinations as a whole: alignment with the CEFR facilitates the processing of "flexible speaker profiles" (in reality, the different communicative skills of the average language user, i.e. listening, reading, speaking and writing, are rarely at
18	As can be seen from the table, the lowest alignment in all categories is A2 or lower A2; this involved one panellist who benchmarked systematically lower and who was therefore excluded from the linking process. Through discussion, panellists decided that written production in certain parts of Example 2 perhaps exceeded the Threshold Level (B1), but that the average alignment at this level did not do so.
19	Examples to be used as benchmarks should be "flat", i.e. aligned at roughly the same level in all categories.
the same level). The problem appears with regard to the final score and certification: those who make use of the results of the examination expect language proficiency to be assessed with a single score, preferably numerical, whereas a flexible speaker profile calls for interpretation in the shape of a detailed supplement.
3 THE LINKING OF COURSEBOOKS
The Centre for Slovene also decided to label coursebooks for learning Slovene as a non-native language in line with the CEFR20. This process was initiated by the need for the transparency and comparability of language courses and the actual observed demands of users. Coursebook users want to know at which CEFR level the coursebook can be placed, or to which language level it will lead them. Since 2011, procedures have been carried out to link the coursebooks published by the Centre for Slovene with the CEFR21.
The linking process was applied to seven of the Centre for Slovene's most frequently used coursebooks and three that were in preparation. It involved seven panellists, each of whom closely analysed individual tasks in the same way, as described above in relation to examinations (see 2.1 Receptive skills). In contrast to the linking of examination tasks, in the case of coursebooks the panellists decided independently which of the 57 CEFR scales they would use. The reason why the scales were not defined prior to the alignment is that, unlike the examination tasks (as described in section 2.1, above), coursebook activities have no specifications based on the CEFR descriptors. Moreover, the experts involved in the alignment of the coursebooks were not guided by a document such as the Manual. This brings a new dimension to the linking process for coursebooks or the individual tasks within them: panellists could make use of different scales. This phase of the process could have been steered, so that as a first step consensus was reached about which scales to use for aligning individual tasks. But this was not done, meaning that tasks were aligned at a given level from different perspectives. In spite of the fact that the final identified level of individual tasks was the result of consensus among all the panellists, doubt remains about the methodological appropriateness of the procedure. And for some of the coursebook tasks there is no suitable scale in the CEFR with which they can be aligned: for instance, tasks where users are asked to practise, reinforce or repeat certain language structures.
Example 3
Primer: Laura dobro govori (govoriti) angleško.
a)	Jaz_(govoriti) slovensko, ne hrvaško.
b)	Ana, ali_(delati) kot natakarica? (Slovenska beseda v živo 1a, p. 25)
In the case of tasks that call for spoken or written production from users, various issues arose, and these are presented below.
20	As is the case for coursebooks of other languages, published by Langenscheidt, Oxford University Press, etc.
21	See Centre for Slovene Annual Report 2012. 26 September 2014. http://www.centerslo.net/files/ file/Zalo%C5%BEni%C5%A1tvo/LP%202012_za%20web(1).pdf.
Example 4
Pogovarjajte se.
Za katere praznike pišeš voščilnice? Za katere praznike kupiš darila? Za koga kupiš
darilo? Kaj kupiš? Katere praznike praznuješ? Kateri je tvoj najljubši praznik? Kdaj
in kako ga praznuješ? (Gremo naprej, task 8, p. 16)
This task requires that users first read the instructions and then engage in conversation. For aligning the instructions, the scale for Reading instructions were used and for its expected performance those for Overall spoken interaction, Conversation and Goal-oriented discussion. The consensus of the panellists was that the task prompted by the questions was at the lower B1 level. In the case of this and similar tasks, the question arose as to what is the lowest level of Slovene language proficiency that learners need to achieve in order to be able to perform the task22. In Example 4 very simple answers suffice (for example, to the first question: "Za božič."), which do not go beyond level A2. These kinds of tasks are open "upwards", in the sense that the answers can be more complex and thus aligned at a higher level.
Determining the lowest level of language proficiency required for task performance is one of the basic differences between the processes of linking coursebooks and examinations, for, in the case of the latter, examples of actual language production are available (see 2.2 Productive skills, above). In the case of coursebooks, observing language practice during courses as well as interaction between the coursebook, its user and the language teacher would be necessary.
A particular challenge with regard to linking was represented by tasks with comprehensive instructions that on the scale for Reading instructions were aligned much higher than the level expected for task performance, as well as tasks that demanded of users a range of different activities and the application of different skills. This is the case with Example 5.
Example 5
Situation:
Odigrajte sestanek prebivalcev Emonske ulice. Poskusite poiskati možne rešitve,
kako bi preprečili uničevanje zelenice v njihovi ulici.
1.	Sestavite vabilo na sestanek prebivalcev Emonske ulice.
2.	Razdelite si vloge in se pripravite na sestanek.
3.	Odigrajte sestanek, na katerem pojasnite in argumentirajte svoje mnenje.
4.	Na koncu glasujte za najboljši predlog. (Slovenska beseda v živo 2, p. 105)
This elaborate two-step instruction is followed by descriptions of seven possible roles:
22 This is done in a way similar to the definition of the minimally acceptable person when linking examinations.
1. Predsednik hišnega sveta, Janez Kmet, upokojeni učitelj: vodi sestanek.
6. Gospa Potokar je mlada mamica. Njen mož je pilot in ga pogosto ni doma. Ima dojenčka, ki je pogosto bolan, zato potrebuje avto blizu bloka. Vseeno ima rada naravo v mestu. Nekaj površine zelenice bi ohranila in tja namestila opozorilne table, nekaj površine pa bi uredila v parkirna mesta za stanovalce. Če bi bil njen parkirni prostor zaseden, bi poklicala pajka.
The descriptions of roles are followed by eight proposals for how to act in the given situation, such as:
1. zavarovati zelenico z železnimi količki 2 prerezati gume vsem avtomobilom, parkiranim na zelenici
The task demands a great deal of reading from the learner, although the actual aim is not reading, but rather role play, discussion, the exchange of views, argumentation and so on. For this reason, the problem is the complexity of the activity as well as the instructions. The instructions should present the context or situation as simply as possible; at lower levels, this is rather difficult to achieve. Of course, in such cases the teacher helps to interpret them by using other (learner) languages or other strategies.
The panellists used different scales to align these tasks: Overall reading comprehension, Reading instructions, Overall spoken interaction, Formal discussion and meetings, Goal-oriented co-operation, Information exchange, Taking the floor (turn taking) and Co-operating. Such a wide range of scales was used because of the great complexity of the given task. It is worth mentioning that among all the different didactic approaches, this kind of task-based learning is recognised as one of the most authentic since it simulates real-life communication (in this case writing an invitation, organising a meeting, participating in a discussion, developing an argument, etc.).
Each panellist independently aligned the tasks in the coursebook, the individual units within it, and the coursebook as a whole. At joint meetings, panellists reported which scales they had used for alignment, and consensus was then reached regarding the level of each task. The level of separate coursebook units was determined and, finally, the level of the coursebook as a whole. At the same time, the level of individual communicative skills (reading, listening, speaking, writing) throughout the coursebook was determined; the main focus was on whether or not these were consistent throughout, that is, whether or not reading tasks would lead the coursebook user to the same level as speaking tasks, etc. After the meeting, each panellist would write a final report on the alignment of a specific coursebook. The level of Slovene language proficiency to which, based on the CEFR, a coursebook leads the user is now shown on the covers of the new editions.
The linking process largely confirmed expectations with regard to the level of Centre for Slovene coursebooks, which seem to "cover" almost all CEFR levels, from A1 to C1. Some coursebooks showed a systematic increase in level of difficulty as they
progressed (for instance, within B1 level: from lower B1 to B1+; or between two levels, such as A2 and B1). In some cases, however, it emerged that units towards the end of the coursebook were at a lower level than those at the beginning. From the pedagogical point of view such a decrease is fully acceptable if it is intentional. If it is not, this might be avoided by suitable planning in the early stages of the coursebook development. In this process the CEFR seems to be a very useful toolkit to refer to. Whether or not the level of proficiency foreseen has been achieved by using particular coursebook might be evaluated by testing. This means that appropriate tests should be developed, for determining the level of coursebooks without appropriate feedback (e.g. using appropriate testing procedures) is to a large extent still a matter of inspired guesswork.
4 CONCLUSION
The main purpose of linking language examinations and coursebooks for Slovene as a second and foreign language to the CEFR was not to offer a statistically verifiable alignment following procedures recommended in the Manual - the Centre for Slovene has neither the financial nor the human resources for this. Above all, the linking activities offered an opportunity for more precise analysis of examinations and coursebooks, as well as pointing the way forward for their further development; another tangible result of the project was, as already indicated, the development of a new educational programme and the revision of the existing system of testing and certifying Slovene language proficiency, which will facilitate testing speakers' proficiency in a more flexible and transparent way. Consequently, this will enable the Centre for Slovene to issue certificates showing speakers' language profiles.
A number of interesting questions arose during the procedures described here, and we have already tried to address some of these (e.g. how to align production of speakers of languages closely related to the target language, how to define the minimally acceptable person, how to align complex tasks demanding the most diverse language operations, how in this context to anticipate the performance level required, and so on). By way of conclusion, there are certain other issues we would like to consider. Certainly, each linking of language curricula and examinations needs to be treated cautiously: the CEFR represents a recommendation, not a prescription, which should be used only as a resource (CEFR 2001: xi, xiii) and only within the contexts for which it was developed23. Numerous questions regarding its universality were raised at the very beginning of its use, which is why profiles based on the CEFR have been developed for specific languages24. Furthermore, the name of the highest C2 level (Mastery) implies an ideal - or at least idealised - speaker, which is merely a theoretical construct. This "absolutism" is also apparent from the descriptors, with which even native speakers can find it hard to identify: although language skills formulated with "can do" are at first sight defined as variable, the
23	Linking language curricula and tests for children and young people to the CEFR can also mean its abuse: the CEFR was developed for adults whose cognitive skills are completely different from those of children and teenagers.
24	E.g. Profile Deutsch, English Profile, Profilo della lingua italiana, etc.
content of the descriptors are more a kind of expectation of what a C2 user should be able to do, rather than what the language user can do (cf. Widdowson 2014).
But the main problem regarding the (uncritical) use of the CEFR lies in its "narrowing of viewpoint": in principle, the CEFR promotes multilingualism as a social phenomenon and plurilingualism as an individual ability (CEFR 2001: Ch. 1.3) - a reality of the contemporary globalised world and of the individual speaker within it. Thus, in this context, the large-scale and frequently uncritical linking of curricula and examinations in national and other languages as autonomous and closed systems are often seen as a step towards the (re-)establishing or strengthening of monolingualism, which in the case of national languages in EU countries is currently being strongly promoted by the authorities (as well as being expected by language societies and shown in their practices). This is clearly paradoxical, since from a contemporary perspective monolingualism is an outmoded concept. Although the creation of plurilingual individuals involves the adding of new languages, according to Heller (1999, cited in García and Li Wei 2014: 43), it is really a case of "parallel monolingualism". In the globalised world, language speakers react against monolingualism by the application of "fluid" language practices, marked by the use of all the available language resources that have been integrated into the individual's repertoire, i.e. translanguaging (cf. García and Li Wei 2014). Being aware of both principles - monolingualism as social and political practice, as well as plurilingualism as an individual person's experience - language pedagogy (which includes language teaching and testing) should create its own way to approach them efficiently. And if concepts such as plurilingualism and translanguaging are already established in the context of language teaching25, in the case of language testing, which at first sight seems by its very nature to exclude interlanguage dynamics (rather than something positive, this is seen as a deficiency and is penalised as an error), they remain a challenge.
Primary sources
Slovene language exam papers on the basic and advanced levels (archive of the Center
for Slovene as Second/Foreign Language). MARKOVIČ, Andreja et al. (2004) Slovenska beseda v živo 2. Ljubljana: Center za
slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik. PETRIC LASNIK, Ivana/Nataša PIRIH SVETINA/Andreja PONIKVAR (2009) Gremo naprej. Ljubljana: Center za slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik.
Bibliography
Annual reports of the Centre for Slovene as a Second/Foreign Language. Letna poročila.
15 July 2014. http://www.centerslo.net/l2.asp?L1_ID=7&L2_ID=95&LANG=slo. BITENC PEHARC, Suzana/Alenka TRATNIK (2014) Umestitev nacionalnih izpitov iz angleščine v Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir. Zaključno poročilo o izvedbi projekta. Ljubljana: Državni izpitni center.
25 More in García and Li Wei 2014. See also the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures (FREPA). 3 July 2014. http://carap.ecml.at/.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (2001). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 15 July 2014. http:// www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre1_en.asp.
English Profile. 15 July 2014. http://www.englishprofile.org/.
FERBEŽAR, Ina (2009a) "»Je moj B1 tvoj B1?« Ali kaj je novega na področju testiranja in certificiranja slovenščine kot drugega/tujega jezika." In: M. Stabej (ed.), Infrastruktura slovenščine in slovenistike. Simpozij Obdobja 28. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 129-136.
FERBEŽAR, Ina (2009b) "Med dvema jezikoma: med razumljivostjo in sprejemljivostjo." In: V. Požgaj-Hadži et al. (eds), Med politiko in stvarnostjo: jezikovna situacija v novonastalih državah bivše Jugoslavije (Kultura sožitja). Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 197-211.
FERBEŽAR, Ina (2012) "»Izrekam zvestobo moji novi domovini Republiki Sloveniji ... «: testiranje znanja slovenščine kot drugega in tujega jezika v Sloveniji." Jezik in slovstvo 57/3-4, 29-45.
FERBEŽAR, Ina/Nataša PIRIH SVETINA (2004a) "Certificiranje slovenščine kot drugega/tujega jezika - zgodovina in perspektive." Jezik in slovstvo 49/3-4, 17-33.
FERBEŽAR, Ina/Nataša PIRIH SVETINA/Matija SVETINA/Anja PODLESEK (2004b) English-Polish-Slovene glossary of language testing terms. Angielsko-pol-sko-slowehski glosariust terminow z zakresu testowanina bieglošci jqzykowej. An-gleško-poljsko-slovenski pojmovnik s področja jezikovnega testiranja. Krakow: TAiWPN Universitas.
FERBEŽAR, Ina/Marko STABEJ (2014) "Slovene or not Slovene? Issues on assessing speakers of closely related languages." Strani jezici (accepted for publication).
GARCIA, Ofelia/Li WEI (2014) Translanguaging. Language, Bilingualism and Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
GLABONIAT, Manuela/Martin MÜLLER et al. (2005) Profile Deutsch. Berlin: Langenscheidt.
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MARTYNIUK, Waldemar/Jose NOIJONS (2007) Executive summary of results of a survey on the use of the CEFR at national level in the Council of Europe Member States. Policy Forum: The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the development of language policies: challenges and responsibilities. Strasbourg: Intergovernmental Language Policy Division. 23 September 2014. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Cadre1_en.asp.
Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir: učenje, poučevanje, ocenjevanje (2011). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo RS za šolstvo in šport, Urad za razvoj šolstva. 22 May 2014. http:// www.mizks.gov.si/fileadmin/mizks.gov.si/pageuploads/podrocje/razvoj_solstva/ Jeziki/Publikacija_SEJO_komplet.pdf.
Slovenščina za tujce. Program. 22 May 2014. http://programoteka.acs.si/PDF/slo_za_ tujce.pdf.
SPINELLI, Barbara/Francesca PARIZZI (2010) Profilo della lingua italiana. Milano: La Nuova Italia.
WIDDOWSON, Henry (2014) Sprachenbildung neu gedacht: Traditionen auf dem Prüfstand. Conference Quality education and language competences for 21st century society: traditions, challenges and visions. Graz: ECML. 7 July 2014. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jSpA37ENrc.
Summary
THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE: A REFERENCE FOR SLOVENE
In recent years the experts at the Centre for Slovene as a Second/Foreign Language have been linking Slovene language coursebooks and examinations to the CEFR. This paper describes the complex process of aligning texts, tasks and examples of language production (the spoken and written production of examination participants). A number of questions arose during this process, including: how to align tasks where the rubrics are at a higher level than the accompanying activities and the expected task performance? How to define the minimally acceptable person, on the basis of which the cutoff score is determined in receptive skills? How to align tasks where the performance calls for the use of different language skills? A particular challenge is represented by the benchmarking of the written and spoken production of the speakers of languages closely related to Slovene who make up the great majority of test takers. The final result of the linking process is a new language programme for teaching/learning, testing and certifying Slovene as a second and foreign language.
Keywords: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, alignment, benchmarking, Slovene language exams, Slovene language coursebooks
Povzetek
SKUPNI EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI OKVIR: REFERENCA ZA SLOVENŠČINO
V zadnjih letih smo v Centru za slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik uvrščali učbenike za slovenščino in izpite iz znanja slovenščine kot drugega in tujega jezika na lestvice Skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira. V prispevku predstavljamo kompleksne postopke uvrščanja besedil, nalog in jezikovne produkcije (govorne in pisne produkcije udeležencev izpitov) na lestvice SEJO. V procesu uvrščanja sta se nam odprli dve temeljni vprašanji: prvo se nanaša na uvrščanje nalog, pri katerih so vhodno besedilo in navodila na višji ravni kot pripadajoča dejavnost in pričakovana jezikovna raba/performanca. Drugo vprašanje pa je povezano z izdelavo lestvic za ocenjevanje produkcije govorcev slovenščini sorodnih jezikov, ki predstavljajo večino udeležencev izpitov.
Končni rezultat procesa uvrščanja je nov jezikovni program, ki pomeni izhodišče za poučevanje/učenje, testiranje in certificiranje slovenščine kot drugega in tujega jezika.
Ključne besede: Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir, uvrščanje, izpiti iz znanja slovenščine, učbeniki slovenščine kot drugega/tujega jezika
Gašper Ilc	UDK 811.111,243:37.091.27(497.4)
Veronika Rot Gabrovec	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.293-308 Andrej Stopar
University of Ljubljana*
RELATING THE SLOVENIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS TO THE CEFR: FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS
1 INTRODUCTION
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR 2001) had already been successfully adopted and widely used in Europe as a comprehensive set of guidelines and as a valuable reference when, in 2007, the intergovernmental forum on "The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and the development of language policies: challenges and responsibilities", organised by the Council of Europe, clearly stated that each member state is fully responsible to use the document coherently and realistically (Council of Europe 2007). In December 2007, practitioners and academics presented selected case studies at a colloquium in Cambridge, reflecting on their experience of using the draft Manual, and reporting about various projects on linking all kinds of examinations to the CEFR (Martyniuk 2010). Only a year later, the Slovenian National Examination Centre launched an ambitious five-year project, relating all the Slovenian national exams in English to the CEFR.
The goal of this article is to present the results of this project, with a particular focus on the two secondary-school-leaving exams: the Vocational Matura and the General Matura. First, the two English exams under investigation are discussed thoroughly, with regard to their construct and format. Second, the results of the five-year alignment project are briefly described. Finally, the general implications and recommendations for both secondary school-leaving exams are presented. The project results and the interpretation of the findings provide clear evidence that the present formats of the exams are not optimal, and suggest that only constant exam validation would guarantee better quality and fairness in the test scores reported in the Slovenian secondary school-leaving language examinations.
Authors' addresses: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mails: gasper.ilc@ff.uni-lj.si, Veronika.RotGabrovec@ff.uni-lj.si, andrej.stopar@ ff.uni-lj.si.
*
2 EXAMINATIONS UNDER INVESTIGATION 2.1 The General Matura
The General Matura (henceforth: GM) is a national exam sat by test-takers finishing general upper secondary school.1 The GM serves two purposes. Firstly, it is a school-leaving exam, testing whether the standards of the national curricula for the upper secondary education have been achieved and, secondly, it serves as an entrance exam for higher/university education. Since the GM functions as an achievement, as well as a proficiency exam, the exam administrator and the item writers constantly have to strike a balance between the two types of exams. The fact that the test-takers' chances of entering university solely depend on their exam performance places the GM among the Slovenian national exams with the highest test-taking risk.
The GM consists of five different subjects, three of which are compulsory, and two elective. A foreign language (henceforth, FL) is one of the compulsory subjects. The test-takers can select among six different modern FLs, however, English is selected by the vast majority of the test-takers (approx. 90%). The FL exam can be taken at two levels: the basic and the higher level. In both cases, the basic level is selected by the majority of test-takers, with only 20%-30% selecting the higher level. The GM has two exam dates, one in spring and the other in autumn. Most test-takers (more than 85% of the overall test-takers) sit the exam in spring.
2.1.1 GM Exam Construct
The GM for the English Language is specified in the Subject Testing Catalogue for the General Matura - English (Ilc et al. 2013, henceforth: GM Catalogue), which is based on the requirements of the Curriculum for upper secondary school education -English (Eržen et al. 2008, henceforth: Curriculum). The Curriculum follows the traditional four-language-skill model (reading, listening, speaking, writing), and adopts the CEFR descriptors (CEFR 2001) to specify the skills in greater detail. According to the curriculum, the level expected after completing two years of education is B1, and after four years the expected level is B2. Since the GM is primarily a school-leaving exam, its difficulty level must be aligned with the B2, as specified in the curriculum.
The GM examination for the English Language consists of five subtests that, with the exception of one, correspond to the four-language-skill model, specifically the reading/listening/writing/speaking subtests. In addition, there is a fifth subtest that focuses on the use of English. The exam is administered in two parts. The first part, written, is made up of the reading, listening, writing and the use-of-English subtests, and is administered at the same time nation-wide, and assessed externally by using the same procedures, rules and criteria. It lasts two hours and 50 minutes. The writing subset is assessed by two independent external assessors. The second part, the speaking subtest, is administered by the Matura school committees that use standardised prompts and criteria prepared and specified by the exam provider. The correlation between the two
1 Slo. gimnazija. It is a four-year secondary education for students aged 14-18.
parts is weak - in the spring of 2013, it was 0.44 for the basic level, and 0.31 for the higher level (Državni izpitni center 2014b: 124-126).2
The basic and higher levels of the GM for the English Language share the same structure, however, with the exception of the listening subtest, all the tasks are different.
The reading subtest lasts 35 minutes, and represents 20% of the final grade. The test-takers are required to read two texts, and answer from 16 to 20 accompanying questions. The reading subtest assesses the test-takers' understanding of the main idea (explicit/implicit) and some specific information (explicit/implicit) in authentic texts. The range of text-types in the subtest is varied, and covers a spectrum from formal to semi-formal texts, mostly newspaper articles, fiction passages, etc. The task-types include sentence completion, short answers, multiple choice, information-category/ section-summary matching, multiple matching, and gapped text tasks.
The listening subtest lasts 20 minutes, and represents 15% of the final grade. The test-takers are required to listen to two audio tracks, and answer from 14 to 18 accompanying questions. The listening subtest assesses the test-takers' understanding of the main idea (explicit/implicit), and some specific information (explicit/implicit) in authentic texts, as spoken by native speakers of English, with no (or only a slight) dialect variation. The range of text-types in the subtest is varied, and covers a spectrum from formal to informal texts, mostly radio interviews, discussion, etc. The task-types include sentence completion, short answers, multiple choice, information-category matching, and T/F tasks.
The use-of-English subtest lasts 25 minutes, and represents 15% of the final grade. The test-takers are required to complete two language-in-use tasks, together comprising 24 to 30 items. The use-of-English subtest assesses the test-takers' practical knowledge of language use in authentic contexts, e.g. collocations, the use of functional words, verbal forms, word-formation processes, etc. The task-types include one-word gap fill, word-formation, tenses, and multiple choice tasks.
The writing subtest lasts 90 minutes, and represents 30% of the final grade. There are two tasks to complete. Task 1, the prompt-guided task, focuses on functional writing, so the test-takers are required to develop the prompt by using the appropriate text format (letter, e-mail, report, or article) and register (formal or semi-formal). Task 2 is an unguided essay. At the basic level, the test-takers are offered two essay titles, of which they select and develop only one. At the higher level, the test-takers write a literary essay, which is based on two literary works that have been prescribed by the Subject Testing Committee for the Matura. The subtest thus assesses the test-takers' ability to form a written text, using an appropriate text format and register (Task 1), as well as developing an argumentative text (Task 2).
The speaking subtest lasts up to 20 minutes, and represents 20% of the final grade. It consists of three tasks. Task 1 covers a general topic, and is prompted by visual and/ or textual cues. Task 2 covers a topic that is tied to test-takers' study programmes, and Task 3 is prompted by a textual cue based on the literary works prescribed by the
2 We assume that this may be due to the oral part being administered and rated internally, whereas the rest of the exam is administered and rated externally.
Subject Testing Committee for the Matura. The speaking assesses test-takers' speaking abilities, conversation management, and argument development.
The average difficulty index (ID) for the GM exam across the five components in English is 0.74 (basic level) and 0.76 (higher level), however, the ID varies from subtest to subtest. Typically, the speaking subtest has the highest ID value. Table 1 below shows the average ID for each of the exam subtests administered in spring 2013.
Subtest	ID (basic level)	ID (higher level)
Reading	0.74	0.79
Use of English	0.64	0.72
Listening	0.57	0.68
Writing	0.76	0.81
Speaking	0.83	0.96
Table 1: The average ID for the GM subtests in 2013 (Državni izpitni center 2014b: 156)
2.2 The Vocational Matura
The Vocational Matura (henceforth VM) is a national school-leaving examination giving the test-taker a technical/vocational-technical education. As stipulated in the Slovenian Matura Examination Act (Uradni list RS 2007), by taking the exam, the test-takers demonstrate their achievement of the standards required by the curricula of technical secondary schools, vocational-technical schools, and vocational courses. Successful VM test-takers can continue their studies at the tertiary level, as students of vocational and other colleges, without any further requirements.3 The VM consists of four subjects: Slovenian, a general elective (Mathematics or a FL), a technical-theoretical and a practical subject. English is one of three FLs offered to the VM test-takers.
VM test-takers come from a variety of different educational institutions (vocational schools, technical schools, general secondary schools, and adult education courses), so they represent a heterogeneous population. They differ from each other with respect to course content, course load, forms of instruction (full-time studies versus part-time vocational courses), and age (in 2013 around 10% of the test-takers were older than thirty; cf. Državni izpitni center 2014a: 21).
The VM has three exam dates: in spring, autumn and winter. The majority of test-takers sit the exam in spring. In 2013, the number of spring test-takers was 8,960: 57% chose Mathematics as their third VM subject, and 43% a FL. English is, by far, the most popular FL at the VM - 91% of all FL test-takers chose it in 2013.
3 If the test-takers wish to enrol into a university-level programme, they are required to sit for a general matura subject, in addition to taking the four VM subjects. According to the VM 2013 Annual Report (Državni izpitni center 2014), in 2013 about 15% of all VM test-takers also sat a general matura exam. Fewer than 70% passed.
2.2.1 VM Exam Construct
The VM for the English Language is specified in the Subject Testing Catalogue for the Vocational Matura 2014 - English (Andrin et al. 2012; henceforth: VM Catalogue), which follows the requirements of the curriculum, as described in the Catalogue of Knowledge Standards for FL14 (Andrin et al. 2011; henceforth: VM Curriculum). The exam simultaneously assesses the level of acquired knowledge, the test-takers' proficiency in English and, partly, their knowledge of language for specific purposes. Thus, it exhibits characteristics of achievement tests, proficiency tests and specific purposes tests (cf. Alderson et al. 1995: 12).
The VM Curriculum explicitly states that the teaching and learning of a FL is "based on the guidelines of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages" (Andrin et al. 2011: 4). The CEFR is referenced a number of times, e.g. in the sections on receptive and productive skills, text-types, and language competence. The levels A1 and A2 are referred to and described as synonymous with "a lower level of complexity", and the level B1 as signifying "a higher level of complexity". In the section describing the minimal standards, the document states (Andrin et al. 2011: 16) that "[t]he expected level of knowledge of the first foreign language at the end of vocational education is A2 in accordance with the Common European Framework." The minimal standards for technical secondary schools and vocational-technical schools, on the other hand, contain a different recommendation stating that "[t]he expected level [...] is B1 [...]" (Andrin et al. 2011: 19).
The VM Catalogue is always aligned with the VM Curriculum. The current exam scheme in the catalogue is as follows (cf. Andrin et al. 2012: 8). The written part lasts 120 minutes and consists of a 60-minute reading comprehension paper and a 60-minute written communication paper, each representing 30% of the final grade. The oral part lasts 20 minutes and represents 40% of the final grade. The correlation between the written and the oral parts is moderately high: in 2013 it was 0.61.
The text-types in the reading comprehension paper run the gamut from informal to formal. Often found in the exam are newspaper articles, descriptions of procedures, descriptions of people, interviews and instructions for use. The reading task-types (usually four per paper) include short-answer tasks, matching tasks, multiple-choice questions, gapped-texts and T/F tasks, and others. The reading subtest aims to assess the test-takers' understanding of the main message, and some specific information in authentic texts. Moreover, the test-takers should also be able to identify the main points of a text, understand sequences of events, understand emotions and points of view, and be able to use dictionaries (cf. Andrin et al. 2012: 6).
The written communication section lists target text-types, such as letters, guided or unguided compositions based on verbal or visual prompts, descriptions, journal entries, and others. The typical writing subtest includes two tasks: a short, 70-word composition, based on a visual or verbal prompt, and a long, 150-word guided or unguided composition. The subtest assesses the test-takers' ability to form and link sentences, paragraphs and messages; to organize information (opinions, interests and feelings); to form different
4 The same curriculum document is used for both English and German (as FL1).
types of texts; to distinguish between formal and informal texts; to spell correctly using dictionaries; and to use various writing strategies (Andrin et al. 2012: 6).
The oral part consists of three tasks: one is general in content, and two are tied to test-takers' study programmes (i.e. they are ESP-based tasks). Test-takers are expected to participate in role-plays, to summarize and comment on a short written prompt, to talk about a topic indicated by a visual prompt, to explain and discuss a topic related to their vocation/profession, and the like. According to the VM Catalogue (Andrin et al. 2012: 7), the test-takers should be able to correctly pronounce words; use appropriate intonation patterns; interact; introduce themselves and others; talk about their experiences, work and vocation; report and describe; summarize and mediate information; express opinions and feelings; and use appropriate communication strategies.
The VM for the English Language does not include a listening subtest. However, according to the VM Catalogue (Andrin et al. 2012: 7), at the oral exam, the test-takers show their abilities to understand (by listening) the gist of the message and react to it; to understand specific information; and to recognize circumstances such as the mood of the interlocutor and intercultural peculiarities.
The facility values for the 2013 spring exam date are presented in Table 2.
Subtest	ID
Reading	0.75
Writing	0.75
Speaking	0.84
Table 2: The average ID for the VM subtests in 2013 (Državni izpitni center 2014a: 106)
3 PROJECT BACKGROUND
In 2008, the Slovenian National Examination Centre launched a CEFR-relating project that encompassed all national exams in English. Most of these exams are based on national curricula which, in turn, serve as exam constructs. Consequently, any curricu-lar change is directly mirrored in the exams themselves. One of the project objectives was also to determine to what extent these exams are comparable with international exams that had already been aligned with the CEFR (Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014). The first stage (2008-2010) of the relating project centred on receptive, and the second (2011-2013) on productive, skills.
As stipulated in the project report (Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014), the relating team (henceforth the panellists) used the procedures as recommended by the Manual (CEFR 2001) and the Council of Europe (c.f. Council of Europe 2009; Council of Europe 2004). Moreover, the panellists also relied on the EALTA Guidelines for Good Practice in Language Testing and Assessment (2010), and other guidelines for, or reports of, good practices in testing/assessment, as developed by experts in the field (Alderson 1995; Bachman 1990; Bachman and Palmer 1996; Cizek 2001; Cizek and Bunch 2007; Hughes 2002; Madsen 1983; McNamara 2000; Weir 1990 etc.)
The panellists first underwent the familiarization stage, during which they were acquainted with the CEFR and its descriptors, and trained in the CEFR relating procedures. During the second, specification stage, the panellists analysed and described the exam in terms of the Manual (Council of Europe 2009), which consequently required a thorough examination of the subject curricula, the subject testing catalogues, and other specifications. The two exams under investigation herein, the General Matura and the Vocational Matura in English, were placed at the levels B2 and B1, respectively. The third stage, the standardisation stage, closely adhered to the procedures specified in the Manual (Council of Europe 2009), and in the Reference Supplement (Council of Europe 2004). For aligning the receptive skills, the standard-setting methods employed were the Basket and the Extended Tucker-Angoff Methods (Council of Europe 2009: 61-66, 75-77), whereas for aligning the productive skills, the benchmarking method (Council of Europe 2009: 35 et pass.) was applied. The reason for combining the Basket and the Angoff Methods for setting the cut scores for the receptive skills lies in the established finding that applying different methods leads to different cut scores (cf. Kaftandijeva 2010: 131). To minimize the panellists' subjectivity,5 the alignment was constantly monitored by continuous familiarization procedures and discussions among panellists. This procedure was followed as each skill was addressed, and before each round of judgements: first, after levels had been assigned to the items and, second, after the statistics on item difficulty, assigned levels, and correlations among panellists were revealed (by way of EXCEL spreadsheets). With regard to the setting of the cut-scores, the panellists first set the cut-scores using the Basket and the Angoff methods separately, and then averaged the two results into the final cut-score.
The last stage of the project, the validation stage, mostly involved finalising and documenting the linking procedures. As highlighted in the final report (Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014: 28), high correlations were observed between the judgements and statistical data (-0.8--0.97 for the Basket Method, 0.73-0.99 for the Angoff Method, and 0.86-0.99 for the benchmarking method).
3.1 Project Results - the GM
The table below presents the results of the alignment project, as provided by the final project report (Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014). The results show that the majority of items of the GM are aligned with the CEFR level B2; therefore, we can claim that the GM targets at the CEFR level B2. The compound cut-score for the basic level is set at 77%, and at 71% for the higher level.
5 The panellists' judgments could have been influenced either by their different occupational backgrounds (primary school teachers, secondary school teachers, university teachers, and testing professionals), or by their shared cultural and educational background (all are Slovenian nationals educated in Slovenia).
Subtest	Basic Level			Higher Level		
	Items*	Cut-score	Population**	Items*	Cut-score	Population**
	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)
Reading	B1: 48 B2: 50 C1: 2	80	44	B1: 42.5 B2: 52.4 C1: 5	80	85
Listening	B1: 41 B2: 53 C1: 6	79	55	B1: 41 B2: 53 C1: 6	79	55
Use of	B1: 20	70	21	B1: 26	72	68
English	B2: 65 C1: 15			B2: 58 C1: 16		
Writing: Task 1	-	80	40	-	70	95
Writing:	-	75	35	-	56	91
Task 2						
Speaking	-	80	68	-	80	97
Table 3: The GM alignment results * CEFR levels as determined by the panellists.
** The cut-score was applied to the test-takers who took the investigated GM subtest. The percentage indicates the test-takers who achieved the targeted level.
3.2 Project Results - the VM
The table below presents the results of the alignment project, as provided by the final project report (Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014). The results show that the majority of items of the VM are aligned with the CEFR level B1, therefore, we can claim that the VM targets at CEFR level B1. The compound cut-score is set at 71%. At the spring 2013 exam date, 2324 (74%) out of 3128 test-takers achieved this level, whereas the 51% pass mark that was set by the Subject Testing Committee was achieved by 97% of the test-takers.
Subtest	Items* (%)	Cut-score (%)	Population** (%)
Reading	A2: 25 B1: 53 B2: 22	70	67
Writing: short composition	-	70	75 (for the combined writing communication cut-score of 67%)
Writing: long composition	-	65	
Speaking	-	75	80
Table 4: The VM cut-scores
* CEFR levels as determined by the panellists.
** The cut-score was applied to the test-takers who took the investigated GM subtest. The percentage indicates the test-takers who achieved the targeted level.
4 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Even though the alignment project was conducted in accordance with the methodological guidelines (cf. Section 3), there are several issues to consider. First, it is questionable to what extent the shared educational/cultural background of the panellists affected their judgements. North and Jones (2009), for instance, claim that a shared educational/national/cultural background can have a significant impact on the CEFR-relating process. Pizorn (2009) also reports on the initial problems the panellists faced at the early stages of the alignment process. However, as partial external evaluations of the alignment project (Ilc and Stopar 2014) suggest, these factors had an insignificant effect on their judgements.
Second, it is not clear whether the cut-scores, as stated by Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik (2014) are valid and applicable for the interpretation of exam results from different exam dates. It has to be pointed out that the project results for each individual subtest rely on the analysis of only one exam booklet. Since the GM for the English Language is not piloted or pretested, it is difficult to assume that different exam booklets display exactly the same level of difficulty. The relative comparability of different exam booklets depends solely on the better judgement of the item-writers and the Subject Committee, which is not supported by any (statistical) analysis prior to the administration of the exam. Therefore, it is methodologically problematic to apply the same cut-scores to different exam booklets.
Third, the test provider should also encourage and conduct a constant exam validation, and linkage of the exam booklets. To assure test validity and comparable levels of difficulty, the test provider should also introduce pretesting, piloting, and anchor items. The item-writers should be well-acquainted with the CEFR descriptors, and provide a better ratio between the targeted CEFR level questions, and questions belonging to the two adjoining levels.
Leaving these objections aside, it should be acknowledged that the proposed cut-scores are comparable with the cut-scores of international exams in English targeted at the same CEFR level,6 with the exception of the low cut-score of 56% for the GM Task 2 in the writing subtest on the higher level (cf. Table 2 in 3.1) and, perhaps less so, for the VM long composition with the cut-score of 65% (cf. Table 4 in 3.2). We should stress that these observations are based mostly on raw scores. To establish a more valid comparison between these exams, we should not rely merely on raw scores, but rather on a more detailed comparative study investigating the exam constructs, methods, text-types, tasks, context, cognitive processes involved, etc.
4.1 Specific Recommendations for the GM
Even if it is accepted, for the sake of argument, that the project results are valid, and that the established cut-scores can be applied to different exam booklets, at least two fundamental issues arise. First, the results show that a significant number of subtest questions
6 E.g. the test-provider for the First Certificate in English (FCE) indicates that test-takers achieving Grade B (75%-79%) display "the range of good achievement" (Cambridge English 2013).
were judged as B1 and C1 items, which are either below or above the level targeted by the Curriculum. While this may be typical of proficiency/diagnostic exams (Alderson 2000; Bachman and Palmer 1996), it is not desirable in the case of achievement exams, because any question above the targeted level may impede the test-takers' results. This becomes even more problematic when we take into consideration the fact that, at the spring 2013 exam date (Table 5), only 39% of test-takers achieved the targeted B2 level overall - i.e. if we apply the established cut-scores (cf. Table 3 in 3.1). This means that 61% of test-takers, who were expected to be at the level B2 (cf. the curriculum aims in 2.1.1), not only struggled with C1 questions, but also found the B2 questions challenging. On the other hand, a relatively high proportion of B1 questions, which may indeed be the only suitable questions for the 61% of the test-takers, challenges the well-established status of the GM as a B2 exam (cf. Table 3 in 3.1), and questions the GM exam validity, at least in terms of its construct (i.e. B2 targeting Curriculum).
Subtest (spring 2013)	Basic level* (%)	Higher level* (%)
Reading	39	60
Listening	11	29
Use of English	36	58
Writing - Task 1	62	98
Writing - Task 2	52	98
Speaking	71	98
Overall exam	39	91
Table 5: The application of the established cut-scores (Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014) to the spring 2013 exam date results
* The percentage indicates the test-takers who achieved the targeted level.
Secondly, the fact that more than 50% of the test-takers (61% of the basic level test-takers at the spring 2013 exam date) fail to achieve B2 calls for an in-depth analysis to be provided by the curriculum designers, as well as educators. In particular, they should address the question of why such a relatively high proportion of test-takers fail to achieve the curricular goals.
The results of the alignment project discussed above show that the present format of the GM is not optimal. In order for the test scores of this high-stakes exam to be valid, the following points should be considered.
(i) Reading and listening subtests. The current format of the reading and listening subtests differs noticeably from many well-established international English language examinations, in terms of the number of questions and text-type varieties. Firstly, the reading subtest should consist of a variety of texts - descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and instructive (Alderson 2000: 127) - and of different task-types. To assure the validity of the subtest, it should include from 30 to 40 different questions (see Alderson 2000: 294). Secondly,
the listening subtest should comprise a variety of audio tracks, i.e. at least three different audio tracks, as well as task-types. The number of questions should be increased to at least 20, preferably to 30, questions. In the present format, if the test-takers fail to answer one question out of 14-18 questions in the listening subtests (c.f. 2.1.1), they will automatically lose from five to eight percent overall. Taking the cut-score of 79% into consideration, this means that a B2 test-taker may only fail to answer two questions.
(ii)	Exam format. Presently, the exam can be taken at two levels. It would, however, be more appropriate if the exam were administered on one level only, since this would allow greater differentiation and discrimination (Bitenc Pe-harc and Tratnik 2014: 38). Additionally, to identify the B1 test-takers, two sets of cut-scores should be determined (B1 and B2).7 Alternatively, if the present format of the exam on two levels is preserved, it is of vital importance that the test provider selects appropriately calibrated items that accurately reflect the difference in difficulty between the two levels.8
(iii)	Speaking subtest. Given the poor correlations between the external and internal parts of the exam (cf. 2.1.1), the questions and the subtest administration procedure should be more standardised. In particular, the interlocutors and assessors should undergo the same standardisation procedures as the assessors of the writing subtest. If would be advisable if the assessor(s) were appointed externally.
4.2 Specific Recommendations for the VM
Two issues are likely to affect the interpretation of project findings, with regard to the content of the VM for the English Language. Firstly, the alignment shows that a relatively high proportion of the items in the reading subtest were judged as B2 items, which is above the CEFR level targeted by the VM Curriculum, and may have a negative impact on the success of the weaker test-takers. The opposite could be claimed for the A2 items included in the exam, however, these are more easily justifiable, since the CEFR A2 descriptors are also included in the VM Curriculum (admittedly, mostly as a target for vocational schools). Secondly, the VM does not include a listening comprehension subtest, which raises doubts about the validity of the exam as a whole (see Bachman and Palmer 1996; Brown 1996 a.o.).
The noticeable gap between the number of B1 test-takers and the number of passing test-takers should also be addressed, with regard to the VM rating procedures. Specifically, the 40% oral part is based on the guidelines included in the VM Catalogue, but is still prepared, administered and assessed internally, at the vocational/ technical educational institutions. Furthermore, the subtests for reading comprehen-
7	It is noteworthy that these, and the previous, recommendations can be achieved only if the entire time allotment of the GM changes.
8	Only this step will enable the test-provider to avoid the situation in which a subtest of a lower level contains more difficult questions than a subtest from a higher level, as is also shown by the project results (cf. Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014).
sion and writing communication (representing 60% of the overall grade) are prepared externally, however, their rating is also conducted internally. Although the exam papers are anonymized, the assessors are likely to recognize their students' handwriting, especially since the number of test-takers at a particular school can be very small. Thus, we should observe that some deficiencies of the VM may affect the results of the exam and, consequently, contribute to the existence of the gap between the number of B1 test-takers and the number of passing test-takers that has been exposed by the alignment project.
Nevertheless, if we assume that the project results are valid, that the VM subject testing committee consistently produces tasks on the same level of difficulty, and that the deficiencies of the exam have a negligible impact on the results, the explanation for the gap between the B1 test-takers (the 71% cut-score) and the successful test-takers (the 51% pass-score) may lie in the curriculum. On the one hand, the targeted CEFR level B1 could be overly-demanding for VM test-takers - since they are a heterogeneous population, this is not necessarily an unexpected finding. Consequently, it might be justifiable to set two cut-scores (A2 and B1) for the VM population. Alternatively, if the level B1 remains the curricular goal for the VM population, the current VM pass score of 51% is set too low. Since introducing the 71% B1 cut-score as the pass score would result in a mere 74% of the spring 2013 test-takers passing the VM for the English Language, the curriculum designers and educational institutions will have to evaluate why such a substantial part of the VM population obtains a passing school grade (which allows them to sign up for the VM exam), but fails to achieve the prescribed CEFR level.
In light of the above, we propose the following.
(i)	Construct validity. To properly align the VM for the English Language with its construct, the VM Curriculum, a listening subtest should be introduced (see also Bitenc Peharc and Tratnik 2014: 38). It is worth noting that all other Slovenian national exams in English contain this subtest.
(ii)	Assessment procedures. To ensure demonstrable objectivity, an external rating system (similar to the one implemented for the GM) should be enacted, that includes standardised and externally-prepared oral exam tasks; external assessors for the speaking subtest; external and completely anonymous assessment of the writing subtest; and machine-aided scoring of the reading comprehension subtest.
(iii)	Curriculum. Curriculum designers should reconsider the curriculum aims in terms of realistic achievable goals, utilizing the data obtained from the alignment project.
5 CONCLUSION
The results of the five-year project, conducted by the Slovenian National Examination Centre, show that - though neither of the Matura examinations is yet optimal
- they both contain the majority of items that target at the CEFR levels, as specified by the their constructs, i.e. the National Curricula (the level B2 for the GM, and the level B1 for the VM). Thus, we can assume that the two exams are aligned with their respective CEFR levels.
Although this means that the levels of the exams reflect the aims, objectives and standards as set by the respective National Curricula, there are still some unsettling matters to be discussed. One of them is the dual character of the GM: the GM has always been both an achievement (school-leaving) and a proficiency (university entrance) exam. The project results show that a significant number of subtest questions were judged either below, or above, the level targeted by the Curriculum which, at least to some extent, questions the GM exam validity as an achievement exam.
Another matter that needs addressing is the correlation between the written and oral parts of both exams. The correlation between the (externally assessed) written and the (internally assessed) oral part of the GM is weak, and while the correlation between the parts of the VM seems moderately high, one has to keep in mind that the rating of all the VM papers is conducted internally. This leads to the conclusion that the quality of the link between Slovenian secondary school language exams and the CEFR proficiency levels will only be truly validated once all the examiners, the external and the internal ones, and indeed all the EFL secondary school teachers are familiar with its proficiency levels. In particular, the responsibility to administer valid and fair tests to all the test-takers nationwide lies not only with the Slovenian National Examination Centre and, of course, the policy makers, but also with each individual secondary school examination board, and all the English teachers involved in the teaching and testing process. This might also help avoid the rather high number of students who complete the school year successfully, and then unfortunately fail to achieve the prescribed CEFR level. Only then will the aptitude for taking responsibility for "making coherent, realistic use of the CEFR" (Council of Europe 2007) be genuinely shown.
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Summary
RELATING THE SLOVENIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL ENGLISH LANGUAGE NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS TO THE CEFR: FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS
The present paper draws on the report of a five-year project that aligned the Slovenian national exams in English to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR). Discussed here are the key findings of the relating project, carried out by the National Examination Centre, a central institution for external assessment in Slovenia, for the following exams: the Vocational Matura (for technical secondary schools, vocational-technical schools, and vocational courses) and the General Matura (for general secondary education programmes). The focus of the paper is on the interpretation of the findings of the project, the significance of relating the aforementioned exams to the CEFR, the implications of project results for future language test development and, most importantly, the impact of the findings on the development of secondary school-level English education programmes in Slovenia.
Key words: CEFR, alignment, national examinations in English, testing, curriculum.
Povzetek
UMEŠČANJE IZPITOV IZ ANGLEŠKEGA JEZIKA NA SPLOŠNI IN POKLICNI MATURI V SKUPNI EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI OKVIR (SEJO): UGOTOVITVE IN
NJIHOV VPLIV
Prispevek oriše petletno umeščanje slovenskih nacionalnih izpitov iz angleškega jezika v Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir (SEJO) in predstavi ključne ugotovitve projekta, ki ga je izvedel Državni izpitni center, osrednja institucija za zunanje preverjanje znanja jezikov v Sloveniji. Predstavljena sta izpit iz angleščine na poklicni maturi (za srednje tehniško in drugo strokovno izobraževanje, poklicno-tehniško izobraževanje in poklicne tečaje) in izpit iz angleščine na splošni maturi (za gimnazije). Prispevek je osredinjen na interpretacijo rezultatov projekta umeščanja, na pomen umeščanja obeh izpitov v CEFR, na vpliv rezultatov projekta na razvoj jezikovnih testov v prihodnje, in - kar je najpomembneje - na vpliv ugotovitev umeščanja na razvoj srednješolskih programov v Sloveniji.
Ključne besede: SEJO, umeščanje, nacionalni izpiti iz angleščine, preverjanje, učni načrt.
Marjana Šifrar Kalan Andreja Trenc
Universidad de Ljubljana*
UDK 811.134.2'243:37.091.27(497.4) DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.309-323
LA CALIBRACIÓN DE LA COMPRENSIÓN LECTORA DENTRO DEL EXAMEN NACIONAL DE ELE SEGÚN EL MCER: ALGUNAS CUESTIONES DE EVALUACIÓN
1 INTRODUCCIÓN
El objetivo del presente trabajo es doble: por un lado, pretende presentar los resultados del proyecto concreto de calibración de la prueba de la comprensión lectora del examen de matura1 para ganar una mayor equiparación con los niveles de referencia del Marco Común Europeo de Referencia. Por otro lado, y para garantizar una mayor transparencia de los resultados de calibración del examen según los niveles del MCER, introduce un análisis contrastivo de los resultados de calibración obtenidos mediante dos metodologías: la estadística - con los procedimientos de estandarización acreditados, y la descriptiva - con las escalas descriptivas del MCER especificadas en el manual Relating language examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. A manual (Consejo de Europa 2009)2.
2 LA EVALUACIÓN EN EL MARCO COMÚN EUROPEO DE REFERENCIA
PARA LAS LENGUAS
La rápida adopción del MCER tanto en el campo de la docencia como en el de la evaluación de lenguas ha mostrado la necesidad de tal documento en la actual Europa plurilingüe. Pero el documento no es un instrumento de evaluación prescriptivo, ya que no propone los contenidos, métodos o modalidades que deberían adoptar las evaluaciones de las lenguas extranjeras, sino funciona como «punto de referencia, [...] un esquema operativo más simple que sintetiza las categorías separadas del Marco» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 178). De ahí que los criterios para evaluar la competencia comunicativa en español vengan definidos en el MCER por las escalas de los descriptores correspondientes a cada una de las competencias (lingüísticas y no lingüísticas) que se cruzan en un acto comunicativo. A pesar de su carácter consultivo y no regulativo, las instituciones
Dirección de las autoras: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Eslovenia. E-mail:marjana.sifrar@ff.uni-lj.si, andreja.trenc@ff.uni-lj.si.
El examen de matura es una prueba escrita y oral que se realiza en Eslovenia a los estudiantes que deseen acceder a los estudios universitarios. Los objetivos y el formato del examen se detallan en el capítulo 4 del presente trabajo.
De aquí en adelante: el Manual. También nos referimos a su versión abreviada Highlights from the Manual (Consejo de Europa 2011).
*
1
de toda Europa manifestaron su vinculación a los distintos niveles del MCER (A1-C2). Dado que muchos países ya disponían de pruebas propias para la evaluación de idiomas, el Consejo de Europa ha realizado esfuerzos importantes para establecer correctamente las correspondencias entre las pruebas y los estándares del MCER. Con estos fines se ha elaborado el Manual (directrices del Consejo de Europa, la Asociación Europea para la examinación y evaluación de lenguas - EALTA Guidelines for Good Practice in Language Testing and Assesment 2010), que incluye procedimientos de standard setting3 aplicados al contexto del MCER. Los autores del Manual definen claramente la necesidad de contar con un sistema de certificación de calidad antes de empezar con el proceso de comparabilidad con los niveles del MCER. En la versión final del Manual (Consejo de Europa 2009) esta necesidad se concreta en tres fases: 1) la fase de especificaciones (concretar lo que se evalúa), 2) la fase de validez y fiabilidad como instrumentos imprescindibles, y 3) la fase de validez de las notas de corte o fijación de estándares.
Este manual se concibe como una ayuda para todos aquellos que quieran realizar este proceso con cierto rigor y garantías. Es un texto exhaustivo que aborda todas las fases y dimensiones de un correcto proceso de estandarización, pero que no conlleva una prescripción por parte del Consejo de Europa, sino una ayuda útil (García et al. 2012: 7). Ilc y Stopar (2014: 16) en su artículo sobre la validación del examen de comprensión lectora del examen nacional esloveno de inglés indican la suma importancia de los manuales, la formación y otras herramientas implementadas en relación con el MCER para así minimizar la influencia cultural, nacional y formativa de los jueces.
El fin último de este proceso de valoración o comparabilidad entonces no es el certificado oficial o un sello del Consejo de Europa que discrimine el nivel de una prueba, sino una aplicación ética, responsable y coherente del MCER y del Manual acorde con las necesidades de una sociedad.
3 LA COMPRENSIÓN LECTORA
Desde los años 60 o 70 del siglo pasado, la comprensión de textos (escritos y orales) ha sido objeto de estudio principalmente en las áreas de psicología. Con el desarrollo del análisis de comunicación, la comprensión como actividad verbal comunicativa pasó a cobrar una mayor importancia en diferentes áreas: psicolingüística, neurolingüística, lingüística del texto, teoría del discurso, inteligencia artificial, y sobre todo, pragmática (Biere 1991: 1). En el centro de interés de todas estas disciplinas está el significado que el lector o intérprete4 interpreta durante la actividad comunicativa de la comprensión (Ferbezar/Stabej 2008: 17). Los intérpretes pueden comprender un mismo texto de varias maneras, ya que el texto -según Halliday y Widdowson (en Alderson 2000: 6)- no contiene un significado determinado para ser despojado por el intérprete, sino sólo un potencial significativo que genera el significado en cada una de las interacciones entre
3	Se denomina como standard setting (establecimiento de estándares) al procedimiento de establecimiento de puntos de corte en las puntuaciones de los tests (Cizek/Bunch 2007).
4	Ferbezar y Stabej (2008) denominan al lector como intérprete.
el texto y su intérprete. La comprensión de textos en una lengua extranjera estudia esta misma interacción desde la perspectiva del acercamiento a un código perteneciente a otra lengua y otras culturas. En este sentido, la didáctica en su vertiente contrastiva entre Ll/lengua extranjera ha intentado proponer una nueva reflexión sobre la creencia comúnmente aceptada en la lingüística tradicional de que «el conocimiento de la lengua ya forma una condición suficiente para la comprensión» (Ferbežar/Stabej 2008: 15).
El proceso comunicativo de lectura en una lengua extranjera difiere fundamentalmente del mismo proceso en la lengua materna en cuanto al tipo y al nivel de conocimientos (lingüísticos y psicolingüísticos) que el individuo emplea durante la lectura; el primer contacto con la lectura en la lengua materna presupone del niño un dominio considerablemente alto de la lengua y la falta de la destreza de decodificación; mientras al niño le quedan por aprender estas destrezas, un aprendiz de lenguas extranjeras ya entra equipado con el conocimiento sobre el proceso de decodificación y las estrategias, ya que lo obtuvo durante el proceso de la adquisición de la lengua materna, mientras que está todavía en el proceso de la adquisición del sistema de la nueva lengua. La discrepancia entre las estrategias de lectura y el dominio de la lengua objeto determina los factores que influyen sobre el proceso de comprensión en una lengua extranjera a diferencia de la materna.
Mikeln (2008: 387-398) menciona tres factores: los factores lingüísticos, esto es, el procesamiento de los textos, los factores individuales y de experiencia, y los factores socioculturales. La capacidad de lectura en una lengua extranjera no puede por lo tanto ser entendida por completo sin la implicación íntegra de procesos heurísticos, cognitivos, psicolingüísticos por encima de la básica capacidad de decodificación del sistema lingüístico del idioma. Un número considerable de trabajos sobre los procesos de comprensión de una lengua extranjera (Acquaroni Muñoz 2003; Gospodarič/Šifrar Kalan 2008; Lah 2012; Kintch, Van Dijk 1983) han coincidido en detectar estos procesos como lo que Alderson (2000: 33-40) define como «una serie de conocimientos lingüísticos, el reconocimiento de clases morfológicas, asimismo como el conocimiento metalingüístico, metacognición, el conocimiento de la temática, el conocimiento general sobre el mundo o la experiencia y el conocimiento sociocultural» y han consolidado una clara correlación con las competencias comunicativas no lingüísticas o generales del MCER. No deberíamos dejar al lado asimismo la competencia ortoépica, una competencia subestimada en las clases de LE según subraya Lah (2013).
4 EL EXAMEN DE MATURA DE ESPAÑOL COMO LENGUA EXTRANJERA
EN ESLOVENIA
En Eslovenia, desde el año 1995 y con la fundación del Centro Nacional de Exámenes de Eslovenia (Državni izpitni center), los estudiantes de bachillerato concluyen sus estudios de la enseñanza secundaria con un examen nacional objetivo llamado matura que consta de una parte obligatoria y otra optativa. La modalidad optativa le posibilita al candidato examinarse, entre otras asignaturas, también de ELE. Este examen nacional tiene un doble objetivo: es, por una parte, el examen de aprovechamiento para medir los conocimientos conseguidos, y, por otra, el examen de dominio de nivel o de selección que le sirve para seguir con los estudios universitarios en universidades
públicas, y forma parte de las Pruebas de acceso a estudios universitarios. El candidato se somete a una parte objetiva (comprensión lectora y auditiva, y uso de la lengua) y a una parte subjetiva (expresión oral y escrita) en el examen.
El formato de las pruebas tiene como objetivo general evaluar la capacidad comunicativa del hablante sea al nivel de percepción de textos escritos y orales, sea a nivel de emisión de mensajes. Este enfoque eminentemente comunicativo toma como modelo las directrices sobre la evaluación comunicativa recogida en el diseño de pruebas de la Universidad de Cambridge (Bachmann 1990; Alderson 1995; Swain 1985). A pesar de la dificultad de la adopción completa de un enfoque comunicativo en las pruebas de la comprensión lectora objetivas a través de unos ítems discretos, pues cada examen evalúa solo una simulación y no una actuación real comunicativa, se intenta garantizar la autenticidad de la prueba a partir de las generalizaciones del dominio comunicativo en una serie de ámbitos, taxonomías5 y tipologías textuales que se consideran factibles y significativas en el contexto educativo del alumno. La autenticidad de la prueba está garantizada también con la reproducción de una situación lectora en su dimensión compleja, donde se emplean las mismas estrategias metacognitivas que el candidato utilizaría durante la decodificación real de los textos: conocimientos generales y estrategias de comprensión, como la anticipación, lectura global (scanning) y detallada (skimming), lectura intensiva e inferencia o deducción (Gospodaric/Sifrar Kalan 2008).
5 EL PROYECTO DE CALIBRACIÓN DEL EXAMEN DE MATURA DE ESPAÑOL SEGÚN LAS ESCALAS DEL MCER
Respetando el modelo de la política lingüística europea sobre la evaluación de las lenguas extranjeras recogidas en el Manual (Consejo de Europa 2009) se ha creado también en Eslovenia la necesidad de calibrar el nivel de los candidatos en los exámenes nacionales de lenguas extranjeras elaborados por el Centro Nacional. A base de esta iniciativa y con el objetivo de crear una transparencia equiparable internacionalmente de los niveles de los exámenes de matura de lenguas extranjeras, se emprendió en 2008 el proyecto de calibración de los exámenes de matura para todas las lenguas extranjeras según el MCER. El proyecto está siendo llevado a cabo de acuerdo con métodos aceptados internacionalmente y procedimientos y estándares para las lenguas extranjeras recopilados en el Manual.
El proyecto de calibración del examen de español se está implementando en dos fases sucesivas en las que se realizarán cuatro procedimientos de la calibración. La primera fase, realizada entre finales del año 2013 y mediados del año 2014, consistió en procedimientos introductorios de familiarización con los métodos e instrumentos de calibración, especificación y estandarización de los dos niveles de pruebas de comprensión lectora. La segunda fase, planificada para finales del 2014, comprende la especificación y estandarización de un ejemplar de prueba de matura, esa vez de todas las partes del examen (incluso la expresión oral), así como los procedimientos finalizadores de validación. La
5 El diseño de tareas baraja diferentes modalidades definidas por el Catálogo curricular de los contenidos del examen (Predmetni izpitni katalog).
finalización del proyecto se prevé para el año 2015 cuando se haya calibrado todo el examen de bachillerato de ELE según los estándares europeos y se haya llegado a una estimación final del nivel de la examinación según las escalas del MCER.
6 METODOLOGÍA DE LA CALIBRACIÓN
Una de las finalidades del MCER es ayudar a los usuarios a describir los niveles de dominio lingüístico exigidos por los exámenes y programas de evaluación existentes, con el fin de facilitar las comparaciones entre distintos sistemas de certificados. Con este propósito se han desarrollado el esquema descriptivo y los niveles comunes de referencia. Entre los dos, se proporciona un cuadro conceptual que los usuarios pueden utilizar para describir su sistema (Consejo de Europa 2002: 23).
El proceso de relacionar un examen con el MCER contiene cinco conjuntos de procedimientos que no deben seguirse lineal sino cíclicamente, siempre y cuando el examen respete los criterios de validez y confiabilidad: 1) familiarización de los involucrados en el proyecto con el MCER, con sus niveles y descriptores; 2) especificación de los contenidos y estructura del examen; 3) prácticas de estandarización (comprensión de niveles) y benchmarking; 4) estandarización; 5) validación (Consejo de Europa 2011: 16-18).
Para calibrar cada examen de LE se formó un panel de jueces compuesto por profesores de escuelas secundarias, profesores universitarios, diseñadores y evaluadores externos de exámenes, junto a una coordinadora profesional del proyecto. El proyecto empezó con unos seminarios de familiarización con los procedimientos y herramientas de calibración de exámenes de lenguas para todos los equipos usando las muestras del examen de matura de inglés. A continuación el procedimiento se realizó en parte en equipos de diferentes LE, con debates sobre el tema, y en parte individualmente. En la fase de familiarización con los descriptores específicos de comprensión lectora (MCER), los jueces del equipo español tuvieron que aceptar dichos descriptores a pesar de algunos desacuerdos con ellos, ya que solo el mutuo consentimiento posibilitó el progreso de la calibración. Por lo tanto, es imprescindible una discusión en grupo después de haber clasificado individualmente cada ítem y haberlo registrado. Cabe destacar que cada reunión empezó con unos ejercicios de conocimiento de descriptores, ya que solo así se puede garantizar una estandarización fiable y válida. En la fase de estandarización se pudo elegir entre varios métodos (The body of work method, The Tucker-Angoff method, The Basket method, The Bookmark method). Los métodos escogidos en este proyecto, the Tucker-Angoff method y the Basket method, se enfocan en los ítem-tests. De acuerdo con los métodos de estandarización, «no hay un único procedimiento adecuado para establecer puntos de corte, ya que incluso un mismo método puede ser aplicado de muy diversas maneras, dependiendo de las condiciones concretas en que se ejecuta. No es tanto el método concreto que se emplea, de hecho, sino el conjunto de decisiones adoptadas, lo que hacen de un proceso de standard setting un buen o mal procedimiento» (Cizek/Bunch 2007 en García et al. 2012: 9).
El más utilizado entre los métodos centrados en las pruebas (ítems o tareas) es el método Tucker-Angoff (Consejo de Europa 2009: 61). Los jueces deben analizar cada
ítem o tarea y estimar la probabilidad (expresada en %) que tendría un candidato mínimamente competente de resolver un ítem. La nota de corte se fija una vez hecha la media de los juicios agregados de cada juez. En nuestra versión del método el panel de diez jueces tenía que imaginar cuántos de los 100 candidatos límite (A2/B1, B1/B2) podrían dar la respuesta correcta. El método Basket está enfocado en los descriptores del MCER. El panel de los jueces tiene que responder a la pregunta: ¿a qué nivel del MCER un candidato hipotético ya puede dar con la respuesta correcta para cada ítem? Es decir, cuál es el nivel mínimo suficiente para responder correctamente. Eso no quiere decir que los candidatos de niveles inferiores no puedan dar soluciones correctas, sino que se sobre entiende que los candidatos de niveles avanzados van a dar la respuesta correcta.
El panel de los jueces evaluó los ítems de comprensión lectora en dos rondas: la primera sin ver los resultados de los test y la segunda dentro de una semana con los datos revelados de la primera ronda y los índices de dificultad, calculados en el Centro Nacional de Exámenes. Se calculó la media para cada ítem, así que en el método Angoff la media de 80 significaría que 80 de 100 candidatos límite resolverían el ítem. En el método Basket se usaron los números de 1 a 6 para marcar los 6 niveles de A1 a C2 (A1 siendo 1). Con este método una media de, por ejemplo, 2,2 significaría que se trata de un ítem A2 o un 3 significaría que el nivel suficiente en este ítem para dar con la respuesta correcta sería B1. Si la mayoría de los ítems exige un nivel de B1, entonces se puede concluir que el examen certifica este nivel. En los dos métodos los jueces se apoyaron en los descriptores de comprensión lectora del MCER.
Las hipótesis en esta correlación o calibración de comprensión lectora en los exámenes de matura de español LE con los niveles del MCER son: 1) El examen de nivel básico certifica el nivel B1 y determina asimismo el grado alcanzado por la mayoría de los candidatos de este nivel; 2) El examen de nivel avanzado certifica el nivel B2 y determina asimismo el grado alcanzado por la mayoría de los candidatos de este nivel.
7 RESULTADOS
La prueba del nivel básico6 se compone de tres textos auténticos (3 tipos de tareas) con 19 ítems y 19 puntos en total. Se presentaron 189 candidatos y consiguieron un 89% de promedio de soluciones correctas (16,87 puntos de los 19). Con el método Angoff se ha tratado de marcar el límite entre A2 y B1. Según las evaluaciones de la segunda ronda el corte es del 79% (15 de 19 puntos) para B1. Con el método Basket se ha evaluado el nivel 2,7 (2=A2; 3=B1) y 17,56 puntos para el mismo nivel. Tomados en cuenta los dos métodos, el corte para el nivel B1 es 16 puntos o 84% de todos los puntos del examen de comprensión lectora. Por lo tanto, en nuestra muestra de candidatos examinados el 74% de ellos han conseguido el nivel B1 lo que viene a confirmar la primera hipótesis.
La prueba del nivel avanzado se compone de dos textos auténticos (2 tipos de tareas) con 15 ítems puntuados con 21 puntos en total (una de las tareas puntuó el doble
6 Las pruebas se pueden consultar directamente en la página http://www.ric.si/splosna_matura/
predmeti/spanscina/, convocatoria del 12 de junio del 2013.
cada uno de los ítems correctos). Se presentaron 196 candidatos y consiguieron un 86% de promedio de soluciones correctas (18 puntos de los 21). Con el método Angoff se ha tratado de marcar el límite entre B1 y B2. Según las evaluaciones de la segunda ronda el corte es de 81% (17 de 21 puntos) para B2. Con el método Basket se ha evaluado el nivel 3,35 (3=B1; 4=B2) y 20,8 puntos para el mismo nivel. Tomados en cuenta los dos métodos, el corte para el nivel B2 es 19 puntos o 90% de todos los puntos del examen de comprensión lectora del nivel avanzado. Por lo tanto, en nuestra muestra de candidatos examinados 58% de ellos han conseguido el nivel B2 y se puede confirmar la segunda hipótesis, pero solo en parte, ya que el número de ítems superiores al nivel 3,5, ronda en torno a los 7 de los 15 ítems en total, ubicando la gran mayoría de los ítems un poco por debajo del B2.
En los dos niveles del examen, la primera ronda del método Angoff ha proporcionado un corte más bajo que la segunda ronda, mientras que en el método Basket no ha habido discrepancia sustancial entre la primera y la segunda ronda. Se ha demostrado, igual que en la estandarización de otros exámenes (Bitenc Peharc/Tratnik 2014), que el método Basket proporciona resultados menos rígidos, esto es, más indulgentes. Es importante subrayar que el uso de dos métodos independientes aporta mayor validez externa. El método Angoff, a pesar de basarse en la valoración subjetiva de cada juez de quién es el candidato límite, es considerado como el método más frecuentemente usado y científicamente investigado entre los métodos de estandarización (Bitenc Peharc/ Tratnik 2014: 10).
8 DISCUSIÓN
El panel de jueces ha llegado a la conclusión de que la metodología utilizada ha dado unos resultados por debajo del nivel esperado, pero los descriptores generales (Consejo de Europa 2002: 72) han resultado imprecisos para calibrar la comprensión lectora, puesto que no abarcan todas las competencias comunicativas a las que se somete dicha destreza. Partiendo de la concepción de la comprensión lectora como una destreza interdisciplinaria e integradora de varias subcompetencias o subdestrezas, hemos usado los criterios de selección de las (sub)competencias para evaluar varios aspectos de la comprensión lectora adoptados por el Manual (Consejo de Europa 2011: 42-43) que no están incluidos en los descriptores generales usados en la estandarización. Esta selección, a diferencia de las escalas generales del nivel de la comprensión lectora como una actividad global, presenta la comprensión lectora desde una perspectiva multidimensional y tiene en cuenta unos criterios más precisos y detallados que se ponen a prueba diferentes competencias generales y lingüísticas:
Figura 1: Subcompetencias integradas en la comprensión lectora según el Manual (Consejo de Europa 2011: 42-43)
La estimación del nivel de la actuación comunicativa de un aprendiz (durante la actividad lectora, en este caso) depende tanto de los componentes lingüísticos que el candidato emplea durante la comprensión como también de las competencias generales que «contribuyen de una forma u otra a la capacidad comunicativa del alumno» y se pueden considerar por lo tanto «solo aspectos de la misma» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 99). De ahí que, en una nueva fase experimental de especificación, elaborada con fines de una comparación de los resultados obtenidos por el método adoptado de Angoff y Basket, y la estimación del nivel de cada ítem según los descriptores de las siete competencias propuestas en el Manual, se llegue a una evaluación más rigurosa y exhaustiva. Partimos de la hipótesis de que el nivel especificado según los descriptores generales de la comprensión lectora en el MCER no se distingue sustancialmente de la evaluación del nivel usando los descriptores más detallados propuestos por el Manual sino que el uso de éstos contribuye a una mayor transparencia del proceso de la comprensión lectora. Asimismo, consideramos que una revaloración de criterios de calibración y una descripción más detallada de la destreza lectora podrían contribuir a una mayor precisión y fiabilidad de la evaluación según el MCER.
A continuación se presentan los ejemplos seleccionados de los ítems que han sido sometidos a una doble especificación, la estadística basada en los descriptores generales y los métodos Angoff y Basket, y en segundo lugar a la especificación según los descriptores detallados propuestos por el Manual.
Examen de nivel básico, ítem 1.3. La comprensión lectora y la resolución correcta del ítem se centran en la interpretación semántica correcta de la colocación darse cita. Para poder encontrar el vínculo semántico entre esta expresión y su interpretación sinonímica en la respuesta correcta (comer y hablar con los artistas), el candidato tiene que recurrir a un repertorio de vocabulario frecuente y propio a las actividades cotidianas (relacionadas en este caso, con el ocio, la concertación de citas y el tiempo libre) lo que exige el nivel de competencia léxica de A2 según el descriptor en cuestión: «Tiene suficiente vocabulario para desenvolverse en actividades habituales y transacciones cotidianas que comprenden situaciones y temas conocidos» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 109). Asimismo se pone en marcha la competencia estratégica de inferencia al entender otra clave textual léxica (los artistas) como el sinónimo o el hiperónimo de músicos, fotógrafos, diseñadores y demás gente de mal vivir, puesto que «sabrá cómo utilizar una idea del significado general de textos y enunciados cortos que tratan temas cotidianos concretos para inferir del contexto el significado probable de las palabras que desconoce» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 74). Esta estimación descriptiva del nivel de competencias léxicas y estratégicas (A2) se vino a comprobar también con los métodos estadísticos ya que según la metodología Angoff el 83,75 % de los candidatos límites serían capaces de resolver el ítem a un nivel A2 (estimado por el método Basket como 2,3).
Examen de nivel básico, ítems 2.2. y 2.3. Para el análisis de los dos ítems en cuestión se ha tenido en cuenta sobre todo la competencia discursiva, puesto que se favorece por la propia tipología textual de la prueba (una entrevista con intervenciones desordenadas). Los dos ítems corresponden a la competencia discursiva en el nivel B1 porque el candidato tiene que relacionar secuencias discursivas sencillas y «unos elementos breves y concretos [...] para crear una secuencia cohesionada y lineal» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 122), como por ejemplo, la refutación o la comprobación de una afirmación incluida en el ítem 2.2 o la propuesta de un juicio de valor a una pregunta abierta que se plantea en el ítem 2.3.
El léxico que se debe activar para la resolución del ítem abarca el repertorio de las nociones relacionadas con el tiempo y los fenómenos meteorológicos (la nieve, las condiciones climáticas) y el tiempo libre (las actividades y espacios deportivos) que forman parte de un área inmediato, cercano y de interés para el candidato. De ese modo el dominio estimado de la competencia léxica corresponde a un nivel B1 donde el candidato tiene suficiente vocabulario para comprender la mayoría de información acerca de «los temas pertinentes para su vida diaria como, por ejemplo, familia, aficiones e intereses, trabajo, viajes y hechos de actualidad» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 109). La calibración de los ítems con el método Basket ha coincidido en el nivel de la dificultad dando un B1 o A2 + (en el ítem 2.3. por debajo de la dificultad del segundo cifrándose en un 2,5 por plantear una respuesta más directa a la pregunta). La comparación de los resultados obtenidos con los dos métodos muestra una correlación con el método Angoff (78,75% y 85,62%), sin embargo, se ha descartado de los resultados el factor de la competencia discursiva que también influye en el proceso de la resolución de los ítems y, como consecuencia, también en el nivel de dificultad estimado.
Examen de nivel básico, ítem 3.2. En muchos ítems se ha puesto de relieve la importancia de la competencia estratégica de inferencia, uno de los aspectos clave de la competencia comunicativa y la actividad de lectura que, por otro lado, no se incluye en los descriptores generales de la comprensión lectora. La competencia estratégica estimada del ítem comprende una variedad de estrategias muy complejas y variadas (la inferencia del significado por el contexto o por el andamiaje con el léxico de otras lenguas extranjeras que se tienen dominadas) que se articulan para descifrar la semántica de las palabras desconocidas7 en este ítem por lo que el nivel de la competencia estratégica exigido sea alto y correspondiente al nivel B2 (Consejo de Europa 2002: 74).
Del mismo modo, la competencia sociolingüística corresponde a un nivel B2, ya que para resolver el ítem correctamente es necesario entender y desenvolverse, aparte de en el registro informal, también en «el registro formal, que sea adecuado a la situación» como propone el descriptor del nivel B2 para esta competencia (Consejo de Europa 2002: 119).
Para poder hacerse con este ítem complejo cuya considerable dificultad se comprobó en el examen con el índice de dificultad 0,57, además también durante el proceso de estandarización de Angoff (sólo el 55,6% de los candidatos límite podrían resolver con éxito este ítem) y Basket (3,5 correspondientes a un nivel B1+), el candidato debería disponer de un vocabulario bastante abstracto y complejo. Su repertorio lingüístico general debería superar el nivel B1, disponiendo de «suficientes elementos lingüísticos como entender situaciones impredecibles, para captar los puntos principales de una idea o un problema con razonable precisión y para comprender pensamientos sobre temas abstractos o culturales [...]» para ubicarse en el nivel medio-alto (B1+) (Consejo de Europa 2002: 107).
Examen de nivel alto, ítem 2.5. La competencia gramatical involucrada en la comprensión lectora se basa en la interpretación correcta de estructuras sintácticas complejas de perífrasis verbales que aparecen dos veces en el texto en la función terminativa (dejar de servir, dejar de ser útil). El manejo de estas estructuras gramaticales complejas manifiesta «un grado relativamente alto del control gramatical» (B2) que ya trasgrede un «repertorio de estructuras o «fórmulas» habituales relacionadas con las situaciones más predecibles» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 111) característico de unos niveles inferiores (B1 en este caso) donde el aspecto terminativo de una acción suele expresarse a través de fórmulas fijas lexicalizadas en la semántica léxica o el uso de los tiempos verbales perfectivos (ya no sirvió más, p. ej.).
Del mismo modo, el candidato debe poner en marcha la competencia sociolingüística y la competencia léxica a un nivel B2 para entender adecuadamente un contexto formal (Consejo de Europa 2002: 119), por un lado la noción antagónica que existe en el mundo real entre la palabra invasores y el pueblo propio, y, por otro relacionarla con el significado léxico de estas dos expresiones. El grado del vocabulario prueba un amplio repertorio de nociones «sobre asuntos relativos a su especialidad y temas más generales» (Consejo de Europa 2002: 109). La comparación con la evaluación del nivel de competencia en las
7 El ítem requiere relacionar la frase siguiente del texto auténtico Un hombre es exculpado tras 35 años en la cárcel: La sala irrumpió en una ovación que certificaba la reparación de una injusticia y la frase: El público estaba de acuerdo con la libertad de James, marcando si esto es verdadero o falso.
escalas generales de la comprensión lectora mostró una correspondencia entre el nivel estimado según los descriptores detallados de competencias lingüísticas (B2) y el resultado obtenido con los métodos estadísticos (un 4 ó B2 según el método Basket o el 72,14% de éxito entre los candidatos límites entre B1/B2 en la metodología de Angoff).
Tanto las herramientas estadísticas como los descriptores detallados de la calibración han coincidido en el nivel del examen estimado: B1 para el nivel de prueba básico y B1/B2 para el nivel de prueba alto. En la discusión se ha comprobado que el panel de jueces ha insistido durante la estandarización en la aplicación de los descriptores detallados según el Manual y en la mayoría de las veces durante el proceso sólo se ha visto satisfecho con un enfoque analítico abarcando todas las competencias. Desde esta perspectiva analítica el panel de jueces ha podido ofrecer una reflexión sobre unos criterios más precisos para tener en cuenta durante las futuras elaboraciones de exámenes con el fin de garantizar una mayor validez de pruebas de comprensión lectora y una mayor adecuación a los niveles del MCER.
9 CONCLUSIÓN
La aplicación de unos métodos de calibración más detallados y amplios, que abarquen la comprensión lectora como una actividad tridimensional integradora de varias (sub)competencias generales y lingüísticas, proponen unos estándares alternativos para tener en cuenta durante las futuras calibraciones de exámenes de lengua extranjera según el MCER, de cara a garantizar una mayor correspondencia y validez entre los aspectos que se ponen a prueba durante la prueba real y los resultados obtenidos estadísticamente. Los equipos de todos los ámbitos involucrados en el proceso de evaluación, elaboración o estandarización de exámenes de lenguas extranjeras (los jueces del panel, los comités organizativos y los elaboradores de exámenes) deberían «cruzar los descriptores seleccionados entre las tres escalas para obtener una visión multidimensional de lo que tienen que hacer los alumnos en esos ámbitos y a ese nivel» (Pernas Izquierdo 2012: 37-38)8.
8 Pernas Izquierdo (2012: 37-38) en su artículo sobre diversificación curricular y plurilingüismo, compara el trabajo del programador curricular al del Jefe de la Unidad de Pre-Crimen, John Anderton, protagonista de la película Minority Report de S. Spielberg (2002) «que busca evidencias que puedan servirle para identificar a los asesinos antes de que cometan el crimen. Esta unidad cuenta con un novedoso sistema de prevención de delitos: trespre-cogs, seres que ven el futuro, dan información a la policía, en forma de archivos o imágenes, sobre los homicidios que van a cometerse. Cada uno de los pre-cogs genera unas visiones distintas, pero complementarias, del mismo delito y el agente Anderton prevé tridimensionalmente la escena de crimen [...]. La visión de cadapre-cog representa cada una de las escalas del Marco (actividades de la lengua, estrategias y competencias). Las visiones de estos seres aportan una perspectiva complementaria del mismo evento delictivo, al igual que cada una de las escalas nos da una dimensión distinta del mismo fenómeno, la lengua en uso. De la misma manera que el agente Anderton analiza las imágenes generadas, [...] así el programador de un curso de idiomas extrae de cada una de las escalas los datos que considera más relevantes y los cruza para obtener una visión multidimensional de cómo se tienen que comportar, comunicativamente hablando, los aprendices de lenguas en un determinado nivel del dominio.»
No cabe duda de que el MCER presenta una gran aportación e impulso en el desarrollo de la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras, pero de acuerdo con Weir (2005) tenemos que admitir que no es lo suficientemente comprensivo, coherente y transparente para las pruebas de lenguas extranjeras, y, como dice Alderson (2010), tampoco es adecuado por sí solo para el desarrollo de las pruebas, o incluso de los manuales o curricula. A todos estos campos por desarrollar e investigar se le debería añadir también el proceso de estandarización y los problemas que pueden tener los jueces a la hora de tomar la decisión sobre los puntos de corte, tema que ya ha empezado a investigar Papageorgiou (2010), y en Eslovenia Ilc y Stopar (2014), y que hemos experimentado en nuestro proceso de calibración.
Fuentes
Spomladanski izpitni rok 2013. Španščina. Izpitna pola 1 OR. Izpitna pola 1 VR. 12 de junio del 2013. http://www.ric.si/splosna_matura/predmeti/spanscina/.
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Resumen
LA CALIBRACIÓN DE LA COMPRENSIÓN LECTORA DENTRO DEL EXAMEN NACIONAL DE ELE SEGÚN EL MCER: ALGUNAS CUESTIONES DE EVALUACIÓN
El objetivo del presente trabajo es presentar los resultados del proyecto de calibración de la prueba de la comprensión lectora dentro del examen nacional de matura en español como lengua extranjera (ELE) en relación con el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia (MCER). El documento del MCER y las directrices para la evaluación (Consejo de Europa 2009) se presentan como puntos de referencia y herramientas de estandarización para establecer correspondencias entre las pruebas de matura y los niveles del MCER. Asimismo se analiza el proceso comunicativo de lectura en la lengua extranjera en comparación con la lengua materna. Después de una breve introducción del proyecto de calibración de pruebas de lenguas extranjeras y las metodologías aplicadas se presenta un análisis contrastivo de los resultados de calibración obtenidos mediante dos metodologías: la estadística con los métodos de estandarización Angoff y Basket, y la descriptiva con las escalas descriptivas del MCER. Se presenta el punto de corte establecido por el panel de jueces para comprobar el nivel B1 en el examen básico y el nivel B2 en el examen avanzado de matura. Sin embargo, a partir del análisis descriptivo detallado de los ítems se ha estimado que los descriptores del MCER deberían aportar mayor transparencia, exhaustividad y precisión, ya que se concibe la comprensión lectora como una actividad tridimensional integradora de varias (sub)competencias generales y lingüísticas.
Palabras clave: los niveles de referencia del MCER, los descriptores del MCER, la evaluación de la comprensión lectora, la estandarización de exámenes, los exámenes de ELE.
Abstract
RELATING READING COMPREHENSION IN THE SPANISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE NATIONAL EXAM TO THE CEFR: SOME ASPECTS OF
EVALUATION
The aim of the article is to present the results of a project which tried to relate the reading comprehension test in the Spanish as a foreign language national matura exam to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The CEFR and the evaluation guidelines (Council of Europe 2009) present reference points and standardization tools for establishing the correspondence between the knowledge required in the exam on the one hand and the levels of linguistic competence proposed by the CEFR on the other hand. Reading comprehension is analysed as a communicative process in foreign and native language. After introducing the project of calibrating the foreign language exam to the CEFR and presenting the methodology employed in the
study, a comparative analysis of the results is presented. The analysis combines two methods: Angoff and Basket standard setting methods and a descriptive method based on the CEFR descriptive scales. Cut scores for B1 level in the elementary examination and for B2 level in the advanced examination as established by the panel of judges are proposed. However, a detailed descriptive analysis of each exam item has shown that the CEFR descriptors should be more transparent, comprehensive and precise, given that reading comprehension is a threedimensional skill consisting of various general and linguistic (sub)competences.
Keywords: CEFR reference levels, CEFR descriptors, reading comprehension evaluation, exam standard setting, exams in Spanish as a foreign language.
Povzetek
UMESTITEV BRALNEGA RAZUMEVANJA MATURITETNEGA IZPITA IZ ŠPANŠČINE V SKUPNI EVROPSKI JEZIKOVNI OKVIR: NEKATERI VIDIKI VREDNOTENJA
Namen pričujočega članka je predstaviti rezultate projekta umeščanja preverjanja bralnega razumevanja pri maturitetnem izpitu iz španščine kot tujega jezika v Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir (SEJO). Dokument SEJO in smernice za vrednotenje (Svet Evrope 2009) predstavljajo izhodišča ter standardizacijska sredstva za oceno ujemanja med zahtevnostjo maturitetnega izpita in referenčnimi ravnmi. Članek razčleni bralno razumevanje kot sporazumevalni proces v tujem in maternem jeziku. Kratki predstavitvi projekta umeščanja maturitetnih izpitov iz tujih jezikov in uporabljenih metod sledi primerjalna analiza rezultatov umeščanja, pridobljenih z dvema metodama: statistično - standardizacijski metodi Angoff in Basket - ter opisno z opisniki lestvic SEJO. Predstavljene so meje (minimalni prag točk) za ravni, ki so jih presojevalci prisodili za raven B1 na osnovni ter B2 na višji izpitni ravni. Na podlagi podrobnejše opisne analize izpitnih postavk se je izkazalo, da bi opisniki lestvic SEJO morali zagotavljati večjo transparentnost, izčrpnost in natančnost, saj se bralno razumevanje pojmuje kot tridimenzionalna dejavnost, v kateri se prepletajo raznolike splošne in jezikovne (pod) kompetence.
Ključne besede: referenčne ravni SEJO, opisniki SEJO, vrednotenje bralnega razumevanja, standardizacija izpitov, izpiti iz španščine kot tujega jezika.
Silva Bratož	UDK 811.111367.633:37.091.3
University of Primorska*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.325-337
TEACHING ENGLISH LOCATIVE PREPOSITIONS: A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
1 INTRODUCTION
One area that has received much attention from cognitive linguistics (CL) researchers (Lakoff 1987; Lindstromberg 1996; Rohlfing 2001; Evans and Tyler 2005) is the semantic nature of English prepositions. They are notoriously hard to learn and frequently subject to negative transfer. In addition, prepositional meanings are commonly extended from the spatial to abstract domains and are, as a consequence, often unpredictable and arbitrary. This suggests that the best way to learn second language (SL) prepositions would be through rote learning. An alternative to the traditional approach, which assumes that prepositions are best learnt by memorizing the individual contexts in which they occur, is the collocation approach, according to which prepositions are best acquired by learning the collocations in which they occur. This approach has several advantages. Research has suggested that people naturally process groups of words as single units or chunks, which has led researchers to argue in favour of frequency-based learning (Mueller 2011.) However, both of these approaches see prepositional meanings as unrelated to each other. A CL-based approach offers an alternative perspective by arguing that the multiple uses of prepositions can be seen as related in systematic ways, implying important pedagogic implications.
This article discusses several pedagogical implications of a CL-based approach and looks at some of the ways in which the theory may be translated into practical consideration. While the majority of studies which discuss the teaching of prepositions from a cognitive perspective focus on the extended uses of prepositions as motivated polysemy networks, the focus here is on the more central uses of the locative prepositions in, on and at. The main reason for this is the realisation that even students with relatively high levels of English still experience difficulty with the fairly basic uses of these locative prepositions, which can largely be attributed to the effects of negative transfer. In an attempt to provide learners with effective strategies to deal with this, a CL-based model of explicit instruction on the use of English locative prepositions has been developed, based on the general conceptual schemas associated with a particular preposition.
The article begins by looking at some key insights from the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and their relevance for the issues discussed. This is followed by an overview of research related to different aspects of using
Author's address: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza na Primorskem, Cankarjeva 5, 6000 Koper, Slovenia. E-mail: silva.bratoz@pef.upr.si.
*
a CL perspective in teaching SL prepositions and a discussion of locative prepositions from a contrastive perspective. Then I present an instructional model for the teaching of the English locative prepositions in, on and at, and discuss the results of a study conducted to observe the learners' response to CL-based instruction. The article ends with a few remarks about limitations and future directions for experimental work on the efficacy of using a CL-based approach for teaching purposes.
2	A CROSS-LINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE
Since its publication in 2001, the CEFR has brought attention to several aspects of second language education which have resulted in important implications for both curricula development and teaching practice. It has been made clear that "the aim of the Framework is not to prescribe or even recommend a particular method, but to present options, inviting you to reflect on your current practice, to take decisions accordingly and to describe what you actually do" (CEFR 2001: Notes for the user). In this spirit, the present paper relies on several insights and ideas promoted by the CEFR1. First is the realisation that problems may arise when a particular conceptual field is differently organised in the native (L1) and target languages (L2). This is usually the case with word-meanings where we have partial or inexact correspondence between different languages. An important point raised in the CEFR (idem.: 132) in this context is that it is necessary to establish the seriousness of the mismatch and the extent to which the mastery of the distinction should be attended to.
Another related idea is that the linguistic knowledge a learner has already acquired in his/her mother tongue can be fruitfully exploited for language learning by focusing on the contrasting factors involved. This is related to one of the main aims of the article: to emphasise the benefits of focusing on the cross-linguistic differences between L1 and L2, in an explicit and systematic way. Thirdly, the CEFR lays considerable emphasis on the cultural context in which a language is set, and points out that language is "not only a major aspect of culture, but also a means of access to cultural manifestations" (idem.: 6). In this respect, translation studies, especially the approaches which emphasize how embedded a language is in the culture in which it features, can provide useful insights and contribute to enhancing learners' cross-linguistic and intercultural awareness (cf. Kocbek 2013; Bratoz and Kocbek 2013.) This is also a key assumption underlying the cognitive linguistics investigation which is based on the premise that languages are embedded in cultural contexts.
3	A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING PREPOSITIONS
Several scholars (Littlemore 2009; Evans and Tyler 2005; Niemeier and Archard 2004) have recently dealt with the different ways in which the key claims from the CL
1 Several other European references in the area of language learning and teaching promote the
concepts and ideas included in the CEFR, such as the Action Plan 2004-2006 (Pizorn and
Brumen 2008).
framework can be effectively applied to the area of second language acquisition and pedagogy. Littlemore (2009) provides an exhaustive overview of the main tenets of the cognitive linguistics theory and discusses different ways in which they may be relevant for the area of second language learning and teaching. She argues convincingly that by understanding the cognitive processes underlying the learning of a second language, we may be better equipped to develop effective second language teaching (SLT) methods and practices.
The semantics of prepositions has received considerable attention in the pedagogical grammatical framework. Lindstromberg (1996) argues in favour of using Lakoff's (1987) prototype theory for teaching prepositions and adverbs. According to this theory, prepositions are likely to have a small number of related meanings, among which one is usually "prototypical". The prototypical meaning is, more often than not, spatial or physical. In addition, some of the literal meanings of a preposition are extended by metaphor to create another small set of related meanings. Some non-prototypical meanings can be explained by extending their prototypical meaning. One of the examples Lindstromberg (idem.: 232-233) gives is the metaphorical use of the preposition in the expression giving up on somebody (e.g. Don't give up on me), which suggests that viewing the action involved in the situation is a burden: by extension, this is conceptualised as a misfortune for the person involved, which can be visually depicted in the image of physically carrying a burden on one's back.
Evans and Tyler (2005) have examined various aspects of English prepositions from a CL perspective, arguing that a more systematic account of the semantics of English prepositions can have clear benefits for SLT purposes. By focusing on different meanings associated with a particular preposition in a systematic way, such as analysing the semantic network of a preposition, learners are presented with less arbitrariness and irregularity which require memorisation. They propose viewing prepositions on the basis of their association to proto-scenes (highly schematic spatial scenes, or the primary meanings associated with a particular preposition) whereby each proto-scene refers to the primary meaning representation of a particular preposition. Prepositions and their associated uses are thus represented as an organised network of related meanings. The authors present a model of English prepositions in which "the various senses are represented as gestalt like conceptualizations of situations or scenes which are systematically connected, rather than a series of discrete dictionary-type definitions strung together in a list" (idem.: 4).
An attempt at applying a CL perspective to instructed L2 learning has been made by Tyler, Mueller and Ho (2011). The authors carried out an experiment in which the participants were non-native speakers of English, who experienced difficulty with the semantics of the English prepositions to, for and at, despite their otherwise advanced mastery of the language. The participants were subjected to a CL-based instructional intervention which consisted of a teacher-fronted instruction, followed by pair-work activities. The results of the study suggest that the learners were able to make significant progress on their accurate interpretation and use of the targeted prepositions.
There are several other aspects of developing CL-based teaching strategies and materials which are worth investigating further. For example, Tyler, Mueller and Ho
(idem.: 196) argue that the design of effective CL-based teaching materials should also be informed by the fields of psychology and second language acquisition, especially as regards "the importance of noticing, interestingness, role of pushed input, and explicit instruction followed by communicative tasks".
4 PREPOSITIONS FROM A CONTRASTIVE PERSPECTIVE
Languages differ significantly in the way they classify spatial configurations, which is due to the different ways languages categorise space (Rohlfing 2001). These differences are even more pronounced if space is perceived as an abstract entity. Celce-Mur-cia and Larsen-Freeman (1998) argue that even in relatively closely-related languages there may be a "mismatch" in the way prepositions are used. Let us look at some examples of how the locative preposition in is used in English for some fairly basic spatial relations, and how it matches up with Slovene equivalents2.
1) The owner and one of his daughters lived in the house.	V hiši je bilo žalostno vzdušje. (Eng. in the house)
2) My phone's in the car.	V avtu je bilo ogromno prtljage. (Eng. in the car)
3) I knew what was in the bag: cans.	Obleka je v torbi zasedla razmeroma malo prostora. (Eng. in the bag)
4) I have about 20 plants in the garden right now.	Na vrtu sta pridelala večino zelenjave, ki sta jo potrebovala. (Eng.*on the garden)
5) James is in the fields, working side-by-side with his father.	Na polju zagleda soseda Poldeta, kako ves prepoten okopava krompir. (Eng.*on the field)
6) Follow the blue star in the sky and search for the others.	Tudi enega oblačka ni bilo na nebu. (Eng.*on the sky)
7) We've got the best universities in the world.	Nokia 7200 je najbolj ženski telefon na svetu. (Eng. *on the world)
As we can see from the examples above, the preposition is the same in English and Slovene in examples 1-3, while in examples 4-7 in is translated as on in Slovene. Although these examples refer to fairly basic spatial senses, it is clear that the two sets of examples differ in an important way: 1-3 describe more or less clearly defined three-dimensional spaces, while 4-7 are more abstract and leave some space for interpreting the nature of the space. In addition, the prepositional phrases in the sky and in
2 The English examples are taken from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (http:// corpus.byu.edu/coca/) and the Slovene examples are from the Slovene language corpus Fidaplus (http://www.fidaplus.net/).
the world in examples 6-7 may be used idiomatically and are therefore often learnt as familiar word patterns or chunks. From a CL perspective, we can say that house, car and bag are all clearly conceptualised as containers in both languages. On the other hand, while field, garden, sky, and world are conceptualised in English as containers, in Slovene they are based on a surface-schema. A question one could ask here is, for instance, whether the conceptual domains field, garden, world, and sky look more like a flat surface and are therefore associated with the preposition on, or a container which means we can go in them.
I would like to argue that this mismatch between the two languages poses major challenges to Slovene learners of English, which frequently results in negative transfer. From an SLT perspective, cross-linguistic differences may produce several effects, both positive and negative. Odlin (1989) points out that negative transfer refers to divergences of norms from the target languages and usually involves production er-rors3. According to Ellis (2003: 72), this is especially the case with adult learners, who have already acquired knowledge of L1 categories and their relationships, and that this knowledge "may guide their creative combination in their L2 interlanguage to variously good or bad effects".
It goes without saying that more examples would need to be analysed in order to draw conclusions about the nature of matching between English and Slovene prepositions. However, one of the things that may be noticed by looking at examples 4-7 above is that there is a degree of systematicity in the translation of the English in into the Slovene on. While it is beyond the scope of this article to give a full theoretical account of the semantics of English and Slovene locative prepositions, I would like to argue that such an analysis would be helpful in identifying the teaching priorities and in developing effective teaching strategies. In her analysis of the radial structure of the preposition on in English and Slovene, Sicherl (2007) concluded that there is high degree of semantic overlap between the two languages, both in the central and extended senses of the preposition. On the basis of these findings, we may predict that Slovene learners of English will have fewer difficulties using this particular preposition. A CL-based approach to teaching prepositions would certainly benefit from such systematic accounts of the radial structures of prepositions in L1 and L2.
5 A CL-BASED APPROACH TO TEACHING BASIC LOCATIVE PREPOSITIONS
In an attempt to bridge theory and practice, this portion of the paper presents an instructional model for teaching prepositions from a cognitive perspective. It first discusses the difference between a more standard approach to explaining the use of English locative prepositions and a CL-based approach. As we can see below, a CL-based model differs from a standard learner's grammar approach in two sig-
3 He does point out that there are also other ways in which an individual's second language performance may differ from the behaviour of native speakers, including underproduction, overproduction, or misinterpretation (Odlin 1989: 36-37).
nificant ways. First, standard instruction on the uses of prepositions, as found in most modern learner's grammars, is usually based on general descriptions of the use of prepositions in different concrete situations. For the use of locative prepositions, for example, reference is usually made to particular places, such as a building, country, river, etc. Exceptions and special cases are sometimes added and explained, such as the difference in meaning in the use of the prepositions in or at with reference to buildings (e.g. I'm at the cinema. vs. I'm in the cinema). In addition, explanations are often accompanied by icons or pictures of objects in different relations to each other.
Standard Instruction Approach
Prepositions of space describe where one person or thing is in relation to another. To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions:
1. When something is "in" a place, it is inside it. We can also use "in" when we talk about a place as a general area, such as a region or a country.
The keys are in the car.
Ann is in the library.
Sara lives in Rome.
John is in the garden.
The children are playing in the field.
Who is this man in the picture?
There's no justice in this world.
She has a stall in the town square.
There are no stars in the sky tonight.
Don't stop in the middle of the road.
2. When something is "on" a place, it is in contact with a surface. We can also use "on" when we talk about a place in relation to a line, such as a road or a river.
The keys are on the table.
The picture is on the wall.
He lives on an island.
It's just a small town on the Danube.
3. We use "at" to talk about a general vicinity.
at the baker's	at the airport
at the office	at the counter
at school	at 5 Maryland Street
at a party	at the door
at a bus stop	at Peter's (house)
In addition to the elements above, a CL-based instruction would also include a description of the primary spatial schema, or aproto scene associated with a particular preposition. In the model below, the two primary spatial schemas are referred to as container and surface, which provide the learners with an image of the conceptualisation of space in English and Slovene. Secondly, as we have seen above, languages differ in the way they conceptualise space, which is often the reason for the frequent occurrence of negative transfer in the use of prepositional phrases. To account for this difference, a CL-based approach would make explicit reference to the ways the two languages differ in the conceptualisation of space, giving explicit examples (e.g. Eng. in the garden, Slo. *on the garden). Thirdly, where possible, related uses of prepositions should be pointed out. In other words, rather than a list of unrelated items, learners are presented with a general schema that underlies all the uses of a preposition and other related uses.
CL-Based Approach
1. Prepositions of space describe where one person or thing is in relation to another. "In" is usually used when a thing or person is placed in a container-like place, but we can also use it to talk about a place as a general area, such as a town or a country. "On" is usually used when a thing or person is placed on, or is in contact with, a flat surface. We can also use "on" when we talk about a place in relation to a line, such as a road or a river. In most cases, Slovene and English use "in" and "on" for the same space relations.
The keys are in the car. Ann is in the library. Sara lives in Rome
The keys are on the table. The picture is on the wall. He lives on an island.
Ključi so v avtu. Ann je v knjižnici. Sara živi v Rimu.
Ključi so na mizi. Slika je na steni. On živi na otoku.
2. However, there are several cases in which there is a mismatch between English and Slovene. In the examples below, English sees the place as a container, whereas Slovene sees it as a surface.
in the garden in the field in the picture in the world
in the square (of a town) in the sky
in the middle (of the road)
na vrtu na polju na sliki na svetu na trgu na nebu na sredini
3. In English, the preposition "at" is also frequently used for basic space relations. It is used to talk about a general vicinity. The equivalent of "at", in Slovene, is usually v,
na or pri.
at the baker's	v pekarni
at the office	v pisarni
at school	v šoli
at a party	na zabavi
at a bus stop	na postaji
at the airport	na letališču
at the counter	na/pri blagajni
at 5 Maryland Street	na ulici Maryland Street 5
at the door	na vratih
at Peter's (house)	pri Petru
5.1 Learners' Response to CL-Based Teaching Material
Having developed the CL-based instruction model on the basic uses of the prepositions in question, I was interested in observing the response of learners to the proposed approach. For this purpose, a small-scale study was conducted with first-year students at the Faculty of Education. The sample (n=87) consisted of two groups (the first group consisted of 45 students, the second of 42) which were each given a different set of instructions on the use of the locative prepositions in, on and at in English. The first group was given a CL-based instruction, the second the standard model. They were instructed to read the explanations and return the papers after 10 minutes. Then, they were given a
fill-in-the-blanks test (with 32 blank spaces) which they were required to complete with missing prepositions. A select number of examples (both in the instructions and the test) included preposition uses which do not match in the two languages and in which a high occurrence of negative transfer is predicted for Slovene learners of English. For example, negative transfer was predicted for the use of the preposition in the prepositional phrase at the bus stop, in which Slovene usually uses the preposition on. This was confirmed by the results of the test which showed that, of the 87 students, 15 selected the wrong preposition in the test, and the majority of these (13) used the preposition on.
The analysis which followed focused on the results of the test for ten prepositional phrases in which prepositions in English and Slovene do not match: in the field, in the garden, in the middle, in the (town) square, in the sky, at the party, at the bus stop, at the counter, at 56 Randal Rd. As we can see from Graph 1, the highest negative transfer occurred with the phrases in the square and at 56 Randal Rd, while both groups were rather successful in using the right preposition in in the garden, in the middle, at the party, at the bus stop and at the airport. We can also see that the group which was given CL-based instruction on prepositions was more successful than the group with standard instruction in 8 out of 10 examples.
Graph 1: Test results following a CL-based vs. standard instruction (in percent)
In addition to this analysis, a discussion was conducted with a focus group of nine students aimed at identifying their opinion about the two sets of instruction. The majority of the students reported that they found the CL-based model "useful" and "interesting" but, at the same time, pointed out that the standard model was "clearer" and "easier to understand". Several members of the focus group declared that the standard instruction was easier to follow, because it was shorter. Three students added that the standard model was closer to what they had been used to and was therefore "more familiar". However, all the students agreed that it was especially useful to look at the comparison between English and Slovene in the CL-based model.
5.2 Discussion
One of the main aims of the present study was to investigate to what extent learners would be able to make sense of grammatical instruction which contains some basic elements of the cognitive linguistics approach. The results above indicate that learners were able to follow the CL-based instructions and to make accurate interpretations of the explanations for the use of the prepositions in, on and at. This was especially important considering the discussion with the focus group in which the participants reported that they were more comfortable with the standard instruction but said that they would nevertheless be able to interpret the CL-based explanations.
The group which was given the CL-based instruction was generally more successful in selecting the correct preposition compared to the group which received the standard instruction. Examples with the English preposition on were not included in the analysis, since they presented no difficulty for the Slovene students. This confirms Sicherl's (2007) conclusions discussed above. The preposition on was included in the two sets of instruction and the examples for two main reasons: first, because learner's grammars usually discuss on, together with in and at as referring to basic spatial configuration; and second, because it is frequently used by Slovene learners instead of in or at as a result of negative transfer. This said, however, it is necessary to point out that the problem of negative transfer is not the same for all mismatched prepositions, since many of them are used in familiar word patterns or chunks which, when repeated across learning experiences, are easier and better remembered (Ellis 2003: 73).
Clearly, more research needs to be done to elaborate and prove the effectiveness of this approach. While a fully-fledged experiment would have to be carried out in order to test the efficacy of the method, I would like to argue that there are several reasons for further exploring the potential of applying CL insights to pedagogical grammar. First of all, a CL-based approach is able to deal with errors due to negative transfer by focusing on the mismatch between L1 and L2 in the organisation of various conceptual fields. Explicit comparisons can help learners determine and deal with negative transfer (Odlin 1989: 33), which gives learners the possibility to grasp the relationship between the two languages involved and reflect on their own learning and acquisition process. In addition, negative transfer implies also positive transfer, which is the facilitating influence exerted by the many similarities between the native and the target languages (idem.: 26). In this context, Benson (2002) argues that teachers can raise consciousness of the differences between L1 and L2 by focusing on particular points in an explicit way and eliciting awareness. Secondly, by exposing learners to a systematic account of conventional meanings related to a particular preposition, we are able to cut down on the amount of arbitrariness, and therefore reduce the need for rote learning and memorization.
6 CONCLUSION
Several attempts have been made to translate the theoretical implications from the area of CL into pedagogical practice. However, there are still significant challenges to be addressed and studied. With a view to narrowing the gap between theory and practice, this article has discussed some of the ways in which CL findings can be practically
used for SLT purposes. We have seen that prepositions have traditionally been seen as unpredictable, implying that the best way to learn them would be through rote learning. A CL-based approach argues that the distinct meanings associated with a particular preposition are systematically related in principled ways, which may have important ramifications for second language instruction. However, it is clear that more needs to be done in order for the theory to be translated into effective teaching practice. First of all, for a more comprehensive inclusion of CL insights in the area of second language teaching and learning, CL research should focus more on the contrastive aspects between the native and target language, thus helping to determine the potential negative transfer. This would entail a language-pair-specific approach to SL teaching. Secondly, more research needs to be done on conducting systematic teaching and learning interventions using experimental research methods. And finally, one of the major challenges of a CL-based teaching approach is to develop accessible, learner-friendly strategies and materials aimed at facilitating the learning and acquisition process.
References
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Summary
TEACHING ENGLISH LOCATIVE PREPOSITIONS: A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Prepositions are notoriously hard to learn, and frequently subject to negative transfer. In addition, prepositional meanings are commonly extended from the spatial to abstract domains and are, as a consequence, often unpredictable and arbitrary. Traditional approaches to second language preposition teaching have, therefore, suggested that the best way to learn prepositions would be through rote learning. On the other hand, a cognitive linguistics approach argues that the multiple uses of prepositions can be seen as related in systematic ways. Several pedagogical implications of applying cognitive linguistics findings in second language teaching and learning will be discussed, suggesting ways of translating theory into practical consideration and effective teaching materials. The second part of the article presents an instructional model for teaching the locative prepositions in, on and at from a cognitive perspective, and discusses the results of a study conducted to observe the learners' response to instruction, based on cognitive linguistics findings. In addition, the benefits of focusing on the cross-linguistic differences between the native and target language, in an explicit and systematic way, will be discussed. In this context, reference will be made to several insights and ideas promoted by the CEFR. The article will end by considering some suggestions and ideas for future research.
Keywords: cognitive linguistics, prepositions, cross-linguistic transfer, foreign language teaching, CEFR.
Povzetek
POUČEVANJE ANGLEŠKIH PREDLOGOV V FUNKCIJI IZRAŽANJA KRAJEVNO-PROSTORSKIH RAZMERIJ: KOGNITIVNI POGLED
Na učenje predlogov v tujem jeziku pogosto vpliva negativni transfer iz učenčevega matemega jezika. Poleg tega se pomeni, povezani z določenim predlogom, pogosto razširijo s prostorskih na abstraktne domene, zaradi česar postanejo nepredvidljivi in naključni. Tradicionalni pristopi k poučevanju tujega jezika zato kot strategijo za učenje predlogov predlagajo učenje na pamet. Po drugi stran pa pristop, ki izhaja iz kognitivnega jezikoslovja, zagovarja tezo, da so različni pomeni predlogov sistematično povezani. Članek obravnava različne vidike uporabe ugotovitev s področja kognitivnega jezikoslovja pri tujejezikovnem učenju in poučevanju s poudarkom na povezovanju teorije s praktičnimi rešitvami in učinkovitimi učnimi gradivi. V drugem delu članka je prikazan model učne razlage rabe angleških predlogov in, on in at s kognitivnega vidika. Predstavljeni so tudi rezultati raziskave, v kateri smo preverjali odziv učencev tujega jezika na učno razlago, ki temelji na ugotovitvah kognitivnega jezikoslovja. Poudarjene so prednosti eksplicitnega in sistematičnega upoštevanja medjezikovnih razlik pri poučevanju tujega jezika, pri čemer se članek navezuje tudi na vpoglede in načela Skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira. V zaključku so podani predlogi in pobude za nadaljnje raziskovanje na tem področju.
Ključne besede: kognitivno jezikoslovje, predlogi, medjezikovni transfer, poučevanje tujega jezika, SEJO.
Silvana Orel Kos	UDK 811.111'366.58:[37.091.3:81'42]
University of Ljubljana*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.339-352
DISCOVERING ENGLISH TENSE-BACKSHIFT PARAMETERS THROUGH DISCOURSE
1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of The Council of Europe's Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)1 is to improve the communicative competence of "European citizens"2 and foster transparency in language qualifications. The CEFR provides comprehensive guidelines for language learning, teaching and assessment. This article focuses on the learning strategies that develop the learner's communicative competence; it makes reference to English tense-backshift parameters in indirect discourse (or so-called "reported speech")3. The CEFR's guidelines can be easily applied to the topic of indirect discourse usage. The development of the communicative competence thus proceeds:
•	from the acquisition of the linguistic components, i.e. tense backshift as a grammatical feature,
•	to the sociolinguistic components, e.g. detached attitude in interpersonal relations,
•	and to the pragmatic components, i.e. discursive parameters, which are the main objective of this presentation.
The discourse-oriented approach to learning indirect discourse parameters comes closest to the intuitive tense-backshift acquisition in native speakers.
Pedagogical consideration of this topic has so far not shown sufficient sensitivity either to different types of discourse in which indirect discourse is used or to the intentions of the "reporter" in deciding whether to apply tense-backshift in contexts where this is a grammatical option. In our approach learners and students of English are encouraged to observe indirect discourse in diverse authentic contexts in order to better understand its parameters; also, there is a particular focus on tense-backshift, since Slovenian is a language with no such grammatical feature.
Author's address: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mail: silvana.orelkos@ff.uni-lj.si.
Source: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (2001). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/ Source/Framework_EN.pdf (Accessed 2 August 2014).
As the article focuses on the development of learning strategies that apply to the communicative competence as designed by the CEFR, we prefer to use the terms "learner" or "student" to the general designation "European citizen".
Payne (2011: 344) notes that the term reported speech is "sometimes" used as a cover term for both "direct and indirect speech".
*
1
2
1.1 English tense-backshift
In English, tense-backshift is a grammatical procedure of shifting or "regressing" the original temporal finite verb form by one tense backwards. In grammars and teaching materials, tense-backshift is mostly associated with reporting a spoken statement, i.e. reported speech, when the reporting verb, e.g. say, is expressed in the Past Tense within a written context.
Oral statements may be reported or repeated because of impaired listening comprehension during the communicative act or due to some temporal gap between the original statement and the communicative act in which the statement is recycled. However, there are statements that are reported without being first orally expressed, e.g. thoughts and emotional impressions, or which can be perceived via other means of sensory perception: sight, smell and touch. Therefore, in our approach, we use the broader term of indirect discourse to refer to reporting of both orally and non-orally expressed original statements.
Some of the diverse functions of indirect discourse can be observed in the following excerpt from a (self-published) fictional story found on-line4:
"Jon, I'm pregnant." (1)
Did I just hear that right or am I going crazy? (2) Did my wife really just say that
she was pregnant? (3)
"Wait, what did you just say?" (4) I said still confused.
"I said I'm pregnant." (5) She said looking like she was about to cry.
So I did hear her right, I'm not crazy. (2') When I looked at her again I realized she
was crying (6) and I couldn't figure out why. I thought this was supposed to be a
good thing. (7)
The story is told in the narrative Past Tense. Sentence (1) is the original oral statement by a married woman. Her husband, a first-person narrator, is so astonished by the statement that he thinks his hearing is impaired or that he is developing a mental problem (2). He wonders whether his wife really mentioned a pregnancy (3). He uses tense-backshift to express a distanced (externalized) attitude or his incredulity vis-à-vis the original statement (1). He asks his wife to repeat her statement (4). His wife repeats her original message in the form of an informal orally reported statement in which the connective conjunction that is dropped and the sequence of tenses is not observed: she chooses not to express a distanced attitude towards her own message, but rather an internal one, as she considers it to be the focus of her communication with her husband (5). Sentences (6) and (7) show the narrator's ideas being introduced by the mental verbs realize and think. The narrator uses tense-backshift with verbs of mental perception. In English, thoughts are perceived to be strongly connected with the time of their first occurrence, so the indirect discourse producer is expected to adopt an external attitude.
4 Source: http://www.hockeyfanfiction.com/Story/16359/Dreams-Do-Come-True/10/; Author:Ja-cquelinetoews19 (Accessed 29 July 2014).
Grammatical studies that explain the use of English tense-backshift tend to illustrate the feature in decontextualized sentences. The original utterance Jon, I'm pregnant might be represented by only a pair of sentences, showing that tense-backshift can either occur or not occur for the same original utterance:
Did my wife really just say that she was pregnant?
I said I'm pregnant.
A decontextualized, i.e. merely linguistic, consideration of the topic fails to show the type of discourse in which the above statements occur, it fails to show their communicative functions (note the omission of quotation marks for mimetic discourse in the second example), and it will disregard the sociolinguistic roles of the users producing these indirect statements. The statement Did my wife really just say that she was pregnant? includes not only information about the original speaker, i.e. the wife, but implies that the actual producer of the indirect sentence is her husband, a first-person reporter, which can be deduced from the possessive pronoun in the noun phrase my wife.
In more traditional syntactic analysis, reported (or indirect) speech is represented by two basic structures: the reporting clause is the main clause, while the reported clause is a nominal subordinate clause performing the function of Direct Object (DO):
"I said I'm pregnant."
I said	I'm pregnant
reporting clause - main clause	reported clause - subordinate clause (DO)
In communicative approaches to indirect discourse, the structuralist notions are complemented by further pragmatic categories. The reporting clause is associated with the original communicator, and the reported clause with the communicated message in the reported utterance, i.e. the proposition. The original communicator expresses his or her message via communication acts or speech acts, and these are represented by illocutionary verbs in reporting clauses. In the above example of indirect discourse, the original communicator "I", the wife, performs at the same time the function of the "reporter": the wife reports her own words.
The finite verb actions of the communicated message may refer to (a) hypothetical verb situations, such as modal verb actions and those expressing posteriority, i.e. futurity, (b) concrete dynamic verb situations simultaneous with or anterior to the time of utterance, and (c) stative situations, such as habits and states. In the above example, the finite verb in the statement I'm pregnant is a formally stative verb phrase, yet has current relevance.
1.2 Communication verbs
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (LGSWE) uses a broader term, "communication verbs", to refer to reporting verbs. Communication verbs encompass three major semantic domains: "mental verbs, mainly of cognition (e.g. think, know), but including a few with emotive/affective content (e.g. hope and wish); speech act
verbs (e.g. say, tell); and other communication verbs that do not necessarily involve speech (e.g. show, prove, suggest) [...]" (LGSWE 1999: 661).
Mental verbs and speech act verbs are primarily associated with animate subjects, while subjects of "other communication verbs" tend to be inanimate, e.g. the data. In the above excerpt taken from an on-line story, the speech act verb say and the mental verbs realize and think are used.
2 THE COMMUNICATION MEDIATOR
The most obvious feature of indirect discourse is its derivative nature: it involves communication through a "reporter", a secondary communicator or the communication mediator. Tense-backshift in English indirect discourse depends on the mediator's decision whether to focus on the original communicator, adopting an external perspective, or the communicated message, adopting an internal perspective.
The focus on the original communicator introduces a "filter" between the secondary communicator and the original message. It distances the communication mediator from the message, since the communication mediator is located externally, namely, in the present time-sphere or a time-sphere which is subsequent to the temporal sphere of the original message (cf. Declerck 1991: 173). In focusing on the communicated message, the mediator establishes a direct or internal link with the message, and the proposition is perceived to be located within the mediator's time-sphere.
Is the mediator's external/internal5 focus made on the spur of the moment, or is it governed by some restrictions or conventions? Let us consider the following excerpt from a grammar book for "English language professionals":
This shifting of tenses doesn't always happen. For example, either of the following is well
formed:
Aristotle announced that the earth was a globe.
Aristotle announced that the earth is a globe (Jacobs 1993: 193).
Either sentence is indeed "well formed" or grammatically correct, and yet the above observation fails to consider the different types of discourse in which the above sentences might be naturally embedded. The following two excerpts taken from on-line articles show typical contexts in which the mediated propositions [the earth being a globe] is used:
(a) By the Middle Ages, there was widespread belief among the educated - at the very least - that the earth was a globe. Columbus did face opposition on his voyage, but not from people who thought he'd drop off the edge of the world. Instead people believed he'd predicted too small a globe and would run out of supplies before he made it round to Asia.6
5	A narrative approach to indirect discourse showing the narrator's role of external/internal focalizer is described by Fleischman (1990).
6	Source: http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/historicalmyths/a/histmyths7.htm; Author: Robert Wilde (Accessed 29 July 2014).
(b) The ancients considered the Earth to be flat and located at the centre of the Universe, with the sky a crystal dome on which the stars were fixed. It was around 2000 BC that Aristotle realised that the Earth is a globe. There is clear evidence to support this view. For instance, there is the differing altitude of the pole star as seen from different locations and the fact that the most southerly of the constellations are only rendered visible by travelling southwards (the converse is true for people living in the southern hemisphere).7
Example (a) contains a context in which the statement is embedded in a historical or narrative setting, whith the narrator maintaining a distanced attitude or an external perspective, while example (b) shows that the author, the secondary communicator, has some scientific interest in establishing a relevant link between Aristotle's observation and the general evidence to support the view, thus assuming an internal perspective.
3 DISCOURSE
The mediator's choice whether to use tense-backshift is not purely random. It is governed by a set of pragmatic conventions as well as semantic, stylistic and syntactic restrictions. We shall take a top-down approach to presenting the criteria, starting with discoursal macrostructures.
The first macrostructure that learners of English should be made aware of is the type of discourse, i.e. the macrotext type, in which indirect discourse is embedded. In indirect discourse teaching, learners are almost invariably presented with individual, decontextualized sentences illustrating the formal features of the sequence of tenses, rather than the function of indirect discourse in a particular type of discourse.
Indirect discourse functions can be observed with respect to the following macro-textual types of discourse: fiction, academic prose, news reporting and conversation. It is important that learners are also made aware of the roles that the communication mediators assume in the respective types of discourse: narrator, author, reporter and speaker. The narrator's role, for example, will differ from that of the speaker in everyday conversation.
Discourse type:
Fiction
Academic prose News reporting Conversation
Communication mediator:
Narrator Author Reporter Speaker
7 Source: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4471-0901-3_2; Author: Gerald North (Accessed 29 July 2014).
3.1	Fiction
In fictional narratives, indirect discourse can be best studied within the narrated segments of the text, i.e. diegetic discourse. In diegetic discourse the narrator functions as the communication mediator. In mimetic discourse (dialogues), on the other hand, the role of the communication mediator is allotted to the character involved, the speaker. Owing to the conversational nature of mimetic discourse, the functions of indirect discourse there are expected to reflect the functions associated with conversation rather than with narrative fiction.
Corpus data show that backshifting is best observed in diegetic discourse with either an omniscient narrator or a narrator whose narration is completely embedded in the past time-sphere:
But now, walking past the group of doctors in the hall, he heard the woman's name, and he slowed his pace and turned and came up to them and asked specifically which hospital she was working in. They told him that it was an old nunnery, taken over by the Germans, then converted into a hospital after Allies had laid siege to it. In the hills north of Florence. Most of it torn apart by bombing. Unsafe. It had been just a temporary field hospital. But the nurse and the patient had refused to leave.
Why didn't you force the two of them down?8
In the above excerpt there are two original communicators: "he" and "they". The secondary communicator is the omniscient narrator, who is highly skilled in mediated discourse structures. Such a narrative is an ideal type of discourse for helping learners observe the regularities of tense-backshift with an external narrator. As simple as it appears to be, learners should nevertheless be first made aware of the fact that they are dealing with functions of indirect discourse in fiction, more specifically, with fiction embedded in the past time-sphere.
3.2	Academic prose
Academic prose is distinguishable from other macrotextual types of discourse in that the high-frequency speech act verbs say and tell are for obvious reasons excluded from its array of reporting verbs, unless the discourse happens to include narrative stretches of indirect discourse - for example a study including some historical background on the development of a scientific idea. Given that in academic prose the communicated message is of general or universal validity and of greater importance than the original communicator, the author of academic prose may be expected to focus on the communicated message, thus reporting from his or her present (internal) time-sphere, rather than the past time-sphere of the original communicator, as is shown by the following example:
The same problem arises with (36). (36) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
8 ONDAATJE, Michael (1992) The English Patient. London: Picador, p. 28.
Chomsky (1957) argued that (36) shows that there is a notion of syntactic well-formedness, which must be distinguished from semantic well-formedness, since the syntactically well-formed (36) has a status radically different from sentences that are both syntactically and semantically ill formed, like (37), for example:
(37) sleep colorless furiously ideas green
But given current assumptions, the well-formedness of (36) cannot be strictly syntactic.9
The mediator here focuses on the message which was communicated by Chomsky in 1957. What is relevant to the present academic author is not the temporal placement of Chomsky's message, but the atemporal validity of the message.
3.3 News reporting
News reporting makes for a complex area of study, since it features both written and spoken modes of communication, diverse subject areas and cultural differences. The communication mediator is a reporter whose actual job is to report other people's communication. This makes news reporting the most prominent domain of text production that is dependent on other people's statements.
News reporting may indicate the mediator's attitude towards what is being communicated. The mediator may opt either for a distanced (external) or an intimate (internal) attitude. In adopting a distanced attitude the reporter focuses on the original communicator. In so doing, the responsibility for the utterance is delegated to the original communicator. In adopting an intimate attitude, the reporter focuses on the communicated message, and the message is ascribed general or unbiased validity.
In contrast to other types of discourse, indirect discourse found in news reporting, e.g. in political reports or accident reports, involves a wide variety of original communicators, such as named politicians, spokesmen, police, or witnesses. These figures exercise different degrees of authority or power. It is more likely for the reporter to choose a distanced attitude, i.e. tense backshift, when reporting a statement made by George W. Bush (c) rather than with an accident description provided by anonymous witnesses (d):
(c)	WASHINGTON: President George W. Bush said Thursday for the first time that the Middle East peace process had "stalled" and he squarely blamed Yaser Arafat (Herald Tribune, September 19, 2003).
(d)	Witnesses said the fire came from an Israeli tank at the Misgav'am settlement (The Guardian*).10
9	BOUCHARD, Denis (1995) The Semantics of Syntax: A minimalist approach to grammar. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, p. 43.
10	Acknowledgements: The author is grateful to the following students for the examples they provided in their seminar papers: Maja Mrak and Emanuela Bubanj (films and series marked with *), Anja Čibej, Lučka Lučovnik, Ksenija Murn, Alenka Čop, Elvira Matko, Mihaela Orozel and Polona Volavšek (newspaper examples marked with *).
Another important convention in news reporting is the relationship between discrete statements and narrative-like strings of utterances. For instance, in a trial report, the reporter may prefer to focus on the communicated message, the testimonies, rather than the original communicators, i.e. the witnesses. In so doing, the reporter presents the testimonies in the form of a lively story in standard narrative tenses, so there is no backshift, even though the story consists of reported oral statements:
A WOMAN police constable described yesterday how she walked alone through a deserted park in the early hours to lure a suspected rapist.
Claire Fisher, 25, spoke of her terror as she heard his breathing in the shadows and as he stalked her before attacking.
When he struck she was grabbed around the neck and dragged towards a car park before police colleagues moved in to spring the trap.
Miss Fisher told the Old Bailey how she agreed to act as bait for Darrin Akinyemi, who detectives believed had sexually abused a 15-year-old girl and raped a 22-year-old French au pair in Norman Park, Hammersmith, West London.
Akinyemi, 25, denies rape, attempted rape, indecent assault, abduction and causing actual bodily harm (DailyMail, November 16, 1999).
Note, however, that there are differences in the application of indirect discourse with speech act verbs, e.g. speak, tell, and mental verbs such as believe (for details see the section on Semantic conventions).
3.4 Conversation
With the emergence of corpus linguistics, the study of indirect discourse in conversation has been gaining authenticity. For instance, the study of direct and indirect speech reporting in Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al. 1999) is based on corpus examples. On the basis of their mini-corpus analysis, Hewings and Hewings (2005: 99-100) note that some reporting structures in conversational settings have been ignored in the grammatical consideration of the topic because of their overemphasis on "written data", and "oral narrative" within "spoken data". This means that for practical reasons (limited availability of spontaneously produced spoken data), our students11 are asked to observe indirect discourse in TV films, serials and documentaries as well as in plays of some contemporary authors.
The general feature and natural restriction of the spoken mode of communication is the length and the complexity of the reported utterances: these can neither be too long nor too complex. A second characteristic, in contrast to, for example, news reporting, is that the communication mediator, i.e. the speaker, has often been personally involved
11 Indirect discourse through different types of discourse is taught to third-year B.A. students attending the course on English-Slovenian Contrastive Grammar at the Department of Translation, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana.
in the reported discourse, either as the original speaker or the original hearer (be s/he an intentional or unintentional hearer). As the mediator has often been directly involved in original communication, it may be expected that his or her primary focus will be on the communicated message rather than on the original communicator. Therefore the mediator's report will often result in direct speech reporting rather than indirect discourse at all.
The preference for direct speech is especially true of past speech reporting in which several interlocutors, with their respective turns, are involved. The mediator gives a fairly verbatim report of the past conversation, opting for lively, seemingly mimetic discourse, furnished with utterance-openers such as oh, well, look, okay (LGSWE 1999: 1118), and including imperative sentences and direct questions:
Yeah, he went "Oh!" He goes, "Who put that there?" And the bit where he goes he
she goes "Piss off!" like that and the mother goes "You talking to me?" (BrE) goes
"Urgh, cobwebs," and she goes "Piss off!" She goes "Mum, come and sit here,"
(ibid.: 1119).
In conversation, the secondary speaker often chooses to focus on the communicated message, especially if the speaker wants to stress the current relevance of the reported statement:
"You said you can fix it." (Family Law*)
"Did you tell Chandler that some guy from work is the funniest guy you know?"
(Friends*)
The current relevance of the communicated message is not restricted to habits and states; it may include past actions. References to past actions show a general tendency towards tense simplification in conversation, especially in American English:
"Did Rachel tell you we hired a male nanny?" (Friends*)
In the above example, hired remains in the original Past Tense. The mediator's focus on the original communicator is more likely with discrete utterances than it is with lengthy stretches of conversation. There are pragmatic and semantic reasons for the mediator's distanced attitude towards the original communicator; hence the backshift in the communicated message. With the distanced attitude, the mediator prefers to delegate the responsibility to the original communicator, since the communicated message sounds incredible or is not to the liking of the speaker. This is the case in the following example, where the speaker refuses to identify with the insulting remark:
"Beth told me that everyone in class hated my guts." (Cosby Show*)
If we compare the next two examples, we shall see that the use of the non-back-shifted tense form in the second example suggests that the speaker more readily identifies with McDonald's viewpoint on diet:
"The doctors said that fast food was killing me." (Dr. Phil*)
"McDonald's said the stuff is nutritious." (Dr. Phil*)
Another pragmatic convention involves statements with hypothetical meaning, especially those expressing futurity, such as will + infinitive and be going + to-infinitive structures:
"I told him I would see him tomorrow night." (Friends*)
Backshifting in hypothetical situations may also be seen in the light of the mediator's lack of confidence, and this is comparable to the utterance's lacking credibility. The opposite is true with stative situations, such as general or universal truths and habits. No backshifting may be expected there as these actions appear to be rather atemporal, temporally unrestricted:
"They said that these law suits are frivolous." (Dr. Phil*)
The complexity of indirect discourse in conversation can hardly match the ease with which this topic is treated in some textbooks and calls for a more sensitive approach to the teaching of indirect discourse functions in conversation.
4 SEMANTIC CONVENTIONS
The mediator's attitudinal distance or proximity towards the communicated message is primarily governed by the semantic features of the reporting verbs associated with the original communicator. As has been mentioned, communication verbs belong to three basic semantic groups: mental verbs, speech act verbs, and other communication verbs. Empirical data show that mental verbs trigger tense-backshift, as can be observed in the following conversation example:
"He thought she was being killed." (The Practice*)
Mental verbs function as "mediators" of the original communicator's cognitive, emotional and physical perception of what is being communicated, so the communicated message is more tightly bound to the original past time-sphere. Declerck shows that mental verbs such as believe, suppose, think "prohibit any shift of domain that would do violence to the structure of the belief in question" (Declerck 1991: 189). We notice, however, a tendency towards tense simplification with past actions in conversation, especially in American English. This means that the Past Tense in indirect statements may refer either to backshifted Present Tense statements or non-backshifted Past Tense statements in the original communication settings. Without sufficient context it may be difficult to tell whether the Past Tense didn t date in the following example has been backshifted or not:
"I thought she didn't date clients." (Full Circle*)
If such statements are not complemented by more context or a further description of the situation, the learner is left without vital information regarding the application of tense-backshift - and the above example proves to be dysfunctional.
We also notice that in popular academic on-line contributions, backshifted or non-backshifted tenses in indirect messages with mental verbs will reflect the level of general or scientific validity of the communicated ideas. In the following text, published within a community of mathematicians, there are three mental verbs, believe, realise and know in the past tense, while the original communicators are ancient civilizations and the rather generic subject people:
Ancient civilizations like the Greeks and the Egyptians believed that gods named Helios and Ra carried the Sun across the sky everyday in its journey around the Earth, and it wasn't until much later that people realised it's actually the Earth that orbits the Sun. Even with this mistake they knew that the position of the Sun changes over time to make the seasons in a cycle lasting around 365.25 days, a solar year.12
We see that the communication mediators adopt a distanced (external) attitude towards the (backshifted) original mythical idea defended by Ancient civilizations, while they identify with the modern "people's" views based on astronomical observations.
Speech act verbs, e.g. say, tell, can be treated as neutral communication verbs. They do not automatically trigger tense-backshift. Rather, the decision is dependent on the discoursal conventions and the mediator's attitude, as discussed in the above sections.
Meanwhile, other communication verbs, such as show, prove, suggest, are associated with the communicated message rather than with the original (inanimate) communicator, e.g. the findings; hence, they tend not to trigger tense-backshift. These verbs are typically used in academic prose, where the author prefers non-mediated temporal placement of the communicated message.
5 STYLISTIC AND SYNTACTIC CONVENTIONS
The stylistic-syntactic convention of tense simplification, i.e. "the tendency to replace a tense that has a complex temporal structure by a simpler tense wherever possible" (Declerck 1991: 183), is typically used in situations with temporal indications and with hypothetical or counterfactual conditions. Irrespective of the type of discourse, empirical data predominantly support the stylistic-syntactic convention that there is no backshift with verb situations in temporal clauses within the past time-sphere. However, this syntactic-stylistic convention is not always applied as is illustrated by the following newspaper example:
Police said that the pilot had sent out a distress call at 5.50 pm, just before the crash. Witnesses reported a "powerful and violent explosion." (The Guardian*)
12 Source: http://www.mathscareers.org.uk/article/day/ (Accessed 28 July 2014).
We notice that in the above example the Past Perfect may have been preferred because of a further temporal reference indicating the following event just before the crash.
6	SYNTACTIC RESTRICTIONS
These restrictions involve the syntactic ordering of the subordinate clauses. The deeper the sentence structure goes, the less likely it is that the sequence of tenses will be observed with respect to the time of orientation in the main clause, so the communication mediator's focus will be on the communicated message rather than on the original communicator. The tenses in the subclauses will be temporally subordinated to the implicit time of orientation of their superordinate clause, their matrix (Declerck 1991: 62-63), as is illustrated by the following example:
Reports said that five people had died including Signor Fasulo, who was alone in the
aircraft. [...] It was believed that the pilot, distracted by problems trying to lower the
undercarriage, had failed to notice how close he was to the building (The Guardian*).
In the above example the first-mentioned indirect subordinate clauses observe the tense-backshift with the Past Perfect in had died and had failed to notice, while the deeper-lying subordinate clauses with was remain non-backshifted.
7	CONCLUSION
The article shows that over-generalized grammatical descriptions of tense-backshift in English indirect discourse will not provide sufficient or reliable guidelines for the development of the communicative competence in indirect discourse. The CEFR makes it clear that the communicative competence is formed through the inclusion of the linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic components, which can all be observed in the case of indirect discourse usage. Learners should be encouraged to study indirect discourse in (segments of) authentic, spontaneously produced texts. While corpus concordances indicate recurrent patterns in language use, it is primarily through exposure to (the respective) primary discourse sources that learners can best develop their own written and oral production skills.
Whether or not the learner's native language has an option of tense-backshift, English indirect discourse should be taught and studied with respect to its occurrence in different types of discourse (written and spoken, diegetic and mimetic) and with a heightened awareness of the communication mediator, who, on the basis of the type of discourse and his/her own involvement in the communicative situation, forms indirect discourse. It is exactly the role of the communication mediator that learners of English will adopt when producing their own instances of indirect discourse.
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PAYNE, Thomas E. (2011) Understanding English Grammar. A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Abstract
DISCOVERING ENGLISH TENSE-BACKSHIFT PARAMETERS THROUGH DISCOURSE
English grammars and teaching materials often fail to include references to specific di-scoursal and communicative functions. This facilitates the foreign language acquisition process during which learners acquire basic linguistic skills. The teaching of indirect discourse or so-called reported speech is no exception in this respect: easy-to-learn grammatical rules governing tense-backshift are combined with rather open-ended communicative functions. The CEFR 2011, however, aims at developing the user's communicative competence, which at its most naturally-occurring level includes the pragmatic-discursive components. The article presents a discourse-oriented approach to indirect discourse teaching and learning, in which the role of the communication mediator, i.e. the indirect discourse producer, is presented as one of the most significant
parameters that have been analytically disregarded, yet it provides an identification model for the learner as an active language user. Our approach focuses on further important parameters of indirect discourse, i.e. the discoursal macrotextual type, the focus on the original communicator or the message, the communication mediator's attitude or involvement, semantic, stylistic and syntactic restrictions. The suggested discourse-oriented approach encourages students to discover "grammatical rules" on their own, which should enable them to develop more internalized and confident language production skills.
Keywords: indirect discourse, English, tense-backshift, discourse types, communication mediator.
Izvleček
ODKRIVANJE PARAMETROV SOSLEDICE GLAGOLSKIH ČASOV V ANGLEŠČINI SKOZI DISKURZ
V	angleških slovnicah in učnem gradivu pogosto niso upoštevane specifične diskurziv-ne in komunikacijske funkcije, kar sicer olajšuje razvijanje osnovnih jezikovnih veščin v procesu usvajanja tujega jezika. V tem pogledu ni izvzeto niti poučevanje indirektne-ga diskurza "reported speech": lahko naučljiva slovnična pravila o rabi sosledice gla-golskih časov v angleščini se prepletajo z dokaj nedoločnimi komunikacijskimi funkcijami. SEJO 2011 se osredinja na razvoj uporabnikove sporazumevalne zmožnosti, ki v svoji najbolj naravni pojavni obliki vsebuje tudi pragmatično-diskurzivne sestavine.
V	prispevku je predstavljen diskurzivni pristop k poučevanju in učenju indirektnega diskurza. Eden najpomembnejših parametrov, ki doslej ni bil deležen analitične pozornosti, je vloga komunikacijskega posrednika, tj. tvorca indirektnega diskurza, saj ravno ta predstavlja identifikacijski model za učenca kot aktivnega uporabnika jezika. V prikazanem pristopu so opisani nadaljnji pomembni parametri indirektnega diskurza, tj. makrobesedilni tip diskurza, izpostavljanje izvirnega sporočevalca ali sporočila, odnos ali vpletenost komunikacijskega posrednika ter semantične, slogovne in skladenjske omejitve. Predlagani diskurzivni pristop spodbuja študente k aktivnemu odkrivanju »slovničnih pravil«, kar naj bi jim olajšalo razvijanje bolj ponotranjenih in trdno usvojenih veščin tvorjenja jezikovnih sporočil.
Ključne besede: indirektni diskurz, angleški jezik, sosledica glagolskih časov, diskur-zivni tipi, komunikacijski posrednik.
Uršula Krevs Birk
Universität Ljubljana*
UDK 811.112.2373:811.163.6373 DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.353-364
DEUTSCHE UND SLOWENISCHE SPRACHLICHE BEZIEHUNGEN UND INTERKULTURELLE LINGUISTIK: BEISPIEL INTERNATIONALISMEN
1 EINLEITUNG
Im Beitrag wird gezeigt, dass sprachliche Phänomene wie Termin, Akademiker, Rektor, Dozent oder profesor, humanistika, kolaboracija, telefonirati u. a. zu relevanten Inhalten der interkulturellen Linguistik des Sprachenpaares Deutsch-Slowenisch gehören, denn sie stellen einen wichtigen Bestandteil der Sprachkompetenz dar, der im Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen (GeR) mitberücksichtigt wird. Auf Internationalismen macht der GeR folgendermaßen aufmerksam:
Man kann auch auf die Kenntnis mehrerer Sprachen zurückgreifen, um den Sinn eines geschriebenen oder gesprochenen Textes zu verstehen, der in einer eigentlich 'unbekannten' Sprache verfasst wurde; dabei erkennt man zum Beispiel Wörter aus einem Vorrat an Internationalismen, die hier nur in neuer Gestalt auftreten (GeR 2001: 17).
Internationalismen werden demnach als ein wichtiger Teil der kommunikativen Kompetenz verstanden, auf die mehrsprachige Sprecher in einer interkulturellen Kommunikationssituation zurückgreifen können. Das Ziel des Beitrags ist es also zu zeigen, wie die lexikalischen Elemente, wie Internationalismen, in der deutsch-slowenischen interkulturellen Kommunikation gebraucht werden und welche Besonderheiten bzw. Probleme dabei auftreten können. Internationalismen gehören zum sprachkontaktbe-dingten gleich oder ähnlich lautenden Wortgut, das in mehreren Sprachen existiert, da durch dynamische Lehnprozesse sprachliche Elemente aus einer Gebersprache in verschiedene Nehmersprachen1 übernommen wurden. Die Relevanz der Thematik erklärt sich durch die Prämissen des Sprachenlernens, wie sie durch den GeR etabliert werden, wie auch durch die Prämissen der interkulturellen Linguistik des Sprachenpaares Deutsch-Slowenisch. Dieser kulturspezifische sprachliche Inhalt liegt in der Tatsache begründet, dass Deutsch und Slowenisch historisch und aktuell Kontaktsprachen sind, deren mehr oder weniger intensive Koexistenz in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart bei beiden Sprachen in unterschiedlichen Segmenten, sei es in Existenzformen oder
Die Adresse der Autorin: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slowenien. E-mail: ursula.krevsbirk@ff.uni-lj.si.
Auf Germanismen im Slowenischen muss im Rahmen dieser Themenbehandlung verzichtet werden, denn es handelt sich dabei zwar um ähnliche, jedoch spezifischere Reflexe des deutschslowenischen Sprachkontaktes.

Systemen, einen offensichtlichen Niederschlag findet. Durch die Darstellung der Erkenntnisse über Internationalismen, die die Autorin dieses Beitrags in den linguistischen Seminaren zum Sprachenpaar Deutsch-Slowenisch gewonnen hat, wird eines von den interkulturell-linguistischen Themen fokussiert, das für die deutsch-slowenische bilinguale Situation der mehrsprachigen Studierenden relevant ist und mit den Kompetenzniveaus des GeR korreliert. Dieser Überblick erhebt nicht den Anspruch auf Vollständigkeit, sondern möchte Anregungen und Beispiele für weitere Reflexionen und Forschungen liefern.
2 INTERNATIONALISMEN ALS INHALT DER INTERKULTURELLEN LINGUISTIK UND ANSATZPUNKT DES GER
In interkulturellen Beziehungen entwickeln die Sprecher zweier oder mehrerer Sprachen eine Sensibilisierung für Differenzen zwischen Sprachen und Kulturen, so dass Unterschiede und Überlappungen wahrgenommen werden, was mit kollektiver und individueller Mehrsprachigkeit in der modernen Gesellschaft einhergeht. Interkulturelles Lernen ist schon seit langem die Maxime der Fremdsprachendidaktik, hingegen sind interkulturell-linguistische Forschungen in einzelnen Philologien als selbstständiges Forschungsgebiet relativ spät, in den 90er Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts, zum Durchbruch gekommen. Vergleichsweise war bis dahin die interkulturelle Germanistik als interkulturelle Literaturwissenschaft bereits sehr gut etabliert. Obwohl in diesem Rahmen auf Fragen, wie was ist Interkulturalität? und was ist Kultur?, nicht eingegangen wird, da sie den thematischen Rahmen der vorliegenden Diskussion überschreiten würden, kann man auf die Definition der interkulturellen Linguistik nicht verzichten:
Interkulturelle Linguistik ist eine von Linguisten verschiedener Disziplinen in Bezug auf die Kulturenbedingtheit von Sprache und Kommunikation herangezogene Forschungsorientierung, die sich insbesondere auf das Phänomen des Sprach- und Kulturkontrastes sowie auf Phänomene des sozialen Kontakts und der kulturgeprägten Interaktion zweier oder mehrerer natürlicher Einzelsprachen richtet (ihre lebensweltlichen Konstellationen der Überlappung eingeschlossen), mitsamt den daraus resultierenden theoretischen und praktischen Verfahren. Dabei handelt es sich um eine Kombination einerseits systemlinguistischer, andererseits psycho-, sozio-, pragma- und variationslinguistischer sowie sprachenpolitischer Untersuchungen solcher Gegenstandsbereiche wie der Mehrsprachigkeit, des Kontrasts, des Kontakts, des Konflikts von Sprache und Kulturen, der kulturenübergreifenden Kommunikation im weitesten Sinne und des sprachkommunikativen Umgangs mit Fremdheit/ Alterität (Földes 2009: 519).
Die obige Definition von Csaba Földes umfasst verschiedene Aspekte der System-, Kommunikations-, Psycho- und Soziolinguistik wie auch weitere, soziokulturelle Gesichtspunkte, die bei den hier in Betracht genommenen interkulturellen sprachlichen Elementen angewendet werden. Es interessieren uns Differenzen und Korrelationen, von denen die deutschen und slowenischen Lexempaare in der langue und in der parole geprägt
sind. Internationalismen kommen in der konkreten interkulturellen sprachlichen Kommunikation zur Anwendung, weil sie - beispielsweise System im Deutschen, sistem im Slowenischen oder system im Englischen - gleiche Bedeutungen - im Sinne der Theorie des Universalismus - aufweisen, die von ähnlichen, der jeweiligen Sprache angepassten Formativen transportiert werden. Oft ist es tatsächlich der Fall, dass Ähnlichkeit in der Formativität zweier verglichener Elemente auch semantische Identität sichert.
Dies mag zu dem Schluss verleiten, dass Bedeutungen bei allen zweisprachigen Lexempaaren von Internationalismen äquivalent sein müssen. Wie bekannt, können jedoch die Bedeutungen einzelner sprachlicher Zeichen nach der Theorie des Relativismus von außersprachlichen, d. h. von existenziellen, naturellen, geographischen, kulturellen, historischen, politischen, ideologischen, geographischen u. a. Bedingungen einer Sprachgemeinschaft geprägt sein. Bedeutungen von den zum Vergleich gezogenen sprachlichen Phänomenen weisen demnach Differenzierungen auf, so dass semantische Unterschiede auch bei Internationalismen zweier Sprachen zu beobachten sind.
3 INTERNATIONALISMEN: EINIGE KONTRASTIVANALYTISCHE
UND SPRACHKONTAKTBEDINGE ASPEKTE
Bei Internationalismen handelt es sich um sprachliche Zeichen, deren Formative im Deutschen und Slowenischen identisch bzw. aufgrund der intrasprachlichen Anpassungen teilweise identisch sind. Die Präsenz dieser Lehnwörter ist ein Reflex des konkreten Jahrhunderte langen Sprachkontaktes zwischen dem Deutschen und Slowenischen, aber auch der andauernden Globalisierungstendenzen in einem noch wesentlich größeren geographischen und kulturellen Raum als die ehemalige Habsburgermonarchie, in dem das slowenische ethnische Gebiet von der deutschen Sprache bis zum Ende des I. Weltkrieges dominiert wurde. Das slowenischsprachige Gebiet wird die „komplexeste sprachliche Drehscheibe Europas" genannt, denn das Slowenische begegnet hier verschiedenen Spracheinflüssen aus dem Romanischen, Ungarischen, Kroatischen und Deutschen. Internationalismen in einzelnen Sprachen sind das Resultat einer intensiven Dynamik in Sprachkontakten und Globalisierungsprozessen. Aus der sprachpolitischen bzw. allgemeinpolitischen Perspektive sind Internationalismen nach Vidovič Muha (2004: 77) kein Reflex von irgendwelchen hegemonistischen Tendenzen2.
Ausgehend von der desaussurschen Dichotomie signifiant/signifié wird mit Methoden der kontrastiven Linguistik nach Gemeinsamkeiten (Übereinstimmungen), Ähnlichkeiten und Unterschieden gesucht. Mit der graduellen Bewertung der Beziehungen (wie partielle oder Teiläquivalenz) kann der Versuch unternommen werden, sich den subtilen Kontrasten bei kultursemantischen Ähnlichkeiten anzunähern. Die Zwischenkategorie „Ähnlichkeit" ist somit ein wichtiges Bindeglied zu den Inhalten, die kulturspezifische Unterschiede und Gemeinsamkeiten bei der Interpretation der zum Vergleich gezogenen sprachlichen Erscheinungen berücksichtigen. Wie bekannt, ist es nach den Prämissen der kontrastiven Analyse generell möglich, als Ausgangspunkt
2 Vidovič Muha (2004: 77): „Z jezikovnopoiltičnega oz. sploh političnega vidika je za internacio-nalizme značilno, da niso izraz kakršnihkoli hegemonističnih teženj."
des Vergleichs entweder die Formseite oder die Bedeutungsseite sprachlicher Erscheinungen zu wählen, was entweder gleiche oder differierende Bedeutungen beziehungsweise entweder gleiche oder differierende Formen ergibt. Bei Internationalismen wird von der Kongruenz, d. h. Gleichheit sprachlicher Formen ausgegangen: ihre Formative werden aufgrund der Linearität und Materialität von den mehrsprachigen Sprechern als bekannt, gleichlautend oder sogar identisch identifiziert, und mit der Gleichheit der Bedeutungen in Zusammenhang gebracht. Dabei zeigt sich dies meistens als Vorteil für die interkulturelle Kommunikation, denn es steht fest, dass ein großer Teil der Internationalismen im Deutschen und im Slowenischen volläquivalent ist.
Die meisten sprachwissenschaftlichen Internationalismus-Definitionen gehen von der gleichen oder ähnlichen Bedeutung aus. Nach der Kleinen Enzyklopädie Deutsche Sprache (2001: 102) sind Internationalismen „Wörter, die in verschiedenen Sprachen eine gleiche oder ähnliche Bedeutung haben und lautlich, wenn auch an die jeweilige Sprache angepasst, übereinstimmen wie Theater, theatre, théâtre." Vidovic Muha (2004: 75) zufolge sind Internationalismen Teile einer sog. internationalen Sprache und sind mehr oder weniger aus dem europäischen kulturellen Kontext hervorgegangen3. Die wissenschaftlichen Abhandlungen teilen die Internationalismen nach der etymologischen Herkunft (vgl. Kleine Enzyklopädie Deutsche Sprache 2001: 102; Vidovic Muha 2004: 75): meistens sind sie aus den klassischen Sprachen Latein und Griechisch übernommen worden, oder sie stammen aus einer lebenden Sprache bzw. Nationalsprache (d. h. Gebersprachen sind Englisch, Serbisch, Ungarisch, Deutsch, Indisch, Türkisch usw.) und wurden im Laufe der Jahrhunderte international verbreitet. Folglich kommen die meisten Internationalismen im Deutschen und im Slowenischen aus dem Altgriechischen oder Latein, wie Struktur - struktura, Parlament - parlament, Politik - politika, Äquivalent - ekvivalenca usw., deren Formative aus der Gebersprache (Griechisch oder Latein) meistens über eine Vermittlersprache gekommen sind4. Hier stehen die einzelnen Lexeme in einer totaläquivalenten Beziehung, genauso wie auch bei Internationalismen, die aus einer lebenden Sprache entlehnt worden sind, wie z. B. Börek - burek (aus dem Türk.), Jazz - dzez (aus dem Amer.), Dschuwetsch - dzuvec (aus dem Türk.), chauffieren - sofirati (aus dem Franz.), Kaffee - kava (aus dem Arab.), bejbisiter - Babysitter (aus dem Engl.), Leitmotiv - lajtmotiv (aus dem Dt.). Da diese Internationalismen über lange Zeit regional und international kursieren, bleibt manchmal die Herkunftssprache unklar5.
3	Vidovič Muha spricht sogar von einer globalen Sprache - einer Erscheinung der modernen globalen Welt ohne geographische Gebundenheit. Globalismen sind Wörter wie etwa internet, Software, terorizem, kredit, song, okej, sori usw.
4	Einige davon haben im Deutschen und/oder im Slowenischen aus kommunikativen Gründen absolute Synonyme entwickelt, wie Text - tekst/besedilo, Valenz/Wertigkeit - valenca/vezljivost, Ellipse - elipsa/izpust usw.
5	Z. B. wird für Palatschinken an verschiedenen Textstellen Ungarisch, Tschechisch und Rumänisch als Herkunftssprache angeführt.
4 INTERNATIONALISMEN UND BEDEUTUNGSUNTERSCHIEDE
Die meisten Internationalismen, die aus dem Lateinischen und Griechischen stammen und begrifflich interkulturelle Verbindungen über mehrere Sprachen aufbauen, weisen die Gleichheit der semantischen Komponenten auf. Aus Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen der interkulturellen deutsch-slowenischen Kommunikation ist es jedoch bekannt, dass nicht alle Internationalismen eines Sprachenpaares volläquivalent sind, d. h. dass (teil)identische, der Einzelsprache angepasste Formative nicht unbedingt auch gleiche Bedeutungsstrukturen transportieren. Die Annahme, dass identische bzw. partiell identische Formative semantische Gleichheit zweier Lexeme signalisieren, wird dann zum Problem, wenn sich hinter übereinstimmenden Formen eigentlich eine Differenzierung der Bedeutungen beider Lexeme verbirgt. Es handelt sich um die vielfach erörterte Problematik der semantischen Differenzierung bzw. der falschen Freunde, wie auch die Kleine Enzyklopädie Deutsche Sprache (2001: 102) auslegt:
Unterschiede in der Bedeutungsstruktur oder in der Anzahl der Sememe treten bei
formativisch ähnlichen, international gebräuchlichen Wörtern, den falschen Freunden auf. Man glaubt sie zu kennen, weil sie formativisch übereinstimmen (ebd. 102).
Die Problematik der „falschen Freundschaft" betrifft nicht nur die Verwendung der Lexeme eines Sprachenpaares: Mit falschen Freunden aus der Muttersprache und aus der zum Vergleich herangezogenen Sprache werden nicht nur Muttersprachler konfrontiert, sondern auch andere mehrsprachige Sprecher, die mit den Formativen vertraut sind bzw. sie gelernt haben. Beispielsweise wird das Lexempaar become (Engl.)
-	bekommen (Dt.) aus dem Sprachenpaar Englisch-Deutsch für einen slowenischen mehrsprachigen Muttersprachler genauso zum potentiellen falschen Freund wie für einen deutschen Muttersprachler mit Englischkenntnissen. In der modernen Welt begegnen mehrsprachige Sprecher falschen Freunden aus diversen europäischen Einzelsprachen, wie z. B: Dt.-Ital. kalt - caldo (,heiß'), Ital.-Slow. maccedonia (,Sorte von Obstsalat') - Makedonija ^geographischer Name'), Slow.-Kroat. grad (,Burg')
-	grad (,Stadt'), Serb.-Rumän. kopil (pejor. ,uneheliches Kind') - kopil (,Kind'), Rose (,Blumensorte') - roza (,Blume')6 u. a. Sehr oft kommen solche Lexempaare nicht nur bei Nachbarsprachen vor, die wegen des räumlichen Kontaktes im intensiven Sprachkontakt stehen, sondern auch bei anderen Einzelsprachen, deren falsche Freunde sich aufgrund verschiedener Faktoren, wie gemeinsame Sprachgeschichte, soziokultureller und historischer Rahmen, Migration, Sprechtypus, oder einfach nur aufgrund der arbiträren lautlichen Kongruenz (Homophonie) ergeben.
6 In einer kurzen Sequenz aus dem Gespräch, das im Folgenden wirklichkeitsnah wiedergegeben wird, erwiesen sich die Lexeme Rose und roža als falsche Freunde: „Meine Frau hat von mir einen Blumenstrauss mit vierzig Rosen bekommen." „Ach wie schön, so eine Idee mit so vielen Rosen!" „Das sagte auch die Blumenfrau im Geschäft, als ich vierzig ,rože' bestellte." „Wie ,rože'?" „Ja, Rosen." „Sie meinen ,vrtnice'?" „Ach, sind ,rože' keine ,Rosen'?" „Nein, auf Slowenisch sind sie ,vrtnice' ..."
5 AUSGEWÄHLTE DEUTSCHE UND SLOWENISCHE INTERNATIONALISMEN IM EINZELNEN
Ausgehend von den partiell übereinstimmenden Formativen - sie sind phonolo-gisch, graphematisch, morphologisch und syntaktisch angepasst - weisen einige deutsche und slowenische Internationalismen eine polyseme Bedeutungsstruktur auf, die nicht deckungsgleich ist: Die Bedeutungsstrukturen beider Lexeme können sich völlig unterscheiden, oder sie sind nur in bestimmten semantischen Komponenten different.
Im Folgenden werden einige deutsche oder slowenische Internationalismen präsentiert, die sich in linguistischen Seminaren zur deutsch-slowenischen interkulturellen Kommunikation als falsche Freunde erwiesen haben7.
So zeigt sich die polyseme Bedeutungsstruktur des Wortes Termin oft als Quelle für unkorrekte Gebrauchsweise des Lexems. Es weist die Bedeutungen festgelegter Zeitpunkt' (slow. rok), vereinbarter Zeitpunkt' (slow. termin), ,das Datum' (slow. datum, dan) auf. So ist der Termin zur Abgabe der Seminararbeit auf Slowenisch lediglich rok za oddajo seminarske naloge, hingegen sind Prüfungstermine auf Slowenisch termini izpitov bzw. datumi izpitov. Genauso darf das Wort Termin in der Textsequenz Auch im Zeitalter von Technik und Wissenschaft bleibt das Datum Freitag, der 13., ein Phänomen. Der Termin steht nach wie vor für Unglück. nicht als termin übersetzt werden, sondern als datum bzw. dan. Dazu ist die Homonymie des slowenischen Lexems termin nicht unbeträchtlich, denn termin weist die Bedeutung Fachausdruck' auf, dessen Äquivalent im Deutschen der Terminus ist.
Die unterschiedliche Bedeutungsstrukturierung betrifft sowohl nominale als auch verbale deutsche und slowenische Internationalismen. Beispielsweise zeigen sich beim Lexempaar telefonieren/telefonirati Unterschiede im Valenzpotential der beiden alltagssprachlichen Verben auf der Ebene der semantischen und der syntaktischen Valenz, was ein Reflex der feinen Unterschiede in den Sememstrukturen beider Verben ist. Unter dem semanalytischen Aspekt unterscheiden sich nämlich beide Bedeutungen, denn das Äquivalent für telefonirati (mit der Valenzstruktur telefonirati+Dat) ist das Lexem anrufen und nicht das Lexem telefonieren (telefonieren+mit). Der Satz Telefoniralji je po osmi uri. ist mit dem Satz Er hat sie nach acht Uhr angerufen. äquivalent, und im Satz Er telefonierte mit ihr drei Stunden lang. ist telefonieren durch govoritipo telefonu zu übersetzten (Z njo je govorilpo telefonu tri ure.). Beide Verben differieren im Komponentenbestand (telefonieren ,mit jmd. ein Ferngespräch führen') und (telefonirati ,jmd. anrufen') und folglich auch in der semantischen Valenz, was bei diesem Lexem-
7 In den Studienjahren 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2010/2011, 2011/2012, 2013/2014 wurden in den linguistischen Seminaren Kontrastive Analyse und Deutsch und Slowenisch in der interkulturellen Kommunikation an der Universität Ljubljana die Kenntnisse über die semantischen Unterschiede zwischen den ausgewählten deutschen und slowenischen Internationalismen überprüft. Zur Überprüfung wurden in den angeführten Studienjahren insgesamt 127 Studierende herangezogen. Die Testpersonen erhielten die Aufgabe, das Äquivalent des deutschen oder slowenischen Internationalismus zu nennen. Unter mehreren Lexempaaren wurden auch die in diesem Beitrag dargestellten Internationalismen überprüft. Insgesamt haben 12 Studierende, d. h. weniger als 10 % der Befragten, semantische Unterschiede bei einzelnen deutsch-slowenischen Lexempaaren erkannt.
paar auch Unterschiede in der syntaktischen Valenzstruktur ergibt. So wäre ein Satz wie Er telefonierte ihr. das Resultat der Interferenz aus dem Slowenischen aufgrund der Verwechslung der Bedeutungsstrukturen, was die unkorrekte Anwendung des Valenzmusters ergibt8. Aufgrund der formativischen Identität und der semantischen Teiläquivalenz beider Verben ist durch die Interferenz aus dem Deutschen auch der syntaktische Germanismus Telefonirala sem z njo. (Interferenz nach dem grammatischen Muster Ich telefonierte mit ihr.) entstanden, der sprachkontaktbedingt in unterschiedlichen Varietäten des slowenischen Substandards verbreitet ist.
Nicht selten sind Unterschiede in der Bedeutungsstruktur bei Internationalismen aus dem Bildungsbereich, sog. Intellektualismen, zu beobachten, deren Verwendung in unterschiedlichen Texten, von Rechtstexten, Urkunden bis zum mündlichen Diskurs der Alltagssprache, relevant ist. Beispielsweise begründet sich der potentielle falsche Freund Rektor aus der polysemen Bedeutungsstruktur des deutschen Wortes, denn sie weist (nach Duden Universalwörterbuch) drei Sememe auf: ,(aus dem Kreis der ordentlichen Professoren) für eine bestimmte Zeit gewählter Repräsentant einer Hochschule' (slow. rektor), ,Geistlicher, der einer kirchlichen Einrichtung vorsteht' (slow. rektor semenišča) und ,Leiter einer Grund-, Haupt-, Real- od. Sonderschule' (slow. ravnatelj). So wurde im Satz Die Rektorenkonferenz für Sportgymnasien findet in Eschweiler statt. das Kompositum Rektorenkonferenz von slowenischen Germanistik-Studierenden als rektorska konferenca übersetzt (statt konferenca ravnateljev), was jedoch eine völlig andere Bedeutung ergibt, nämlich ,die Konferenz der Rektoren der Universitäten'). Das falsche Übersetzungsäquivalent ist das Resultat der Übertragung des internationalen Formativs Rektor ins Slowenische, indem das polyseme Ausgangslexem missverstanden und sein sprachlicher Kontext missachtet wurden.
Etwas anders fallen die Äquivalenzbeziehungen bei den Lexemen Dozent/docent aus. Die Bedeutung von Dozent ,Lehrer an einer Hochschule oder Universität' bezieht sich denotativ auf jemanden, der an einer Hochschule oder Universität lehrt bzw. doziert. Wie bekannt, ist das Wort docent im Slowenischen eine Bezeichnung für einen akademischwissenschaftlichen Grad samt Titel, und zwar auf einer ganz bestimmten Stufe der akademischen Laufbahn, so dass die Bedeutungsstrukturen beider Lexeme stark differieren. So kann im Satz Der Dozent interpretierte Schillers Ode An die Freude. das Lexem Dozent nicht durch den vermeintlich äquivalenten Internationalismus docent übersetzt werden, da seine Bedeutung das kulturspezifische Hochschulsystem in Slowenien reflektiert, sondern mit den Äquivalenten predavatelj bzw. učitelj (jemand, der an einer Schule, auch Hochschule unterrichtet'), mit Lexemen also, die eine extensive Bedeutung aufweisen und somit die Semstruktur des deutschen Lexems Dozent inkludieren.
Genauso ist ein potentieller falscher Freund das slowenische Lexem profesor, das im Deutschen (Professor) wie auch im Slowenischen einen akademischen Grad bezeichnet und zum Bestandteil des Titels wird. Im Slowenischen ist es dazu noch eine Berufsbezeichnung bei pädagogischen Berufen mit Universitätsabschluss, was nicht
8 Die Interferenz aufgrund der syntaktischen Valenzstruktur ist bei vielen deutsch-slowenischen Lexempaaren zu beobachten, z. B. auch bei verbalen Internationalismen wie manipulieren/ manipulirati, dirigieren/dirigirati usw.
selten zu Missverständnissen beim Kulturtransfer Deutsch-Slowenisch führt. So ist das Äquivalent für profesor im Satz Klasična gimnazija išče profesorja/profesorico za določen čas. nicht das Lexem Professor, sondern Gymnasiallehrer (Das klassische Gymnasium sucht einen Gymnasiallehrer/eine Gymnasiallehrerin für Erdkunde auf Zeit.). Die Polysemie des slowenischen Lexems profesor erklärt sich durch das landesspezifische Bildungssystem mit Tradition in den ehemaligen jugoslawischen Ländern, die teilweise vom habsburgischen Schulsystem geprägt wurde.
Den Fall einer doppelten falschen Freundschaft stellen Wörter wie Akademiker und akademik dar: Das Wort akademik im Satz V Delu lahko preberete intervju z akademikom Jožetom Toporišičem. wird nicht mit Akademiker, sondern Akademiemitglied übersetzt, denn es handelt sich um das Mitglied einer Akademie der Wissenschaften. Umgekehrt wird das Lexem Akademikerin im Satz In den letzten fünf Jahren hat sich das berufliche Umfeld von Akademikerinnen verbessert. nicht mit dem Lexem akade-mikinja als Bezeichnung für ein weibliches Akademiemitglied übersetzt, sondern mit dem standardslowenischen Äquivalent diplomiranka oder diplomantka. Hinzuzufügen ist, dass das Lexem diplomant wiederum einen potentiellen falschen Freund darstellt, und zwar in Verbindung mit dem ähnlich lautenden Lexem Diplomand. Die Lexeme unterscheiden sich zwar formativisch im letzten Phonem, jedoch verleitet die Ähnlichkeit der beiden Formative zur Annnahme, dass die Bedeutungen gleich sein können.
Auch das slowenische Wort humanistika wird ins Deutsche oft falsch übersetzt mit dem Lexem Humanistik, das eigentlich eine Bezeichnung für wissenschaftliche Forschungen ist, die sich mit dem klassischen Altertum, seiner Sprachen und Schriften wie auch mit der Bewegung für die Wiederbelebung antiker Bildungsideale beschäftigen, genauso ist das Adjektiv humanistisch lediglich auf die klassischen Sprachen Latein und Griechisch bezogen.
Das Äquivalent für das Lexem humanistika ist im Deutschen das Wort Geisteswissenschaft, oft pluralisch als Geisteswissenschaften gebraucht, um damit die Anzahl von Aspekten hervorzuheben, unter denen das menschliche Bewusstsein zum Gegenstand wissenschaftlicher Betrachtung geworden ist.
Wie zu zeigen versucht wurde, erhalten übernommene Wörter im sprachhistorischen Prozess der Entlehnung weitere Bedeutungen, als sie sie in der Gebersprache haben, und gerade die partielle Bedeutungsäquivalenz beinahe identischer Formative stellt das Potential für Verwechslung der Bedeutungen dar. Manchmal kann ein Internationalismus auch kulturspezifische Konnotationen erhalten, die sich in der politischen und soziokulturellen Geschichte einer Sprachgemeinschaft entwickelten. So ist beispielsweise das slowenische Wort kolaboracija, ein Internationalismus aus dem Latein, mit einer starken negativen Konnotation versehen, die auf die ideologisch-historischen Ereignisse im II. Weltkrieg im Gebiet Sloweniens zurückzuführen ist. Genauso bedeutet im Deutschen das Lexem Kollaboration ,die freiwillige Zusammenarbeit mit der deutschen Besatzungsmacht', jedoch hat das Wort seine ursprüngliche Bedeutung Zusammenarbeit mehrerer Personen oder Gruppen von Personen' beibehalten. Keinesfalls darf das Wort Kollaboration in einem Satz wie Weil für eine optimale Kollaboration viele unabhängige Faktoren bedeutend sind, definieren wir den Kollaborationsprozess
mit unseren Kunden individuell9. als kolaboracija übersetzt werden, da die Sprecher für kultursemantische und ideologische Prägung von einzelnen Segmenten des Kulturgutes äußerst sensibilisiert sind.
6 SCHLUSSBEMERKUNGEN
Die meisten Internationalismen transportieren äquivalente Bedeutungen im Sinne der Theorie des Universalismus und verhelfen zu einer erfolgreichen interkulturellen Kommunikation, so dass sie auch vom GeR als wichtige Bestandteile der kommunikativen Kompetenz der mehrsprachigen Sprecher angesehen werden. Zur sprachlichen und somit zur kommunikativen und kulturellen Kompetenz gehört aber auch das sprachliche Wissen über Unterschiede in Bedeutungsstrukturen einzelner Lexempaare, denn aufgrund der Ähnlichkeit der Formative können bestimmte Lexempaare zu falschen Freunden werden. Einzelne lexikalische Internationalismen können sich in ihrer Semantik völlig unterscheiden, oder sie können in bestimmten semantischen Komponenten gleich und in anderen unterschiedlich sein. Meistens handelt es sich um kulturspezifische Unterschiede in der Bedeutungsextension oder im Denotat, um kulturspezifische Konnotationen oder um feine kultursemantische Unterschiede in der mentalen Präsentation. Die Unterschiede in den Bedeutungsstrukturen, die in kontaktbedingten und interkulturellen Prozessen der mannigfaltigen gegenseitigen Beeinflussung kulturspezifisch geprägt wurden, zeugen davon, dass beim Umgang mit Internationalismen in interkultureller Kommunikation Vorsicht geboten ist. Diese sprachlichen Kenntnisse gehören sicherlich zu den höheren Kompetenzniveaus, wie sie vom GeR vorgesehen wurden, so dass sie ein wichtiger Bestandteil von interkulturell-linguistischen Fächern des germanistischen Studiums sind.
Quellen
BAJEC, Anton u. a. (Hrsg.) (2000) Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Ljubljana: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša, DZS.
DUDEN (2003) Deutsches Universalwörterbuch. Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut & Brockhaus.
DWDS - Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 19 Juni 2014. http://www. dwds.de.
Gigafida. 22 Juni 2014. http://www.gigafida.net/Support/About. Nova beseda - elektronski besedilni korpus slovenskega jezika. Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša ZRC SAZU. 20 Juni 2014. http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/s_beseda.html. OWID - Das Online-Wortschatz-Informationssystem Deutsch des IDS. 17 Juni 2014. http://www.owid.de.
9 http://uws-software-service.com/de/leistungen/outsourcing/kollaboration-kommunikation-in-der-software-entwicklung.htm. Zugriff: 19 Mai 2014.
SCHUMACHER, Helmut u. a. (2004) VALBU - Valenzwörterbuch deutscher Verben. Tübingen: Narr.
SNOJ, Marko (2009) Slovenski etimološki slovar. Ljubljana: Inštitut za slovenski jezik Frana Ramovša.
TAVZES, Miloš (Hrsg.) (2002) Veliki slovar tujk. Ljubljana: CZ.
Literatur
BRAUN, Peter (1990) „Internationalismen - Gleiche Wortschatze in europäischen Sprachen." In: P. Braun u. a. (Hrsg.), Internationalismen. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 13-34.
FLEISCHER, Wolfgang u. a. (Hrsg.) (2001) Kleine Enzyklopädie Deutsche Sprache. Frankfurt a. M.: P. Lang.
FÖLDES, Csaba (2009) „Black Box 'Interkulturalität': Die unbekannte Bekannte (nicht nur) für Deutsch als Fremd-/Zweitsprache. Rückblick, Kontexte und Ausblick." Wirkendes Wort 59/3, 503-525.
Gemeinsamer europäischer Referenzrahmen für Sprachen: lernen, lehren, beurteilen (2001). Berlin/München: Langenscheidt.
KREVS BIRK, Uršula (2011) „Zweisprachige Toponymika als Inhalt der interkulturellen Sprachwissenschaft: Beispiel Sprachenpaar Deutsch-Slowenisch." Muttersprache 121/2, 81-96.
KREVS BIRK, Uršula (2014) „Lažni prijatelji." Handouts zum Seminar Nemški in slovenski jezik v medkulturni komunikaciji. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta.
VIDOVIČ MUHA, Ada (2004) „Vprašanje globalizmov ali meje naših svetov." In: E. Kržišnik (Hrsg.), Aktualizacija jezikovnozvrstne teorije na Slovenskem: členitev jezikovne resničnosti. Mednarodni simpozij obdobja Obdobja - Metode in zvrsti 27.-28. november 2003. Ljubljana: Center za slovenščino kot drugi/tuji jezik pri Oddelku za slovenistiko Filozofske fakultete, 73-81.
Zusammenfassung
DEUTSCHE UND SLOWENISCHE SPRACHLICHE BEZIEHUNGEN UND INTERKULTURELLE LINGUISTIK: BEISPIEL INTERNATIONALISMEN
Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit den deutschen und slowenischen lexikalischen Internationalismen als einem relevanten Inhalt der interkulturellen Linguistik des Sprachenpaares Deutsch-Slowenisch. Im Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen sind Internationalismen wichtige sprachliche Segmente einzelner Sprachen, auf die mehrsprachige Kommunikationspartner in einer interkulturellen Kommunikationssituation zurückgreifen können. Obwohl die meisten Internationalismen äquivalente Bedeutungen aufweisen, gibt es bei einzelnen deutsch-slowenischen Lexempaaren Unterschiede. Einzelne lexikalische Internationalismen können sich in ihrer Semantik
völlig unterscheiden, oder sie können in bestimmten semantischen Komponenten gleich und in anderen unterschiedlich sein. Dies ist ein Reflex einer Jahrhunderte langen Koexistenz der deutschen und der slowenischen Sprache, denn dieser geographische und kulturhistorische Kontakt wie auch allgemeine Globalisierungstendenzen hinterließen Spuren, die auch bei lexikalischen Internationalismen und ihren Bedeutungsstrukturen zu beobachten sind. Anhand einiger ausgewählter deutscher und slowenischer Internationalismen wird gezeigt, dass Bedeutungsstrukturen trotz Ähnlichkeit der Formative differieren können, was auch zum Problem in der interkulturellen Kommunikation werden kann.
Schlüsselwörter: Deutsch, Slowenisch, Sprachkontakt, Internationalismen, falsche Freunde.
Abstract
GERMAN AND SLOVENE LANGUAGE RELATIONS AND INTERCULTURAL LINGUISTICS: INTERNATIONAL WORDS
In the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages international words are defined as a very important element of the linguistic and communicative competence of multilingual speakers. The article deals with international words in German and Slovene, two languages which were for centuries in close contact, since the Slovene ethnic territory was under a strong influence of German for geographical, cultural and political reasons.
The author discusses selected pairs of international words (some of which are false friends), whose characteristics can be explained by taking into account the contact between German and Slovene.
Keywords: German, Slovene, language contact, international words, false friends
Povzetek
NEMŠKO-SLOVENSKA JEZIKOVNA RAZMERJA IN MEDKULTURNO JEZIKOSLOVJE: PRIMER INTERNACIONALIZMOV
V Skupnem evropskem jezikovnem okviru so internacionalizmi opredeljeni kot pomembni segmenti jezikovne in komunikativne kompetence, na katere se večjezični govorec lahko opre v medkulturnem sporazumevalnem procesu. Prispevek govori o nemških in slovenskih leksikalnih internacionalizmih, še posebej o tistih besednih parih, med katerimi so se oblikovala specifična jezikovnopomenska razmerja, ki so med drugim tudi posledica jezikovnega stika, saj sta bili nemščina in slovenščina v večsto-letnem sobivanju na slovenskem etničnem ozemlju pod močnim vplivom geografske, kulturne- in političnozgodovinske stičnosti. V prispevku so predstavljeni izbrani pari leksikalnih internacionalizmov, katerih pomeni so bodisi deloma bodisi popolnoma različni. Razlike so lahko pomenskosestavniske in kulturnospecifične, tako da prihaja celo do pojava lažnih prijateljev. Specifične pomenske strukture posameznih slovenskih in nemških kongruentnih internacionalizmov so se oblikovale v intenzivnem jezikovnem stiku v različnih vrstah medkulturnega sporazumevanja in posredovanja. Jezikovno vedenje o njihovi ustrezni rabi v medkulturni komunikaciji zagotovo spada med pomembne sestavine medkulturne lingvistike nemško-slovenskega jezikovnega para.
Ključne besede: nemščina, slovenščina, jezikovni stik, internacionalizmi, lažni prijatelji.
Urška Valenčič Arh
Universität Ljubljana*
UDK 811.112.2373.7:37.091.3 DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.365-379
,AUF DEM RICHTIGEN WEG SEIN" - PHRASEODIDAKTISCHE ANSÄTZE IM DAF-UNTERRICHT
1 EINLEITUNG
Phraseologischen Ausdrücken begegnet man tagtäglich auf Schritt und Tritt, sei es in den Medien, in unterschiedlichen Textsorten, in der mündlichen und schriftlichen Kommunikation oder im privaten Bereich. In der DaF-Ausbildung stellen Phraseme als sprachliche Einheiten einer fremden Sprache eine große Herausforderung für die Lernenden dar. Manche Lehrenden setzen Phrasemerwerb mit Wortschatzerwerb gleich, bei dem es lediglich um isolierte sprachliche Erscheinungen geht, denen nur einzeln und kontextfrei ab und zu ein wenig Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt wird. In den letzten Jahren vermehren sich die Bestrebungen, die das Lehren von Phrasemen interdisziplinär - im Sinne einer Brückenbildung zwischen Phraseologie und Didaktik - miteinander verknüpfen. Die einzelnen Disziplinen arbeiten zunehmend kooperativ zusammen, so dass im phraseologischen Unterricht die Regel „von der Theorie zur Praxis" an Geltung gewinnt. Dieser Beitrag hat das Ziel, Phraseme und ihren Stellenwert im Lehrwerk studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2, das sich an der Niveaustufe B2 des Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmens orientiert, zu analysieren. Uns interessiert nicht nur der quantitative Umfang an Phrasemen, sondern auch ihre Vermittlung beim gesteuerten phraseologischen Spracherwerb im Rahmen eines geplanten und strukturierten DaF--Unterrichts. Das Anliegen dieses Beitrags ist es auch, auf die Bedeutsamkeit von einer gut durchdachten Eingliederung der Phraseologie in den Gemeinsamen Europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen (GER) als einen wichtigen Bestandteil der Wortschatzkompetenz auf allen Niveaus von A1 bis C2 hinzuweisen.
2 PHRASEOLOGIEFORSCHUNG
Die Phraseologie als eigenständiger Wissenschaftsbereich innerhalb der Linguistik ist ein relativ junges Gebiet, das eine sehr starke Dynamik in der Forschung erkennen lässt. Das breite Spektrum der zunächst offenen theoretischen Fragestellungen in der Phraseologieforschung wurde in mehreren Entwicklungsphasen diskutiert und gelöst. In den 70er Jahren standen durch die Rezeption der forschungsträchtigeren russischen Linguistik die strukturalistisch ausgerichteten Arbeiten im Zeichen der Gegenstandsbestimmung und Klassifizierung bei allerdings heterogener Terminologie
Die Adresse der Autorin: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slowenien. E-mail: urska.valencic-arh@ff.uni-lj.si.
im Vordergrund. Nach der Etablierungsphase in den 80er Jahren und der Konsolidierungsphase in den 90er Jahren kann man heute davon ausgehen, dass die theoretischen Grundlagen relativ klar abgesteckt worden sind. Phraseologie befasst sich mit festen Wortverbindungen, die abgeleitet aus dem griechisch-lateinischen Wortphrasis ,redne-rischer Ausdruck' im deutschsprachigen Raum zuerst als „Phraseologismen", später als „Phraseme" benannt wurden (vgl. Donalies 2009: 29 f.). Charakteristisch für diese der Form nach festen, aus mindestens zwei Wörtern bestehenden sprachlichen Einheiten ist, dass sich ihre Gesamtbedeutung nicht oder nur schwer aus den Bedeutungen der einzelnen Lexeme erschließen lässt. Zur Definition der Phraseme lassen sich drei zentrale Kriterien aufzeigen: Polylexikalität, relativ stabile graduelle Festigkeit und graduelle Idiomatizität (vgl. Burger 2010: 13 ff.; Palm 1995: 1 f.). Mit dem Kriterium der Polylexikalität oder Mehrgliedrigkeit der phraseologischen Einheit wird die Phraseologie nach unten von der Wortbildungslehre abgegrenzt, was aber im Einzelfall umstritten sein kann. Auch hinsichtlich der Frage, ob Phraseme ,nur' Satzstatus haben oder aber umfangreicher sein können und demnach auch formelhafte Texte zur Phraseologie gerechnet werden können, sind sich die Phraseologen nicht einig1. Mit dem Kriterium der Festigkeit oder Stabilität ist gemeint, dass die einzelnen Komponenten eines Phrasems signifikant häufig in dieser Kombination auftreten und der mögliche Austausch von einzelnen Komponenten eine veränderte Bedeutung nach sich ziehen kann. Festigkeit lässt eine ganze Bandbreite von möglichen Interpretationen zu, die wiederum Fragen der Gebräuchlichkeit und Häufigkeit sowie der Modifikationen als okkasionellen Abweichungen und Varianten erfassen. Das Kriterium der Idiomatizi-tät oder Nicht-Kompositionalität stellt die facettenreichste Eigenschaft von Phrasemen dar, das einem Nicht-Muttersprachler womöglich die größten Verständnisprobleme in der Kommunikation bereitet. Idiomatizität oder übertragene Bedeutung ist eine nicht notwendige Eigenschaft der Phraseme, denn sie ist ein graduelles Phänomen, wonach Phraseme in vollidiomatische (das Kind mit dem Bade ausschütten), teilidiomatische (fleißig wie eine Ameise sein) und nicht-idiomatische Phraseme (Geschirr spülen) eingestuft werden. Die nicht-idiomatischen Phraseme weisen nur einen minimalen oder gar keinen Unterschied zwischen freier und phraseologischer Bedeutung auf (z. B. Kine-gramme). Bei den teilidiomatischen Phrasemen lässt sich die phraseologische Motivation auf eine leicht durchschaubare Metapher oder ein vorstellbares Bild zurückführen. Bei vollidiomatischen Phrasemen dagegen ist der Grad an Motivierbarkeit sehr niedrig und die phraseologische Bedeutung lässt sich kaum oder gar nicht aus den Bedeutungen der einzelnen Komponenten ableiten. Wenn eine Wortkombination aus mehreren Komponenten besteht und als feste Kombination gespeichert sowie abberufen wird, dann spricht man von Phraseologie im weiteren Sinne. Unter Einbeziehung der Idio-matizität in der engeren Fassung weisen phraseologische Einheiten alle drei Merkmale auf und man spricht von Phraseologie im engeren Sinne (vgl. Burger 2010: 14). Phra-seme lassen sich auch im Hinblick auf gemeinsame oder unterschiedliche Merkmale
1 Burger (2010: 15) vertritt die Auffassung, dass auch kleine Texte wie Sprüche, Gedichte, Gebete usw. einen den Phrasemen vergleichbaren Status haben können, wenn sie zum Sprachbesitz ganzer Generationen gehören.
in Klassen einteilen. Die Heterogenität der verschiedenen Typologien verweist auf die Vielfalt der phraseologischen Erscheinungen, die sich nach morphosyntaktischen Kriterien (strukturelle Muster, Wortart), nach semantischen Kriterien (Grad der Idiomatizi-tät) oder nach pragmatischen Kriterien (kommunikative Funktion) klassifizieren lassen (vgl. Korhonen 2005: 402). Unterschiedliche Phrasemtypen spielen bei der Vermittlung im Fremdsprachenunterricht eine wichtige Rolle. Gewisse Phrasemtypen kommen in den meisten Lehrwerken schon im Anfängerunterricht vor, wenn z. B. die kommunikativen Formeln als formelhafte Wortverbindungen in Grußformeln eingesetzt werden. Dagegen eignen sich vollidiomatische phraseologische Ganzheiten eher für den Unterricht mit fortgeschrittenen Lernenden.
Nach der Abklärung der grundlegenden Konsolidierungsfragen wandte man sich in der Phraseologieforschung neuen Herausforderungen zu2. Die Diskussion um die Einordnung von phraseologischen Ausdrücken in bestehende oder neue Sprachtheorien verläuft parallel zu den sprachwissenschaftlichen Fragen der gesamten Sprachforschung, die von den Fragen der Systemlinguistik, Semantik, Pragmatik, Komparatistik, Textlinguistik, Korpuslinguistik, Übersetzungswissenschaft, Kognitionswissenschaft, Psycholinguistik und nicht zuletzt bis zur Phraseodidaktik reichen. Da Phraseologie Lexeme zum Gegenstand hat, die sie als Einheiten des Lexikons beschreibt, wird sie auch als Teildisziplin der Lexikologie aufgefasst und dient somit zur Erweiterung des Wortschatzes einer Sprache (vgl. Schippan 2002: 47) und der kommunikativen Kompetenz, die auch phraseologische Erscheinungen einschließt. Um die Vermittlung phraseologischer Wortschätze und um das Erarbeiten von Lehrwerken bemüht sich ein Teilgebiet der Phraseologie, die Phraseodidaktik.
3 PHRASEODIDAKTIK
3.1 Phraseodidaktische Ansätze
Mit der Bezeichnung Phraseodidaktik wird der Teilbereich der Phraseologie, „[...] der sich mit der systematischen Vermittlung von Phrasemen im mutter- und fremdsprachlichen Unterricht befasst" (Ettinger 2007: 894), markiert3. Wenn Kühn (2005: 25) noch vom „phraseodidaktischen Dornröschenschlaf', Wotjak (1996: 4) vom „Stiefkind der Didaktik" und Ettinger (2007: 894) phraseodidaktisch ausgerichtete Beiträge noch bemängelt, kann diese Lücke in der Forschung heute als ein relativ gut erforschtes, aber dennoch noch nicht völlig abgeschlossenes Feld bezeichnet werden. Für die Behandlung von Phrasemen im Sprachunterricht sind wichtige Impulse zur Belebung der phraseodidaktischen Diskussion aus dem Bereich der Fremdsprachendidaktiken ausgegangen. Ihre Erkenntnisinteressen reichen von der Sensibilisierung der Lernenden für
2	In der Entwicklung der Phraseologieforschung, die sich über mehrere Generationen erstreckt, sieht Greciano (1992: 150) das Spiegelbild der sprachwissenschaftlichen Entwicklung, „von vortheoretischen Sammlungen über strukturalistische Klassifizierungen zu pragmatischen Leistungen".
3	Nach Pilz (1981: 124 f.) wurde der Begriff im Deutschen erstmals in Anlehnung an den russischen Terminus "frazeodidaktika" von Eismann 1979 verwendet.
phraseologische Phänomene bis zur Entwicklung und zum Erwerb von einem gewissen Minimum an phraseologischer Kompetenz in der Mutter- und/oder Fremdsprache. Über die Behandlung von Phrasemen im Mutter- und Fremdsprachenunterricht, die mit didaktischen Zielen verknüpft wird, sind schon einige wissenschaftliche Beiträge geschrieben worden (vgl. Zöfgen 1992; Wotjak 1996; Hallsteinsdottir 2001; Lorenz-Bouijot/Lüger 2001; Valencic Arh 2000; Jesensek 2006; Konecny/Hallsteinsdottir/Ka-cjan 2013). Zudem gibt es auch spezialisierte phraseodidaktische Lehrwerke, die anhand gut durchdachter Lehrmaterialien für die Lehrenden und Lernenden eine wertvolle Stütze beim Vermitteln eines Minimums an phraseologischer Kompetenz bedeuten (vgl. Wotjak/Richter 1993; Hessky/Ettinger 1997). Für die deutsche Sprache wurden auch einige im Internet kostenlos zugängliche phraseodidaktisch ausgerichtete Lehr-und Lernmaterialen (vgl. Ettinger 2007-2009; SprichWort-Plattform) sowie computergestützte Übungsmaterialien auf der CD-ROM (vgl. Ephras 2006) ausgearbeitet.
Der Fachbereich erfreut sich also eines gewissen Interesses, was einerseits mit einem wachsenden Interesse der Lehrkräfte und Lernenden am Fachbereich, andererseits mit der besonderen Komplexität der festen Wortverbindungen zusammenhängen mag, die einen speziellen Speicheraufwand voraussetzen und zusätzliche konnotative und pragmatische Bewertungen implizieren (vgl. Palm 1995: 16). Da phraseologische Ausdrücke in Anbetracht ihrer Verstehens- und Gebrauchsbedingungen nicht mit Einzellexemen gleichgesetzt werden können, erfordern sie besondere didaktische Maßnahmen. Das erste didaktisch praktikable Lehrverfahren beim DaF-Unterricht stammt von Kühn (1996: 16) und seinem „phraseodidaktischen Dreischritt": entdecken, erkennen und verwenden, das später um die Phase festigen von Lüger (1997) u. a. erweitert wurde. Laut Ettinger (2007: 893) stehen beim Fremdsprachenunterricht folgende methodische Leitlinien im Vordergrund: das Erkennen, Erlernen, Einüben, Behalten und die situationsangemessene Anwendung von Phrasemen. Das Erkennen der Ausdrucksseite und die Bedeutungserschließung sollen auf der Grundlage von Textzusammenhängen erfolgen, weil dadurch auch die Gebrauchsbedingungen ermittelt werden.
3.2 Phraseologie im Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen
Heute gilt als unumstritten, dass „Phraseologie die hohe Schule der Sprachfertigkeit ist" (Palm 1995: XI) und nicht nur die „Beherrschung eines phraseologischen Minimums, sondern die eines phraseologischen Optimums" (ebd.) angestrebt wird. Dazu sind das Aufbereiten der phraseologischen Materialien sowie geeignete Übungen erforderlich, die in den allgemeinen DaF-Lehrwerken noch immer unterrepräsentiert sind und kaum einen Stellenwert haben (vgl. Bergerova 2010: 392). Vielleicht liegt der Grund für diesen Mangel darin, dass den festen Wortverbindungen im Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen, der eine Basis für die Entwicklung der europaweiten Spracharbeit und deren intersprachliche Vergleichbarkeit darstellt, nur wenig Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt wird. So findet sich in diesem Dokument, das den Spracherwerb, die Sprachanwendung und die Sprachkompetenz auf allen Niveaus im Prozess des Fremdsprachenlernens und Fremdsprachenkönnens umfangreich beschreibt, das Beherrschen von phraseologischen Wortverbindungen bei den Deskriptoren erst auf dem Niveau C2:
„[...] beherrscht idiomatische und umgangssprachliche Wendungen gut und ist sich der jeweiligen Konnotationen bewusst" (vgl. GER 2001: 45). Bei der Beschreibung der lexikalischen Elemente werden die festen Wendungen in einzelne Typen wie Satzformeln, idiomatische Wendungen, feststehende Muster, feste Wendungen usw. differenziert, jedoch finden sich die idiomatischen Wendungen unter den einzelnen Skalen, die das Spektrum des gewussten Wortschatzes und der Wortschatzbeherrschung beschreiben, erst auf dem Niveau C1 und C2 wieder (ebd.: 112). Ähnliches kann bei der Darlegung von so-ziolinguistischen Kompetenzen auf C1 und C2 festgestellt werden, wobei hier zwischen Redewendungen, Aussprüchen, Zitaten und sprichwörtlichen Redensarten unterschieden wird. Es wäre wünschenswert, dass die phraseologische Kompetenz auf allen Niveaus, von A1 bis C2, systematisch in die einzelnen Niveaus einbezogen und gefördert sowie thematisch aufgearbeitet wird (vgl. Konecny/Hallsteinsdottir/Kacjan 2013: 163). In unserem Beitrag interessiert uns im Weiteren die Frage, ob das analysierte Lehrwerk für das B2-Niveau dem angestrebten Anliegen des GER-Dokuments dienlich ist, das allen, die profesionell im Bildungsbereich tätig sind, bei der Entwicklung von Lehrplänen, Lehrwerken und Sprachprüfungen behilflich ist.
4 DIE LEHRWERKSANALYSE 4.1 Evaluationskriterien
Um den Bestand an Phrasemen im Lehrwerk studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2 feststellen zu können, wurden zunächst alle Phraseme aus den schriftlichen und mündlichen Texten sowohl in den Kursbucheinheiten als auch im Übungsteil erfasst. Die erfassten Phraseme wurden im weiteren Schritt verschiedenen Phrasemtypen zugeordnet. Die Evaluation beruhte auf der Auswahl der Phraseme im weiteren Sinne nach der Ba-sisklassifikaion von Burger (2010: 36). In seiner Basisklassifikation gliedert Burger (ebd.) den Gesamtbereich der Phraseologie auf der obersten Ebene nach dem Kriterium der Zeichenfunktion in die referentiellen, kommunikativen und strukturellen Phraseme. Die referentiellen Phraseme werden nach dem semantischen Kriterium weiter in nominative Phraseme (bezeichnen Objekte und Vorgänge, z. B. der blaue Planet) und propositionale Phraseme (Aussagen über Objekte und Vorgänge, z. B. In der Kürze liegt die Würze) eingeteilt. Die propositionalen Phraseme zerfallen noch weiter in satzwertige und textwertige Phraseme. Aus der Analyse werden die nicht-idiomatischen Phraseme ausgeschlossen. Im Einzelnen werden in das phraseologische Material folgende Phra-semtypen in Betracht gezogen: von den referentiellen satzgliedwertigen Phrasemen Idiome (auf Draht sein; vgl. studio d B 2/2, Einheit 1) und Teil-Idiome (aus zweiter Hand; vgl. studio d B 2/2, Einheit 2), von den propositionalen satzwertigen Phrasemen Sprichwörter (Gleich und Gleich gesellt sich gern; vgl. studio dB 2/1, Einheit 7), von den kommunikativen Routineformeln (Warten Sie mal!; vgl. studio d B 2/1, Einheit 5), von den speziellen Klassen Kinegramme (die Hand schütteln; vgl. studio d B 2/2, Einheit 3), phraseologische Termini (die magische schwarze Box; vgl. studio d B 2/1, Einheit 3), geflügelte Worte (das Land der Dichter und Denker, vgl. studio d B 2/2, Einheit 7), Zwillingsformeln (mit Kind und Kegel, vgl. studio d B 2/2, Einheit 2) und komparative Phraseme (Nerven wie Drahtseile haben , vgl. studio dB 2/2, Einheit 1).
Alle Phraseme werden auf ihre kontextgebundene Bedeutungserschließung in den Originaltexten und eine eventuelle weitere didaktisch vermittelte Anwendung überprüft. Uns interessierte nicht nur der quantitative Umfang an vorkommenden Phrasemen in den unterschiedlichen Textsorten, sondern auch ihre Einbindung in den didaktischen Übungsteil, der eventuell auch phraseodidaktisch angelegt ist. Alle Texte, Aufgaben und Übungen im Kurs- und Übungsbuch sowie die transkribierten Hörtexte werden in dem untersuchten Lehrwerk einer Analyse unterzogen. Alle Phraseme wurden mit dem DUDEN 11 und dem online-Wörterbuch (www.redensarten--index) verglichen.
4.2	Das Lehrwerk studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2
Das Lehrwerk studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2 ist nach Angaben des Verlags ein Lehrwerk für Erwachsene mit Vorkenntnissen auf B1-Niveau des Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmens (GER). Außerdem bereitet es auf die Prüfungen Goethe-Zertifikat B2 und telc Deutsch B2 vor. Das Lehrwerk besteht aus den zwei Teilbänden B2/1 und B2/2, in denen jeweils acht Kurseinheiten angeboten werden. Die thematische und grammatische Progression der einzelnen Einheiten wird im Übungsteil vertieft und ausgebaut. Die Kursbucheinheiten werden durch vier Stationen ergänzt, in denen Sprachhandlungen und grammatische Strukturen wiederholt sowie berufsspezifische Schlüsselqualifikationen aus der Arbeitswelt trainiert werden. Insgesamt enthalten beide Teilbände Unterrichtsmaterialien und -anregungen für ca. 80 Stunden Deutschunterricht. Den beiden Teilbänden sind drei Audio-CDs beigelegt, auf denen sich Hörtexte mit Interviews, Dialogen, Liedern, Radio-Beiträgen und vielem mehr befinden, die zum integralen Bestandteil der Aufgaben und der Aussprache gehören.
4.3	Die Ergebnisse der Analyse
Die quantitative Auswertung des Phrasemvorkommens im untersuchten Lehrwerk studio d -B2 ergibt eine Summe von 367 Phrasemen.
			228	
139				
				
studio d - B 2/1	studio d - B 2/2
Diagramm 1: Phrasemvorkommen im Lerhwerk studio d - B2
D 367 Phraseme (studio d - B2)
Aus Diagramm 1 ist ersichtlich, dass die Zahl der Phraseme in studio d - B2/2 (228 Phraseme) höher ist als die Zahl der Phraseme in studio d - B2/1 (139 Phraseme), d. h. die phraseologische Progression kann bereits beim quantitativen Vorkommen festgestellt werden4. Die Verteilung der Phraseme in den einzelnen Lehrbucheinheiten, im Übungsteil, beim Hörverstehen, in „Stationen" und im Prüfungsteil wird in Diagramm 2 erkennbar.
Diagramm 2: Phrasemvorkommen in den einzelnen Einheiten
Den größten Anteil bilden die Phraseme in den Lehrbuchtexten. Wenn von den Lernenden verlangt wird, Phraseme in authentischen fremdsprachigen Texten zu entdecken, dann sollen die Lernenden auf ausgeklügelte Strategien hingewiesen werden. Eine der möglichen Entdeckungsprozeduren kann die paraphrasierende Umgebung im Kontext sein. Gemeint ist, dass Phraseme über Kontextbelege gelernt werden, wie im folgenden Ausschnitt aus dem Interview mit dem Architekten Frank Gehry:
[...]Meine Kollegen mögen es nicht, wenn einer aus der Art schlägt. Alles soll möglichst rational und abgeklärt sein, normal eben. Und wenn einer kommt wie ich, einer, der seine Häuser eher als multiple Persönlichkeiten begreift, dann wird er halt attackiert (studio dB2/2 2010: 68).
Das Phrasem aus der Art schlagen in der Bedeutung ,anders als die übrigen sein' wird im Kontext mit paraphrasierenden Elementen des Textes anaphorisch situationsgemäß erklärt. Damit wird bewiesen, dass sich die Autoren um die Sensi-bilisierung der Lernenden beim Entdecken der phraseologischen Ausdrücke in kontextuellen Einbettungen bemüht haben, denn phraseologische Ausdrücke „[...] können nur dann angemessen verstanden und gebraucht werden, wenn ihre adressaten-, situations- und textsortenspezifische Einbettung und Verwendung thematisiert
4 Bei einem Seitenumfang von insgesamt 466 beträgt die Phrasemdichte 1,26 Phraseme pro Seite.
wird" (Kühn 2005: 28 ff.). Mit dem Verfahren der Paraphrasierung werden der Erwerb von Phrasemen gefördert und einzelne Lesarten unmissverständlich oder transparent gemacht.
Die Angaben in Diagramm 2 umfassen alle Phraseme, die in den einzelnen Kategorien vorkommen. Es interessierte uns im Weiteren auch, ob einzelne Phraseme, die Lernende in Texten entdecken, später auch in den Übungen oder beim Hörverstehen wiederholt vorkommen. Diese Angaben werden im Diagramm 3 präsentiert, in dem das Phrasemvorkommen zunächst nur im Übungsbuch, dann noch im Hörverstehen und anschließend auch auf den Seiten zur Vertiefung der Wortverbindungen („Wortverbindungen intensiv") untersucht wurde.
Diagramm 3: Wiederholung der Phraseme
Das Ergebnis weist deutlich darauf hin, dass der Phase des Festigens von festen Wortverbindungen große Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet wird, denn mehr als ein Drittel (37,6%) der Phraseme wird zum Üben oder Festigen wiederholt eingesetzt. Im Allgemeinen geht es um die progressive Aneignung, von einfachen zu anspruchsvolleren Übungsmethoden. Damit werden phraseologische Ausdrücke von den Lernenden nicht nur entdeckt und verstanden, sondern intensiv behandelt, damit sie im Gedächtnis gespeichert und beim produktiven Sprachgebrauch normgerecht eingesetzt werden können. Hinter diesem Konzept versteckt sich eine didaktisch sehr sinnvolle Strategie zur Vermittlung von Phrasemen. Das oben erwähnte Phrasem aus der Art schlagen wird im Übungsbuch in folgender Übung der Zuordnung zur Bedeutungserklärung und dem Beleg wiederholt:
Verbinden Sie die Synonyme und Beispiele mit den Wortverbindungen.
Wortverbindung	Synonym	Beispiel
1 jmd. schlägt aus der Art	d jmd./etw. ist anders als die übrigen Angehörigen einer Familie oder Gruppe	D Max möchte nicht Bäcker werden wie sein Vater und sein Großvater, sondern Musiker. Er schlägt sozusagen aus der Art.
Tabelle 1: Ausschnitt aus studio d-B2/2 (2011: 158)
Der Nennform des Phrasems wird nicht nur die lexikalisierte Paraphrase, sondern auch ein Textbeleg hinzugefügt. Beispiele dieser Art ergänzen die abstrakten Bedeutungsangaben durch konkretes Anschauungsmaterial, das dem Nachweis dient, wie die betreffenden Phraseme in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache gebraucht werden. Im Teil „Wortverbindungen intensiv", in dem Phraseme explizit vermittelt und geübt werden, kommt das Phrasem aus der Art schlagen erneut vor. Diesmal soll das betreffende Phrasem im Lehrbuchtext wiedererkannt und die genaue Textstelle markiert werden:
Suchen Sie die folgenden Wortverbindungen im Text auf S. 68 und markieren Sie sie:
1. jmd./etw. schlägt aus der Art	... Z...........[...]
(studio dB2/2 2011: 165)
Ein weiteres Resultat der genaueren Lektüre des ausgewählten Lehrwerks zeigt auch die Vielfalt der Phrasemtypen.
77
2 2 i 2
Teil- Idiom Sprich. Geflüg. Komp. Kinegr. Ph. Zwil- 'Routin
38
Idiom
Worte Ph.
Term. ling.
■	Band 1 (139)
■	Band 2
(228)
Diagramm 4: Verteilung der einzelnen Phrasemtypen
Unter dem Aspekt der einzelnen Phrasemtypen dominieren die Teil-Idiome, wie aus dem Diagramm 4 hervorgeht. In semantischer Hinsicht kann bei Teil-Idiomen ihre ganzheitliche Bedeutung aus den Bedeutungen einiger Komponenten erschlossen werden. Weit hinter den Teil-Idiomen liegen Idiome und Routineformeln, gefolgt von ande-
ren Phrasemtypen. Zu den Routineformeln, die „spezifische Funktionen innerhalb der schriftlichen und mündlichen Kommunikation haben [...] und mit Mitteln der linguistischen Pragmatik beschreibbar sind" (Burger 2010: 55) muss noch hinzugefügt werden, dass sie im Lehrwerk an vielen Stellen mit drucktechnisch-graphischen Hilfsmitteln in den sog. „Redemittel-Kästen" visuell hervorge-hoben werden.
4.4 Lernstrategien
Eine Novität in der Vermittlung von phraseologischen Ausdrücken stellen die Lernstrategien dar, mit denen die Lernenden auf die unterschiedlichen Lernmethoden zur schrittweisen Memorisierung und Anwendung von Phrasemen hingewiesen werden5. Der Vorteil dieser Lerntechniken ist die systematische Wiederholung von Phrasemen, die es ermöglicht, den Lernstoff vor dem Eintreten des Vergessensprozesses erneut ins Gedächtnis zu rufen und somit schrittweise tiefer ins Langzeitgedächtnis zu transportieren (vgl. Hessky/Ettinger 1997: XXXVI). Außerdem führen die unterschiedlichen Lernstrategien zur Steigerung der Motivation, weil der Lernende je nach Lerntyp die geeignetste Lernstrategie für sich wählen kann, die ihm hilft, seine Lernaktivität zu steigern. Wichtig dabei ist die Wahl des richtigen Wahrnehmungskanals, der angesprochen wird, d. h. optisch/visuell, auditiv, haptisch oder kognitiv. Einem visuellen Lerntyp hilft beim Lernen z. B., wenn er die Wörter aufschreibt oder sie als Bild zeichnet, wie Kosevski Puljic (2009: 99) feststellt:
Über einen oder mehrere Sinneskanäle kommt ein Impuls (ein Wort, gewählt von Lernenden, Lesen von verschiedenen Texten, Bild, Gegenstand, Musik, Erzählen einer Geschichte, Film, ...), der das Denken in Bildern verursacht (Visualisierung, Gefühle). Das führt zur Versprachlichung der inneren Bilder in die innere Sprache.
In studio d - B2 werden unterschiedliche Lernstrategien dargeboten, sowohl kognitive Strategien, Kompensationsstrategien, mnemotechnische Strategien als auch metakognitive, soziale und affektive Strategien (vgl. Oxford 1990). Im Einzelnen geht es unter anderem um eine Kartei-Lernbox, Lernen beim Laufen, mit dem eigenen Spiegelbild sprechen, ein Bild im Kopf schaffen oder zeichnen u. a. Auch für die produktive Verwendung von Phrasemen in Texten werden Strategien empfohlen, wie z. B. ein Kreuzworträtsel oder eigene Texte bzw. Dialoge mit festen Wortverbindungen entwerfen und schreiben. Bei der Lernstrategie „Ein Bild im Kopf schaffen" sollen sich die Lernenden einen Karteikartenkasten mit Karteikarten anlegen, auf die sie jeweils auf die Vorderseite die Nennform des Phrasems und auf die Rückseite die Belege im Kontext schreiben sollen. Die Methode, die für taktile bzw. haptische Lerntypen geeignet ist, wird mit der Lernstrategie „Lernen mit Bewegung" verknüpft, wenn die Lernenden Karten mit Phrasemen leise lesen und sich gleichzeitig im Rhythmus der Sätze im Raum bewegen sollen. Weitere Strategien können hier nicht im Detail referiert oder vergleichend gegenübergestellt werden.
5 Die Lernstrategien befinden sich im Anschluss an den Teil „Wortverbindungen intensiv".
5 SCHLUSSWORT
Die Analyse des ausgewählten Lehrwerks studio d - B2 zeigt sichtbare Fortschritte in der phraseodidaktischen Vermittlung im Bereich des DaF-Unterrichts. Die Vielfalt von phraseologischen Ausdrücken in der natürlichen Sprache, die beim Einsatz von authentischen Texten mit aktuellen und abwechslungsreichen Inhalten sowie bei rezeptiv und produktiv konzipierten Übungen zum Vorschein kommt, zeugt von gezielten, klar strukturierten und kontextualisierten Vermittlungsformen in Bezug auf das gesamte praktikable Konzept. Die Lernenden erwerben ein phraseologisches Optimum, das auf allen methodischen Leitlinien der Phraseodidaktik von der ersten Phase des Sensibilisierens auf der rezeptiven Ebene bis zur letzten Phase des Verwendens in Form von Textarbeit auf der produktiven Ebene basiert. Somit wird auf dem B2-Niveau auch die Entfaltung der fremdsprachlichen phraseologischen Kompetenz gefördert. Die sprachsystematischen, didaktischen und pragmatischen Argumente im Konzept des Lehrwerks studio d- B2 begründen die Gesamtprogression, bei der die Auswahl, Reihenfolge und Gewichtung von phraseologischen Ausdrücken einen bedeutenden Platz einnehmen. Insgesamt bilden Phraseme die Grundlage für sprachlich adäquates Handeln in unterschiedlichen Kontexten.
Zum Abschluss kann gesagt werden, dass im Lehrwerk studio d - B2 mit der Integration von Phrasemen in den Lernprozess bestätigt wurde, dass die Phraseologie im Unterricht an Beachtung gewinnt, weil eine phraseologische Redeweise in der geschriebenen und gesprochenen sprachlichen Tätigkeit eines Kommunikationsteilnehmers ein erstrebenswertes Lernziel in der Fremdsprache darstellt.
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Zusammenfassung „AUF DEM RICHTIGEN WEG SEIN" - PHRASEODIDAKTISCHE ANSÄTZE IM DAF-UNTERRICHT
Phraseme sind sprachliche Universalien, die sowohl in der Phraseologieforschung als auch in der Fremdsprachendidaktik einen Aufschwung erleben. Phraseologie dient zur Erweiterung des Wortschatzes einer Sprache wie auch der kommunikativen Handlungskompetenz. Um die Vermittlung phraseologischer Wortschätze und das Erarbeiten von Lehrwerken bemüht sich ein Teilgebiet der Phraseologie, die Phraseodidaktik. Ihre Erkenntnisinteressen reichen von der Sensibilisierung der Lernenden für phraseologische Phänomene bis zur Entwicklung und zum Erwerb eines gewissen Minimums an phraseologischer Kompetenz in der Mutter- und/oder Fremdsprache. Im folgenden Beitrag werden einige Aspekte der Förderung der phraseologischen Kompetenz im DaF-Un-terricht erläutert. Ferner steht die Integration der phraseologischen Ausdrücke und ihre Ausdrucksschulung im Lehr- und Übungsbuch studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2, das sich an der Niveaustufe B2 des Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmens orientiert, im Zentrum. Der Schwerpunkt liegt nicht nur auf dem Quantum und der Frequenz von phraseologischen Ausdrücken, sondern in erster Linie auf der Vermittlung und dem gesteuerten phraseologischen Spracherwerb im Rahmen eines geplanten und strukturierten DaF-Unterrichts. Das Anliegen dieses Beitrags ist es auch, auf die Bedeutsamkeit von einer gut durchdachten Eingliederung der Phraseologie in den Gemeinsamen europäischen Referenzrahmen für Sprachen (GER) als einen wichtigen Bestandteil der Wortschatzkompetenz auf allen Niveaus von A1 bis C2 hinzuweisen.
Schlüsselwörter: Phraseologie, Phraseodidaktik, Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Lehr-und Übungsbuch, Frequenz.
Abstract
„BE ON THE RIGHT TRACK" - PHRASEODIDACTIC APPROACHES IN TEACHING GERMAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Phraseological units are common linguistic elements, which have seen an upturn in phraseological research as well as in phraseodidactics of foreign language. Phraseology is used to expand the students' vocabulary and to enhance their communicative competence. Phraseodidactics deals with the treatment of phraseological vocabulary in language teaching practice and in course books. Its scope ranges from identifying phraseological units to developing students' phraseological competence in their mother tongue and/or foreign languages.
The article deals with some aspects of the acquisition of phraseological competence in German as a foreign language. Special attention is given to the place phraseological units occupyin the coursebook and workbook for teaching German as a foreign language studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2. The focus is not only on the frequency of phraseological units, but on the didactic approach employed in dealing with such units as elements which should be systematically taken into consideration in teaching German as a foreign language. The article also discusses the importance of careful integration of phraseology into the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages as an important part of students' lexical competence at all levels from A1 to C2.
Keywords: phraseology, phraseodidactics, German as a foreign language, coursebook and workbook, frequency.
Povzetek
„BITI NA PRAVI POTI" - FRAZEODIDAKTIČNI PRISTOPI PRI POUKU NEMŠČINE KOT TUJEGA JEZIKA
Frazemi so univerzalni jezikovni pojavi, ki doživljajo razcvet tako v raziskovanju fra-zeologije kot tudi pri didaktiki tujega jezika. S frazeologijo bogatimo besedišče jezika in pridobivamo sporazumevalno zmožnost. S posredovanjem frazeološkega besedišča in sestavljanjem učbenikov se ukvarja frazeodidaktika. Njena interesna področja segajo od prepoznavanja frazeoloških pojavov do razvijanja in usvajanja frazeološke kompe-tence v maternem in tujem jeziku.
V pričujočem prispevku so pojasnjeni nekateri vidiki spodbujanja frazeološke kom-petence pri pouku nemščine kot tujega jezika. V ospredju je vključevanje frazeoloških enot in njihovo prikazovanje v učbeniku in delovnem zvezku studio d - Die Mittelstufe B2, ki ustreza stopnji B2 Skupnega evropskega referenčnega okvirja. Težišče ni usmerjeno v ugotavljanje pogostnosti (frekvence) frazeoloških enot, temveč predvsem v didaktični pristop in načine posredovanja znanj ter v usmerjeno usvajanje frazeologije v okviru načrtnega in strukturiranega pouka nemščine kot tujega jezika. Namen prispev-
ka je tudi opozoriti na pomembnost dobro premišljenega vključevanja frazeologije v Skupni evropski referenčni okvir kot pomembni sestavni del leksikalne kompetence na vseh stopnjah znanja jezika od A1 do C2.
Ključne besede: frazeologija, frazeodidaktika, nemščina kot tuji jezik, učbenik in vadnica, pogostnost.
Barbara Pihler Ciglič
Universidad de Ljubljana*
UDK 811.134.2367.625:37.091.3 DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.381-395
LOS MARCADORES VERBALES DE MODALIDAD EPISTÉMICA Y SU PAPEL EN EL DESARROLLO DE LAS COMPETENCIAS COMUNICATIVAS
1 INTRODUCCIÓN
El objetivo principal de este trabajo es analizar el papel de algunos marcadores epistémicos verbales en el proceso de aprendizaje del español como segunda lengua en el ámbito universitario esloveno, con especial atención al desarrollo de las competencias lingüísticas, sociolingüísticas y pragmáticas. Se han analizado seis manuales y una gramática de ELE utilizados en los primeros tres años de estudios de lengua y literatura españolas en la Universidad de Ljubljana1 en las clases prácticas de lengua. Acorde con el nivel de los manuales (B1, B2, C1) el estudio se centra en las perífrasis verbales modales y en algunos tiempos verbales de indicativo que en determinados contextos funcionan como marcadores epistémicos.
2 LA MODALIDAD EPISTEMICA
El empleo sistemático de la modalidad en la lingüística empieza en el análisis del discurso y en la teoría de la enunciación dentro de la cual la modalidad «is a form of participation by the speaker in the speech event» (Halliday 1970: 335). La modalidad es así un concepto semántico que concierne a los elementos del significado expresados en una lengua. El concepto del modo, por otra parte, se refiere a la categoría del verbo, formalmente gramaticalizada, con la función modal que varía de lengua en lengua (indicativo, subjuntivo, optativo, imperativo, condicional,.) (Bybee y Fleischman 1995: 2).
La comprensión lingüística de la modalidad se basa asimismo en la distinción básica entre la modalidad deóntica y la epistémica. La primera presenta la lengua como acción y expresa la actitud del hablante hacia las acciones que tienen que ver con la voluntad o la afectividad mientras que la segunda presenta la lengua como una información y expresa cuánto y cómo se compromete el hablante con la verdad de lo que afirma (Palmer 1986: 121). La modalidad epistémica es así la expresión de un juicio sobre la verdad de una proposición y tiene que ver con el grado de compromiso del hablante
Dirección de la autora: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Eslovenia. E-mail: barbara.pihler@ff.uni-lj.si.
Los estudiantes eslovenos que empiezan a estudiar español en la universidad de Ljubljana han pasado un examen de español (matura), que forma parte de las pruebas de acceso a estudios universitarios, que se ubica aproximadamente entre los niveles B1 o B2.

hacia su enunciado basándose en los conceptos de creencia y conocimiento (Lyons 1977; Palmer 1986). Como tal forma parte de la así llamada modalidad proposicional (propositional modality) junto con la modalidad evidencial o evidencialidad1 (Palmer 1986) que es la referencia lingüística a la fuente de información expresada en un enunciado, es decir, es la expresión de la forma en que el conocimiento ha sido adquirido.
Para este estudio es importante, además, la distinción entre la modalidad episté-mica asertiva y la modalidad epistémica no asertiva (siguiendo a Hyland 2000). Con la primera el hablante se compromete con respecto a la verdad de la proposición que comunica y lo hace mediante los marcadores epistémicos intensificadores o boosters (Hyland 2000), mientras que con la segunda modalidad el hablante no presupone o no asegura la verdad de la proposición y lo hace mediante los marcadores atenuadores o hedges (Lakoff 1973; Hyland 2000). En este estudio nos centramos en la expresión de la modalidad epistémica no asertiva y en la evidencialidad.
3 MARCADORES EPISTÉMICOS VERBALES EN LA ADQUISICIÓN DEL
ESPAÑOL COMO SEGUNDA LENGUA
Las posibilidades de expresión para la modalidad epistémica y la evidencialidad en español son muy variadas, y van desde las categorías morfológicas, léxicas y sintácticas hasta las prosódicas, que asimismo no se excluyen entre sí. En el ejemplo dudo que haya ganado el premio (el ejemplo es de Bybee y Fleischman 1995: 2) la modalidad dubitativa se transmite tanto por el sentido léxico del verbo 'dudar' como por el modo subjuntivo del verbo en la subordinada. Las formas lingüísticas con que se expresa la modalidad epistémica se suelen llamar marcadores epistémicos (González Manzano 2013) y como en este estudio nos centramos en el verbo, hablamos de los marcadores epistémicos verbales.
Las expresiones básicas de la modalidad epistémica, sobre todo con sintagmas nominales y adjetivales y algunas partículas (es posible/seguro, quizás/tal vez, ...), se aprenden en la etapa temprana del proceso de aprendizaje de ELE; sin embargo, para llegar a ser un usuario independiente y competente (que corresponden a los niveles B y C del MCER) es decisivo conocer las expresiones más complejas3 que resultan a menudo ambiguas ya que presentan una fusión entre distintas modalidades como se va a ver más adelante. Los significados epistémicos son característicos del mundo de razonamiento, del discurso narrativo y argumentativo, lo que supone un mayor grado de la competencia lingüística y mayor capacidad de abstracción por parte del aprendiz (González Vázquez 1998: 626). La adquisición de los verbos modales en el sentido epistémico, por lo tanto, llega más tarde: «in spite of the fact that epistemic meanings occur in even the most immature learner varieties of a second language, use of modal auxiliaries in epistemically modal-ized utterances is a late achievement» (Stephany 1995: 112). Por esta razón hemos creído más significativo el análisis del material didáctico de los niveles B y C según el MCER.
2	Según Palmer los evidenciales expresan los distintos tipos de evidencia del compromiso del hablante mientras que los juicios segundos abarcan las especulaciones y deducciones expresadas (Palmer 1986).
3	Con significados modales de posibilidad radical, subjetiva y objetiva (Kiefer 1997).
La diferencia entre las dos principales clases de la modalidad, la epistémica y la deón-tica, también desempeña un papel importante en el proceso de adquisición de los contenidos modales. Kiefer (1997) muestra que la epistémica se construye en términos de relaciones lógicas mientras que la deóntica o radical en inferencias prácticas, con lo cual la primera se ha «desarrollado desde la segunda» (Kiefer 1997: 243). En el proceso de la adquisición de la modalidad esto significa que cuando un estudiante de nivel elemental (A1 o A2) se enfrenta con el ejemplo de Gemmapuede estar en Madrid, lo primero que le va a asignar es un significado de posibilidad objetiva (es posible que esté en Madrid), mientras que los estudiantes de niveles más avanzados (B1-C2), con una capacidad cog-nitiva y gramatical más desarrollada, van a poder captar el valor subjetivo (es posible que esté o es posible que no esté en Madrid). De ahí que los contenidos epistémicos sean subjetivos porque reflejan la opinión y el grado de compromiso del hablante mientras que los radicales son objetivos ya que indican la relación entre un participante y el evento mismo (González Vázquez 1998: 626). Parece sumamente importante que la perífrasis poder + infinitivo, justo por su polisemia modal, no se incluya solo en el nivel elemental, sino sobre todo en los niveles de B2 y C1 destacando su papel como recurso epistémico.
Lo planteado hasta ahora debe tenerse en cuenta a la hora de la selección de los contenidos modales en el proceso de la adquisición de ELE. Como con los contenidos epistémicos el hablante evalúa la verdad de la proposición es obvio que estos elementos juegan un papel importante en la interacción verbal. Por lo tanto habrá que distinguir entre las modalidades de la enunciación, las intersubjetivas, mediante las que se realizan los diferentes actos de habla y hacen referencia a la modalidad de la oración y a la fuerza ilocutiva de los enunciados, y las del enunciado, las subjetivas, que repercuten sobre el contenido enunciado y se manifiestan por medio de ciertos valores de la flexión verbal y de los verbos auxiliares (NGLE 2009: 18). Las primeras atañen a los contenidos funcionales y las segundas a los contenidos gramaticales. Ambas son de igual importancia a la hora de sistematizar la estructura de una unidad didáctica.
Para expresar el grado de certeza de la información y para expresar la falta de compromiso con la verdad del enunciado dispone el español de una rica variedad de medios que han recibido diferentes sistematizaciones4: construcciones epistémicas con adjetivos, adverbios y locuciones adverbiales epistémicas, construcciones con sustantivos, verbos y construcciones verbales con significado epistémico, tiempos y modos verbales con valor epistémico y partículas epistémicas. Como ya se ha destacado más arriba, la manera de adquisición de los diferentes recursos modales varía de nivel a nivel. Los estudiantes de nivel elemental, por ejemplo, no son proclives al uso de los verbos modales porque son los menos transparentes de todos los medios de expresión, ya que presentan ambigüedades e indeterminaciones entre los contenidos deónticos y epistémicos (González Vázquez 1998: 627). Por eso en la primera fase se emplean sobre todo los medios léxicos: verbos cognitivos (pensar, creer) y adverbios (probablemente, posiblemente), que se prefieren por su transparencia conceptual y la ausencia de indeterminación, y más tarde adjetivos modales (es posible, probable) que conlleva, además, la selección de uno u otro modo verbal (íbid.).
4 Reyes (1990), Carretero (1992), Bybee y Fleischman (1995), Rodríguez Rosique (2011) y otros.
El principal objetivo de este estudio (que se centra en los niveles a partir del nivel B1) ha sido presentar y sistematizar las perífrasis verbales modales y determinados tiempos verbales de indicativo con valor epistémico (imperfecto, futuros y condicionales)5 también por el hecho de que en el inventario del Plan Curricular del Instituto Cervantes (2006) en el B1 ya aparecen algunas perífrasis modales6. Por cuestiones relacionadas con el espacio y con los límites de este estudio, se ha dejado aparte el modo subjuntivo7, con el que se expresa la modalidad por excelencia, ya que se merece un estudio pormenorizado.
3.1 Perífrasis modales con valor epistémico
Las perífrasis verbales en cuestión nos interesan sobre todo porque con una misma expresión se puede expresar dos o hasta tres modalidades distintas, de ahí que a menudo resulten poco claras hasta que se determina el contexto8 en que se utilizan. A continuación se presentan las estructuras que son las más relevantes desde el punto de vista del aprendizaje de ELE.
3.1.1	Poder + infinitivo
Esta perífrasis modal se caracteriza por una ambigüedad inherente ya que la posibilidad que expresa posee «una doble interpretación lógico-modal: la posibilidad deóntica es entendida como capacitación[...]; la posibilidad epistémica es entendida como probabilidad» (García Fernández 2006: 213). El ejemplo Gemmapuede venir se puede interpretar como 'Gemma tiene permiso para venir', o 'Gemma es capaz de venir', pero también como 'Gemma probablemente viene/venga'. Lo que permite la desambiguación es el contexto.
3.1.2	Deber (de) + infinitivo
Se trata de una estructura que presenta cierta problematicidad por su variación sintáctica con una larga tradición en español ya que «suele analizarse 'deber + infinitivo' como modal radical y 'deber de + infinitivo' como epistémico» (NGLE 2009: 2143). La RAE, además, recomienda «para expresar obligación la variante sin preposición» (NGLE 2009: 2144). En García Fernández (2006: 110), en cambio, se enfatiza una doble interpretación modal del valor de necesidad ya que en la lectura deóntica la necesidad es entendida como obligación, mientras que en su lectura epistémica como grado
5	Esto no quiere decir que otros tiempos de indicativo no puedan presentar los valores modales. Mencionemos el ejemplo del pretérito perfecto simple (No llames a las 5 porque yo a esa hora ya me fui. (Bermúdez 2005: 168) o del pretérito perfecto compuesto (Yo mañana a esa hora ya me he ido).
6	http://cvc.cervantes.es/Ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/plan_curricular/niveles/02_gramatica_ inventario_b1-b2.htm (1 de junio de 2014).
7	Sin embargo habrá que destacar que el modo subjuntivo en español no suele expresar la modalidad epistémica por sí solo, sino que tiene que ir acompañado de alguna otra expresión. En los casos en los cuales es posible la alternancia entre indicativo y subjuntivo, éste suele indicar una posibilidad epistémica menor, por ejemplo Tal vez está/esté enfermo (Carretero 1992: 56).
8	Halliday habla de 'contextos de situación' y enfatiza que «cualquier explicación del lenguaje que omita incluir la situación como ingrediente esencial, posiblemente resulte artificial e inútil» (Halliday 1982: 42).
de certeza o probabilidad. El ejemplo, Gemma debe (de) venir, puede interpretarse como 'Gemma está obligada a venir' o como 'Gemma probablemente viene/venga'. Otra vez es el contexto el que ayuda a desambiguar las construcciones.
3.1.3 Tener que + infinitivo
Tener que + infinitivo es una perífrasis modal con valor de necesidad, también con una doble interpretación deóntica y epistémica (García Fernández 2006: 258). Un ejemplo como Gemma tiene que estar con ella puede resultar ambigua ya que son posibles dos lecturas: 'Gemma está obligada a estar con ella' o 'es probable que Gemma esté con ella'.
3.2 Tiempos verbales epistémicos
Los tiempos verbales pueden manifestar en determinados contextos una variedad de valores epistémicos. Reyes (1990) afirma que esto sucede en una zona del paradigma donde se hacen borrosos los límites entre las categorías tiempo, modo y aspecto y demuestra que los así llamados 'usos citativos' son posibles justo por la activa interrela-ción de significados temporales, modales y aspectuales (Reyes 1990: 19).
El significado o uso básico de los tiempos verbales de indicativo no está marcado modalmente; sin embargo, en ciertos casos la modalidad puede 'desplazar' la temporalidad. El caso extremo son ejemplos como Mañana se iba Gemma a Madrid, donde se produce una incompatibilidad semántica o un 'conflicto lingüístico' (Escandell Vidal y Leonetti 2005: 459) entre la forma verbal imperfectiva de anterioridad, combinada con un predicado télico, y un adverbio de posterioridad. La única solución es la lectura epistémica, evidencial o citativa, como demuestran Escandell Vidal y Leonetti (2005), ya que el hablante presenta la partida de Gemma como una información de segunda mano ('Mañana se va a Madrid, según me han dicho').
Los valores epistémicos activan entonces un tiempo verbal que se utiliza en un contexto temporal que no le corresponde (Rodríguez Rosique 2011: 255). Este fenómeno se sistematiza de diferentes maneras: Rojo (1974) establece el conocido sistema de 'usos dislocados', mientras que dentro del enfoque pragmático se prefiere llamarlos 'valores pragmáticos' (Reyes 1990) o valores 'pragmático-discursivos' (Serrano 2006). Los tiempos verbales de indicativo que son más propensos a modalizarse a través de las dislocaciones temporales son los futuros, los condicionales y el pretérito imperfecto, de ahí que se encuentren en el centro de este estudio.9
3.2.1 Los futuros
Cuando el futuro simple se usa en contextos de simultaneidad de presente, da lugar a varios valores modales, por ejemplo «futuro de conjetura, futuro de probabilidad o futuro epistémico» (NGLE 2009: 448). Se suele ilustrarlo con un ejemplo archiconocido, serán las ocho que se puede parafrasear con 'probablemente son las ocho'. La interpretación de futuro de conjetura se extiende al futuro compuesto: Habrá ['Probablemente ha'] estado enfermo y por eso no ha venido estos días (NGLE 2009: 453).
9 Sobre la sistematización modal del verbo español a base del criterio de la actualidad véase
Pihler (2010)
3.2.2	Los condicionales
El condicional simple se usa para expresar posterioridad a un momento pasado, por lo que ha sido caracterizado como un «futuro del pasado», mientras que el compuesto denota un tiempo anterior a un condicional, es decir, a un pospretérito (NGLE 2009: 453). En los contextos de simultaneidad o de posterioridad los dos pueden expresar valores epistémicos, por ejemplo, me iría contigo esta tarde o habría ido, pero no me dejaron (Rodríguez Rosique 2011: 256). Admite paráfrasis similares con el verbo en pretérito imperfecto: serían las diez equivale a 'probablemente eran las diez'.
3.2.3	Pretérito imperfecto de indicativo
El pretérito imperfecto de indicativo merece una atención especial por la variedad de valores temporales, aspectuales y modales que puede llevar. Básicamente señala una acción pasada, aspectualmente imperfectiva, un 'pasado en transcurso.' El hablante puede usar ese significado tempo-aspectual para expresar, por ejemplo, sus escrúpulos epistemológicos (Reyes 1990: 102). Si en Gemma se va mañana a Venezuela se quiere expresar la incertidumbre de si se va o no, se puede indicar explícitamente añadiendo según dicen, o reformularlo de otra manera (sobre todo en la lengua coloquial) y emplear el así llamado imperfecto citativo o evidencial (Reyes 1990): Gemma se iba mañana a Venezuela. El pretérito imperfecto se refiere a un discurso anterior presupuesto perdiendo así en parte su valor referencial de 'pasado en transcurso' y adquiriendo un valor epistémico. Se mantiene el valor aspectual de imperfectividad mientras que el valor temporal es desplazado o dislocado, porque se trata, en realidad, de una acción posterior al momento de habla y lo que es anterior es el discurso donde se anunció esa acción. El valor modal epistémico está entonces en la estrategia comunicativa del hablante que evita comprometerse con la verdad del enunciado y, como el hablante remite a una fuente que no quiere nombrar, a la modalidad epistémica se une la noción de la evidencialidad (Reyes 1990: 50). Este uso lo reconoce también la RAE en la última gramática y lo llama 'valor citativo' (2009: 1750).
4 LOS MARCADORES EPISTÉMICOS VERBALES EN LOS MANUALES
ELEGIDOS DE ELE (NIVELES B1, B2, C1 Y C2)
Se ha analizado la presencia de los marcadores epistémicos verbales en los seis manuales de ELE que se utilizan en las clases de ELE de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad de Ljubljana en los tres primeros años del Grado del Programa de Bolonia. Tres de los manuales analizados (Vía Rápida, Destino Erasmus y Aula Internacional 4) se enmarcan en los niveles B1 y B2 del MCER, y los otros tres (Nuevo Prisma, Dominio, El ventilador) en los niveles C1 y C2. El B1 o el nivel umbral es un escalón clave dentro del proceso de aprendizaje, un nivel de 'supervivencia', ya que es el primero que asienta el carácter de un usuario independiente, capaz de desenvolverse con éxito en la vida cotidiana en la lengua meta. Con el nivel B2 o el nivel avanzado el aprendiz ya es capaz de entender las ideas principales de textos complejos que traten de temas tanto concretos como abstractos, además de producir textos claros y detallados sobre temas diversos. Con
el paso del nivel B al nivel C1 un usuario independiente llega a ser un usuario competente alcanzando así el dominio operativo eficaz que posibilita la comprensión de una amplia variedad de textos extensos, así como la capacidad de reconocer en ellos sentidos implícitos (MCER § 3.3). Esto último se hace sumamente importante a la hora de adquisición de los marcadores epistémicos verbales en la clase de ELE.
Con el análisis de los manuales elegidos se ha querido, en primer lugar, describir y evaluar la presencia de los contenidos modales epistémicos tanto en el nivel funcional como en el gramatical10, y, en el segundo, observar el papel que juegan estas estructuras en el desarrollo de las competencias comunicativas de la lengua (tanto las lingüísticas, las sociolingüísticas como las pragmáticas).
En el siguiente esquema se desprende la presencia de los marcadores epistémicos en los manuales elegidos y su sistematización como contenidos gramaticales y/o no-cio-funcionales11:
MANUAL	NIVEL	FE*	CE	IE	PVE	VLE
VRa	B1- B1+	CONTENIDOS GRAMATICALES	CONTENIDOS GRAMATICALES	/	/	CONTENIDOS LÉXICOS Y GRAMATICALES No creo que, no me parece que, es difícil decir que; Me ha dicho que
AuInt4	B2	CONTENIDOS GRAMATICALES	CONTENIDOS GRAMATICALES	/	/	CONTENIDOS FUNCIONALES Y GRAMATICALES Opinar y reaccionar ante opiniones Creo que, pienso que; No creo/pienso que, dudo que
10	El análisis se limita a los contenidos explícitamente sistematizados en las unidades (independientemente del apartado en que aparecen) y no en los ejemplos concretos que aparecen en las actividades al azar.
11	Empleamos los conceptos de 'contenidos gramaticales' y 'contenidos funcionales' tal y como se determinan en el Plan Curricular del Instituto Cervantes.
MA-	NI-	FE*	CE	IE	PVE	VLE
NUAL	VEL					
DesE-	B1-	CONTE-	/	/	CONTENIDOS	CONTENIDOS
ra2	B2	NIDOS FUNCIONALES Referirse a un evento o situación con diferentes grados de seguridad			FUNCIONALES Referirse a un evento o situación con diferentes grados de seguridad deber de, poder + inf.	FUNCIONALES Y GRAMATICALES Expresar una opinión Creo, opino, supongo que; no creo que, no me parece que, dudo que
NPri	C1	CONTE-	CONTE-	/	CONTENIDOS	CONTENIDOS
		NIDOS	NIDOS		FUNCIONALES	FUNCIONALES Y
		GRAMA-	GRAMA-		Expresar el máxi-	GRAMATICALES
		TICALES	TICALES		mo grado de probabilidad de que un hecho se produzca deber de, tener que + inf.	Expresar lo que se considera probable o posible Puede que
ElVent	C1	CONTENIDOS FUNCIONALES Argumento como algo probable restando valor a la información	/	/	/	CONTENIDOS FUNCIONALES No hacerse responsable de la información que se introduce Parece ser que
Dmno	C	/	/	/	CONTENIDOS GRAMATICALES deber de, poder, venir a + inf.; venir + gerundio	CONTENIDOS GRAMATICALES Verbos de lengua, entendimiento y percepciones sensoriales
Esquema 1: Presencia de los marcadores epistémicos verbales en los manuales seleccionados
En primer lugar se puede observar una diferencia en la frecuencia de la aparición de los contenidos epistémicos entre los niveles B y C con la única excepción del manual
NPri en que aparecen todos los marcadores epistémicos verbales excepto el imperfecto citativo. Por otra parte, en todos los manuales analizados aparecen los verbos léxicos epistémicos, lo que ha sido de esperar por el nivel de los manuales12. En todos (excepto Dmno) aparecen sistematizados los futuros epistémicos (sistematizados en apartados gramaticales) y, en menor medida, los condicionales. Sorprende la escasa frecuencia de las perífrasis verbales modales en general, mientras que las aspectuales aparecen sistematizadas de una u otra manera (funcional o gramaticalmente) en todos los manuales analizados. Las perífrasis epistémicas que sí aparecen en tres manuales (uno de B2 y dos de C) son deber de + infinitivo y poder + infinitivo mientras que las perífrasis aproximativas venir a + infinitivo13 y venir + gerundio14 aparecen solo en el Dmno (p. 166) lo que, creemos, se debe al nivel C. Pero otra vez se echan de menos las especificaciones de los diferentes grados de probabilidad.
Es interesante observar, asimismo, que en todos los manuales se hace una clara distinción entre la perífrasis deber + infinitivo y deber de + infinitivo, destacando la primera siempre como exclusivamente deóntica y la segunda como epistémica. El objetivo es claramente didáctico: prevenir que el estudiante utilice deber de + infinitivo como obligativa. Sin embargo, en el mundo hispánico hay numerosas excepciones a esta regla general (Blas Arroyo 2010: 627) ya que la variante deber + infinitivo puede poseer los dos valores, dependiendo del contexto, y un usuario competente debería darse cuenta de ello. No aparecen sistematizadas las perífrasis tener que y hay que con valor epistémico, a excepción de NPri en que aparece la primera. Es un hecho que estas estructuras con el valor deóntico se han dado ya en los niveles A1 y A2, sin embargo creemos que merecerían una revisión y ampliación en los niveles B1 y B2 para expresar los valores epistémicos.
Lo más llamativo es sin duda la ausencia del imperfecto epistémico o/y evidencial15, ya que según nuestra opinión un usuario competente debería ser capaz de por lo menos reconocer estos usos, si no aplicarlos adecuadamente.
Creemos importante destacar que en dos manuales aparecen sistematizadas estructuras con valor evidencial: en la Unidad 3 de AuInt4 (p. 35) aparece el contenido funcional «cómo dar una información sin responsabilizarse de su veracidad», pero se dan sólo las expresiones según dicen, según parece, he oído que, mientras que los tiempos
12	Como demuestra en su estudio González Vázquez (1998).
13	Perífrasis de valor modal epistémico, muy cercano al uso normativo de deber de + infinitivo, esto es un valor aproximativo, con idea de probabilidad (García Fernández 2006: 275).
14	Perífrasis cuyo valor principal es aspectual continuativo, pero en algunos casos la noción de progresión de una acción verbal se pierde y obtiene el valor modal aproximativo, equivalente al de venir a + infinitivo: Viene habiendo unas doscientas personas en el teatro (Gómez Torrego 1988: 168).
15	Tampoco se menciona el subjuntivo citativo (en ejemplos de tipo Aunque te parezca/parece mal, se lo voy a decir, Escandell Vidal y Leonetti 2005: 457). Sin embargo, hay que mencionar AuInt 4 donde en la Unidad 1 sí se menciona la posibilidad del empleo de la forma de imperfecto de subjuntivo en -ra en vez de indicativo, aunque no se explica por qué ni cuál es la diferencia en la actitud del hablante.
verbales citativos se omiten; de manera parecida en ElVent (p. 51) aparece sistematizada la función «no hacerse responsable de la información que se introduce» ofreciendo expresiones como por lo que dicen, según dicen, según cuentan, por lo visto, parece ser que, pero se omiten los ejemplos de los tiempos verbales citativos.
En suma, en todos los manuales analizados aparecen en mayor o menor medida los marcadores verbales epistémicos pero, según nuestra opinión, están demasiado dispersos tanto en el sentido funcional como gramatical.
4.1 Los marcadores epistémicos verbales y las competencias comunicativas
En cuanto a la competencia lingüística general, se presupone para el nivel B1 que el hablante dispone de suficientes elementos lingüísticos como para expresar algunas dudas y pensamientos sobre temas abstractos o culturales (MCER §5.2.1). En B2, por otra parte, ya tiene que expresarse con claridad y expresar los puntos de vista, mientras que en el C1 puede elegir una formulación apropiada de una amplia serie de elementos lingüísticos para expresarse con claridad. La capacidad de comprender, reconocer y resolver las ambigüedades de las expresiones epistémicas estudiadas en este trabajo se ubica así, creemos, en el nivel B2 y C1.
La adecuada adquisición de los marcadores epistémicos en la clase de ELE se refleja sobre todo en el desarrollo de tres clases de las competencias lingüísticas (según el MCER): la léxica, la gramatical y la semántica16. En cuanto a la primera, el MCER presupone un buen dominio de las expresiones idiomáticas y coloquiales para el nivel C1, por lo tanto pensamos que el uso del imperfecto citativo debería incluirse en este nivel también en los manuales de ELE. Por otra parte se supone que, en cuanto a la competencia gramatical, el hablante en el nivel B2 no comete errores que produzcan malentendidos (MCER §5.2.1.2) con lo cual parecería razonable introducir en este nivel, por ejemplo, la polisemia de la perífrasis poder + infinitivo con todo el abanico de valores modales que expone González Vázquez (1998). Por las mismas razones cabría añadir aquí la problematicidad de la estructura deber (de) + infinitivo.
La adecuada adquisición de los contenidos modales epistémicos sin duda fomenta el desarrollo de la competencia semántica en sus tres aspectos -el léxico, el gramatical y el pragmático- ocupándose éste último de relaciones lógicas entre las cuales habrá que destacar los significados implícitos. Eso significa que el aprendiz debe ser capaz de reconocer los actos de habla indirectos además de las convenciones culturales y sociales que rigen en español el uso de los actos de habla (González Vázquez 1998: 629).
A través de todo este trabajo se ha venido enfatizando la necesidad del estudio de las formas de expresión que vehiculan los contenidos semántico-pragmáticos de modalidad y evidencialidad. Añadimos aquí su importancia para el desarrollo de las competencias sociolingüística y la pragmática. La sociolingüística tiene que ver con la dimensión social de uso de la lengua (MCER §5.2.2), donde cabe también la capacidad de desenvolverse en distintos registros. Como han demostrado varios estudios (Chafe 1986; Bybee y Fleischman 1995; López Ferrero 2002), la elección y el uso adecuado
16 Aparte de estas hay tres más, la fonológica, la ortográfica y la ortoépica (MCER §5.2.1).
de los marcadores epistémicos y evidencíales está condicionada, entre otras cosas, por el tipo de texto o discurso empleado (científico, académico, coloquial,...); por lo tanto en un nivel B2 en que el hablante, según el MCER, debería expresarse «con convicción y claridad en un registro formal o informal», parece más que adecuado incluir también los valores epistémicos y evidenciales de los tiempos verbales de indicativo.
Dentro de las competencias pragmáticas (según el MCER) la modalidad epistémica atañe sobre todo a la competencia funcional que supone «el uso del discurso hablado y de los textos escritos en la comunicación para fines funcionales concretos» (MCER §5.2.3.2). No se trata solo de saber qué formas lingüísticas expresan determinadas funciones sino de comprender los procesos y las destrezas implicadas en la interacción comunicativa completa. La modalidad epistémica en el sentido de expresión de actitudes como duda o certeza es así una de las microfunciones (uso funcional de enunciados aislados), sin embargo el conocimiento de los marcadores epistémicos parece clave también para un empleo adecuado de macrofunciones (uso funcional de secuencia de oraciones). El hablante competente (C1) es capaz de precisar sus opiniones y afirmaciones aportando grados de certeza/incertidumbre, creencia/duda, probabilidad, con lo cual en este nivel es necesario hacer más hincapié en la distinción entre la modalidad objetiva y la subjetiva que se basa sobre todo en el saber reconocer varios tipos de implicaturas.
5 CONCLUSIÓN
En el ámbito de la lingüística, el estudio de los distintos tipos de modalidad es fundamental tanto para el análisis de la estructura semántica de la oración y de los textos como para una adecuada comprensión de razonamientos que se realizan en el lenguaje natural. Saber reconocer y usar los recursos de la modalidad epistémica es así un aspecto del uso de la lengua imprescindible para llegar a ser un usuario independiente y competente ya que, como tantos otros contenidos que forman parte de la realidad más próxima al aprendiz, los marcadores epistémicos no solamente permiten asignar diferentes grados de verdad sino que permiten también la elección entre ellas (Halliday 1982).
La relación entre la madurez sintáctica del estudiante y los aspectos comunicati-vo-pragmáticos y semánticos en la producción de expresiones modales tal y como lo plantea Collentine (1995) demuestra la necesidad de la selección sistemática de estos contenidos en los materiales didácticos en el nivel C1 donde parece que hacen falta las recapitulaciones funcionales de este tipo. El usuario competente necesita conocer tanto los recursos lingüísticos aislados como saber agruparlos según los significados funcionales. Consideramos, además, que la toma de conciencia por parte del estudiante sobre el funcionamiento de los marcadores epistémicos verbales contribuye eficazmente y de manera decisiva al desarrollo de las competencias comunicativas en los niveles del MCER B2 y C1.
En suma, parece importante plantear la necesidad de varios esquemas resumido-res de contenidos funcionales o, por lo menos, de una presentación sistematizada de los marcadores epistémicos verbales con todo el abanico de valores modales reunidos para fortalecer las funciones comunicativas en los niveles B1, B2 y C1. Para la ad-
quisición de los contenidos modales en estos niveles es necesario partir de la función (en nuestro caso la modalidad epistémica) y después analizar todas las posibles manifestaciones gramaticales, sin importar si algunas de ellas ya han sido estudiadas en los niveles anteriores.
Bibliografía
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GONZÁLEZ MANZANO, Mónica (2013) Gramaticalización de los marcadores epistémicos en español. Tesis doctoral inédita. Barcelona: Universitat de Barcelona. 2 de junio de 2014. http://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/101406/ MGM_TESIS.pdf?sequence=1/ GONZÁLEZ VÁZQUEZ, Mercedes (1998) «La polisemia de 'poder' en ELE.» In: J. Tomás Jiménez et al. (eds), Español como lengua extranjera, enfoque comunicativo y gramática: actas del IX congreso internacional de ASELE. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 625-632.
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Corpus - los manuales analizados
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Resumen
LOS MARCADORES VERBALES DE MODALIDAD EPISTÉMICA Y SU PAPEL EN EL DESARROLLO DE LAS COMPETENCIAS COMUNICATIVAS
La modalidad de la lengua, uno de los fenómenos característicos del proceso de la enunciación, tiene que ver, en el sentido amplio, con la actitud mental que el hablante denota en sus palabras al describir, preguntar, desear o llamar la atención sobre lo que habla. Tradicionalmente se suelen juntar bajo la amplia etiqueta de la modalidad lingüística manifestaciones formales muy diversas: el modo verbal, los auxiliares modales, ciertos adverbios y partículas, la entonación, etc.
Este estudio se centra en los determinados marcadores verbales en español y sus posibilidades de expresión de la modalidad epistémica, entendida como la expresión lingüística del grado de compromiso que el hablante asume respecto a la factualidad de su enunciado. Se exponen, primero, las perífrasis verbales modales y algunos tiempos verbales que en determinados contextos señalan modalidad epistémica y/o evidenci-alidad, a saber, los usos «citativos» o «polifónicos», y, segundo, se analiza la sistematización de estos recursos en seis manuales seleccionados de ELE (los niveles del MCER B1, B2 y C1) y su contribución al desarrollo de las competencias comunicativas (competencias lingüísticas, sociolingüísticas y pragmáticas siempre según MCER). Consideramos que el estudio de la modalidad epistémica de manera explícita dentro del aula de ELE contribuye eficazmente al dominio del uso del español, y que por lo tanto se merece una mayor atención.
Palabras clave: marcadores verbales, modalidad epistémica, niveles comunes de referencia, competencias comunicativas.
Abstract
VERBAL MARKERS OF EPISTEMIC MODALITY AND THEIR ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCES
Modality in language, one of the characteristic phenomena of the process of communication, has to do with, in the broad sense, the mindset that the speaker indicates in his words while describing, questioning, or wanting to draw attention to what he is saying. Traditionally there is a tendency to gather, under the broad label of linguistic modality, a variety of different forms: verbal mode, auxiliary verbs, certain adverbs and particles, intonation, etc.
The aim of this study is to analyze the Spanish verbal markers and their possibilities to express epistemic modality, which is defined as the linguistic expression of the degree of commitment that the speaker assumes about the factuality of his statement (Lyons 1977, Palmer 1986). The study focuses, first, on modal verbal periphrases and some of the tenses which can indicate the epistemic modality and/or evidentiality in certain contexts through the so-called »quotative« or »polyphonic« uses. The second
part of this study consists of an analysis of the systematization of these resources in six selected manuals of Spanish as a Second Language (SSL; levels B1, B2 and C1 according to CEFR), with special attention to its contribution to the development of communicative competences (linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence, again according to CEFR). We believe that the explicit study of epistemic modality in the SSL classroom effectively contributes to a good command of Spanish, and therefore deserves more attention.
Keywords: verbal markers, epistemic modality, common reference levels, communicative competences.
Povzetek
GLAGOLSKI KAZALNIKI EPISTEMIČNE MODALNOSTI IN NJIHOVA VLOGA PRI RAZVOJU SPORAZUMEVALNIH JEZIKOVNIH ZMOŽNOSTI
Jezikovna modalnost ali naklonska sestavina jezika, eden izmed najznačilnejših pojavov v procesu sporazumevanja, s širšega zornega kota zadeva odnos, ki ga govorec vpisuje v besede, ko pripoveduje, sprašuje, izraža želje ali poskuša usmeriti pozornost v to, kar govori. Tradicionalno gledano, sodijo pod široko etiketo jezikovne modalnosti raznolike formalne manifestacije: glagolski naklon, modalni glagoli, določeni prislovi in členki, intonacija in podobno.
Pričujoča študija se osredotoča na nekatere glagolske kazalnike (marcadores verbales) epistemične modalnosti v španščini in proučuje njihovo vlogo pri razvoju spora-zumevalnih zmožnosti. Epistemično modalnost razumemo kot jezikovno izražanje go-vorčeve zaveze do »faktualnosti« oziroma do objektivne predstavitve izjave. V prvem delu članka se izpostavijo tiste modalne glagolske perifraze in posamezni glagolski časi, ki v določenih kontekstih signalizirajo epistemično modalnost in evidencialnost v tako imenovanih »citatnih« ali »polifoničnih« rabah. Drugi del študije predstavi izsledke analize šestih učbenikov za španščino kot tuji jezik (ravni SEJO B1, B2 in C1), s katero se je želelo ugotoviti, na kakšen način se ti mehanizmi v učbenikih sistematizirajo ter kakšen je njihov prispevek k razvoju sporazumevalnih jezikovnih zmožnosti (po SEJO: jezikovnih, sociolingvističnih in pragmatičnih zmožnosti). Menimo namreč, da eksplicitno poučevanje epistemične modalnosti pri pouku španščine kot tujega jezika bistveno prispeva k usvajanju jezikovne rabe, zato si zasluži večjo pozornost.
Ključne besede: glagolski kazalniki, epistemična modalnost, skupne referenčne ravni, sporazumevalne jezikovne zmožnosti.
Gemma Santiago Alonso
Universidad de Ljubljana*
UDK 811.134.2'367.632:811.163.6 DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.397-410
EL ANÁLISIS CONTRASTIVO COMO INSTRUMENTO DIDÁCTICO: LOS PROBLEMAS DE ADQUISICIÓN DEL ARTÍCULO EN ESPAÑOL POR APRENDICES ESLOVENOS EN LOS DIFERENTES NIVELES DEL MCER
1 INTRODUCCIÓN
El Marco Común Europeo de referencia (MCER) postula desde sus directrices que los factores de contraste lingüístico son muy importantes a la hora de evaluar el aprendizaje y su procesamiento (2002: 150-152), y por lo tanto, consideramos que la introducción del Análisis Contrastivo (AC) como herramienta integrante del proceso pedagógico puede ser una herramienta eficaz, sobre todo en aspectos gramaticales de gran dificultad. En muchas ocasiones, los errores producidos por los aprendices de una lengua extranjera (L2) son debidos a una interlengua todavía en proceso de construcción, que no es sino una representación simplificada o distorsionada de la lengua meta. Los errores que se producen en las diferentes interlenguas de los aprendices no solo deberían corregirse, sino también analizarse y explicarse de manera que el aprendiz fuera desarrollando una competencia gramatical y una conciencia lingüística capaz de dotarle de autonomía y herramientas de análisis para seguir evolucionando dentro de su proceso de aprendizaje. En este aspecto, Ellis (1994: 40) ha subrayado la importancia de la L1 como recurso imprescindible al que los aprendices acuden dentro de su propio proceso de aprendizaje de una L2, hecho este que ha sido también evidenciado por Roca (2005: 238), quien destaca cómo la L1 interviene a lo largo de todo el proceso de aprendizaje de una L2, y se convierte así en un instrumento heurístico que el aprendiz utiliza para descubrir las propiedades formales de una nueva lengua.
Por otra parte, la Lingüística Contrastiva (LC), desde una clara orientación sincrónica, entiende como su objetivo principal el de predecir tanto las estructuras de la lengua meta que presentarán más dificultades para los estudiantes, como averiguar cuál será la naturaleza y gravedad de éstas en el proceso de aprendizaje1. De esta manera, la LC se convierte en una herramienta de gran utilidad para el profesor de lenguas, ya que puede preparar adecuadamente la programación, el material didáctico y las técnicas de instrucción dentro del aula.
Por todo lo anterior, el objetivo principal que se plantea esta investigación es presentar un acercamiento a la enseñanza significativa del artículo desde el punto de vista
* Dirección de la autora: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana,
Eslovenia. E-mail: gemma.santiago@ff.uni-lj.si.
1 Para una revisión de la LC, ver Fisiak (1981).
del AC entre el español y el esloveno. Las conclusiones obtenidas a la hora de contrastar la expresión de definitud y los diferentes mecanismos (extra)lingüísticos utilizados por ambas lenguas (a través del cuento de Julio Cortázar «Las babas del diablo» y su correspondiente traducción al esloveno) han servido para identificar los usos problemáticos en los diferentes niveles de adquisición del artículo del MCER. Localizados los valores más conflictivos, el profesor tendrá que prestar mayor atención tanto en los materiales como en las actividades que ayuden a un procesamiento significativo del artículo en español. El diseño de secuencias didácticas en la que se facilite el foco en la forma va a facilitar la adquisición de hábitos de reflexión lingüística que doten al aprendiz de herramientas que desarrollen su competencia gramatical en pos siempre de un aprendizaje significativo y relacional.
2 EL ANÁLISIS CONTRASTIVO COMO HERRAMIENTA DOCENTE
El desarrollo de la conciencia lingüística en el aprendiz a lo largo de su proceso de adquisición de la lengua meta es esencial, como claramente se evidencia en el MCER (2002: 119), donde la competencia lingüística figura -junto con la competencia pragmática y sociolingüística- como uno de los tres pilares fundamentales en la adquisición de la competencia comunicativa. Este desarrollo de la conciencia lingüística implica un incremento, tal y como plantea el MCER (2002: 145), de las capacidades comunicativas mediante técnicas de reflexión y toma de conciencia explícita entre otras. Asimismo, respecto a la capacidad de aprender, el MCER (2002: 104-105) presupone que los aprendices asuman la responsabilidad de su propio proceso de aprendizaje, teniendo en cuenta que la reflexión metalingüística en el aula fomenta el aprendizaje exploratorio en donde el estudiante participa más en el proceso de adquisición y desarrollo de múltiples habilidades analíticas.
Otra ventaja que el MCER (2002: 131-133) relaciona con el desarrollo de la conciencia lingüística se vincula con el concepto de plurilingüismo, puesto que cualquier conocimiento nuevo no sólo se añade a nuestros conocimientos anteriores, sino que está condicionado por el carácter, la riqueza y la estructura de nuestros conocimientos previos, y además sirve para modificar y volver a estructurar estos conocimientos, aunque sea de forma parcial. Evidentemente, los conocimientos de un individuo ya adquiridos tanto en la adquisición de la lengua materna como en el aprendizaje de otras L2 están directamente relacionados con el aprendizaje de otras lenguas. De esta manera, el aprendiz muchas veces adopta una perspectiva contrastiva a través de la cual se desarrolla el nuevo conocimiento a partir de los ya adquiridos (tanto en la lengua materna como en lengua extranjera). Siguiendo el enfoque constructivista, se puede deducir que el aprendizaje no es causado por la internalización de los significados externos, sino mediante la construcción de sus propios modelos (Boillos 2012: 4).
Sin embargo, para que el aprendizaje significativo se produzca, es necesario establecer situaciones metalingüísticas concretas dentro del aula, y por lo tanto consideramos que el AC en el aula puede ser una herramienta de enseñanza que ayude en el procesamiento significativo en los más altos estadios de la adquisición de un idioma.
Ya desde su origen, el AC ha evolucionado en paralelo a otros modelos lingüísticos (Estructuralismo, Generativismo, y más recientemente, Cognitivismo), y se ha convertido en una herramienta útil de enseñanza, como ya ha sido demostrado por las numerosas investigaciones llevadas a cabo en este campo2. No obstante, y gracias a la lingüística cognitiva, los estudios de AC se han centrado aún más en la competencia gramatical de los alumnos, teniendo en cuenta las cuestiones de naturaleza pragmática y de procesamiento.
Por otro lado, aparte de todas las críticas que ha recibido el AC como modelo de análisis de datos para investigaciones sobre la Adquisición de Segundas Lenguas (ASL)3, tenemos que reconocer su valor puesto que se enfoca en los estudiantes, en su proceso de aprendizaje y en todo lo que esto conlleva. Estamos de acuerdo con Galindo Merino (2009: 421-441) cuando afirma que una de las contribuciones del AC más significativas al actual campo de la ASL es destacar la influencia de la lengua materna (L1) en la perpetuación de ciertos errores, posiblemente por la ausencia de determinadas estructuras en la L1, dada la distancia o las divergencias interlingüísticas entre la L1 y la L2. Además, el AC muestra cómo la distancia interlingüística tiene un impacto en el número de errores con respecto a la transferencia de formas marcadas y no marcadas de la L1 a la L2. Es indudable, pues, que dentro del proceso del diseño de material didáctico para los grupos monolingües, el AC es una herramienta muy útil y de gran impacto para incluir comentarios contrastivos (gramaticales, morfológicos, sintácticos, etc.).
De este modo, el objetivo del profesor es hacer que los alumnos sean conscientes de la existencia de estas operaciones mentales implicadas en el procesamiento del uso de la lengua. Los alumnos desarrollan una competencia gramatical común en el que convergen el uso de la lengua y la reflexión metalingüística, porque «un aprendizaje es tanto más significativo cuantas más relaciones con sentido es capaz de establecer el alumno entre lo que ya conoce [...] y el nuevo contenido que se le presenta como objeto de aprendizaje» (Boillos 2012: 13).
Coincidimos con Boillos (2012) en cuanto a que la lengua materna es una herramienta para enriquecer la experiencia lingüística en lenguas extranjeras, y el AC un análisis facilitador en el aprendizaje constructivo y el desarrollo de la competencia
2	Trabajos como los de James (1980), Krashen (1981), Corder (1981), Fisiak (1981), Thomas (1989), Muñoz Liceras (1992) y Ellis (1994) han evidenciado ser de gran utilidad para investigadores y profesores a la hora de comprender todas las implicaciones existentes dentro del proceso de adquisición de una segunda lengua. Dentro del proceso de adquisición del artículo español, son de especial interés los estudios de Vázquez (1991), Santos Gargallo (1992), Fernández López (1997), Lin (2003) y García Mayo y Hawkins (2009).
3	Las críticas que se le hicieron al modelo de AC fueron principalmente por el hecho de que identificaba la interferencia como única fuente de los errores cometidos en el proceso del aprendizaje de la L2, y no planteaba otras causas de caracter intralingüístico por la propia complejidad de la lengua meta, u otros procesos cognitivos propios del proceso de aprendizaje como la hipergeneralización. Aun así, no podemos olvidar que se trataba del primer intento científico de entender el aprendizaje de idiomas con vistas a una mejora de la práctica docente, y supuso un estímulo fundamental en la investigación sobre el aprendizaje de idiomas, con una profunda implicación pedagógica. Para más información veáse Fernández López (1997), Vázquez (1991), Santos Gargallo (1992).
plurilingüe de los aprendices. Además de compaginar el conocimiento declarativo y el procedimental, el alumno, si es consciente de la relación entre las lenguas, podrá crear una red de interrelaciones entre el conocimiento ya interiorizado de su lengua materna y los rasgos de aquella lengua que aprende (2012: 7). El alumno dispone de un conjunto de instrumentos, estrategias y habilidades generales que tienen carácter translingüísti-co, es decir, que no están asociados a una lengua específica, y que podrá aplicar en la adquisición de la lengua meta. Se trata de unas capacidades generales de procesamiento y producción de la información que son comunes a todas las lenguas con las que esté en contacto el aprendiz, independientemente de cuál sea el nivel de dominio de cada una de ellas.
3 LA EXPRESIÓN DE DEFINITUD EN ESLOVENO Y EN ESPAÑOL 3.1 Algunas características de la lengua eslovena
El esloveno es una lengua eslava que pertenece a la familia de las lenguas indoeuropeas, y dentro de estas se encontraría en el grupo de las lenguas eslavas meridionales. Esta lengua, a diferencia de las lenguas romances, ha conservado una estructura indoeuropea flexiva, es decir, se trata de una lengua sintética caracterizada por incluir información morfosintáctica a través de prefijos, infijos o sufijos, tales como los géneros gramaticales (masculino, femenino y neutro) o los seis casos (nominativo, genitivo, dativo, acusativo, locativo e instrumental). Una de las características más destacables del esloveno -como de la mayoría de lenguas eslavas4 - es la ausencia de artículo, aunque la lengua tiene otros recursos lingüísticos y extralingüísticos para expresar la (in)definitud igualmente, mecanismos de los que daremos cuenta en este apartado.
En la morfología verbal del esloveno, el aspecto verbal es remarcable desde una perspectiva contrastiva, puesto que la lengua eslovena en comparación con el español es rica en la expresión del aspecto verbal, y tiene dos formas: perfectiva (utilizada para referirse a un evento concebido como limitado y único, que implica su terminación) e imperfectiva (utilizada para acciones concebidas como existentes de forma continua o repetitiva, que no implica su terminación)5. Esta categoría se puede expresar en esloveno6 ya sea léxicamente (es decir, con el significado de los verbos que denota acción perfectiva, puntual como eksplodirati [explotar] o acción imperfectiva durativa como spati [dormir]) o morfológicamente por medio de prefijos, sufijos o infijos, lo que significa que en esloveno, hay, por lo general, un par aspectual imperfectivo/perfectivo para cada verbo, como por ejemplo, el caso de brati/prebrati [leer / terminar de leer], kupiti/ kupovati [comprar una vez / comprar repetidamente], skočiti/skakati [saltar / saltar de forma repetida], piti/popiti [entre uno de sus significados: beber repetidas veces/ ter-
4	El búlgaro es la única lengua eslava que posee este rasgo, aunque el artículo aparece pospuesto al nombre. Para más información véase: MALLORY, James. P./Douglas Q. ADAMS (eds) (1997) Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London/Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.
5	LEWANDOWSKI, Theodor (1982) Diccionario de lingüística. Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra.
6	Para un estudio más pormenorizado véase Markič (1991, 2000), Miklič (1983) y Toporišič (1984).
minar de beber] (Markic 2000: 505-507). Más adelante veremos cómo en el esloveno muchas veces con la selección del verbo perfectivo/imperfectivo se influye igualmente en la (in)definitud del argumento, puesto que no es lo mismo piti kavo (beber 0 café -una acción que en muchos casos se podría entender como habitual, repetida- selecciona en español claramente la ausencia de artículo, convirtiendo café en un concepto clasificador sin referente concreto restringido o no restringido accesible) que popiti kavo (me he terminado de beber el café -una acción perfectiva terminativa- selecciona en español el artículo7 positivo el, puesto que en este caso café es un referente accesible y restringido; en español, la restricción del argumento café sería expresado lingüísticamente de manera doble, tanto por el artículo el como por la forma beberse, verbo terminativo que implica una acción limitada).
3.2 Mecanismos del esloveno para expresar la definitud
En este apartado se han tenido en cuenta los diferentes modos de los que dispone el esloveno para expresar la definitud. Para ilustrarlo, se ha tomado como fuente de ejemplos la traducción al esloveno del cuento de Cortázar «Las Babas del diablo» tanto por su calidad y por la representatividad de los ejemplos seleccionados para ilustrar el tema tratado como por las implicaciones pedagógicas que permite el análisis de un cuento dentro del aula tanto por su brevedad como por las futuras traducciones en el aula8. En ningún momento se ha pretendido sistematizar ni crear un inventario pormenorizado o cerrado de todos los valores del artículo en español a partir de una única traducción.
Obviamente, otro punto que hemos de puntualizar es que, como ya se ha adelantado, el esloveno no tiene una marca explícita para el artículo, y los casos en los que encontramos mecanismos lingüísticos explícitos van a ser muy reducidos, ya que el contexto extralingüístico es suficientemente significativo para restringir la referencialidad en esta lengua. Por lo tanto, la adquisición del artículo constituye uno de los mayores problemas en los aprendices eslovenos9, entendiendo que la disparidad de formas y
7	En este trabajo vamos a utilizamos por su carácter pedagógico la clasificación del artículo que establece Campillo (1998): artículo virtual o cero, artículo un o aproximativo y artículo el o positivo. Entendemos que la oposición artículo definido/indefinido o determinado/indeterminado no es completamente significativa para una gramática pedagógica que ayude a procesar a los aprendices eslovenos la presencia/ausencia de artículo, dada la distancia existente entre su lengua materna y el español. Tampoco vamos a tener en cuenta aquí si el artículo un debe ser considerado como un artículo o un numeral. Para una información más detallada de estos aspectos, véase (Alarcos 1970; Alonso 1974; Laca 1999; Leonetti Jung 1999; Lapesa 1976; Lázaro Carreter 1980).
8	Una de las posibles implicaciones dentro del aula para favorecer el análisis contrastivo sería la utilización de la traducción como instrumento didáctico. Este tipo de traducciones pedagógicas ayudan a favorecer la competencia y conciencia lingüística de los aprendices tanto en la L1 como en la L2 (Rocca 2005: 241). Además, trabajar traducciones en grupos dentro del aula permite el desarrollo de lo planteado anteriormente a partir de las negociaciones entre los propios estudiantes y los estudiantes con el profesor.
9	Existe una investigación (Santiago Alonso 2009) sobre la interlengua de los aprendices eslovenos en la adquisición del artículo en español donde ya se demostró cuantitativa y cualitativamente el problema. En dicha investigación se subrayaba el hecho de que el número de errores producidos más elevado se produjo en la omisión errónea del artículo determinado (un 71%), frente a los producidos
contextos en cuanto al uso de la definitud en ambas lenguas produce en el aprendiz falsas analogías con estructuras de la lengua meta.
A continuación pasaremos al análisis contrastivo desde la traducción de Vesna Vel-kovrh Bukilica. Los ejemplos en español pertenecen al cuento «Las babas del diablo» de Las armas secretas publicado por Alfaguara en el año 2007; la correspondiente traducción al esloveno es del libro que en esloveno lleva el mismo título que el cuento de Cortázar Hudičeva slina, publicado por la editorial Beletrina en 2003. Al final de cada uno de los ejemplos en español y en esloveno se indica el número de la página de donde han sido sacados. En los ejemplos donde no aparecen las páginas señaladas, son ejemplos nuestros utilizados para matizar o precisar alguna de las explicaciones.
En primer lugar, cuando no aludimos a un referente concreto (artículo 0) o hacemos referencia a objetos accesibles restringidos o no restringidos, en esloveno como ya hemos mencionado anteriormente, en la mayoría de los casos se expresa extralin-güísticamente: el contexto (ejemplo 1), la situación (ejemplo 2 y 3) o el conocimiento consabido (ejemplo 4) es suficiente para obtener la desambiguación del objeto al que se hace referencia sin necesidad del artículo.
1.	cuando alguien nos ha contado un bueno cuento, (...) y contar a su vez el cuento (68) ^ ko nam kdo pove kako dobro zgodbo, (...) zgodbo povemo naprej (201) [en este caso, la interpretación anafórica es suficiente para restringir el sustantivo cuento/ zgodba]
2.	bajemos por las escaleras (68) ^ sestopimo po stopnicah (201) [tanto en el ejemplo 1 como en el 3, el referente es accesible deícticamente, por lo que la interpretación de unicidad del objeto no presenta cuestión alguna]
3.	ponerse los zapatos (68) ^ si obuti čevlje (201)
4.	como cualquier reporter... anda con la cámara (70) ^ kot kak reporter.hodiš s fotoaparatom (203) [se entiende que todo reportero siempre lleva una cámara, por eso el referente de nuevo es accesible extralingüísticamente por el conocimiento en común compartido por los interlocutores]
El conocimiento universal, la generalización, el valor genérico y universal de nuevo queda desambiguado por el contexto sin necesidad de marcarlo en esloveno por el artículo.
5.	sale el sol (84) ^ posije sonce (216) [en este caso como en el siguiente, el conocimiento universal hace referencia a entidades únicas como son la luna o el sol]
6.	subir la luna (67) ^ vziti luna (200)
El superlativo hace referencia a argumentos absolutamente individualizados, y fácilmente identificables por el interlocutor por su carácter unívoco y restringido, por lo que en esloveno se hace innecesario marcarlo nuevamente con un artículo.
por adición (12%), por selección (10%), y por concordancia (5%). La omisión del artículo será, pues, el área más problemática dentro del proceso de adquisición del artículo para los aprendices eslovenos y al que consecuentemente habrá que prestar mayor atención e instrucción gramatical.
7.	es la mejor de las puntas (68) ^ je navsezadnje najboljši konec (201)
Como ya mencionamos en el apartado 3.1, el esloveno restringe el argumento del verbo también mediante el cambio de aspecto del verbo utilizado (perfectivo/ imperfectivo)10.
8.	Se acaban las nubes (69) ^ bo konec oblakov (201) [el verbo acabar/končati es un verbo perfectivo terminativo que selecciona un argumento limitado y restringido]
9.	a) escribo a máquina (68) ^ pišem na stroj (200) [pisati/escribir es en este caso un verbo imperfectivo, y no restringe el argumento máquina; asimismo la forma imperfectiva diferencia el modo de escribir]
b) escribir con una máquina ^ napisati s strojem (en este caso, la forma perfectiva napisati selecciona en esloveno un instrumento con un referente concreto; como acabamos de ver tanto en 9a como en 9b, en español se indica la diferencia entre modo o instrumento con la ausencia/presencia del artículo mientras que en esloveno este cambio del argumento viene dado por el cambio de aspecto del verbo pisati/napisati : imperfectivo/perfectivo).
10.	Restallan las salpicaduras de la lluvia (84) ^ zaštropotajo dežne kaplje (216) [de nuevo tenemos un verbo perfectivo que selecciona un argumento limitado, en español expresado mediante el artículo].
En el caso del tipo o clase del sustantivo, que en español muchas veces se resuelve con el sintagma preposicional de + sustantivo escueto, en esloveno se expresa transformando el sustantivo en adjetivo especificativo al añadirle el sufijo -i.
11.	a) José Norberto Allende, profesor de Universidad (69) ^ José Norberto Allende, univerzitetni profesor (202)
b) José Norberto Allende, profesor de la Universidad de Santiago ^ José Norberto Allende, profesor na Univerzi v Santiagu [en el caso 11 a, universidad no hace referencia a una universidad concreta, sino que clasifica el tipo de profesor, es decir, universitario; en el caso 11 b, la universidad tiene que ser accesible por un referente restringido y limitado puesto que se trata de un lugar concreto].
Otro de los mecanismos lingüísticos que cuenta el esloveno para restringir o no el referente son los casos.
12.	la máquina siguiera sola (77) ^ stroj bi nadaljeval sam (211) [el caso nominativo en función de sujeto hace referencia a un nombre limitado, puesto que el sujeto que realiza la acción ha de ser conocido o estar limitado o definido de alguna manera]
13.	quién es el que está contando (68) ^ kdo je tisti, ki pripoveduje (201) [en el caso de los atributos identificativos, podemos observar cómo el esloveno puede utilizar
10 En español tenemos también parejas de verbos imperfectivos/perfectivos (beber/beberse, comer/ comerse) o incluso verbos llamados terminativos por su naturaleza perfectiva (pinté un cuadro, escribí un libro).
el demostrativo tisti/este para restringir el atributo como mecanismo de restricción referencial]
14.	a) hasta el domingo (73) ^ do nedelje (206) [con el caso preposición + locativo, el día de la semana queda restringido de manera unívoca, haciendo referencia a un día concreto -en el caso del cuento de Cortázar, el 7 de noviembre]
b) Y ya está en el domingo (68) ^ in ze je nedelja (201) [en este ejemplo domingo aparece en caso nominativo, y aquí no hace referencia a una fecha concreta sino que clasifica el día de la semana en la que se encuentran]
15.	Nos ha contado un buen cuento (75) ^ nam pove kako dobro zgodbo (208) [en este caso es destacable que además de utilizar el caso acusativo con sustantivo contable que en la mayoría de los casos funciona como un argumento limitado, esta construcción con el artículo un tiene valor valorativo y se construye igualmente en esloveno con el pronombre/determinante kako].
16.	Cómo voy a clausurar correctamente la oración (80) ^ kako najpravilno sklenem to poved (213) [este caso nos resulta de especial interés porque la traductora ha utilizado de nuevo -como en el ejemplo 13- el determinante demostrativo to11 para restringir la palabra oración, aunque el verbo skleniti sea un verbo perfectivo, y por lo tanto, limita el argumento que aparece después del verbo].
17.	Contarlo a los muchachos de la oficina o al médico (69) ^ povedati fantom v pisarni ali pa zdravniku (202) [el dativo en esloveno hace referencia a referentes accesibles por el interlocutor].
18.	Está sobre la mesa (67) ^ je na mizi (200) [en este caso el esloveno utiliza el caso locativo con un argumento restringido, ya que la lengua eslovena entiende que lo que se ubica siempre ha de tener un referente accesible].
A lo largo de todos los ejemplos analizados hemos podido observar cómo la refe-rencialidad en esloveno se expresa tanto de forma lingüística como extralingüística de una manera clara y sin ambigüedades. Es lógico entender que los aprendices eslovenos entiendan el artículo español en muchos casos como una reduplicación innecesaria, de ahí que en múltiples ocasiones -por interferencia con el esloveno en cuanto a la forma de expresar la referencialidad- no utilicen el artículo, porque entienden que tanto extralingüística como lingüísticamente tiene elementos suficientes para desambiguar cualquier expresión de (in)definitud.
4 LOS PROBLEMAS DE ADQUISICIÓN DEL ARTÍCULO EN LOS DIFERENTES NIVELES DEL MCER
En este apartado utilizamos los resultados del AC realizados en nuestra investigación, y los aplicamos a los diferentes niveles de adquisición del Plan Curricular del Instituto Cervantes (2006), basándonos en las directrices que el MCER diseñó para
11 No debemos olvidar que las formas del artículo en español derivan del demostrativo latín: Ille, illa, illud.
la adquisición y procesamiento del artículo. Nuestro objetivo ha sido señalar aquellos usos conflictivos en los que la distancia existente entre el esloveno y el español pueda provocar problemas en el procesamiento, para que se tenga en cuenta a la hora de diseñar actividades didácticas de procesamiento de input centrado en la forma y materiales de trabajo. Claramente, la mayoría de los usos presentados hacen referencia a la presencia del artículo positivo el/la/los/las, fuente del mayor número de errores por parte de los eslovenos, errores estos que en muchos casos pueden llegar a fosilizarse. Los mencionados usos conflictivos son los siguientes:
a)	A1
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo definido12 con sustantivos sujeto en construcciones con el verbo gustar.
•	Incompatibilidad del artículo indefinido con el verbo estar.
•	Incompatibilidad del artículo definido con el verbo saber.
•	Incompatibilidad del artículo indefinido con numerales (*un otro amigo).
b)	A2
•	Artículo (in)definido masculino singular delante de sustantivo femenino singular que empiece con vocal tónica.
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo definido en sustantivos que expresan actividades de ocio (jugar al tenis).
•	Incompatibilidad del artículo definido con modificadores de gradación (* la película muy buena).
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo definido con sustantivos sujeto en construcciones con el verbo apetecer, encantar, fascinar...
•	Ausencia de determinación con atributos clasificadores (profesión, nacionalidad, creencia.).
•	Restricción de nombres escuetos con nombres contables en singular (* quiero caramelo), excepto si corresponden a un cierto estereotipo social (tiene casa/*tienepalacio; tieneperro/*tiene serpiente).
c)	B1
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo definido e indefinido con sustantivos sujetos.
•	Imposibilidad de ausencia de determinación con interpretaciones genéricas (*Gatos son inteligentes).
•	Ausencia de determinación cuando funciona como complemento de otro sustantivo para formar compuestos sintagmáticos (estudiante de español).
d)	B2
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo definido con realidades únicas (mira la luna).
•	Ausencia de determinación con verbos semi-auxiliares (hacer, tener, dar, poner...) para predicados complejos (hacer noche, dar clase, poner fecha).
12 En este caso, vamos a mantener la terminología utilizada por el MCER y el Plan Curricular del Instituto Cervantes (artículo definido/indefinido/nombres escuetos).
e)	C1
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo definido con oración de relativo con valor sus-tantivador (me preocupa el que no hayan venido).
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo indefinido con valor enfático (es un médico).
f)	C2
•	Uso obligatorio del artículo indefinido en combinación con todo en singular y con valor enfático (todo un hombre).
5 CONCLUSIÓN
El uso del AC ha demostrado ser una útil herramienta dentro de la glosodidáctica cuando se refiere a temas relativos a la expresión de definitud en lenguas tan distanciadas en este aspecto como son el esloveno y el español. Creemos que a través de un enfoque contrastivo se le ofrece al aprendiz mecanismos para que comprenda significativamente su uso y los mecanismos de expresión de definitud que una y otra lengua emplean para su adecuado procesamiento. En otras palabras, se les ofrece a los aprendices la posibilidad de crear una compleja red relacional a partir de su propio conocimiento y sus propias experiencias, lo que significa a la vez el desarrollo de la competencia plurilingüe.
Estamos de acuerdo con Boillos (2012: 12-13) cuando afirma que el despertar de la conciencia lingüística promueve el desarrollo de la capacidad de «aprender a aprender» en cuanto que el alumno, por medio de estas tareas, aprenderá a planificar, controlar e incluso evaluar críticamente su proceso de aprendizaje. Es decir, despertará su sensibilidad hacia la situación de enseñanza-aprendizaje en la que está inmerso. Se trata, por tanto, de una intervención preventiva en la que el profesor elegirá el rasgo que quiere trabajar para el diseño de tareas en las que el alumno, además de practicar cierto aspecto gramatical, haga un uso significativo de la lengua meta. Las tareas centradas en el AC siempre deberán ir acompañadas de una descripción explícita de las similitudes y diferencias entre la lengua origen y la meta para despertar la conciencia gramatical de los alumnos. La traducción pedagógica dentro del aula de cuentos cortos (como el analizado en el artículo) supone un excelente instrumento didáctico que favorece el AC entre la L1 y la L2, puesto que este tipo de tarea adopta un enfoque basado en la reflexión contrastiva explícita. Todo lo anteriormente mencionado puede favorecer la adquisición de una conciencia lingüística contrastiva en ambas lenguas que a la larga mejorará la competencia lectora y traductora de los aprendices. Trabajos como los de La Rocca (2005) o Markic (2000) son un buen ejemplo de esto.
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Resumen
EL ANÁLISIS CONTRASTIVO COMO INSTRUMENTO DIDÁCTICO: LOS PROBLEMAS DE ADQUISICIÓN DEL ARTÍCULO EN ESPAÑOL POR APRENDICES ESLOVENOS EN LOS DIFERENTES NIVELES DEL MCER
El objetivo del presente artículo es desarrollar un acercamiento a la enseñanza significativa del artículo desde la perspectiva del Análisis Contrastivo. Para ello se ha tenido en cuenta el papel del plurilingüismo y el desarrollo de la conciencia lingüística establecidos por el MCER.
Nos hemos ayudado del Análisis Contrastivo para explicar los valores del artículo en español y los mecanismos lingüísticos (o extralingüísticos) que utiliza el esloveno
para expresar la definitud, utilizando ejemplos sacados del cuento de Julio Cortázar «Las babas del diablo» y la comparación con su correspondiente traducción al esloveno de Vesna Velkovrh Bukilica. Asimismo, se han clasificado los usos más problemáticos del artículo con los que pueden tener problemas los aprendices de esloveno en cada nivel, de acuerdo con el MCER y el Plan Curricular del Instituto Cervantes, derivados de la distancia entre el esloveno y el español.
El objetivo último de este trabajo ha sido mostrar qué implicaciones didácticas tiene el uso del análisis contrastivo dentro del aprendizaje de lenguas para el procesamiento de temas gramaticales de gran dificultad como es la adquisición del artículo español por parte de los aprendices eslovenos.
Palabras clave: Análisis Contrastivo, plurilingüismo, conciencia lingüística, artículo español.
Abstract
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS AS A DIDACTIC TOOL: ACQUISITION PROBLEMS OF THE SPANISH ARTICLE IN SLOVENE LEARNERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CEFR
The aim of the paper is to present a semantically based approach to the teaching of the Spanish article usage from the point of view of contrastive analysis, taking into account the role of plurilingualism and the development of the learner's linguistic awareness, as envisaged by the CEFR. Dealing with the development of the linguistic awareness of the Slovene learners with regard to the acquisition of the Spanish article, we try to explain the uses of the Spanish article and the linguistic (or extralinguistic) mechanisms employed by the Slovene language to express definiteness on the basis of examples from Julio Cortazar's short story Las babas del diablo and its Slovene translation by Vesna Velkovrh Bukilica. Also, the most problematic uses of the article with which Slovene learners may have problems -because of significant differences between Slovene and Spanish in the areas of grammar concerned - have been classified according to the different levels suggested in CEFR and in Plan Curricular of Instituto Cervantes. The final purpose of the study is to show the pedagogic implications of the use of contras-tive analysis in language learning, especially in dealing with complex grammatical issues such as the acquisition of the Spanish article by Slovene learners.
Keywords: contrastive analysis, plurilingualism, linguistic awareness, Spanish article.
Povzetek
KONTRASTIVNA ANALIZA KOT DIDAKTIČNI INSTRUMENT: PROBLEMI
SLOVENSKIH GOVORCEV PRI USVAJANJU ŠPANSKEGA ČLENA NA RAZLIČNIH NIVOJIH SKUPNEGA EVOPSKEGA JEZIKOVNEGA OKVIRA
Namen prispevka je razviti pristop pri pomenskem poučevanju španskega člena s perspektive kontrastivne analize. Pri tem se je upoštevala vloga večjezičnosti in razvoj jezikovne zavesti z vidika Skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira. Pri razvoju jezikovne zavesti slovenskih učencev pri usvajanju španskega člena nam je za razlago rabe španskega člena in jezikovnih (ali zunajjezikovnih) mehanizmov, ki se uporabljajo v slovenščini za razlago določnosti, služila kontrastivna analiza, znotraj katere se analizirajo primeri kratke zgodbe Julia Cortazarja Las babas del diablo (Hudičeva slina) in primerjajo s slovenskim prevodom Vesne Velikovrh Bukilica. Prav tako se je klasificirala raba člena, ki ga morajo obvladati učenci jezika na določenem nivoju glede na Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir in Kurikuralni načrt Instituta Cervantes, s poudarkom na rabi najbolj problematičnih primerov, ki so posledica razlik med španščino in slovenščino. Zadnji namen te študije je, da pokaže, katere didaktične implikacije ima raba kontrastivne analize znotraj usvajanja jezika za procesiranje težjih slovničnih tem, kot je usvajanje španskega člena pri slovenskih učencih.
Ključne besede: kontrastivna analiza, večjezičnost, jezikovna zavest, španski člen.
Ivana Franic	UDK [81'367+81'25]:[37.091.3:81'243]
Université de Zagreb*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.411-424
DE LA MÉTATAXE À LA MÉDIATION LINGUISTIQUE : LA STRUCTURE OUBLIÉE ?
1 INTRODUCTION
L'introduction du Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues (CECRL) a marqué au fil des années un tournant significatif ainsi qu'un pas important sur le plan de l'apprentissage/enseignement des langues vivantes. De même, ce document a apporté un changement de paradigme en pédagogie moderne : le centre d'intérêt se déplace en direction des besoins de communication de l'apprenant, de l'utilisateur de la langue (la terminologie nous paraît trop orientée vers le pragmatisme) et des objectifs de l'enseignement des langues dans nos sociétés qui sont en pleine mutation. Cependant, l'homme moderne semble exposé plus que jamais aux influences de nombreuses langues. Les sociétés modernes sont de plus en plus ouvertes, la mobilité présente des possibilités attrayantes pour les individus. En même temps, les besoins de la communication deviennent très nombreux et diversifiés, à tel point que l'on met en avant, à juste titre, les dimensions sociale et culturelle de l'apprentissage/enseignement des langues. En plus, l'interculturel est devenu également un des concepts clefs de l'éducation. L'apprentissage, l'acquisition et l'appropriation des aspects différents des langues et des cultures ont ainsi ouvert des questions nouvelles auxquelles doit répondre un enseignement approprié, diversifié, mesuré et équilibré tant pour l'apprenant que pour la matière enseignée.
Vu la complexité des circonstances et compte tenu de la primauté de l'usage de la langue sur son contenu, la communication l'emporte sur la structure proprement dite. On a l'impression que la langue en tant que système est oubliée, voire « bannie » des textes de référence. Ceci se comprend, vu le fait que le centre d'intérêt s'est déplacé en direction de l'apprenant en tant qu'individu et « acteur social » qui doit « accomplir les tâches » dans la société d'aujourd'hui. La langue en tant que système est remplacée par la langue en tant qu'outil de communication et de compréhension linguistique, culturelle et sociale. Le paradigme en vigueur semble s'articuler autour du concept d'agir dans la société d'aujourd'hui plutôt que d'accumuler des connaissances, autrement dit usage plutôt que maîtrise de la langue ou sa connaissance1, acteur social et usager de la langue et non pas apprenant. Aux compétences classiques (compréhension et production réalisées soit à l'oral soit à l'écrit) viennent s'ajouter l'interaction et la médiation. Les niveaux de référence sont la partie la plus saillante de toute la « perspective actionnelle ».
* Adresse de l'auteur : Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Ivana Lučica 3, 10000 Zagreb,
Croatie. Courriel : ifranic@ffzg.hr.
1 « Fin de l'exigence d'une parfaite maîtrise de la langue » (Weissmann 2012 : 318).
Dans cet article, nous poserons les questions suivantes : la langue en tant que système et matériel langagier est-elle vraiment tombée dans l'oubli et, si oui, dans quelle mesure ? Pourquoi le concept de médiation est-il demeuré, dans le texte du CECRL, peu expliqué, ambigu et inachevé ? En formulant nos commentaires sur la médiation, nous nous appuierons sur les postulats de la théorie de syntaxe structurale de Lucien Tesnière. De par sa modernité, cette théorie a suscité un intérêt sans précédent qui ne cesse de croître même de nos jours. La syntaxe structurale a ouvert de nouvelles voies de la réflexion linguistique, en mettant l'accent sur la dimension pratique en pédagogie. Le mécanisme de la métataxe semble approprié pour servir d'appui à une réflexion féconde sur la médiation, réflexion qui prendrait en compte l'objet même de la médiation, à savoir le contenu linguistique (les plans structural et sémantique chez Tesnière).
2 LA MÉDIATION AU SEIN DU CECRL
Des années se sont écoulées depuis la publication du CECRL, ce qui est largement insuffisant pour dresser un bilan des effets et de l'accomplissement des objectifs que se sont donnés les concepteurs de ce document complexe. Un grand nombre d'études consacrées à nombre d'aspects et concepts abordés dans le CECRL soulignent ses bienfaits sur le plan de l'apprentissage/enseignement des langues, notamment sur le plan de l'évaluation. Pourtant, un certain nombre de réflexions critiques a été adressé aux concepts du CECRL, auxquelles s'ajoutent des suggestions, voire améliorations sous forme de numéros spéciaux de revues consacrés aux questions soulevées par le CECRL. Lesdites publications analysent en détail, systématisent ou simplement questionnent les notions clefs introduites par la perspective actionnelle2.
Parmi ces concepts figurent certains qui ont été bien élaborés et qui ont rencontré un grand écho auprès de la quasi-totalité des spécialistes - l'échelle des niveaux communs de référence des compétences langagières, les compétences de l'utilisateur, l'approche actionnelle, la tâche, l'amorce pour le développement ultérieur du plurilinguisme. Ceci ne vaut pas pour les notions de l'interaction et de médiation, les deux étant, nous semble-t-il, les moins élaborées. La médiation est définie comme suit :
Participant à la fois de la réception et de la production, les activités écrites et/ou orales de médiation, permettent, par la traduction ou l'interprétariat, le résumé ou le compte rendu, de produire à l'intention d'un tiers une (re)formulation accessible d'un texte premier auquel ce tiers n'a pas d'abord accès direct. Les activités langagières de médiation, (re)traitant un texte déjà là, tiennent une place considérable dans le fonctionnement langagier ordinaire de nos sociétés (CECRL 2001: 18).
Étant donné le potentiel de cette « notion porteuse de développements », selon Piccardo, nous tâcherons de questionner l'objet même de la médiation, à savoir les éléments linguistiques porteurs de sens, que l'on transmet lors de l'acte de la médiation.
2 Pour une bibliographie non exhaustive sur le CECRL, consulter les sites http://www.emilangues. education.fr/files/par-rubriques/CECRL_sitographie_et_articles_0.pdf http://www.ciep.fr/sites/ default/files/migration/biblio-flash/docs/biblio-flash-langues-cecrl_0.pdf
Le motif supplémentaire pour notre tâche est le statut relativement pauvre des disciplines linguistiques dans le texte du CECRL.
Selon les concepteurs du CECRL, la compétence à communiquer langagièrement du sujet apprenant et communiquant est mise en œuvre dans la réalisation d'activités langagières variées pouvant relever de la réception, de la production, de l'interaction, de la médiation. Tous ces modes d'activités sont susceptibles de s'accomplir soit à l'oral, soit à l'écrit, soit à l'oral et à l'écrit. Les activités de la médiation comprennent les activités de traduction et d'interprétation (CECRL 2001 : 18).
On est en présence dans le CECRL, selon Piccardo, d'un véritable changement conceptuel : le rôle unique de la dimension sociale des langues est reconnu. Pour elle, l'interaction n'est pas la somme de la réception et de la production, il s'agit en effet d'une valeur ajoutée, celle de la co-construction du sens (Piccardo 2012). Quant à la médiation, elle intègre, selon la même auteure, la dimension sociale caractéristique de l'interaction et la dépasse en soulignant le lien constant entre dimension sociale et dimension individuelle dans le cas de l'usage et de l'apprentissage des langues (idem). Aden, quant à elle, souligne la notion de « sens partagé » en avançant que la médiation est un acte : être médiateur ne signifie pas transmettre, mais bien créer de nouveaux réseaux de sens (Aden 2012).
Si on regarde de plus près dans le texte du CECRL, on peut affirmer avec Piccardo qu'il reste peu de chose de la médiation dans le CECRL, celui-ci voulant la limiter aux activités spécialisées de traduction et d'interprétariat, ce qu'on peut bien lire dans la classification des stratégies de la médiation, les stratégies étant le moyen utilisé par l'usager d'une langue pour mobiliser et équilibrer ses ressources et pour mettre en œuvre des aptitudes et des opérations afin de répondre aux exigences de la communication en situation et d'exécuter la tâche avec succès - et de la façon la plus complète et la plus économique possible - en fonction de son but précis (CECRL 2001 : 48). L'utilisation de ces stratégies, selon les auteurs du Cadre, n'est que l'application des principes métacognitifs : Pré-planification, Exécution, Contrôle et Remédiation des différentes formes de l'activité communicative. Pour les auteurs du Cadre, la stratégie signifie ici « l'adoption d'une ligne de conduite particulière qui permet l'efficacité maximum » (CECRL 2001 : 48). Voici des stratégies de médiation proposées dans le Cadre :
Planification: Développer le savoir antérieur ; Localiser les ressources ; Préparer un glossaire ; Prendre en compte les besoins des interlocuteurs ; Sélectionner les unités d'interprétation
Exécution: Anticiper : traiter les données qui arrivent alors que l'on formule la dernière unité, simultanément et en temps réel ; Enregistrer les possibilités et les équivalences ; Combler les lacunes
Évaluation: Vérifier la cohérence des deux textes ; Vérifier la cohérence des usages Remédiation: Affiner à l'aide de dictionnaires et de thésaurus ; Consulter des spécialistes, des sources
Les stratégies énumérées semblent assez bien élaborées, à tel point qu'il serait difficile d'imaginer le recours à certaines d'entre elles en dehors du cadre professionnel.
Toutefois, elles demeurent suffisamment générales pour permettre à l'usager de se débrouiller et de choisir sa démarche, mais nous trouvons que la majorité des stratégies ne peuvent pas être déployées dans un contexte institutionnel (cours de langue) et d'une manière spontanée.
Du point de vue terminologique, Piccardo trouve que la médiation devient un quasi-synonyme de la traduction et de l'interprétariat3, tandis que Weissmann suggère une confusion possible entre les trois termes (Weissmann 2012).
Dans la suite de notre travail, nous soutenons avec Piccardo (2012 : 290) la distinction entre médiation linguistique, médiation culturelle et médiation sociale. Cette proposition découle du constat de l'auteure selon lequel « il serait simpliste [...] de se limiter à une seule dimension de cette activité, celle qui relève plus spécifiquement du passage d'une langue à l'autre ». À part la dimension interlinguistique, la médiation linguistique comprendrait la dimension intralinguistique (p. ex. le résumé). Weissmann, pour sa part, trouve que la médiation linguistique apparaît comme le biais par lequel la traduction pourrait acquérir une nouvelle légitimité. Les activités de médiation forment ainsi « le quatrième pilier » de l'édifice du CECRL (Weissmann 2012).
Somme toute, la médiation représente l'élargissement de la perspective structurale et formelle, il s'agit du concept qui reconnaît et fait profit de certaines catégories propres à la traduction professionnelle et les fait « descendre » à un niveau plus bas et moins spécialisé, à savoir au niveau de non-spécialistes. En même temps, la médiation mobilise ce qui est « l'acquis personnel et le plus intime » de tout apprenant, la langue qui en quelque sorte engendre toutes les langues de l'apprenant, qui les conditionne et participe à leur acquisition, à savoir la langue maternelle. La traduction fait son retour, tout naturellement, dans l'apprentissage/enseignement, mais cette fois dans un cadre plus formel. Le recours à la traduction de la part des apprenants n'est plus une fin en soi, de même, son objectif n'est plus l'entraînement à la maîtrise des formes correctes et leur vérification dans la langue cible. Comme l'affirme De Carlo, les activités de traduction lors de cours de langues ont été caractérisées par l'artificialité de la tâche, car leur but était principalement la vérification de la compréhension ou l'application de règles grammaticales (De Carlo 2012 : 302).
L'utilisation des savoir-faire et compétences qui relèvent du domaine professionnel n'est pas une nouveauté dans le processus de l'apprentissage/enseignement. Le thème et la version représentent des tâches habituelles lors des cours d'une langue étrangère, voire les premières tâches médiatrices pour un apprenant. Il convient de rappeler également les apports de l'analyse contrastive et de la stylistique comparée qui sont allées encore plus loin dans le recours à la traduction à des fins contrastives et pédagogiques4 (Voir : Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais de Vinay et Darbelnet ; l'ouvrage de Tesnière comprend également une dimension contrastive, ce qui a poussé Benveniste à
3	« Le CECRL semble plutôt vouloir la [médiation] limiter aux activités spécialisées de traduction et d'interprétariat. Celles-ci sont en effet évoquées comme quasi-synonymes de la médiation » (Piccardo 2012 : 289).
4	Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais (1958) de Vinay et de Darbelnet représente le chef d'œuvre de la stylistique comparée.
penser au format d'une stylistique comparée, v. Arrivé 1969). En effet, d'après Cuq 2003, l'utilisation de la traduction est fondée sur la conviction que l'apprenant a une tendance naturelle à faire référence à sa langue maternelle pour s'approprier une langue étrangère, ce qui représente une tendance que l'enseignant a tout intérêt à utiliser. De Carlo souligne également que traduire dans le sens de passer et faire passer d'une langue-culture à l'autre ou à l'intérieur d'une même langue-culture n'est pas uniquement une question de spécialistes, mais constitue une pratique communicative « naturelle », qui répond au besoin de communication et de compréhension réciproque (De Carlo 2012 : 300)5.
De toute évidence, la médiation représente un besoin de nos sociétés d'aujourd'hui, elle est hypéronyme de la traduction et de l'interprétation, tout en demeurant une « activité humaine spontanée » et « agir communicatif naturel inter et intra- linguistique » (De Carlo 2012 : 300). À l'intérieur de ce cadre, la traduction ne peut être réservée exclusivement aux professionnels, mais elle devient un processus bien plus complexe que la simple recherche d'équivalences entre les mots de langues différentes (idem). L'apprenant a à la différence des professionnels, le droit à l'approximation et à la négociation, ce qui signifie qu'il mesure, adapte, évalue, se débrouille, anticipe, compare, interprète. Il convient de se demander si une telle « relativisation » des règles et principes didactiques ouvre la porte à un « marché de langues » encore plus large, sans un accompagnement ou suivi de la part des didacticiens professionnels. Comme cela ne rentre pas dans le cadre de notre article, la réponse sera apportée dans les années qui viennent.
Dans la suite de notre travail, nous chercherons les liens potentiels entre les deux textes inspirés d'orientations théoriques différents. Certes, l'écart temporel séparant les deux textes ne permettra pas un rapprochement important, mais cela n'empêchera pas une vue d'ensemble sur la médiation linguistique enrichie potentiellement des apports de la syntaxe structurale.
3 AU-DELÀ DE L'OUTIL : LA LANGUE EN TANT QUE CONTENU ET
L'OBJET DE LA MÉDIATION
Compte tenu de la dimension sociale que nous venons de souligner ci-dessus pour le texte du Cadre, force est de constater un élargissement du paradigme didactique apporté par le CECRL. En effet, celui-ci donne priorité à l'efficience de l'action sociale sur l'accumulation des connaissances, l'accent étant mis sur l'apprenant compétent et expérimenté ayant un comportement langagier efficace (Aden 2012 : 268).
Tout de même, il ne faut pas oublier, comme le souligne la même auteure, que « l'émergence de la notion de médiation dans le CECRL est le fruit d'un tressage serré entre une philosophie humaniste, un imaginaire démocratique et une éthique néolibérale des marchés » (Aden 2012 : 271).
5 Piccardo montre les conséquences, pour la didactique des langues, de la professionnalisation de l'activité de traduction : « Dans le cas de la médiation, la réduction à sa forme plus sublimée et professionnelle, à savoir l'interprétariat et la traduction, a eu comme conséquence une évacuation de facto de cette modalité et elle a empêché de poursuivre la réflexion sur sa nature spécifique. » (Piccardo 2012 : 287).
L'idéal du locuteur natif semble abandonné au profit d'un utilisateur compétent de la langue qui dispose d'un répertoire langagier « dans lequel toutes les capacités linguistiques trouvent leur place » (CECRL 2001 : 11). Un autre idéal, celui d'une maîtrise aussi profonde, parfaite et détaillée que possible d'une langue, semble remplacé par un éventail de compétences en plusieurs langues à différents degrés et pour usages divers.
Tout en tenant compte du caractère et des objectifs du Cadre, il nous semble que la langue en tant que système n'occupe pas la place qui lui revient. Si on observe de plus près les lignes du Cadre, on s'aperçoit de l'importance que l'on accorde aux niveaux de l'analyse linguistique, ce que nous essaierons d'illustrer par le rôle réservé à la syntaxe et à l'organisation phrastique :
La syntaxe traite de l'organisation des mots en phrases, en fonction des catégories, des éléments, des classes, des structures, des opérations et des relations en cause, souvent présentée sous forme d'un ensemble de règles. La syntaxe de la langue utilisée par un locuteur natif adulte est extrêmement complexe et largement inconsciente. La capacité de construire des phrases pour produire du sens est au centre même de la compétence à communiquer (CECRL 2001 : 91).
Il est bien évident que, pour les concepteurs du Cadre, la capacité de construire des phrases pour produire du sens est au centre même de la compétence à communiquer. Une analyse plus fine dans la suite de l'article tentera de montrer que le statut de la syntaxe dans le Cadre s'accorde, dans une grande mesure, avec les postulats tesniériens de la primauté de la syntaxe.
Il n'en reste pas moins que le point de vue sur la langue et les niveaux de l'analyse linguistique est en quelque sorte réducteur et simpliste. En fait, si la syntaxe est « au centre même de la compétence à communiquer », dans le texte du CECRL elle n'est qu'une des composantes de la compétence grammaticale, celle-ci faisant partie des compétences linguistiques (à laquelle s'ajoutent les compétences lexicale, sémantique, phonologique, orthographique et orthoépique). Pour notre part, la syntaxe devrait occuper une place plus significative dans tout propos sur la communication vu l'aspect relationnel qui lui appartient et compte tenu du fait que « le plan structural n'a d'autre objet que de rendre possible l'expression de la pensée, c'est-à-dire du plan sémantique » (Tesnière 1988 : 42) (le plan structural étant celui dans lequel s'élabore l'expression linguistique de la pensée).
Comme la syntaxe est « souvent présentée sous forme d'un ensemble de règles » (v. la définition ci-dessus), les descripteurs dans l'échelle de la correction grammaticale sont formulés en termes du degré de respect ou d'écart de la règle. Ceci dit, nous nous permettons également de questionner le point de vue exprimé dans le Cadre au sujet des erreurs et des fautes (CECRL 2001 :118). Plus précisément, l'approche des auteurs nous semble peu appropriée vu le fait que toute une palette de possibilités est énumérée, allant de la détection et reconnaissance totale de toutes les erreurs et de leur correction immédiate (approche maximaliste) jusqu'à l'ignorance totale de toutes les erreurs et de leur correction (approche minimaliste). Évidemment, les utilisateurs du Cadre envisageront et expliciteront selon le cas leurs démarches, stratégies et mesures par rapport aux erreurs, ce qui ne semble pas traduire la tendance quasi générale dans les recherches psycholin-
guistiques qui consiste à considérer l'erreur comme un phénomène transitoire, inévitable, faisant partie de l'interlangue de l'apprenant (cf. Selinker 1972 ; Porquier 1980).
Tout bien considéré, les compétences linguistiques et, parmi elles, la compétence syntaxique représentent un des facteurs clefs et le préalable d'une communication efficace. Il convient de remarquer que le développement des compétences linguistiques conditionne dans une grande mesure le développement de toutes les autres compétences. Ceci est particulièrement vrai, nous semble-t-il, pour la médiation, vu le fait que la langue (ou le matériel linguistique) représente l'objet de la médiation dans la mesure où il permet la transmission du sens (du plan sémantique), ce que l'on transmet ou fait passer d'une langue à l'autre. En outre, si les modes d'activité de l'usager de la langue l'emportent sur l'apprentissage ou la maîtrise des aspects linguistiques (cf. Aden 2012), il va sans dire que la médiation linguistique, en tant qu'activité et processus, présuppose un objet (au sens large, ce qui est, en l'occurrence, l'équivalent d'un contenu/matériel linguistique et du sens qui en émerge sur le plan sémantique) que l'on veut transmettre ou faire passer, quels que soient sa forme et les objectifs de la communication.
Comme le plan structural n'a d'autre objet que de rendre possible l'expression de la pensée, c'est-à-dire du plan sémantique (Tesnière), nous proposerons, dans la suite de l'article, les points de vue de la syntaxe structurale sur la traduction. La structure étant l'appui matériel à la première étape de l'opération traduisante, à savoir la compréhension du texte de départ, ainsi qu'au „produit final" de sa dernière étape (rappelons le schéma du triple processus avancé par la théorie interprétative : compréhension -déverbalisation - réexpression), le passage d'une langue à l'autre est étroitement lié à la notion de structure. C'est pourquoi une théorie d'inspiration formelle (ne refusant pas toutefois le plan sémantique !) nous a paru nécessaire pour compléter et mieux situer le concept riche et complexe de médiation. Vu l'orientation générale de la théorie, on peut s'attendre, dans l'interprétation des postulats tesniériens, à la prédominance des aspects formels, mais, compte tenu de la complexité et de la modernité de la pensée de Tesnière, certaines idées viendront affiner et enrichir, nous en sommes certains, les réflexions et les apports du Cadre.
4 VERS LA TRADUCTION PROFONDE : LA MÉTATAXE
La théorie de la syntaxe structurale, élaborée par Lucien Tesnière dans la première moitié du XXe siècle, a déjà attiré des centaines de linguistes en faisant couler beaucoup d'encre. Il convient de rappeler brièvement en quoi réside l'originalité de la théorie qui, même de nos jours, demeure une source inépuisable de réflexion linguistique. Faut-il rappeler ici que la structure est au centre de la syntaxe structurale, la structure n'étant rien d'autre que la phrase. Celle-ci représente l'objet même de l'étude de la syntaxe structurale. Rappelons également les concepts de la valence, du verbe en tant que centre structural de la phrase ainsi que l'actancialité, ce qui représente un apport capital tant pour la syntaxe que pour la linguistique générale. L'architecture structurale n'a d'autre fonction que d'exprimer le plan sémantique, c'est-à-dire le contenu ou le sens.
Pour ce qui est de la métataxe, l'objet même de notre réflexion, elle représente le changement structural qui intervient au cours de la traduction, celle-ci représentant le
passage d'une langue à une autre. La métataxe intervient préalablement à la traduction proprement dite, puisque, pour Tesnière, la structure adoptée commande le choix des traductions.
Tesnière élabore la théorie de la métataxe en suivant la logique de son ouvrage et de sa méthodologie : la métataxe y trouve sa place grâce à l'application par Tesnière du principe de l'indépendance du structural et du sémantique, puisqu'il s'agit d'exprimer une idée sémantiquement identique par une phrase structuralement différente.
L'élaboration de la métataxe relève de la distinction tesniérienne entre le plan structural et le plan sémantique, qui sont indépendants. Cependant, il convient de rappeler que les deux plans sont parallèles. C'est ce parallélisme et l'asymétrie des structures/ phrases dans les deux langues sur le plan structural, mais aussi leur identité sur le plan sémantique, qui ont poussé Tesnière à élaborer la métataxe, car il s'agit du phénomène qui est pertinent pour toute sa théorie.
Bien qu'on puisse concevoir que Tesnière essayait de repérer les mécanismes structuraux qui permettent et conditionnent le passage d'une langue à une autre, d'une structure à une autre, Tesnière distingue clairement entre « opération en quelque sorte mécanique qui consiste à remplacer un mot par un autre mot » et le besoin de « substituer une structure différente à celle qui se trouve dans la phrase à traduire ». Il avance le besoin de « repenser » cette phrase dans la langue dans laquelle il s'agit de la traduire.
Pour Tesnière, les traductions qui contiennent la métataxe sont les « traductions profondes ». La métataxe intervient préalablement à la traduction proprement dite. Sans la métataxe, on aurait des « traductions superficielles » qui, pour Tesnière, seraient « gauches », « souvent même inexactes », « même complètement irréalisables [...] si le traducteur a commis l'irréparable imprudence de s'engager ainsi à la légère dans une voie dont il ne lui est plus possible de s'écarter » (Tesnière 1988 : 284).
Tesnière rappelle, dans les lignes de sa syntaxe, que c'est le sémantique qu'il y a lieu de traduire et non le structural (Tesnière 1988 : 284). Ceci fortifie encore notre conviction que le point de vue de Tesnière sur le mécanisme traduisant est suffisamment moderne pour être questionné dans cet article.
Dans le chapitre consacré à la métataxe, Tesnière observe et explique, à l'aide de centaines d'exemples, des phénomènes qui ont lieu, dans différentes langues, lors du changement de structure au cours de la traduction : la métataxe simple, l'interversion des actants, double interversion des actants, la métataxe et le passif, la métataxe et le causa-tif, la métataxe et l'anti-causatif, le renversement sémantique des nœuds, le changement du centre structural, les adverbes résultatifs, mouvement et déplacement, le changement du centre structural par subordination, parataxe et hypotaxe. La plus grande partie des nombreux exemples donnés est empruntée au latin, à l'allemand et au russe, mais aussi au danois. Certains auteurs ont identifié le recours à de nombreux exemples comme étant comparable à la méthodologie de l'élaboration d'une stylistique (v. supra).
Pour ce qui concerne les actants et le schéma actanciel (ou structure actancielle), l'interversion des actants est, selon Tesnière, l'une des formes les plus courantes de la métataxe : « la métataxe intervient chaque fois que la structure actancielle d'un verbe diffère d'une langue à une autre. En pareil cas, à un actant d'une langue correspond
sémantiquement un autre actant dans une autre langue, et la traduction de l'une à l'autre n'est possible qu'en changeant la nature de l'actant ». Cependant, l'interversion n'a pas lieu sur le plan linéaire de la chaîne parlée (métathèse), mais sur le plan interne de l'organisation structurale.
Il est intéressant d'observer ce que Tesnière note au sujet de l'interversion d'actants :
Si l'on désire maîtriser une langue étrangère et être capable de prévoir les interversions d'actants qui s'imposent préalablement aux traductions de cette langue dans une autre, il y a lieu de connaître à fond la structure actancielle des verbes, tant dans la langue à traduire que dans celle dans laquelle on traduit (Tesnière 1988 : 287).
Il en résulte que le chapitre sur la métataxe explique en profondeur et en détail l'importance capitale de la structure actancielle des verbes. En effet, avant même de traduire, il convient de procéder à l'opération de la métataxe qui consiste à trouver ou « calculer » les équivalences (sur le plan sémantique). La structure actancielle se montrera asymétrique, vu le fait qu'elle varie sensiblement d'une langue à l'autre. Sur le plan structural il y aura donc l'asymétrie, tandis que, sur le plan sémantique, il sera primordial d'obtenir l'identité.
5 LES LIENS ENTRE DEUX CONCEPTIONS, POINTS DE CONVERGENCE, POINTS DE DIVERGENCE
Les deux théories ne sont pas faciles à déchiffrer et à suivre. Une multitude de concepts, ainsi que le manque d'explicite, alourdissent la lecture et la compréhension. Il faut rechercher, comparer, lire en profondeur, interpréter. La distance temporelle est un facteur important que l'on ne peut pas négliger, tandis que l'utilité et l'aspect pragmatique relient les deux conceptions/théories. Chacun des deux textes possède ses particularités, ses limites, ses lacunes. Il existe une proportion inversée entre la partie du texte consacrée à la dimension sociale de l'apprentissage des langues dans le CECRL et celle consacrée par Tesnière à la structure en tant que fondement et objet de l'apprentissage des langues.
C'est pourquoi ce travail ne peut pas prétendre à des résultats significatifs. Du moins, nous nous permettons de signaler les endroits « lourds » ou « ambigus » dans le texte du CECRL et de présenter les idées d'une théorie qui, à l'époque, s'est montrée riche en enseignements.
Du point de vue de la théorie sous-jacente et de la terminologie employée, le CECRL rentre dans le cadre de la perspective actionnelle, le document n'est pas dogmatique, rien n'y est prescrit. En revanche, Tesnière propose un cadre théorique et une méthodologique suffisamment rigide, qui a ses fondements dans le structuralisme même. Les faits de langue sont exposés systématiquement, avec une précision quasi mathématique. Les explications vont du plus simple vers le plus complexe, les exemplifications se font régulièrement, visant à prouver les hypothèses dans un plus grand nombre de langues.
Le choix de la théorie de Tesnière pour les besoins de cet article s'est imposé immédiatement vu le caractère intégrale et englobant de sa syntaxe. En réalité, à notre connaissance, cette syntaxe structurale figure en tant que seule syntaxe scientifique intégra-
le à visée universelle. Elle est structurale dans le sens que Tesnière attribue à cette notion, mais aussi par le fait que, selon Fourquet, l'auteur de la syntaxe structurale visait à une applicabilité immédiate de son ouvrage6. La syntaxe structurale était censée avoir un objectif didactique pur, avec une application directe sur un plus grand nombre de langues. En même temps, à la période où la syntaxe était née, la linguistique abondait en courants théoriques (cf. Fourquet in: Préface, Tesnière 1988).
En revanche, notre intention d'analyser le concept de médiation dans le CECRL provient d'un intérêt accru pour ce texte, car il a changé profondément le paysage de l'apprentissage/enseignement des langues. Malgré les tendances innovatrices, il nous semble qu'une dimension importante est négligée : le matériel langagier - autrement dit, les disciplines linguistiques (les plans structural et sémantique) - n'est évoqué que modestement.
Dans la doctrine de la syntaxe structurale, l'apprentissage des langues et la compréhension de sa structure se trouvent au centre de l'intérêt. Parallèlement, l'objectif de cette théorie est l'acquisition des mécanismes de la construction des phrases simple et complexe, ainsi que de leurs transformations. Ainsi, pour Tesnière, « savoir une langue, c'est donc savoir les différentes fonctions qui doivent y être assurées, et savoir la parler, c'est connaître le maniement des outils qui assurent ces fonctions » (Tesnière op. cit. : 39).
Pour Tesnière, la pédagogie des langues vivantes est centrée sur l'ordre linéaire, sur la pratique active de la phrase vivante et parlée (méthode directe). Elle porte sur la forme externe du langage. La méthode structurale est fondée sur l'ordre dynamique (celui dans lequel les éléments statiques s'organisent dans notre esprit et y sont mis en œuvre en vue de la constitution de la phrase). C'est l'ordre de la forme intérieure du langage, celui selon lequel s'établissent les connexions et s'organise le schème structural (Tesnière op. cit. : 51).
Il convient de souligner l'appel et l'invitation que Tesnière adresse tant à ses lecteurs, pour une acquisition du plus grand nombre de langues, qu'aux linguistes, qui ont besoin d'une maîtrise profonde de nombreuses langues (pas exclusivement de la famille indoeuropéenne). De par ce fait, Tesnière se montre précurseur du plurilinguisme, ce qu'il articule en adhérant à l'expression Timeo hominem unius linguae (Tesnière op. cit. : 663). Quant aux aspects pratiques de l'apprentissage des langues, il s'adresse aux lecteurs : « Pratiquez réellement les langues dont vous parlez et ayez en une connaissance qui ne soit pas seulement livresque. Parlez les langues étrangères ! » (Tesnière op. cit. : 662).
La médiation en tant que concept ne peut donc pas exister et est introuvable chez Tesnière. Ce qui ne doit pas étonner, car il s'agit de la syntaxe structurale qui met la structure au cœur de sa réflexion. Cependant, cette théorie à visée générale, voire universelle, tend à dégager, au travers d'un grand nombre de langues, des principes essentiels qui gouvernent le changement de structure et le comportement de différents éléments / membres de la phrase au cours de la traduction.
C'est pourquoi la traduction chez Tesnière se limite aux dimensions structurale et sémantique, c'est-à-dire au changement de la structure et à la transmission du séman-
6 « Pendant que Tesnière s'attaquait à une œuvre de réalisation immédiate, la linguistique structurale se développait autour de lui dans un autre sens, celui des constructions théoriques » (Fourquet, in: Préface, Tesnière 1959 : 4).
tique, ce qui correspondrait à la traduction interlinguistique de Jakobson, ou bien à la médiation linguistique dans la perspective actionnelle (cf. Piccardo 2012).
Pour ce qui est de la dimension professionnelle de la traduction, son rôle n'est pas mis en avant, ceci ne représente pas le centre d'intérêt de la syntaxe structurale. En revanche, ce qui intéresse Tesnière, c'est l'approche scientifique et l'exposition de faits à l'intention des apprenants. Les traducteurs professionnels sont mentionnés dans le chapitre sur la métataxe, lorsque l'auteur souligne le besoin pour les traducteurs de maîtriser l'interversion des actants, sans quoi ils seront « livrés sans défense à un travail long et sans méthode, au milieu d'un fouillis de faits innombrables, que seule une doctrine solidement assise peut leur permettre de classer, de prévoir et de maîtriser » (Tesnière 1959 : 289). Ou bien, à un autre endroit, en parlant du changement du centre structural : « La connaissance de ces types de correspondances fournit souvent de bonnes traductions, que l'on chercherait sans succès par un autre moyen » (Tesnière op. cit. : 306).
Sans doute, la métataxe représente pour Tesnière un phénomène nécessaire, car il s'agit d'un mécanisme structural dans lequel la structure de la langue de départ subit certains changements dans la langue d'arrivée. L'acquisition de ce transfert soit par l'apprenant soit par le traducteur professionnel est le préalable de la connaissance de l'organisation différente des langues que Tesnière met en contact. Et c'est ce décalage, incompatibilité et asymétrie des structures qui intéressent la syntaxe structurale. Ne perdant pas de vue la « spacialité » de sa syntaxe - la représentation stemmatique qui rend compte des relations pertinentes, déterminantes et décisives verticales et horizontales - ceci est bien compréhensible et nous traduit l'essentiel de sa conception de la langue en tant que système. La dimension sociale manque ; tout ce que l'on retient, c'est l'appui sur la compétence de l'apprenant qui est censé reconnaître et acquérir ces mécanismes. Car, comme l'affirme Coulardeau « il [Tesnière] pose l'explication de la structure profonde de la langue comme devant sous-tendre l'acquisition de la structure superficielle du discours » (Coulardeau 1995: 371). Le même auteur appelle ce concept la « didactique de la profondeur », lorsque l'apprenant doit comprendre le fonctionnement du système et non seulement mémoriser les énoncés produits (idem). Tesnière prend en compte, bien entendu, la dimension sociale et la fonction de communication du langage, mais cela dans l'esprit de l'époque et selon les exigences de sa théorie -avant tout, dans la notion de connexion qui est à la base de toute la syntaxe structurale et paraît la plus proche à l'énonciation (Bajric 1996). De même, il identifie la chaîne parlée, son caractère unidimensionnel et unidirectionnel, ce qui prouve sa compréhension de la nature de la parole. Tesnière établit également une distinction entre ordre structural et ordre linéaire, ce qui nous fournit la définition suivante des deux compétences « classiques » : « parler une langue, c'est en transformer l'ordre structural en ordre linéaire, et inversement [...] comprendre une langue, c'est en transformer l'ordre linéaire en ordre structural » (Tesnière 1988 : 19).
Somme toute, on ne peut pas s'attendre à la prise en compte de la dimension sociale chez Tesnière, vu le caractère et la destination de son ouvrage ainsi que la distance temporelle qui nous sépare de sa rédaction et de sa parution.
Bibliographie
Sources
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Résumé
DE LA MÉTATAXE À LA MÉIATION LINGUISTIQUE : LA STRUCTURE OUBLIÉE ?
Dans son ouvrage capital Éléments de syntaxe structurale (1959), Lucien Tesnière présente le concept de métataxe, changement structural intervenant lors du passage d'une langue à l'autre. Tout en privilégiant les rapports structuraux qui se construisent lors de ce passage, l'auteur met en relief le besoin de repenser la phrase dans la langue cible. S'éloignant ainsi de l'aspect purement mécanique, Tesnière ouvre la voie vers l'analyse contrastive, mais aussi vers les théories cognitives en évoquant les concepts de traductions profondes et l'indépendance du structural et du sémantique.
En revanche, l'approche actionnelle nous met en présence d'un processus dynamique d'apprentissage/enseignement qui met au centre l'apprenant et prend en compte l'ensemble des capacités de cet « acteur social ». Le CECRL ouvre ainsi les dimensions individuelle et sociale (Piccardo 2012) de la médiation, un des concepts clé de l'approche actionnelle.
Dans notre contribution nous esquisserons les soubassements conceptuels de la métataxe et de la médiation linguistique pour interroger ensuite le rôle de la traduction comme opération de base permettant le passage d'une langue à l'autre, plus précisément au sein de l'approche actionnelle par l'intermédiaire de l'apprenant. Il s'agira, dans notre analyse, de repenser la traduction qui, allant de l'aspect mécanique et structural jusqu'aux dimensions sociale et individuelle, offre de nombreuses possibilités en didactique de langues/cultures. Notre travail (re)prendra en considération la structure linguistique comme l'une des composantes essentielles de la médiation linguistique.
Mots clés : médiation, métataxe, perspective actionnelle, Lucien Tesnière, syntaxe structurale.
Abstract
FROM METATAXIS TO LINGUISTIC MEDIATION: THE FORGOTTEN STRUCTURE?
In his capital work Elements de syntaxe structurale (1959) Lucien Tesniere introduces the concept of metataxis, structural change occurring during the transition from one language to another. While focusing on structural relationships that are built upon this passage, the author highlights the need to rethink the phrase in the target language. Departing from a purely mechanical perspective, Tesniere paves the way for contrastive analysis, but also for cognitive theories, referring to the concepts of traductions profondes and of the independence of structure and meaning.
However, the action-oriented approach presupposes a dynamic process of learning / teaching that places the learner at the center and takes into account all the abilities of this "social actor". In that way the CEFR opens the individual and social
dimensions of mediation (Piccardo 2012), which is one of the key concepts of the action-oriented approach.
In this paper we outline the conceptual foundations of metataxis and linguistic mediation and then examine the role of translation as the basic operation for the transition from one language to another, specifically in the learner-centred action-oriented approach. We rethink the concept of translation, taking into account its mechanical and structural aspects as well as its individual and social dimensions, which offers many opportunities for language and culture learning. The linguistic structure is considered as an essential component of linguistic mediation.
Keywords: mediation, metataxis, action-oriented perspective, Lucien Tesniere, structural syntax.
Povzetek
OD METATAKSE DO JEZIKOVNE MEDIACIJE -POZABLJENA STRUKTURA?
V svojem glavnem delu z naslovom Elementi strukturalne sintakse (1959) Lucien Tesniere predstavi concept metatakse, spremembe v strukturi, do katere pride med prevodom iz enega jezika v drugega. Avtor se sicer v prvi vrsti zanima za strukturna razmerja, ki se zgradijo med tem prenosom, kljub temu pa opozarja na dejstvo, da je treba poved v ciljnem jeziku ponovno premisliti. Ko se oddalji od povsem mehaničnega videnja prevajanja, Tesniere odpre pot kontrastivni analizi, pa tudi kognitivnim teorijam, še zlasti s konceptoma globinskih prevodov in neodvisnostjo strukturnega in pomenskega.
V nasprotu s takšnim pristopom nam akcijski pristop predstavi dinamičen proces učenja/poučevanja, ki v središče zanimanja postavlja učenca in si zastavlja predvsem vprašanja o zmožnostih tega »družbenega deležnika«. SEJO tako odpira vprašanja o individualni in družbeni dimenziji mediacije (Picardo 2012), ki je eden od ključnih konceptov akcijskega pristopa.
Prispevek se začne s kratkim opisom osnov metatakse in jezikovne mediacije, nadaljuje pa z razmislekom o vlogi, ki jo ima prevod kot osnovna operacija prehoda iz enega jezika v drugega in, natančneje, o njegovi vlogi v akcijskem pristopu k poučevanju/ učenju jezikov. V analizi razmišljamo o prevodu, ki poleg mehaničnega in strukturalnega koncepta vsebuje tudi družbeno in individualno dimenzijo in kot tak ponuja veliko možnosti v didaktiki tujih jezikov in kultur. V članku se ukvarjamo tudi z jezikovno strukturo kot enem od osnovnih sestavnih delov jezikovne mediacije.
Ključne besede: mediacija, metataksa, akcijski pristop, Lucien Tesniere, strukturalna sintaksa.
Alenka Kocbek
University of Primorska*
UDK 81'25:[37.091.3:81'243] DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.425-438
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF TRANSLATION FOR FLT
1 INTRODUCTION
"The language of Europe is translation." With these words Umberto Eco summarized his vision of the linguistic landscape of Europe in his lecture delivered at the Assises de la Traduction littéraire in Arles in 1993 and thereby underlined the importance of translation skills as a vehicle of communication between European Union citizens and across language and cultural barriers. In light of this vision, any type of foreign language education pursuing a communicative purpose should entail a certain amount of translation skills and be designed by taking into account the findings of translation studies. And yet, when studying the relationship between the domains of foreign language teaching1 (FLT) and translation studies (TS) what comes to the fore is a kind of love-hate attitude that has marked the interlinked development of these two disciplines.
The appearance of the Common European Framework of Languages (CEFR), developed by the Council of Europe in 2001, marked a turning point in FLT. The CEFR was introduced as a common basis for the explicit description of objectives, content and methods for language education and was aimed at enhancing the transparency of language courses, syllabuses and qualifications, while promoting international co-operation in the field of modern languages (CEFR 2001: 1). The CEFR proposed a model of communicative competences, including communicative language competences as those which enable a person to act by drawing on specific linguistic means (CEFR 2001: 9), and although it did not explicitly refer to any FLT methodology it shifted the emphasis on communicative proficiency and intercultural competences as the ultimate objectives to pursue in FLT thereby raising the awareness of the importance of multilingual and multicultural competency (Pizorn and Brumen 2008). Communicating across language and cultural barriers, however, is possible only by using (some degree) of translation, and this speaks in favour of drawing on the potential of TS to enhance intercultural communicative competence. However, as regards its relation to translation, the CEFR seems to have taken over (at least partly) the heritage of some of the FLT approaches that marked the second half of the 20th century, as it somehow fails to acknowledge the fact that translation underlies and permeates language use in intercultural communication and that it represents one of the most obvious manifestations of plurilingualism and pluriculturality. In the history of
* Author's address: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza na Primorskem, Cankarjeva 5, 6000 Koper,
Slovenia. E-mail: alenka.kocbek@pef.upr.si.
1 For the purpose of this paper no distinction will be made between second and foreign language teaching, and the term foreign language teaching (FLT) will be used to refer to both.
FLT the role granted to translation has been extremely unstable. Once considered a fundamental teaching method and basic skill, one placed at the heart of any language learning process, translation was almost outlawed in more recent communicative and task-based approaches to language learning (Cook 2010: 3), then rehabilitated in recent decades (cf. Leonardi 2010; Cook 2010; Widdowson 2003; Malmkj^r 1998; Bratoz and Kocbek 2013; Kocbek 2013), and finally elevated to the position of the fifth language skill (cf. Leonardi 2010; Naimushin 2002). What is striking about both the history of FLT and TS is the fact that the two disciplines seem to have developed separately for quite a long period, without managing to establish points of contact; consequently, they have missed the opportunity to create important synergies (cf. Tsagari and Floros 2013: vii-xi). The CEFR, currently generally accepted as the most authoritative source of guidelines and principles for teaching, learning and assessing modern languages in Europe, still explicitly refers to translation and interpreting, i.e. written or oral mediation, as varieties of language use and language activities through which communicative language competence is activated (CEFR 2001: 14, 55). Translation and interpreting in this view are deemed as (professional and/or non-professional) activities performed by language users to enable communication between third parties who, for whatever reasons, are unable to communicate directly (ibid.) This somewhat narrow view of translation neglects the multiple aspects of translation entailed in communicative acts involving participants from different cultures and with different linguistic backgrounds who, when communicating by using a foreign language (FL), resort to translation, an act which is often performed tacitly and almost automatically. Nevertheless, the CEFR implicitly acknowledges the status of TS when it deals with different aspects of communication, i.e. its verbal, paraverbal, non-verbal and sociocultural dimensions. These aspects have also been given prominence in various TS theories, especially the functionalist and culturally-oriented approaches and particularly in the cultureme theory. Drawing on the works of authors who have advocated the use of translation in FLT (Kocbek 2013; Leonardi 2010; Cook 2010; Widdowson 2003; Malmkjrer 1998; Naimushin 2002), this paper aims at rendering justice to the explicit and implicit role of translation in FLT and exploring the potential synergies that could be achieved by combining the findings of FLT and TS. It thus suggests that translation be viewed as an additional language skill that is aimed at supplementing the traditional four skills, while using translation to create a comprehensive approach to language learning (Leonardi 2010: 25). In this respect the approach also entails transferring selected insights from TS into FLT (e.g. the functionalist perspective with the skopos theory, the cultureme theory, the theory of memes) to raise the learners' awareness about aspects of language use that are shaped by extra-linguistic factors. In this view translation is not regarded as the only legitimate teaching method but rather as a pedagogical tool or scaffolding strategy aimed at increasing the effectiveness of various FLT approaches.
2 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TRANSLATION STUDIES -
ALLIES OR FOES
In the past century FLT underwent significant developments and status shifts accompanying different teaching methods and strategies. An important turn in this respect
was the abandoning of the teaching practices of the Grammar-Translation Method, which had marked FLT in the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, and focused principally on formal accuracy in writing, thus failing to acknowledge the communicative function of language. As the name itself indicates, this method relied heavily on translation, which was applied primarily in the light of the so-called equivalence-based approaches that were viewed in a very restricted perspective, i.e. mostly as word-forword semantic equivalence. In the second half of the 20th century, the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) was seen as obsolete and ineffective and it was substituted by a number of other approaches, the most prominent being the communicative approach, which is applied in the form of communicative language teaching (CLT). In line with several other teaching methods popular in the last decades (e.g. the Direct Method), CLT uncritically rejected the use of the learners' first language (L1) in the classroom and ostracised translation in second language instruction while promoting the doctrine of monolingualism in the classroom. Proponents of CLT argued that the use of the L1 was counterproductive in the process of acquiring a new language, as it hindered learners in their striving to express themselves in the FL and caused interference and possible negative transfer. This animosity against translation actually resulted in its being banned from the language curricula in many countries. In France, for example, such a ban was actually imposed by legislation in 1950, namely, with the official introduction of the Direct Method through ministerial guidelines (Carreres 2006: 2). Criticism opposing the use of translation in the language classroom failed to recognise that, in the GTM, translation had actually been misconceived and overused and that therefore, rather than being considered the source of the ineffectiveness and inadequacy of this method, it should be seen as its victim (ibid.: 4). In the GTM learners were very often made to translate isolated sentences without being provided with any wider meaningful context. In this way the GTM abstracted language from its communicative function and neglected the fact that in real life translation is used almost exclusively to enable communication. But even when translation was officially rejected as a FLT method, it did not disappear from language classes - it continued to be used unofficially by learners in different ways, least but not last, as pointed out by Widdowson (2003), to tacitly translate in their minds. It was also maintained as the norm at university-level language teaching, especially in LSP (Malmkjrer 1998).
Spurred by the wave of monolingualism and the hostility towards translation in FLT, the myth of the native-speaker as the ideal FL teacher was created. As pointed out by House, the opposition to L1 use and translation, which stemmed from ideas of natural language use and from native speaker emulation, was particularly fervent in the English speaking world and hence also affected the practice of the teaching of English as a FL (House 2012: 216). The reasons for this monolingual puritanism were not exclusively scientific, as emphasized by House (ibid.: 219), but were, among other things, driven by commercial and political (Anglo-American) interests of creating a worldwide market for teaching materials, methods, etc. It needs to be noted that the global English teaching industry is believed to be worth 13.8 billion euros (Graddol: 2004), which indeed provides a solid motive for publishing English-only textbooks and promoting
monolingual teachers, as well as for hiding the positive roles of translation (cf. Pym, Malmkjrer and Gutiérrez-Colón Plana 2012). The hostility towards translation was also extended (as a kind of collateral damage) to the use of contrastive analysis in FLT, which, like translation, is only possible by referring to the learners' L1.
That being said, it needs to be emphasized that in non-English speaking countries dissenting voices advocating the use of L1 and translation were heard relatively early on, proving that the non-Anglophone environments never completely abandoned the use of L1 and/or translation in FLT (cf. House 2012: 217). In this respect, Naimushin (2002) argues in favour of recognizing translation and interpreting skills as an important element of the communicative and linguistic competence, i.e. as the fifth skill. According to Newmark (1991) this skill exists alongside the traditional four language skills developed by FLT. Without embracing the concept of translation as an independent skill, Leonardi (2010: 20) sees it as an effective means of enhancing and further developing reading, writing, speaking and listening skills and proposes to include translation activities into language testing modalities. She also argues that the CEFR as a widely recognised pedagogical tool for determining proficiency levels has failed to include translation among the different testing modalities which are still based on the four traditional skills. By stressing that in order to make the best use of translation in FLT, the FL teacher needs to have a good command of the learners' L1, Naimushin challenges the myth of the superiority of the native speaker as a FL teacher. He points out that a teacher who is not proficient in his students' L1 and is therefore unable to resort to translation will be unable to make sure that his/her explanations are fully understood, and neither will he/she be able to provide any systematic comparison between the students' L1 and the FL. Translation (and interpreting) create opportunities for contrastive analysis between the mother tongue and the FL on various levels, including phonology, morphology, syntax and lexis, which can serve as a valuable tool in making learners understand systemic and functional equivalence between linguistic units and recognise similarities and differences at various levels of L1 and FL, thus minimising the possibilities of negative interference and transfer (Naimushin 2002: 48). In this respect Leonardi argues that interference is a phenomenon occurring in language acquisition in general, as it is impossible and almost unnatural not to refer to one's L1 when using a FL. Translation skills, however, enable learners to notice and control interference through contrastive analysis and thus reduce negative transfer, while at the same time increasing positive interference, e.g. facilitation (Leonardi 2010: 27-28).
The above mentioned stances show "that translation is no longer seen as a harmful tool in language learning" and that "its interference tends to be positively evaluated as a way to enrich rather than harm learners' competence and performance" (Leonardi 2010: 18). These stances are to be interpreted as a sign of the revival of translation in FLT and, at the same time, of the need to refer to TS for targeted strategies supporting FLT. Almost concurrently with the evolution of FLT, TS rose to the status of an independent discipline and underwent a period of burgeoning development. During this period, the equivalence-centred perspective was gradually abandoned in order to embrace broader views by taking into account the different factors involved in the process of translating,
from the function of translation to its essential role in intercultural communication and its cognitive connotations. By endorsing the arguments of the above mentioned authors in favour of combining the potentials of FLT and TS, we will propose to use translation activities in FLT to supplement the four traditional language skills, while at the same time applying some targeted insights and strategies from TS which can contribute to improving the learners' communicative proficiency and intercultural competence in the light of the CEFR as a source of FLT guidelines and principles.
3 TRANSLATION AS AN AID TO FLT
As shown above, any use of a FL by a non-native speaker implies some degree of translating. We would like to argue that, on the one hand, FL learners will benefit from being involved in translation activities aimed at enhancing and strengthening reading, writing, listening and speaking skills, while, one the other hand, they will, by gaining insight into some of the aspects highlighted by TS (such as the importance of the purpose of the translation for effective communication, the multifaceted nature of intercultural communicative acts, the potential of translation as a vehicle of transferring highly culture-specific concepts and practices), also be able to use translation in support of effective communication2. Among the approaches which endorse this perspective we would like to highlight the functionalist perspective with the skopos theory (Reiss and Vermeer 1984), according to which translation can take a number of forms and pursue different strategies depending on its purpose (i.e. the skopos) and will thus be essential to enable effective cross-cultural communication. Furthermore, we suggest applying the cultureme model, as elaborated by Kocbek (2013) following Oksaar (1988) and use it as a scaffolding tool for tackling the multifaceted aspects of communicative acts and thus develop cross-cultural communicative competences in a holistic way. Another related theory which upholds the use of translation in FLT is the theory of memes, where translation is seen as the only possible vehicle for transferring culturally-bound concepts, ideas, cultural practices (i.e. memes) across cultural and linguistic boundaries (Chesterman 1997). We thus suggest viewing translation as a useful and necessary competence in its own right, and one which not only enables learners to use the FL efficiently, but also, as Cook (2010: 100) points out, empowers learners "to move back and forth between L1 and L2" by taking into account the cultures underlying these languages and thus implementing the principles of plurilingual-ism and pluriculturality promoted by the CEFR.
A further positive effect which can be achieved by using translation in FLT is the fact that giving learners the possibility to occasionally resort to L1 and translation may make them feel more confident and reduce the anxiety caused by a monolithic FL environment, i.e. contribute to lowering their affective filter, in accordance with Krashen (1982), and thus enhance language acquisition.
2 For the purpose of this paper only pedagogical translation, i.e. translation as a means of enhancing language skills and intercultural competences of FL learners (cf. Leonardi 2010) will be considered. We leave aside the role of translation used in the training of professional translators (i.e. translation pedagogy), since it lies beyond the scope of this study.
3.1 Translation supplementing the four traditional language skills
One of the frequently voiced objections to including translation into FLT is that it is a merely mechanical activity; however, as shown by Leonardi, the translation process actually involves a series of activities based on and implying reading, writing, speaking and listening (2010: 23-24). For example, when translating, the source text (ST) needs to be read very carefully and analysed in detail before proceeding to produce a target text (TT). Actually, the degree of attention required when reading a ST for translation purposes is generally higher than in reading activities for didactic purposes. As in teaching reading skills, the ultimate goal is to prepare learners to read different kinds of texts (depending on their age, proficiency level, and the type of language education they are involved in), and the fact that learners tend to translate mentally into their L1 when reading FL texts can be used profitably by externalising their thoughts and mental translations through cooperative translation activities aimed at enhancing comprehension. By applying contrastive analysis to syntactical and lexical aspects of texts, learners can be made aware of specific aspects of FL texts that may hinder understanding (e.g. positioning the conjugated verb form at the very end of subordinate clauses in German, expressing understatement by using double negatives, i.e. litotes, in English texts).
Since by its very definition translation involves transposing a (written or spoken) text from a source language (SL) into a target one (TL), writing skills are of crucial importance in translating. As pointed out by Leonardi, good writing skills are needed in each stage of the translation process, i.e. in decoding the ST, transferring linguistic and cultural elements and meanings into the TL and encoding the text into the TL by taking into account the target culture (ibid.). Whenever writing skills are taught in FLT, reference is made to focus, organisation, elaboration, style and text conventions, all aspects which are also highlighted in translation and which can therefore efficiently be used to enhance writing skills. Moreover, if a contrastive perspective is adopted (i.e. texts are viewed as culturemes and compared as suggested in 3.2), learners will be able to become acquainted with differences in writing styles in different languages.
Oral skills, i.e. listening and speaking, can be developed and taught through translation that is practised as a communicative activity performed within a meaningful context (cf. Nord 1997). Discussing translational solutions before and after translating a text in a FLT environment by using the FL can trigger a significant degree of interaction between the teacher and the learners and hence provide ample opportunities for the students to improve their oral skills. This type of discussion, along with conducting and performing translation activities, actually provides additional possibilities for classroom communication in the FL and thus for maximizing the learners' exposure to the FL.
By considering translation as an additional language skill which can supplement the traditional four skills, a more comprehensive approach to language learning can be adopted, one where translation is not an end in itself but a tool or a strategy supporting reading, writing, listening and speaking skills.
3.2 Insights from TS supporting FLT
In its initial stages, TS was concerned with the concept of equivalence, i.e. finding target language means which enable the transferring of the source text (or any other relevant language segment) into the target language. This understanding of translation is probably the most diffused one and it can be embraced by language learners at all levels. The concept of equivalence has been tackled by different scholars who essentially viewed it in the light of a binary opposition between two contrasting types, e.g. formal vs. dynamic (Nida 1964), semantic vs. communicative (Newmark 1991), overt vs. covert (House 1981), documentary vs. instrumental (Nord 1991); others, meanwhile, introduced alternative concepts which were still centred on a more or less pronounced degree of "sameness" or approximation to the source or the target language/culture, i.e. domestication vs. for-eignisation (Venuti 1995). For FLT purposes, equivalence can be defined simply as the rendering of a message from one language into another while bearing in mind cultural differences and the intended function of the translation (cf. Leonardi 2010: 81).
It was only the functionalist approaches in TS that decidedly shifted the focus from equivalence to the purpose of translation (i.e. the skopos) and actually highlighted the communicative function of translation. From the functionalist perspective, skopos is seen as the factor defining the translation strategy to be applied and the type of translation to be produced, and it is also seen as justifying a wide range of different renderings of the source text (ST), depending on the communicative purpose pursued. In the light of this approach and in accordance with the principles of plurilinguism and pluriculturality as proposed by the CEFR, learners will be made aware of the fact that, in order to effectively communicate across language and cultural barriers, any level of available skills from their intercultural repertory may and should be activated (CEFR 2001: 4-5). The importance of making FL learners aware of the resources provided by their intercultural repertory and its potential in building up plurilinguism and pluriculturality is also endorsed by Ozbot and Currie (2008). Another approach, suggested by the skopos theory and relevant for FLT is that language use should take into account the broader setting in which communication occurs, i.e. the wider context seen as "the constellation of events and situational factors (physical and others), both internal and external to a person, in which acts of communication are embedded" (CEFR 2001: 9). When in a FLT context school leaving certificates are discussed, learners will be made aware of the fact that to be able to compare the sociocultural connotations of school grading systems, the British grading scale using letters, for instance, can be translated with corresponding Slovenian numerical grades, while when discussing the specifics of the British educational system (or in a certified translation of a proficiency certificate) the original grading scheme has to be maintained and, if necessary, an appropriate explanation provided. In this respect the functionalist perspective introduces the concept of cultural embeddedness of language, according to which a message can fully be understood only if embedded in a given situation - a situation which, in turn, is embedded in the context of the culture underlying it.
The idea of the fundamental interrelatedness of language and culture that was introduced by the functionalist approaches paved the way for the so-called "cultural turn"
in TS, a stance advocated by Bassnett and Lefevere (1990) and best rendered by the following metaphor:
No language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture; and no culture can exist which does not have at its centre, the structure of natural language. Language, then, is the heart within the body of culture, and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril (Bassnett 1991: 14).
In line with this view, FL learners need to grasp that to effectively use a language in intercultural communication the cultures involved (i.e. in FLT the culture underlying L1 and the FL) need to be compared and their similarities and differences taken into account. In addition, to fully acknowledge the interrelatedness of language and culture, communicative situations can be observed in the light of the "cultureme theory", which defines "culturemes" as patterns of communicative behaviour, i.e. as a socio-cultural category, which is realised through realisational and regulatory "behaviouremes". "Realisational behaviouremes" refer to verbal (choice of linguistic means), paraverbal (pitch, tone, prosody) and non-verbal (e.g. gestures, body language) aspects of a communicative act, while "regulatory" ones involve extra-linguistic factors, such as time, space, status, social order, etc. (Oksaar 1988: 26-27). As shown in Kocbek (2013), the cultureme model can also be applied to texts. Texts (in the form of different genres) are regarded as culturally-specific patterns of (written) communicative behaviour consisting of several structural levels. Hence, the cultureme model can be used as a scaffolding strategy in FLT in the process of text reception and/or production. Within this model learners are instructed to first focus on the text macrostructure to identify the culturally-specific text design and content, and then to examine the microstructural levels to map the lexical, syntactic, pragmatic and stylistic features prototypical of a given genre. In the next stage they are led to adopt a contrastive perspective and compare the identified features of the FL text with the existing text-culturemes in their native culture, or vice versa. Through this process they are made aware of the similarities and differences at the different levels of L1 and FL texts and, when asked to write a text in the FL or produce a translation, they will be encouraged to take into account their findings from the previous analysis of L1 and FL text-culturemes, as well as to conform the text to the intended communicative purpose, i.e. skopos.
Hence, when translating texts in accordance with the skopos theory and following the cultureme model, learners will realise that a source language text can be transferred into a target language in different ways, depending on the communicative purpose, but that the translation will have to conform to the norms and conventions shaping the various dimensions of a spoken or written communicative act. Accordingly, in order to communicate effectively, the language user not only needs to choose the most adequate verbal elements in the FL (i.e. activate his/her linguistic competence), but must also take into account the behaviouremes shaping a particular cultureme in the target culture. This entails drawing on his/her sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. For instance, in teaching greeting customs, the learners' attention is drawn to the linguistic means available in the FL for
taking into account both the time of the day and the hierarchical differences between the communicating parties that ensue from their age, standing, gender, etc. - such as polite forms of address by using special pronouns and verb forms (the T-V distinction), or titles to acknowledge the status of the person addressed. In addition, the conventional gestures or body movements accompanying the act of greeting (shaking hands, bowing one's head, lifting one's hat, kissing a lady's hand), the habitual voice pitch, intonation, as well as other paraverbal and nonverbal behaviouremes will need to be considered.
When preparing learners to effectively communicate in writing, the paraverbal dimension will be substituted by paratextual aspects, such as the text layout, illustrations, tables, charts and typographic features (CEFR 2001: 80), while more attention will have to be paid to the text levels in terms of the macro- and microstructure of the text. As far as macrostructure is concerned, each culture has its own text conventions which regulate text design, e.g. the order in which text elements occur, its extent and consequently content (CEFR 2001: 123). On the lexical level, the appropriate vocabulary, e.g. specialized terminology in LSP texts, will have to be used by drawing on the language user's linguistic competence; on the syntactic level, meanwhile, e.g. the prevailing sentence structures, the use of the passive voice, etc. in corresponding FL texts will have to be taken into account. On the pragmatic level, those differences between languages will have to be acknowledged which pertain to the realisation of different speech acts by using language-specific means and involve activating the functional competence according to the CEFR (ibid.: 125-126) - such as expressing obligation with the "shall future" used with third-person subjects in English legal texts versus using lexical verbs such as "obvezati se" or "sich verpflichten" with the same function in Slovene and German, or giving instructions in recipes with an infinitive in Italian versus using the imperative for the same function in English and Slovene. Tackling the stylistic level will involve respecting the level of formality expected in a genre and using conventional linguistic means to achieve it, such as using the passive voice in English and German technical texts. The cultureme model can be applied to texts with differing levels of complexity - from relatively simple and short ones, such as safety warnings, employment advertisements to recipes and business letters, to very complex genres, such as contracts and agreements.
When teaching culturemes both in spoken and in written communication, the regulatory, i.e. extra-verbal aspect requires special attention as it actually affects other text levels by dictating, for instance, the choice of lexical and stylistic means. This dimension is reflected in the language user's sociolinguistic competences (CEFR 2001: 118-119) and covers aspects, such as time and space, i.e. where and when a communicative act takes place (a wedding ceremony in a church or in a registry office requiring the use of specific linguistic formulae), religious norms (e.g. prohibiting the use of certain ingredients in a kosher recipe), the social order (requiring the use of appropriate markers of social relations, such as addressing communication partners with "tovaris/-ica"/'comrade' in the socialist times in ex-Yugoslavia, irrespective of their social status in their native culture), the historical and political embeddedness of a communicative situation, defining e.g. the expected shared knowledge (CEFR 2001: 11) of the communicating parties in situations involving participants with a common historical background, as, for example, regarding
equivalent legal concepts in Slovene and Austrian law derived from the common legal system of the Austro-Hungarian empire, or recipes such as "Strudel", a traditional pastry known in the whole area formerly belonging to this empire.
By using the cultureme model as scaffolding the whole repertory of communicative competences with their linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic components is developed and acquired by the learner, and this is to be used when acting as a speaker, writer, listener or reader in communicative language processes (CEFR 2001: 90).
When teaching a FL and trying to link it consistently to its underlying culture, teachers may be confronted with the problem of rendering or introducing culturally specific phenomena, ideas, conventions, concepts and cultural practices (such as festivities, traditional folk and fairy tale characters, culinary traditions, deities, folklore elements, etc.) which have no corresponding counterpart in the learners' culture and which, according to Chesterman (1997), can be seen as memes. While memes will usually be transmitted through imitation and language within a culture, their transmission across cultural and linguistic boundaries will only be possible through translation. Thus, translation serves as "a survival machine for memes" (Chesterman 1997: 7), and the very need for translation proves the existence of a cultural boundary. Translation will therefore be indispensable for effectively presenting prototypical features of the FL culture to its learners.
Moreover, translation as advocated by the theory of memes can actually provide an effective tool for highlighting the intercultural dimensions of FLT, as it will enable learners to develop the necessary awareness about culturally-determined speech practices and norms, but also to focus on cross-cultural differences between the two or more cultures involved in communication. Targeted meme-oriented translation activities may involve discussing possible translation equivalents when dealing with culture-specific festivals and celebrations (e.g. the sociolinguistic practices of celebrating Mother's Day or Women's Day, i.e. March 8), mythological and literary characters (e.g. the figure of "Povodni mož" - the Waterman - in Slovenian folk tales and poems), culinary practices (e.g. translating measuring units, spices, special ingredients, etc.), architectural features (e.g. the typical Slovenian hayrack termed "kozolec" or the "trullo", i.e. a traditional Apulian dry stone hut with a conical roof), but also dances (the Greek sirtaki, Spanish flamenco), musical genres (e.g. the Portuguese fado, Bosnian sevdah music), historically and/ or ideologically charged terms such as the German vocabulary used in the Third Reich (e.g. "Rassenschande"/'racial defilement' or "Rassenverraf'/'racial betrayal'), etc. What is more, these activities can be used to initiate more comprehensive discussions regarding mythology, history and its influences as traced in culinary traditions, musical genres, etc. and they can be used to expand the learners' cultural horizon in accordance with the principles of plurilingualism and pluriculturality promoted by the CEFR.
4 "TRANSLATION HAPPENS EVERYWHERE, ALL THE TIME, SO WHY
NOT IN THE CLASSROOM."
As illustrated by McConnell-Duff's words quoted immediately above (1989: 6), while FLT experts have been arguing for and against using translation in FLT, translation has
been penetrating every pore of contemporary society. With the intensification of migration flows in the last decades more and more people find themselves in situations which require some amount of translation. The very exercising of fundamental human rights, such as the right to medical services, to legal protection, education, etc., can depend on a person's ability to use a FL and/or on the availability of translation. In globalised societies, more and more FL speakers occasionally assume the roles of "natural translators" (Nord 1997: 16) as they volunteer to act as translators and/or interpreters in situations where professional translation or interpreting is not available, or when they intervene at the request of family members or members of the same cultural community who feel more at ease when translation/interpreting is provided by someone they know rather than by professionals. This phenomenon (referred to as "language brokering") has lately been acknowledged and researched by translation scientists and experts from related fields. Several studies presented at the 1st International Conference of Non-Professional Interpreting and Translation held in May 2012 in Forli, Italy indicate that children and adolescents from immigrant families, who tend to become proficient in a FL more rapidly than their parents, increasingly take on the role of language and culture mediators. To support pluriculturality and plurilingualism these practices should be acknowledged by FLT by integrating the development of the necessary competences in FL curricula.
In addition, when travelling for different purposes or within various mobility programmes, more and more students, professionals, researchers, business people or just ordinary tourists are becoming aware of the need for translation and are looking for targeted education programmes to fill this gap.
5 CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have joined the chorus of authors who argue that the dilemma whether or not to include translation in FLT has long found its answer both in the learners' propensity to resort to translation whenever possible, as well as in the increasing demand for translation that is being perceived in all walks of life. Moreover, the current trends in contemporary societies provide sufficient evidence that translation is a legitimate and indispensable component of intercultural communicative competence. In order to develop this competence in a targeted way, the synergies that can be achieved by the mutual informing of TS and FLT should be exploited. To this purpose, research in translation science should also address non-professional translating and interpreting in a systematic manner, while FLT policies (including the CEFR) should endeavour to cater for the real needs of FL learners by developing targeted competences which undoubtedly include some degree of translation. The added value created by this syn-ergetic development is the learners' enhanced intercultural awareness and sensitivity, as well as the instigation of a process of life-long learning, given that (as many professional translators confirm) translation not only enhances and bolsters linguistic proficiency but also declarative knowledge and existential competences.
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Summary
UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF TRANSLATION FOR FLT
The paper proposes unlocking the potential of translation for foreign language teaching (FLT) by seeking to create synergies with the related discipline of translation science (TS). This aim is in keeping with the guidelines for language teaching provided in the Common European Framework of Languages, which introduced a model of communicative competences including communicative language competences as those which enable a person to act by drawing on specific linguistic means. First, an overview of the changing status of translation in FLT is presented - from its being considered a fundamental teaching method and basic skill in the Grammar-Translation Method, to its being all but outlawed in more recent communicative and task-based approaches, to its final rehabilitation in recent decades. It is then shown that, in the development of FLT, the parallel evolution of TS somehow failed to be acknowledged and, consequently, the opportunity to create valuable synergies between the two disciplines was missed. Following the stance of authors who have advocated the use of translation in FLT, it is argued that translation can effectively supplement the development of the four traditional language skills and, moreover, that some of the insights developed by TS can effectively be integrated into FLT as strategies aimed at enhancing leaners' cross-cultural communicative competences. To this purpose, selected insights from TS (e.g. the functional approach and the skopos theory, the cultureme model, the theory of memes) are discussed and their potential for creating synergies with FLT are explored. Finally, the
paper discusses the omnipresence of different forms of translation and interpreting in contemporary societies and shows that this naturally and logically calls for a systematic inclusion of translation in FLT.
Keywords: translation, foreign language teaching, skopos, cultureme, meme.
Povzetek
PREVAJANJE KOT NEIZKORIŠČENI POTENCIAL V POUČEVANJU TUJEGA JEZIKA
V članku predlagamo, da se z ustvarjanjem sinergičnih povezav med sorodnima disciplinama tujejezičnega poučevanja in prevodoslovja aktivira potencial, ki ga za tujeje-zično poučevanje nudi prevajanje. Ta pogled sledi smernicam Skupnega evropskega jezikovnega okvira, s katerim je bil uveden model sporazumevalnih zmožnostih, ki vključuje jezikovne sporazumevalne zmožnosti kot tiste, ki ljudem omogočajo delovanje ob uporabi specifičnih jezikovnih sredstev. S tem v zvezi članek prinaša najprej pregled sprememb statusa prevajanja v razvoju tujejezičnega poučevanja. Prevajanje je tako v okviru slovnično-prevajalske metode veljalo za temeljno metodo poučevanja in ključno spretnost, bilo nato skoraj tabuizirano v sodobnejših komunikacijskih in na dejavnostih temelječih pristopih ter končno rehabilitirano v zadnjih desetletjih. Prikazali bomo, kako je poučevanje tujega jezika v svojem razvoju nekako spregledalo vzporedni razvoj prevodoslovja in na ta način zamudilo priložnost za vzpostavitev dragocenih sinergičnih povezav med obema disciplinama. Navezali se bomo na stališča avtorjev, ki zagovarjajo uporabo prevajanja pri tujejezičnem poučevanju in poskušali dokazati, da lahko prevajanje učinkovito dopolnjuje razvoj klasičnih štirih jezikovnih spretnosti, kot tudi, da je nekatere pristope, ki jih je razvilo prevodoslovje, mogoče učinkovito prenesti v poučevanje tujega jezika v obliki strategij namenjenih izboljšanju medkulturnih sporazumevalnih zmožnosti učencev. V ta namen predstavjamo izbrane pristope iz prevodoslovja (npr. funkcionalne pristope s teorijo skoposa, model kulturema, teorijo memov) in raziščemo njihov potencial za sinergično povezovanje s področjem tujejezičnega poučevanja. V zadnjem delu članek obravnava vsesplošno prisotnost različnih oblik prevajanja in tolmačenja v sodobnih družbah, iz katere se je kot naravna in logična posledica porodila zahteva po sistematični vključitvi prevajanja v poučevanje tujega jezka.
Ključne besede: prevajanje, tujejezično poučevanje, skopos, kulturem, mem.
Sabine Hoffmann
Università della Calabria Giolo Fele*
Università degli studi di Trento**
UDK 811.112.2,243:[37.091.3:81'25] DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.439-453
PROCESSI DI TRADUZIONE E SCRITTURA ELEMENTARE NELLA LINGUA STRANIERA TEDESCA
1 SCRIVERE E TRADURRE NELLA DIDATTICA DELLE LINGUE STRA-
NIERE
Fino a metà degli anni ottanta del secolo scorso le competenze di scrittura occupa-vano l'ultimo posto della scala delle competenze linguistiche, erano considerate preva-lentemente un'attività adatta per chi già possedeva delle conoscenze di base (cfr. Fer-ling 2008: 111; Portmann-Tselikas 2010: 93). Anche a seguito delle critiche avanzate nei confronti della didattica comunicativa si è assistito a una rivalutazione crescente dell'abilità dello scrivere. La chiave del successo dell'apprendimento delle lingue stra-niere viene vista oggi nella sinergia di tutte le competenze.
Un discorso, in parte analogo e in parte diverso, va fatto circa il ruolo della tradu-zione. Mentre nell'approccio grammaticale - traduttivo la traduzione era la colonna universale sulla quale si basava l'insegnamento/apprendimento, nell'approccio didat-tico comunicativo questa attenzione viene meno. In particolare, l'attività di traduzio-ne è stata realmente trascurata nelle aule scolastiche e universitarie, a differenza di quanto avviene nei corsi disegnati specificatamente per i futuri traduttori, che hanno avuto, specialmente dagli anni '70, un grandissimo successo. Un ritorno alla centrali-tà della traduzione come parte integrante nella didattica avviene nell'ultimo decennio del secolo scorso, in seguito sia alle discussioni circa l'importanza delle competenze relative alla scrittura nella valutazione delle più ampie competenze linguistiche1, sia per merito delle ricerche sull'apprendimento delle lingue straniere e la riconsiderazio-ne del ruolo della lingua madre (Königs 2010: 97seg.). Ció nonostante, l'inserimento delle competenze di traduzione nella lezione di lingua di orientamento comunicativo-funzionale resta problematico, sia a scuola sia nell'università (Königs 2004: 179seg.). Comunque nel Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue
I paragrafi 1, 2 e 4 sono attribuibili a Hoffmann, il paragrafo 3 a Fele. Ringraziamo i due valutatori anonimi per gli utili suggerimenti avuti per migliorare il testo iniziale.
Indirizzi degli autori: Università della Calabria,Dipartimento di Lingue e Scienze dell'Educazione Via P. Bucci - Cubo 20B, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende (CS); Università degli studi di Trento, via Verdi 26, 38122 Trento, Italia. E-mail: sabine.hoffmann@unical.it, giolo.fele@unitn.it. Nei corsi universitari di lingue straniere moderne la verifica della conoscenza della lingua avviene normalmente attraverso modalità che prevedono una prova scritta.
*
(QCER 2002: 179) la traduzione cosi come la mediazione lingüistica vengono menzio-nate come parte integrante della competenza relativa alla scrittura.
Già dalla fine degli anni '80 / inizio anni '90 arrivano ad essere disponibili traduttori online (Cribb 2000: 562; Williams 2006: 567), anche se resta controverso il loro uso come supporto per l'apprendimento in classe e per la stesura di testi in lingua straniera (Correa 2014: 3; Williams 2006: 566). La ricerca scientifica ha mostrato finora una certa ritrosia a indagare i problemi specifici che si pongono mentre si fa ricorso al tra-duttore online. Il nostro lavoro è invece un contributo alla comprensione di alcuni di questi specifici problemi.
Poco sappiamo al momento di come interagiscono con un software coloro che stan-no imparando una lingua, le reazioni alle soluzioni automatiche suggerite (Musk 2014) e le notevoli differenze di qualità nella traduzione per le lingue che non siano l'inglese:
In fact, M[achine] Translation] as it exists now has only a limited ability to produce fully automated, high-quality translations between languages. Internet companies providing such services frequently use terminology such as gisting to explain that MT can provide only a general outline of a text so the user can see if it is worth seeking a higher quality translation (Cribb 2000: 562).
Sebbene dal 2000 ad oggi notevoli miglioramenti sono stati fatti nel campo della traduzione automatica, queste osservazioni rimangono in buona parte attuali. È da chie-dersi anche se e quanto gli studenti possano essere consapevoli dei problemi che pone la traduzione automatica.
Nonostante la rivalutazione della scrittura e un parziale impegno della traduzione durante le lezioni di lingua, rimane che gli esercizi per lo sviluppo della competenza nello scrivere sono generalmente meno frequenti e anche meno amati sia dagli inse-gnanti sia dagli alunni (Ferling 2008: 133) perché impegnativi per il tempo, la concen-trazione e lo sforzo cognitivo che necessitano2.
Il processo della scrittura è un complesso insieme che richiede la capacità di pro-gettare, di formulare e di monitorare la lingua. Per descrivere questo insieme di ca-pacità, il modello di Hayes/Flower (1980) e il modello di Levelt (1989), sviluppato pero per il parlato, sono tra i più diffusi. Il merito di questi due modelli risiede nel fatto che, rispetto ai modelli precedenti, si reputa superata la visione della linearità (o successione) delle varie fasi di apprendimento e si presume un continuo movimento e interazione tra progettazione, formulazione e monitoring (Hoffmann 2014: 177). Va considerato comunque che i modelli menzionati si riferiscono all'acquisizione della L1, e quindi presuppongono una capacità di monitoring possibile solamente se lo scri-vente dispone delle conoscenze sufficienti per correggere e elaborare un testo, il che nell'apprendimento della L2 o L3 avviene con maggiore lentezza. Inoltre, a differenza di quello che avviene con la L1, la scrittura (nell'apprendimento guidato) si sviluppa
2 Queste osservazioni riguardano prevalentemente lo scrivere con un obiettivo comunicativo-funzionale (lettere, mail, appunti ecc.) o la scrittura libera e creativa; l'utilizzo strumentale dello scrivere nell'ambito di esercizi vari, p.es. di grammatica, fa parte integrante della maggior parte delle lezioni.
contemporáneamente allo sviluppo di altre competenze3. La prima lingua (e quindi il modo in cui un parlante padroneggia la scrittura nella sua lingua nativa) ha un'influenza diretta sulla scrittura nella lingua straniera, cosi come una forte base di L2 (sempre piu l'inglese, specialmente in riferimento ad altre lingue come terza lingua, come il tedesco - cfr. Lindemann 2009) rendono - con i vari transfer (molto meno consapevoli come si presumeva nei citati modelli) - il monitoring particolarmente stratificato, pieno di aiuti ma anche di trappole. E da ricordare anche che l'allievo che scrive in tedesco come lingua straniera ha giá molte conoscenze acquisite perché ha imparato a scrivere in almeno una, talvolta due lingue straniere (Rosler 2012: 138), ma deve ancora conoscere una serie di fattori che appartengono sia alle caratteristiche e peculiaritá linguistiche inerenti alla lingua (sul tedesco cfr. Costa 2010) sia a quelle del contesto di uso.
2 LA COMPETENZA SULLA SCRITTURA NEL QUADRO COMUNE EUROPEO DI RIFERIMENTO PER LA CONOSCENZA DELLE LINGUE Dalla sua entrata in vigore nel 2001 il Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue (QCER 2002) e diventato uno strumento di riferimento sia per l'autovalutazione sia per la valutazione esterna delle competenze linguistiche. Questa sua diffusione e stata accompagnata da una crescente riflessione sul suo utilizzo, come p. es. Hulstijn (2007) per quanto riguarda la relazione tra conoscenze linguistiche e non linguistiche, in uno specifico volume del The Modern Language Journal dedicato prop-rio ai parametri fissati dal quadro europeo comune, oltre che da studi empirici legati per esempio all'ambito dell'action research (Sahinkarakas et al. 2010).
WRITING		
	A1	A2
What types of text I can write	Very short pieces of writing: isolated words and very short, basic sentences. For example, simple messages, notes, forms and postcards.	Usually short, simple pieces of writing. For example, simple personal letters, postcards, messages, notes, forms.
What I can write	Numbers and dates, own name, nationality, address and other personal details required to fill in simple forms when travelling. Short, simple sentences linked with connectors such as 'and' or 'then'.	Texts typically descibe immediate needs, personal events, familiar places, hobbies, work etc. Texts txpically consist of short, basic sentences. Can use the most frequent connectors (e.g. and, but, because) to link sentences in order to write a story or to descibe something as a list of points.
3 Il bambino impara prima a ascoltare, poi a parlare e infine a leggere e scrivere.
WRITING		
	A1	A2
Conditions and Limitations	Apart from the most common words and expressions, the writer needs to consult a dictionary.	Only on familiar and routine matters. Writing continuous coherent text is difficult.
Tabella 1: Descrizione sistemática della valutazione lingüistica per i livelli A1 e A2 secondo il DIALANG (CEFR 2001: 240)4
In seguito riportiamo le descrizioni delle competenze di scrittura a livello A1/A2, al quale appartengono gli studenti che hanno partecipato alla ricerca qui presentata.
Dalla descrizione si evince che a livello di base le competenze di scrittura sono limitate a un lessico circoscritto alla sfera personale e con una capacità espressiva non complessa. Specificamente per l'ortografia il Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue prescrive che ai livelli A1/A2 di conoscenza della lingua lo studente (QCER 2002: 145):
A1: È in grado di copiare parole e brevi espressioni conosciute, ad esempio avvisi o istruzioni, nomi di oggetti d'uso quotidiano e un certo numero di espressioni correnti. È inoltre in grado di dire lettera per lettera il proprio indirizzo, la nazionalità e altri dati personali.
A2: È in grado di copiare brevi frasi su argomenti correnti - ad es. le indicazioni per arrivare in un posto. È in grado inoltre di scrivere parole brevi che fanno parte del suo vocabolario orale riproducendone ragionevolmente la fonetica (ma non necessa-riamente con ortografia del tutto corretta).
Per quanto riguarda la grammatica il documento (QCER 2002: 140) indica che lo studente:
A1: Ha solo una padronanza limitata di qualche semplice struttura grammaticale e di semplici modelli sintattici, in un repertorio memorizzato.
A2: Usa correttamente alcune strutture semplici, ma continua sistematicamente a fare errori di base - per esempio tende a confondere i tempi verbali e a dimenticare di segnalare gli accordi; ciononostante ció che cerca di dire è solitamente chiaro.
Il Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue intende fornire un prezioso strumento per verificare e accertare il padroneggiamento delle competenze da parte di un apprendente. Rimane peró il fatto che la dimostrazione del possesso di queste competenze è un tema ancora tutto da analizzare. Soprattutto è interessante studiare le forme e i processi attraverso i quali queste competen-
4 Il DIALANG presenta un insieme di descrittori per l'autovalutazione per fini diagnostici ed è un progetto finanziato dalla Direzione Generale Istruzione e Cultura della Comunità Europea nell'ambito del programma Socrates. L'appendice C manca nella traduzione italiana del documento (QCER 2002). Per questo è riportata la versione inglese.
ze sono rese visibili, emergono e si contestualizzano in situazioni specifiche di apprendimento.
3 LA RICERCA EMPIRICA SUI PROCESSI DI SCRITTURA: CONSAPEVO-LEZZA, CONOSCENZE LINGUISTICHE E INTERAZIONE SOCIALE
La ricerca su cui questo contributo si basa si è svolta all'Università della Calabria nell'anno accademico 2013/14 con un gruppo di 16 studenti iscritti al corso di laurea magistrale di "Valorizzazione dei sistemi turistico-culturali". Si trattava di principianti a livello A1/A2. Il progetto di studio proponeva la traduzione di parti della homepage del Parco nazionale della Sila in lingua tedesca. Per la traduzione gli studenti potevano utilizzare il supporto di Google Traduttore. Il ricorso alla risorsa online rappresenta ovviamente un aiuto limitato per uno studente alle prime armi, perché il principiante riesce a focalizzare solo alcuni aspetti lessicali o sintattici basilari. Ma con queste poche conoscenze il software permette di sperimentare soluzioni diverse, e invita a cercare - sia da soli che in gruppo - delle strategie per arrivare a una soluzione sod-disfacente. Gli studenti oggetto della nostra ricerca hanno effettivamente lavorato in gruppi (4 gruppi di 4 persone ciascuno). Le prime 16 ore (su 30 totali) erano indirizzate alla preparazione del lavoro, mentre nelle successive 12 ore ogni gruppo si è dedicato a un particolare argomento (gruppo 1: itinerari; gruppo 2: flora e fauna; gruppo 3: eventi e come raggiungere il parco; gruppo 4: parco avventura). La stesura dei testi è stata seguita con due videocamere e un registratore audio (gli studenti hanno fatto inoltre in proprio delle riprese del loro lavoro). I testi scritti sono stati in parte registrati con il software Translog II.
Nel campo dei processi di apprendimento linguistico, la scrittura è stata valutata so-prattutto a livello degli output in quanto prodotto finale di un processo. La nostra ricerca intendeva invece prendere in esame i processi oltre che i prodotti, cioè le forme di co-struzione delle strutture verbali e discorsive nel mentre si articolano dal vivo durante la costruzione di un testo scritto. Il riferimento per l'interpretazione dei dati raccolti si ispira all'analisi del discorso e all'analisi della conversazione. In particolare nell'ambito di qu-est'ultimo approccio sono state condotte molte analisi dell'interazione in classe (Gardner 2008: 229; Fele 2007; Pari 1998; Schwab 2009; Seedhouse 2004; Walsh 2011).
Il principio fondamentale di questi approcci è bene espresso da Gardner (2008: 238):
If learning a language is seen not merely as some kind of internal psychological process that can only be understood though controlled experimental or quasi-experimental methods, but as something that at least much of the time is placed out in the shared cognitive space of a classroom, with cognition regularly rippling to the surface of the talk, then we have an alternative to traditional second language acquisition work, a complementary research agenda using CA's proven rigour and compatible theoretical programmes such as socio-cultural theory.
A partire dagli anni novanta (Firth/Wagner 1997), l'analisi della conversazione ha prodotto una serie di contributi importanti anche riguardo al campo della ricerca sull'apprendimento delle lingue straniere.
L'analisi dei dati che presentiamo riguarda la gestione da parte degli studenti in un gruppo di alcuni problemi di traduzione. In particolare, ci interessa far vedere come gli studenti affrontano il compito della traduzione di sintagmi nominali semplici con l'aiuto del traduttore automatico, le soluzioni ottenute e la valutazione della qualita del risultato, i problemi che la traduzione pone, e il modo in cui questi problemi vengono affrontati e superati. Si tratta di competenze linguistiche di livello A1/A2: il nostro scopo e analizzare in che modo emergano queste competenze o, delle volte, come non emergano nel contesto specifico dell'apprendimento. Il fatto che si tratti di lavori di gruppo permette di mettere in luce pratiche concrete, pubbliche e condivise, di ragiona-mento e dimestichezza con la lingua straniera da parte degli studenti.
3.1 "Proviamo a mettere villaggi turistici"
Nella prima sequenza Laura, Rita e Marina5 sono sedute di fronte a due schermi. Sul primo (schermol) hanno il testo di traduzione tedesca che stanno via via producendo, sul secondo schermo (schermo2) hanno il sito originale italiano che deve essere tra-dotto e l'accesso a Google Traduttore. Nel momento in cui le incontriamo Laura sta facendo l'elenco delle parole che hanno tradotto finora:
Lau allora vi dico quello che abbiamo -((Lau sta leggendo sullo schermol))
fino a mo' quello che abbiamo messo, abbiamo-, va be', dove si mangia, i ristoranti, e li abbiamo fatti tutti, la pizzeria, Mar si,
Lau eh, poi abbiamo fatto Rit dove dormire Lau dove dormire. eh, agriturismo, eh, bi and bi, hotel Mar alberghi, Lau residence Rit (a te) gli alberghi-Mar eh, mettiamo villaggi turistici
Marina invita Rita, che e di fronte allo schermo nel quale si puo usare Google Traduttore, ad inserire il sintagma "villaggi turistici" per averne la traduzione. Rita apre il programma, si posiziona col cursore e digita la parola "villaggi turistici" sullo schermo. Il risultato non e particolarmente soddisfacente:
5 I nomi sono stati cambiati per garantire la privacy. La trascrizione si basa sulle convenzioni in uso nell'analisi della conversazione (Jefferson 2004; vedi anche Fele 2007: 127-132) ed e stata semplificata rispetto all'originale.
Lau proviamo a (mettere) villaggi turistici ((Lau guarda schermo 1)) Mar e basta
((Ritposiziona il mouse sul video - 7 ")) ((Rit lavora alla tastiera - 11'")) ((Rit lascia la tastiera, prende il mouse)) Lau come si dice? ((guarda lo schermo 2)) lo stesso.
Laura osserva, guardando allo schermo dove Rita ha inserito le parole da tradurre su Google Traduttore, che il traduttore non ha esattamente tradotto nulla. La traduzione di "villaggi turistici" da "villaggi turistici". Un problema, di fronte al quale ci possono essere piu possibili spiegazioni per gli studenti stessi. La prima e piu immediata da parte di Rita é quella di considerare forse l'espressione complessa "villaggi turistici" una soluzione non prevista per il traduttore automatico. La soluzione che Rita trova é quella di rendere l'espressione composta (vale a dire, "villaggi turistici") piu semplice, fatta da un solo elemento: "villaggi". La traduzione diventa un'operazione di restituzione pezzo dopo pezzo.
((RitMar e Lau guardano schermo 2))
((Rit ritorna a battere sulla tastiera un tasto solo - cancella "turistici"))
Rit mettiamo "villaggi"
Lau no, villaggi vuol dire un'altra cosa
Rit eh, non lo trovo
((Rit si volta verso la docente, poi ritorna a schermo 2)) Rit chiediamo?
Rita, abbiamo detto, propone la soluzione di traduzione parola per parola. Ma a questo punto Laura osserva che la parola "villaggi" separata dal suo aggettivo "turisti-ci" darebbe una soluzione completamente diversa (aprirebbe il campo semantico che lega "villaggio" a "paese", "borgo", "frazione", eccetera). La traduzione a quel punto sarebbe su una strada completamente sbagliata. Di fronte ad un persistente problema di traduzione che riguarda anche quel lemma isolato (non lo trovo), Rita si consulta velo-cemente con le altre due compagne per vedere di far risolvere alla docente la soluzione del problema. In realta, si scopre la soluzione del problema: Rita ha selezionato male la tendina delle lingue da selezionare per la traduzione.
Lau ma non é che non funziona internet, Rita?
((Lau, Rit e Mar guardano schermo2 - 6'"))
Lau eh, ma perché hai messo inglese, Rita,
((Lau prende il mouse del computer 2 e posiziona il cursore))
italiano qua
Rit okey, grazie
((Rit scrive sulla tastiera - 6 "))
((improvvisamente Rit, Lau e Mar sorridono))
Lau allora
((Lau guardando il risultato sullo schermo che dice "resort") Lau si, puô essere che si dice resort se tu ci pensi, quando, si, secondo me si
Dapprima Laura chiede a Rita se il problema della mancata traduzione dipenda dal fatto che non ci sia connessione Internet. Poi Laura si rende conto che Rita ha se-lezionato in modo errato la tendina del traduttore automatico che sceglie la lingua di partenza ("maperché hai messo inglese, Rita, italiano qua"). La correzione consiste nel digitare di nuovo il sintagma "villaggi turistici". La traduzione automatica funziona: il risultato ottenuto per il tedesco è "resort". La soluzione ottenuta fa scattare dei processi di spiegazione e di giustificazione di quanto ottenuto. Lungi dall'accettare incondizi-onatamente la traduzione proposta dal traduttore automatico, Laura riconosce qualche elemento di stranezza nel risultato ottenuto (forse perché assomiglia cosi da vicino all'inglese?). In ogni caso, Laura tende ad accettare la soluzione di traduzione proposta: la ritiene possibile, accettabile.
Intanto la docente, dopo essere stata chiamata, si avvicina. Questo è quello che avviene:
((Mar fa vedere alla docente lo schermo 2)) Mar villaggi turistici resort? ((alla docente)) Doc resort ((leggendo))
feriendörfer ((guardando in alto, come pensando)) Mar infatti, io-Doc m
Rit mettiamo solo villaggi
((Mar cancella sullo schermo e indica alla docente il risultato)) Doc mm
((Doc guarda lo schermo; poi guarda le ragazze)) Doc dörfer. mm feriendörfer
La docente viene chiamata da Marina, che chiede la conferma che la traduzione corretta di "villaggi turistici" in tedesco sia "resort". La docente legge sullo schermo la traduzione proposta e subito dà la corrispondente parola tedesca corretta, "Feriendörfer", diversa da quella offerta dal traduttore automatico. Rita vuole cercare di capire l'origine di quella soluzione di traduzione. La proposta che fa Rita è la stessa attuata in precedenza: scomporre il sintagma nelle sue due componenti, esaminare una componente alla volta. Vuole probabilmente essere anche una prova della capacità del traduttore automatico di offrire una soluzione di traduzione convincente. Per questo Rita inserisce su Google Traduttore solo la parola "villaggi". La soluzione che esce è "Dörfer". La docente annuisce: ripete la parola, e poi ritorna alla traduzione corretta dell'intero sintagma, "Feriendörfer".
Nella prosecuzione (e termine) della sequenza (che qui non mostriamo in trascrizio-ne) la docente ripete lettera per lettera a Laura la parola. Laura scrive sul suo schermol la parola e chiede conferma della sillabazione dopo aver scritto "ferien". Lo stesso
viene fatto con la seconda parte della parola, "dörfer". La parola alla fine viene scritta in due parti separate e con lettera minuscola.
La prima sequenza riguarda dunque un problema di traduzione lessicale, e poi l'uso delle maiuscole e la formazione delle parole composte. La difficoltà ortografica delle maiuscole viene affrontato nelle prime lezioni a livello di A1, mentre il fenomeno delle parole composte è solitamente conosciuto, ma non spiegato e supportato da regole mor-fologiche. Le studentesse mostrano grandi incertezze e una limitata capacita o volontà di risolvere il problema della traduzione tra di loro. Le due correzioni fatte dalla docente vengono percepite con fatica e in maniera erronea. Il traduttore automatico viene visto come ultima risorsa di senso: ma i problemi incontrati sono molteplici. Non a caso, sarà la docente ad offrire la soluzione definitiva al loro problema di traduzione. Al di là dei problemi pratici, le soluzioni cercate con il traduttore automatico prevedono una riduzione della traduzione di un sintagma complesso ad un solo lemma per volta (ma in questo caso col rischio di ampliare la variazione semantica invece di restringerla); inoltre, la traduzione ottenuta non è corretta e non è riconosciuta come problematica dal gruppo (in buona parte dovuta al fatto che la traduzione offerta è accettabile come inglese). Abbiamo visto come riconoscere e scrivere forme semplici corrisponda ad una attività complessa, che richiede la mobilitazione di una serie di risorse che sono disponibili contestualmente e che avvengono in uno spazio di apprendimento specifico. La consultazione di un dizionario richiede un orientamento cognitivo e una capacità di riconoscimento e valutazione che costituiscono la base concreta per il vero e proprio affiorare di competenze determinate, il loro stabilizzarsi, il loro consolidarsi.
3.2 "Questo qui mi sembra inglese"
Nella seconda sequenza troviamo Giovanni, Alberta e Maria che sono alle prese con una apparente difformità di traduzione. Sullo schermol Alberta ha di fronte a sé il testo tradotto, sullo schermo2 Maria ha il sito web da tradurre. Alberto siede alla sinistra di Alberta e indica con il dito sullo schermo1.
Gio penso che museo si dice cosi in tedesco, no?
((Gio indica la parola "museum" con il dito sullo schermol in basso nel testo))
Alb m?
((Alb guarda schermol))
Alb eh?
Gio (è tedesco?)
((Gio indica di nuovo la parola sullo schermo1 in basso nel testo))
Alb museum ((Alb legge la parola indicata da Gio))
Alb ma non mi sembra proprio tedesco, qua museen, qua museum.
Gio questo mi sembra inglese
((Gio indica la parola sullo schermo "museum" in basso nel testo))
Gio miusium ((pronuncia in inglese))
Giovanni nota una incongruenza nella scrittura di un sostantivo ("Museum" che compare in basso nello schermo e "Museen" che compare nel brano in alto nello scher-mo), e pone la domanda su quale delle due sia la forma corretta. Giovanni identifica un problema e lo rende esplicito, comunicando agli altri la sua "scoperta" Qui il problema é dato non dalla difficoltá di trovare la traduzione di una parola (come nel caso precedente), ma dal fatto che una stessa parola é apparentemente scritta in due modi diversi, di cui solo uno dovrebbe essere quello corretto e l'altro dovrebbe essere quello sbagliato. Il riconoscimento del problema da parte delle sue compagne non é un'ope-razione immediata. Giovanni deve far si che l'attenzione di Alberta sia attirata sulla parte di schermo che lui sta monitorando, e deve rendere evidente il problema (museum e tedesco?). Inoltre indica le due occorrenze all'apparenza diverse. La sua collega Alberta individua la parola, la ripete, osserva anche lei un problema (ma non mi sembra proprio tedesco) e rende evidente l'apparente incongruenza nelle due diverse parti del testo (qua museen, qua museum). Giovanni inoltre rafforza l'indicazione di Alberta ri-spetto a quale delle due forme sia da ritenere sbagliata: per Giovanni la forma scorretta é "Museum" perché non sarebbe tedesco, ma inglese.
Di fronte al problema, Alberta intraprende un tentativo di soluzione. Se si tratta di verificare quale delle due forme sia quella corretta, basta inserire la parola su Google Traduttore. Ecco cosa succede:
((Alb va su Google Traduttore, scrive "musei")) Alb qua é museum ((Alb legge lo schermo)) Gio (guarda qui)
((Gio indica sullo schermo il risultato della traduzione che da "museen"))
Alb aspetta, se noi cerchiamo, cerchiamo museo
Mar allora direttamente, cerchiamo museo, e basta
((Alb corregge sullo schermo, cancella, scrive "museo"))
Alb museum
((Alb legge il risultato della traduzione)) Mar museum, basta. Gio e perché,
allora é sbagliato quello di prima ((Alb torna alla pagina del testo tradotto)) Alb eh, é sbagliato-,
eh, non lo so, ma a me lo dá sempre diverso. ((Gio punta il dito sullo schermo sulla parola "museen" in alto schermo 1)) Alb non lo so.
((Alb legge a bassa voce tra sé dallo schermo 1))
Alberta non riesce a comprendere il problema. Ha inserito in Google Traduttore "musei", e ottiene "Museen". Eppure nel testo tradotto c'é anche la parola "Museum". Sia Alberta che Maria optano per una soluzione semplice: forse il traduttore automatico ha qualche problema con una richiesta di traduzione di una parola che non é al singola-re? Per questo entrambe si trovano d'accordo ad inserire di nuovo la parola su Google
Traduttore, ma stavolta al singolare: il risultato è "Museum". Alberta legge il risultato, e Maria concorda che definitivamente quella è l'unica traduzione accettabile (museum, basta). Giovanni non sembra soddisfatto di questa soluzione unica, perché ancora non spiega perché da una parte del loro testo compare "Museum" e dall'altra "Museen". La risposta di Alberta è di arresa: si rende conto che l'incongruenza continua, che non è stata risolta, che il traduttore automatico, invece di essere l'ultima risorsa per essere sicuri e dare certezze, continua a dare soluzioni diverse (a me lo dà sempre diverso). D'altra parte, la traduzione della forma non flessa del lemma viene considerata più affidabile e meno instabile rispetto alla traduzione del plurale.
La soluzione del dilemma appare improvvisamente. Maria va su schermo2, apre Google Traduttore e inserisce la parola "musei". Ecco cosa succede:
((Mar va su Google Traduttore su schermo 2 e digita "musei"))
Mar perché è plurale
((Alb si allontana dallo schermo))
Gio ah. ah, ho capito
Mar capito?
Gio musei. ah si. (vedi un po') Mar musei verdi Alb ah si
Maria improvvisamente si illumina. La risposta è evidente a tutti: la forma "Museen" viene fuori perché è la forma plurale di "Museum" in tedesco. Non c'è contrad-dizione, non c'è più dilemma. Non si tratta di scegliere una forma o l'altra, di cui una è esatta e l'altra è sbagliata, ma di riconoscere una regola grammaticale, che rende il quadro della traduzione immediatamente trasparente. Una volta enunciata la regola (è plurale), sia Giovanni che Alberta "capiscono". Il problema viene chiuso.
La pluralizzazione dei sostantivi in tedesco è un fenomeno trattato nelle prime le-zioni a livello A1. Gli studenti nella sequenza non fanno un'ipotesi in tal senso, cioè non attivano regole grammaticali e ne discutono, ma trovano una strategia per arrivare ad una risposta tramite Google Traduttore. In realtà, la risposta alla quale arrivano non viene data dal sistema di traduzione automatica: piuttosto, per riconoscere la corret-tezza della traduzione offerta occorre riferirsi al sistema della lingua e alle sue regole grammaticali. Senza le quali la traduzione rimane opaca. Anche in questo caso, le com-petenze degli studenti emergono nel lavoro interazionale: la correttezza delle diverse opzioni grammaticali a seconda del numero emerge come consapevolezza costruita passo passo, secondo modalità di progressivo disvelamento di una regola sottostante alla variazione lessicale.
4 CONCLUSIONI E CONSEGUENZE PER LA DIDATTICA
La ricerca qui presentata offre diversi punti di riflessione. Dapprima, mostra le grandi difficoltà della traduzione online per principianti e conferma la necessità di un pre-editing nella lingua di partenza. Il punto è stato messo in evidenza anche recente-mente da Correa (2014):
Given that the output provided by OTs is oftentimes faulty, the most obvious pre-editing activity would be to change and fix the original text in English as needed in order for the translator to give an appropriate translation (id: 11).
Finally, in order to raise metalinguistic awareness of the differences between English and Spanish word-structure, I propose pre-editing activities in which the original text is modified in order to make it more machine-friendly (id: 12).
Ma non soltanto a livello linguistico l'utilizzo di Google Traduttore richiede una adeguata preparazione. Le difficoltà riscontrate dagli studenti derivano anche dall'ine-sperienza o da una mancata domestichezza nell'uso di questo strumento. L'impiego di questo programma va quindi illustrato prima del suo uso.
Una riflessione esige pure la presenza dell'inglese. Il fatto che sembra che il traduttore fornisca spesso l'inglese in mancanza della parola tedesca richiesta, pone agli studenti prima il problema di riconoscerla come tale, e poi a decidere se la traduzione fornita possa anche essere valida nell'ambito tedesco.
A prescindere della necessità di questi tre passi preliminari, evidentemente indispen-sabili per principianti, la ricerca evidenzia il vantaggio e i limiti che derivano dall'uso collettivo in classe di Google Traduttore. Mentre nel primo caso (3.1) gli studenti di-nanzi alle difficoltà si arrendono dopo pochi tentativi, nel secondo caso (3.2) speri-mentano varie soluzioni di traduzione - che sono fornite immediatamente dalla risorsa online, come nessun altro mezzo è in grado di fornire. Il gruppo si vede fin dal principio stimolato a valutare e decidere quale potrebbe essere il corrispettivo adatto e a riflettere sui diversi motivi di accettabilità e di rifiuto della soluzione proposta. Indubbiamente, la risorsa online usata in gruppo incoraggia e spinge a verificare la validità delle varie opzioni proprio per la variabilità delle risposte che si generano dalla ricerca automatica di traduzione: cooperando in gruppo, abbiamo visto come gli studenti possano con-frontarsi tra loro alla ricerca della plausibilità delle proprie scelte e della correttezza dei risultati delle traduzioni proposte.
Dal punto di vista del Quadro comune europeo di riferimento per la conoscenza delle lingue, riteniamo che sia importante analizzare non solo gli output di apprendimento e la loro misurazione, ma sia necessario non dimenticare tutti i processi (cognitivi e interazionali) che sono alla base della dimostrazione del possesso di queste compe-tenze. Per i nostri scopi riteniamo decisivo studiare le forme e i processi attraverso i quali queste competenze sono rese visibili, emergono e si contestualizzano in situazioni specifiche di apprendimento.
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WALSH, Steve (2011) Exploring Classroom Discourse: Language in Action. London: Routledge.
WILLIAMS, Lawrence (2006) "Web-Based Machine Translations as a Tool for Promoting Electronic Literacy and Language Awareness." Foreign Language Annals 39/4, 565-578.
Riassunto
PROCESSI DI TRADUZIONE E SCRITTURA ELEMENTARE NELLA LINGUA STRANIERA TEDESCA
L'articolo presenta i primi risultati di una ricerca qualitativa nell'ambito della produ-zione scritta in lingua straniera con l'ausilio di Google Traduttore. In questo lavoro prendiamo in esame i processi, ovvero le forme di costruzione delle strutture verbali e discorsive mentre si attuano dal vivo durante la realizzazione di un sito web di carattere turístico. La ricerca si e svolta nell'anno accademico 2013/2014 e si e basata sull'ana-lisi di una videoregistrazione di circa 12 ore di lavoro svolto a gruppi di 4 persone riprese mentre progettano, lavorano e realizzano una homepage in lingua tedesca di un sito turistico. Il lavoro mette in risalto sia le potenzialita che i limiti dell'utilizzo delle risorse online di traduzione a livelli di base nell'apprendimento di una lingua straniera.
Parole chiave: traduzione, scrittura, Google Traduttore©, Tedesco come lingua straniera, interazione sociale, analisi del discorso.
Abstract
TRANSLATING PROCESSES AND ELEMENTARY WRITING IN GERMAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
The article presents the first results of a qualitative research study on writing in a foreign language with the help of Google Translator. It examines the processes of the construction of verbal and discursive forms during group discussion on the translation of a tourist website structures ensuing from a tourist website const. This study took place in the 2013/2014 academic year, and it was based on a video recording of about 12 hours of group work by 16 students while planning and producing a draft of the German translation of the homepage of an Italian tourist site. This study highlights both the advantages and disadvantages of the use of an online translation resource by students with basic knowledge of a foreign language.
Key words: translation, writing, Google Translator©, German as foreign language, social interaction, discourse analysis.
Povzetek
PROCESI PREVAJANJA IN PISANJE NA OSNOVNI RAVNI PRI NEMŠČINI KOT TUJEM JEZIKU
V članku predstavljamo prve rezultate kvalitativne raziskovalne študije pisanja pri tujem jeziku, pri katerem so si študenti pomagali s programom Google Translator. V prispevku raziskujemo procese pisanja oziroma izgradnjo glagolskih in diskurzivnih struktur, izraženih med skupinsko diskusijo o prevodu spletne strani, namenjene turistom. Raziskavo smo izvedli v študijskem letu 2013/14 na osnovi posnetkov 12-urnega skupinskega dela 16 študentov, ki so načrtovali in izdelali osnutek nemškega prevoda spletne strani italijanske turistične organizacije. Skušali smo osvetliti prednosti in slabosti prevajanja s pomočjo spletnega prevajalnika, ki so ga uporabili študentje z osnovnim znanjem tujega jezika.
Ključne besede: prevod, pisanje, Googlov prevajalnik, nemščina kot tuji jezik, družbena interakcija, analiza diskurza.
Chikako Shigemori Bučar	UDK 811.521'243(497.4):37.016(4)
Hyeonsook Ryu	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.455-469
Nagisa Moritoki Škof Kristina Hmeljak Sangawa
University of Ljubljana*
THE CEFR AND TEACHING JAPANESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
1	INTRODUCTION
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) was developed in a European context, but it has had some direct and indirect influences on teaching Japanese in Japan and worldwide.
The first part of this article reviews the reception and applications of the CEFR by Japanese linguists, language-education specialists, and institutions1. In the 1990s, and at the beginning of the twenty-first century, as the CEFR was being developed and implemented in Europe, standards and guidelines for teaching and testing Japanese as a second language underwent extensive revisions, that were partly influenced by the CEFR.
The second part of the article analyses the present state of teaching Japanese in Slovenia, in relation to CEFR. This analysis reveals some specific characteristics of Japanese as a language and Japanese education in Europe, which partly confirm the critical stance introduced in the previous section.
2	INFLUENCE OF THE CEFR ON TEACHING JAPANESE
Learners of Japanese in Europe are a minority, compared to those in other areas of the world. According to statistics from the Japan Foundation, altogether there were 979,820 learners of Japanese in the world in 2006, and fewer than 10% of them (about 95,000) resided in Europe2.
Since its publication in 2001, and even during its preparation some years earlier, the CEFR attracted much attention, not only within Europe, but also worldwide, and it has been applied to various languages, in different educational settings. This section briefly
Authors'addresses: Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia. E-mails: chikako.bucar@guest.arnes.si, hyeonsook.ryu@guest.arnes.si, nagisa.moritoki@ guest.arnes.si, Kristina.hmeljak@guest.arnes.si.
We would like to thank an anonymous Japanese specialist with much experience currently in Japan, who provided us with much information on the topic, especially concerning the first half of this article.
15th July 2014. http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/singi/jinzai/jitsumu/dai5/siryou2_1.pdf.
*
1
2
presents the active involvement of teachers of Japanese in Europe, a reconsideration of concepts and standards for teaching and learning Japanese as a foreign language, and the revision of the Japanese Language Proficiency Test, all in relation to the CEFR.
2.1 The Role of the Association of Japanese Language Teachers in Europe (AJE)
The Association of Japanese Language Teachers in Europe (AJE) was established in 1995, and re-established as the AJE e.V. in 20 093. It seeks to enhance and promote the teaching and learning of the Japanese language and culture in Europe. The association consists of over 300 members from around thirty countries, and their activities reflect the needs of Japanese learners in Europe. They also play an active role in interpreting and applying the concepts offered by the CEFR to Japanese language education. Soon after the publication of the Common European Framework of Reference for Language: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) in 2001, the AJE, entrusted by the Japan Foundation4, started the AJE-CEFR project. In 2005, the results of the project were published in Learning and Teaching Japanese Language in Europe and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (AJE and JF 2005). In this publication, the AJE briefly presents the history of language policies in Europe, and the activities of the Council of Europe, and gives a brief account of the Bologna Process, the CEFR, and the European Language Portfolio (ELP). In order to examine the current tendencies and future directions of Japanese language teaching and learning in Europe, the AJE carried out a survey of eight European countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Based on this survey, the prospects for learning and teaching Japanese are presented in detail. The AJE points out issues and problems to be tackled in teaching Japanese; for example, the increasing number of learners, a growing interest by younger learners and by learners outside the academic sphere, and the low status of Japanese teachers at European institutions. The report also touches on other aspects of learning and teaching Japanese in Europe, including LLL (lifelong learning), e-learning and IT literacy, CLIL (content and language integrated learning), and possible solutions for teacher training.
Overall, the report concludes that Japanese teachers have much to learn from the CEFR, based on the following four reasons listed in the "Executive Summary" of the publication:
•	There must be a firm and clear notion of language, language teaching, and language learning;
•	Economic and political needs must be taken into account;
•	The CEFR was initiated by the Council of Europe, but many countries took leading roles in coordinating its implementation;
3	AJE. 15th July 2014. http://www.eaje.eu/en.html.
4	The Japan Foundation. 15th July 2014. http://wwwjpf.gojp/e/index.html. The Japan Foundation (JF) specializes in international cultural exchange in Japan. Members of the Japanese studies program at the Department of Asian and African Studies regularly attend symposia and workshops organized by the AJE and/or JF.
• The CEFR/ELP is open, like most documents on the Internet, and can be freely downloaded (AJE and the Japan Foundation 2005: 12).
In June 2011, the AJE launched the "AJE-CEFR Project from 2011". In order to promote Japanese as a foreign language in Europe and to develop its teaching, the AJE recognizes the need to share the concept and basic achievements of the CEFR: currently, there are three study groups within this project, analysing research, teacher training, and evaluation standards5.
2.2 The Japan Foundation Standard for Japanese Language Education
The JF Standard for Japanese Language Education was developed by the Japan Foundation (JF), partially in response to the CEFR. The planning of the standard began in 2005, and the results were published in 20 1 06. According to the publication, The JF Standard for Japanese Language Education 2010 (Japan Foundation 2010), the standard offers tools that can be used to consider how to teach and learn Japanese, and to evaluate the results of learning Japanese. It includes the following sections, which are all considered necessary in order to effectively apply the JF Standard to language learning: a) the tree of the JF Standard7, b) six levels of learning, c) can-do statements, and d) a portfolio. The tree is a schema presenting the relationship between language abilities and language activities, summarising the theoretical part of the standard. The six levels, can-do statements, and portfolio are adaptations of those offered by the CEFR for European languages.
As Lansisalmi (2012: 104) points out, the can-do statements of the JF Standard8, especially in reading and writing, are more fine-grained. Japanese language ability cannot be assessed in the same way as in European languages: Japanese is a non-Indo-European and non-Latin alphabet language (Lansisalmi 2012: 100-106), demanding much more energy and time for learners to become familiar with the script, because it includes two sets of syllabic phonetic scripts and logographic Chinese characters. In the standard script, as many as 2,136 characters (termed joyo kanji) are used.
The JF encourages institutions and teachers of Japanese to use this standard for individual planning, and for developing language courses and textbooks, teaching materials, tests, and exams. To this end, the JF created the site "Can-do for everyone (Minna no Can-do saito)"9, a database of can-do statements for learning Japanese. Institutions and individual teachers can use the site to create their own list of can-do statements for planning classes and creating questionnaires for students, and students can also use this site to self-assess their language ability. The database includes very detailed and specific descriptions of activities, depending on the type of learners and their purpose.
5	15th July 2014. http://www.eaje.eu/cefrproject.html.
6	15th July 2014. http://jfstandard.jp/top/ja/render.do.
7	15th July 2014.http://jfstandard.jp/pdf/jfs2010_tree_3e.pdf .
8	JF Can-Do list. 15th July 2014. http://jfstandard.jp/pdf/JF_Cando_Category_list.pdf.
9	Can-Do for Everyone (Minna no Can-do saito). 15th July 2014. http://jfstandard.jp/cando/top/ja/ render.do.
Two possible reasons for the JF Standard's detail, when compared with the CEFR, are the complexity of the Japanese writing system and the very rich politeness strategies of Japanese, which demand different sets of expressions to express the same meaning in different social settings, occupations, and activities.
In 2010, the JF launched the development of a series of textbooks based on the concept of the JF Standard. The textbooks are intended for adult learners and are called Marugoto: Nihon no Kotoba to Bunka (Altogether: Japanese Language and Culture). The Marugoto textbook series is to cover levels A1 to B2. One set of textbooks for level A1 (Introduction) was published in September 2013, and a set for A2 (Beginners) was published in June 2014; the textbooks for levels B1 and B2 are still being compiled. Each set consists of two textbooks, one for understanding (Rikai-hen) and the other for activities (Katsudo-hen), reflecting the tree of the JF Standard. The Rikai textbook includes learning items such as vocabulary, the hiragana and katakana syllabic scripts, Chinese characters, and grammar and sentence patterns, and the Katsudo textbook includes text- and picture-based exercises, to practice communicative activities described in the can-do statement list.
Marugoto tries to include not only Japanese language per se, but also cultural information, in order to offer Japanese education for cross-cultural understanding between peoples, including language and culture, from the very beginning. According to Kijima et al. (2012), Japanese textbooks for beginners used to be centred around sentence patterns, but now more importance is given to communication topics that are introduced with simple language patterns at the beginner level, and then reintroduced and reinforced at the intermediate or advanced level, with more variations and complex expression patterns. The Marugoto series aims to follow this new tendency in Japanese language education (Kijima et al. 2012: 114) that is common to many language-learning settings today, and is also the direction taken by the CEFR. The Marugoto textbook series also embraces the principle of autonomous learning—a principle particularly emphasised by the CEFR—by offering a wide range of additional materials and activities on its companion website.
Another Japanese textbook project was launched under the influence of the CEFR in Hungary, where a series of textbooks named Dekiru (Can Do) is being developed by the Japan Foundation, Budapest, and the local Japanese teachers association. Targeting high school students, university students, and adult learners, Dekiru 1 was published in 2011 and Dekiru 2 in 2012. The textbooks use Hungarian for explanations, and are based on the CEFR scale of language proficiency levels.
2.3 The Japanese Language Proficiency Test
The Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) has been offered by the Japan Foundation and Japan Educational Exchanges and Services (formerly the Association of International Education, Japan) since 1984, as a means of evaluating and certifying the Japanese proficiency of non-native speakers. In 2011, there were as many as 610,000 examinees, making the JLPT the largest-scale Japanese test in the world. Over time, test applicants have become more diverse, and the use of JLPT results has ex-
panded from skill measurement to include employment screening and evaluation for promotions at work, and as a form of qualification. To ensure the continuing relevancy and accuracy of the JLPT, the Japan Foundation and Japan Educational Exchanges and Services introduced a revised version of the test in 2010. The new version offers five levels of proficiency10.
When revising the proficiency levels and their descriptions, the JLPT shifted from assessing "language knowledge" to "language ability in use", following a global trend. As can be seen in the document "Comparison of the old and new JLPT"11, the criteria of the old test typically included numbers: how many words and Chinese characters the learner should learn, and how many hours the learner has spent in the language class. For the new test, these criteria were dropped and five levels (one level was added to the former four) are presented: "Linguistic Competence Required for Each Level" is now formulated for reading and listening in statements starting with "One is able to...", more similar to the descriptors of the Common Reference Levels of the CEFR.
Although the new JLPT does not explicitly mention the CEFR, it is clear that the new version of the JLPT proficiency levels was indirectly influenced by the concept of the CEFR, being an ability-oriented assessment of language proficiency. However, due to the very large number of examinees in numerous locations around the world, the test does not include oral interviews, essay tasks, or other productive tasks.
3 JAPANESE EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA
The authors of this article, all staff members of the Department of Asian and African Studies at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana (UL), analysed the current structure of Japanese courses at UL, in relation to the CEFR assessment levels.
3.1 Content and Goals of Japanese Courses at UL
Japanese courses have been offered at UL ever since the department was established in 1995, but without expressly referring to the CEFR standard. However, other standards and widely-used teaching methods and materials for learning Japanese as a foreign language have been taken into account, because we cooperate with other institutions in Japan and Europe. More than half of our students spend their third year of study at collaborating universities in Japan, and the aim of our Japanese courses is to equip them to be able to function in an academic environment using Japanese.
The department offers the following Japanese courses (see Table 1). Although the CEFR was not expressly applied to planning Japanese courses at UL, when UL reformed all courses to comply with the Bologna process in 2008, course descriptions were rewritten in a format that includes descriptions of course goals similar to the CEFR can-do statements.
10	15th July 2014. http://www.jlptjp/e/about/purpose.html.
11	15th July 2014. http://wwwjlptjp/e/about/pdf/comparison01.pdf
Code	Course	Content and goals, teaching materials	Students, contact hours
Tutorial 1	Japanese tutorial 1 (Unit 1)	Basic sentence patterns, ca. 1,000 words, hiragana and katakana script, and ca. 250 Chinese characters. Textbook: Japonščina za začetnike 1, 2 (Hmeljak Sangawa et al. 2012a, 2012b).	Non-track undergraduates, 1st year 120 hours/year
Tutorial 2	Japanese tutorial 2 (Unit 2)	Complex sentence patterns, basic vocabulary (ca. 1,000 words and 250 Chinese characters). Textbook: Minna no nihongo shokyü II (3A Network 1998)	Non-track undergraduates, 2nd year 120 hours/year
BA1	Modern Japanese 1	Basic and complex sentence patterns, ca. 2,000 words, hiragana, katakana, and ca. 500 Chinese characters. Textbooks: Japonščina za začetnike 1, 2, Uvod v japonsko pisavo (Hmeljak Sangawa et al. 2003, 2012a, 2012b),Minna no nihongo shokyü II (3A Network 1998)	Undergraduates in the Japanese studies track, 1st year 300 hours/year
BA2	Modern Japanese 2	Reading and writing longer texts, conversation in different politeness levels, honorific language, intermediate vocabulary (ca. 4,000 words), ca. 800 Chinese characters. Textbooks: Minna no nihongo chükyü (3A Network 2008), Tobira (Oka et al. 2009, chapters 1-5), Kanji, goi gayowai anata e (Adachi et al. 2002).	Undergraduates in the Japanese studies track, 2nd year 270 hours/year
BA3	Modern Japanese 3	Reading and writing research reports, advanced conversation in different styles of formality, ca. 6,000 words, 1,500 Chinese characters. Textbook: Tobira (Oka et al. 2009, continuation of Modern Japanese 2) and additional supplementary materials.	Undergraduates in the Japanese studies track, 3rd year 240 hours/year
MA1	Analysis and translation of Japanese media texts, Analysis and translation of Japanese scholarly texts I	Through reading, analysis, summarizing, lexical analysis, etc., students build up their knowledge of Japanese grammar, vocabulary, and style, practice translation and composition in Japanese, formal speech on chosen topics, etc. Teaching materials: news articles and videos, short scholarly articles.	Master's students in Japanese studies, 1st year 60 + 60 hours/ year
Code	Course	Content and goals, teaching materials	Students, contact hours
MA2	Analysis and translation of Japanese scholarly texts II	Students build on previous knowledge and compose scholarly texts on chosen topics, are also aware of basic translation problems and can independently look for solutions. Teaching materials: scholarly articles.	Master's students in Japanese studies, 2nd year 60 hours/year
Table 1: Japanese courses at UL (as of August 2014)
3.2 Japanese Courses at UL Compared to CEFR levels
The authors (two native speakers and two non-native speakers of Japanese with more than ten years of experience in Japanese education in Slovenia) answered the following two general questions, strictly without referring to the other's opinions.
1.	Look at the table of the CEFR Common Reference Levels self-assessment grid (CEFR 2001: 26-27). Where do you think our students will stand in the table, when they complete our courses at the end of the academic year?
2.	If there are any items in our Japanese education that cannot be evaluated, or are difficult to assess according to the CEFR framework, what are they?
The answers to the first question are summarised in Table 2. Each checkmark in the grid stands for one answer by one teacher. Because not all teachers teach all levels of students, each teacher gave answers only for the levels she is familiar with. Checkmarks within brackets indicate that students who complete the course given in the leftmost column only partly reach the CEFR level marked with a bracketed checkmark. Detailed explanations of these partial matches are given in the comments after the table.
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As can be seen in Table 2, in most cases we could not assign each course in its entirety to a single CEFR level. Overall, the two native speakers of Japanese judged the level reached by students at the end of each course to be lower on the CEFR scale than the level assigned by the two non-native teachers. For example, the two native speakers judged that students reach level B2 at the end of their third year of undergraduate study, whereas the two non-native speakers feel that students already reach the same level at the end of their second year of study. Similarly, students who complete the first-year undergraduate course for those in the Japanese studies track were assessed to be at level A2 by one of the native speakers, but at level B1 (with two exceptions) by the two non-native speakers.
In many cases, we also assessed that students reach different CEFR levels of proficiency in different areas at the end of each course. For example, one of the raters assessed that students at the end of Tutorial 1 (for non-track students studying Japanese) reach level A1 in listening and speaking, but not reading and writing, because this tutorial focuses on spoken interaction. Similarly, the two non-native teachers assessed that students at the end of BA1 are capable of all activities described in column B1 of the CEFR self-assessment grid, with two exceptions: with regard to listening, they can "understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters", but not "radio or TV programs on current affairs", if these relate to Japan, because this would require additional vocabulary and background knowledge. With regard to spoken production, they can "describe experiences and events" but not "narrate a story or relate the plot of a book or film and describe their reactions", because they do not practice such activities in the BA1 course.
The greatest disparity can be seen in the B2 column: whereas one of the native speakers considered that students reach level B2 only at the end of their fourth year of study (MA1), the other native speaker and one of the non-native speakers assessed that students overall reach this level at the end of their third year of study (BA3), and the other non-native speaker assessed that they partially reach level B2 already at the end of their second year (BA2), with some provisions. With regard to listening, she assessed that they do not yet understand "complex lines of arguments" and "TV news and current affairs", and some genres of film. With regard to spoken interaction, she noted that they "can take part in discussion in familiar contexts" but not "sustain their views" in a debate. With regard to spoken production, she considered that they cannot yet "explain a viewpoint on a topical issue, giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options" and mentioned that their writing would not be always understandable to Japanese speakers who are not familiar with language learners. The other non-native speaker also considered students who complete BA2 to be partly able to write at level B2, but not "on a wide range of subjects", due to a lack of vocabulary.
The native speaker who ranked third-year undergraduates (BA3) at level B2 also noted that they would be weaker in listening, especially listening to "TV news and current affairs programs" and "films", and in reading "contemporary literary prose", due to lack of vocabulary and script. The other native speaker (who ranked MA1 students somewhere between levels B2 and C1) commented that, overall, most students at UL
tend to reach a higher level of proficiency in understanding (listening and reading) than in speaking and writing, because they do not have as many opportunities to practice active linguistic output outside the classroom, but students who are very interested in Japanese popular culture, and actively participate in Japanese Internet communities, tend to be more proficient at speaking and writing than their fellow classmates, who do not actively practice these skills outside the classroom.
Finally, we all agreed that level C1 should be the goal at the end of our master's courses, but we have too few results at present to confirm this.
3.3 Difficulties in Using the CEFR framework
Answers to the second question (items in our Japanese language education that cannot be evaluated or are difficult to assess according to the CEFR framework) centre around three points: script, politeness, and background knowledge.
a)	Script
As has been pointed out before (Lansisalmi 2012), learning to read and write a few thousand different characters is a formidable task, that requires a considerably greater effort than learning to write in a different alphabet. Learners of Japanese who know the pronunciation and meaning of a word are able to read and understand it in phonetic script, but being able to read the same word when it is written in standard script, using Chinese characters, requires an additional level of knowledge. Learners with a good grasp of vocabulary (acquired by listening) but poor knowledge of Chinese characters, might be able to read a text if provided with phonetic guides (furigana), but not be able to understand the same text if it is written in standard script without guides.
By contrast, learners who know the Chinese script (because they read extensively or because they know written Chinese) might be able to infer the meaning of a written word, but not be able to pronounce it. These students can understand TV programs, for example, if provided with subtitles, but not without written support.
Due to the complex relationship between spoken and written Japanese, descriptors used in the CEFR self-assessment grid are, thus, difficult to apply, because the assessment of one's ability also depends on the form in which the same linguistic content is presented.
b)	Politeness and pragmatic strategies
The CEFR descriptors for "speaking interaction" in the self-assessment grid do mention "fluency and spontaneity" (B2), using language "flexibly and effectively" and "skilfully" (C1), and conveying "finer shades of meaning" (C2), but only at the intermediate or advanced stages of language learning, whereas "sociolinguistic appropriateness" is not emphasised as much as other skills at levels A1 and A2. However, distinguishing between formal and informal modes of expression is one of the first distinctions that learners of Japanese need to master, even at the beginner level, in order to be able to form coherent and acceptable utterances. Being able to interact in Japanese with socially-acceptable modes of expression requires a considerable amount of knowledge of so-
cial and cultural norms, linked to specific linguistic patterns, and is generally expected of any fluent speaker. Such ability, however, is not particularly emphasised in the CEFR self-assessment grid. Nevertheless, learners of Japanese need to spend a considerable amount of time and effort to master this ability.
c) Current affairs and background knowledge
Understanding written and spoken text is very closely connected not only with language proficiency, but also having a background in the history and culture linked with the topic being discussed. Learners of Japanese living outside Japan often lack such knowledge and might, therefore, be able to understand spoken or written news reports only about topics that are current in their own country, but not those specific to Japan.
4 CONCLUSION
A major influence of the CEFR on learning Japanese is the idea of can-do statements, which can be observed in the new textbooks, based on the concepts of the CEFR and the JF Standard. The fact that language ability can be broken down into specific and objective descriptors, and that these statements can be shared by teachers, students, and others involved in the process of learning any language, is fascinating. However, as seen in the second and third sections of this article, the scales from A1 to C2, each with can-do descriptors for categories of language use, do not simply match with existing course levels of learning Japanese, due to both the specificity of each course, and also because of some specific aspects of Japanese, as compared to Indo-European languages. This is, of course, to be expected, because the CEFR was developed in and for Europe and European languages.
Not surprisingly, the CEFR levels could thus not be unambiguously mapped onto the course structure at our university. Each course has its own specific aims, and these do not necessarily coincide with the CEFR grid, which is a very general and comprehensive framework aimed at assessing language use in the widest array of settings, whereas UL courses for students in the Japanese language track primarily focus on preparing students for academic settings.
A second point to be noted is that even experienced language teachers did not reach the same conclusions, when assessing student proficiency according to the CEFR scale. This is also not surprising, because the CEFR descriptors of language competence are not as easily applied to testing as the numerical scales used previously, on which students are judged according to the number of words, characters, and sentence patterns they understand and are able to use, and unambiguous assessment results can be obtained almost mechanically. Applying the CEFR framework to planning and assessing language courses in existing educational settings thus requires some effort, but also offers new points of view, and a rich framework for reconsidering existing courses. Conversely, comparing the CEFR with existing traditions of teaching and learning non-European languages, such as Japanese, can also offer new perspectives on the complexity of language use, and on what learning a language entails.
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LÄNSISALMI, Riikka (2012) "Conquering the World with 'Cutting-Edge Curricula': Global Citizens Learning East Asian Languages." In: D. Smakman/L. Willemsen (eds), Proceedings of the 2012 'Van Schools tot Scriptie' Colloquium. Leiden: University Library, 99-111. 10th July 2014.	https://openaccess.leidenuniv. nl/bitstream/handle/1887/22036/VSTS%20-%20Länsisalmi%20-%20Conquer-ing%20the%20world%20with%20cutting-edge%20curricula.pdf?sequence=1.
MAJIMA, Junko (2008) Nihon no ichi daigaku ni okeru CEFR sanshô no kokoromi. La Société Japonaise de Didactique du Français, 2008 Autumn meeting. 10th July 2014. http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/sjdf/Taikai/08_aki_taikai/Majima1-2a.pdf.
OKAMOTO, Sachiko (2010) "'Common European Framework of Reference' Suggests the Sociolinguistic Competence in Teaching Japanese as a Foreign/Second Language." Hokkaido Bunkyo University Journal 11, 85-98.
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Hiroshima University 9, 65-78. 10th July 2014. http://ir.lib.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/ metadb/up/74086648/J-Int-Edu-HiroshimaUniv_9_65-78_2005.pdf.
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Abstract
THE CEFR AND TEACHING JAPANESE AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Soon after the publication of the CEFR in 2001, the Association of Japanese Language Teachers in Europe (AJE) started a research project on the history of language teaching in Europe, carried out a survey of language policies in various European countries, and presented prospects for learning and teaching Japanese as a foreign language in Europe. The association recognizes the need to share the concepts and achievements of the CEFR.
The Japan Foundation (JF), partially influenced by the CEFR, set up the JF Standard for Japanese Language Education in 2010. This standard offers tools that teachers and students can use to plan their teaching/learning through self-assessment of their language ability levels. The JF is also publishing new types of textbooks for Japanese education, emphasizing cross-cultural understanding between peoples.
The Japanese Language Proficiency Test was revised in 2010 and is now ability-oriented; it is indirectly influenced by the CEFR.
The authors analyzed Japanese education at the University of Ljubljana in relation to the CEFR assessment levels. At the end of their undergraduate study, students reach approximately level B1/B2 of the CEFR, and at the end of the master's course level C1. There are difficulties in assessing the current Japanese courses using the CEFR framework due to the specific character of Japanese, particularly in relation to the script, politeness and pragmatic strategies, and students' familiarity with current events in Japan and background knowledge of Japanese society. Nevertheless, the CEFR framework offers concrete ideas and new points of view for planning language courses, even for non-European languages.
Keywords: Japanese, foreign-language teaching, JF Standard, self-assessment, Japanese Language Proficiency Test.
Povzetek
SEJO IN POUČEVANJE JAPONŠČINE KOT TUJEGA JEZIKA
Takoj po objavi SEJO leta 2001 je začelo Združenje učiteljev japonskega jezika v Evropi (AJE) z raziskovalnim projektom o zgodovini jezikovnega pouka v Evropi, proučilo jezikovne politike več različnih evropskih držav in predstavilo možnosti za učenje in poučevanje japonščine kot tujega jezika v Evropi. Združenje meni, da so načela in dosežki okvira SEJO pomembni, in bi jih rado delilo pri svojih aktivnostih.
Japonska fundacija je, delno pod vplivom SEJO, leta 2010 sestavila »Merilo JF za poučevanje japonščine«. Merilo JF ponuja orodja, ki jih lahko uporabljajo učitelji in učenci za načrtovanje svojega poučevanja oz. učenja s samoocenjevanjem jezikovne sposobnosti. Japonska fundacija izdaja tudi novo vrsto učbenikov za učenje japonščine s poudarkom na medkulturnem razumevanju med različnimi narodi.
Test za preverjanje znanja japonščine so pregledali leta 2010 in njegova nova verzija pod posrednim vplivom SEJO namenja večjo pozornost dejavnostim oz. aktivnemu delovanju posameznika v jezikovnem okolju.
Avtorice članka smo analizirale poučevanje japonskega jezika na Univerzi v Ljubljani z ozirom na nivoje jezikovne sposobnosti v okviru SEJO. Študenti na koncu dodiplomskega študija približno dosežejo nivo B1/B2, na koncu druge stopnje študija pa nivo C1. Obstajajo pa težave pri presojanju nivojev obstoječih jezikovnih predmetov glede na okvir SEJO: te se nanašajo na specifičnosti japonščine, zlasti v zvezi s sistemom pisave, vljudnostnimi in pragmatičnimi strategijami ter učenčevim poznavanjem trenutnih dogodkov in ozadja japonske družbe. Kljub temu lahko trdimo, da SEJO ponuja konkretne ideje in nov pogled na načrtovanje jezikovnega pouka tudi za pouk neevropskih jezikov.
Ključne besede: japonščina, pouk tujega jezika, merilo JF za učenje japonščine, samo-ocenjevanje, test preverjanja znanja japonščine.
Nguyen Viet Anh	UDK 811.133.1'243(597):37.016(4)
PLIDAM,	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.471-484
Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales*
ENJEUX DE L'INTÉGRATION DU CECRL AUX UNIVERSITÉS DE LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES AU VIETNAM
1	INTRODUCTION
Le Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les langues (CECRL 2001), aboutissement d'une réflexion entamée à partir de 1990 pour réactualiser les divers Niveaux-Seuils élaborés à partir des années 70 sous l'impulsion du Conseil de l'Europe, se présente comme un ouvrage de normalisation (au sens de fixer des normes) pour l'enseignement / apprentissage et l'évaluation des langues vivantes en Europe. Les objectifs de départ de l'élaboration de ce cadre sont l'amélioration des compétences à communiquer, la réflexion sur les méthodes et les objectifs d'enseignement, la mobilité éducative et professionnelle ainsi que la transparence et l'unification des programmes, référentiels, manuels et examens.
Dans la mondialisation actuelle, un processus d'enseignement/apprentissage des langues étrangères conforme aux normes internationales, proposées par le CECRL, s'avère nécessaire, voire indispensable1. Ce présent article traite des enjeux de l'intégration du CECRL au contexte vietnamien, plus précisément aux départements de français des universités de langues étrangères au Vietnam. Après une brève analyse critique de cette première référence en matière d'enseignement / apprentissage et d'évaluation des langues étrangères (selon Puren 2006 ; Bourguignon 2006 ; Beacco 2007 ; Robert 2008 ; Robert et Rosen 2010), nous exposerons les résultats d'une étude des programmes de formation et de deux enquêtes par questionnaire auprès des étudiants et enseignants de français, de six universités de langues étrangères réparties sur trois zones géographiques (nord, centre, sud) du Vietnam.
2	DE L'APPROCHE COMMUNICATIVE À LA PERSPECTIVE ACTION-
NELLE DU CECRL - UNE (R)ÉVOLUTION MÉTHODOLOGIQUE EN DIDACTIQUE DES LANGUES
Depuis treize ans, le CECRL fait entrer la didactique des langues dans une nouvelle ère avec la « perspective actionnelle » : « En décloisonnant l'apprentissage et l'usage et en reliant la communication à l'action sociale, le CECR bouleverse les représentations traditio-
Adresse de l'auteur : PLIDAM, Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales, 65, Rue des Grands Moulins, 75013 Paris, France. Courriel : vitvitanh@gmail.com. Faute de cette conformité, le diplôme universitaire de FLE des universités de langues vietnamiennes au Vietnam n'est pas mondialement reconnu. Ainsi, lors de la demande de candidature aux études et/ou bourses d'études dans des pays francophones, comme la France, la Belgique et le Canada, etc., nos étudiants voire enseignants de français ont dû tous présenter un DELF ou un TCF.
*
nnelles de l'enseignement/apprentissage/évaluation des langues-cultures tant au niveau des pratiques d'enseignement que des processus d'apprentissage » (Bourguignon 2006 : 58).
« Entre perspective actionnelle et approche communicative, y a-t-il continuité ou rupture ? » La question posée par Puren (2011 : 2) est également le point qui fait encore débat chez les didacticiens ces treize dernières années. Les auteurs du CECRL ne sont pas très explicites sur ce sujet. Ainsi, pour certains des commentateurs (Trim 1997 ; Beacco 2007), la perspective actionnelle se situerait dans le prolongement naturel de l'approche communicative. D'autres constatent un « changement de paradigme théorique » (Richer 2005 : 66) ou une « rupture épistémologique » (Bourguignon 2006 : 58). Pourtant, la plupart (Richer 2005 ; Bourguignon 2006 ; Rosen 2009 ; Puren 2011) se mettent d'accord sur le point que la perspective actionnelle annoncée par le CECRL est effectivement porteuse d'un réel changement, d'une réelle évolution dans la pratique de l'enseignement / apprentissage et l'évaluation des langues.
En effet, au début des années 70, l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues a connu une évolution lors du passage de la « méthodologie Structuro Globale Audiovisuelle », constituée, centrée sur l'objet langue à l' « approche communicative », une méthodologie ouverte, diversifiée, dont la préoccupation était de s'adapter aux besoins langagiers de chaque public. L'enseignement traditionnel de la langue autour d'exercices portant sur la grammaire et le lexique a été remplacé par la mise en place, en classe, de situations de communication empruntées au monde extérieur. Les activités langagières telles que comprendre, produire, observer, décrire, analyser, comparer, et reproduire des phrases et ou des textes furent remplacées par la réalisation d'actes de communication. Dans ce cas, l'objet langue en tant que tel n'est plus au cœur de la relation d'enseignement/apprentissage, mais c'est l'apprenant qui est mis au centre de la relation. Cependant, les actions proposées et réalisées en classe étaient toujours réalisées à des fins d'apprentissage. Aujourd'hui, le CECRL propose une réflexion approfondie sur la finalité de l'apprentissage, il propose la complexité plutôt que la simplicité linéaire, il propose la construction des compétences plutôt que l'accumulation de connaissances. Il propose d'agir avec l'autre, et non plus simplement d'agir.
Avec la perspective actionnelle, nous observons donc le passage du paradigme de la communication au paradigme de l'action. On ne communique plus seulement pour parler avec l'autre mais pour agir avec l'autre. L'apprenant devient ainsi l'usager de la langue, qui doit mobiliser et mettre en œuvre les composantes linguistique, sociolinguistique et pragmatique dans des contextes et des conditions variés, en se pliant à différentes contraintes afin de réaliser des activités langagières et en mobilisant les stratégies qui paraissent le mieux convenir pour accomplir les tâches d'apprentissage et sociales prévues.
Le CECRL ne propose d'ailleurs aucune forme de mise en œuvre concrète de cette perspective. Ainsi se déclineront et s'adapteront plusieurs approches didactiques selon les besoins des apprenants et les objectifs fixés par l'enseignant. Nous pouvons citer, par exemple, « la double perspective co-actionnelle et co-culturelle » de Puren (2002), « l'approche communic-actionnelle » de Bourguignon (2006), « l'approche par des tâches » de Rosen (2009) et « l'approche par compétences en langues » de Beacco (2007).
Concernant l'ensemble des pratiques des enseignants et apprenants de langues, le CECRL ne propose, par ailleurs, aucune activité pratique d'enseignement/apprentissage
ou d'évaluation. C'est pour cette raison que Vicario (2011 : 34) critique ce référentiel d'orientation, cet outil conceptuel qui « reste vague quant à la réalisation concrète de l'enseignement / apprentissage et de l'évaluation d'une langue ». Robert et Rosen (2010 : 66) ont même affirmé que « malgré ses qualités incontestables et bien que des auteurs le qualifient de 'transparent', c'est un ouvrage difficile à lire, imperfection qui limite sa diffusion auprès du grand public et, notamment, a contrario des souhaits des auteurs, auprès des publics d'apprenants ».
De même, le projet « The Dutch CEF Grid » de l'Université de Lancaster, visant à offrir un cadre d'analyse pour la création d'items d'évaluation référencés sur le CECRL, a identifié une série de problèmes dans ce référentiel, tels que des inconsistances, des problèmes de terminologie, l'absence de définitions des termes utilisés, etc.2 (Tardieu 2006).
3 MÉTHODES DE COLLECTE ET DE TRAITEMENT DES DONNÉES
Pour cette étude, nous avons utilisé principalement trois méthodes de collecte de données : l'étude documentaire, l'entretien semi-directif et l'enquête par questionnaire. Une fois recueillies, toutes les données sont quantitativement et qualitativement analysées afin de bien appréhender l'état des lieux de l'enseignement / apprentissage et de l'évaluation du FLE au Vietnam.
La première méthode que nous avons adoptée est l'analyse critique des programmes d'enseignement/apprentissage et d'évaluation de trois départements de français de trois universités qui sont parmi les plus grandes universités du Vietnam et qui, géographi-quement, représentent trois régions du pays :
•	L'Université de Langues et d'Études Internationales - Université Nationale de Hanoi (ULEI, UNH) au Nord ;
•	L'Université de Langues Étrangères - Université de Hue (ULE, UH), au Centre ;
•	L'Université de Pédagogie de Ho Chi Minh ville (UP de HCM) au Sud.
Nous avons consulté d'abord le site d'internet et/ou contacté les responsables des établissements susmentionnés pour avoir accès à leur programme de formation et d'évaluation. Pour comparer les programmes de ces trois universités, nous avons élaboré une grille de critères portant sur les filières de formation, les objectifs d'enseignement / apprentissage et d'évaluation en général et de chaque filière en particulier, le nombre de crédits réservés aux différentes compétences (CE, CO, EO, EE), les sujets au recrutement, le niveau de français des étudiants à l'entrée de l'université3 ainsi que le niveau censé être atteint après chaque année d'étude.
Après cette première analyse, afin de mieux comprendre les programmes, les objectifs et les démarches pédagogiques et évaluatives au mois de septembre 2011,
2	Nous reverrons et clarifierons ces avantages et inconvénients du CECRL dans la partie « Discussion des résultats ».
3	Au Vietnam, il faut passer un concours pour intégrer l'université. Les trois universités en question recrutent des candidats ayant réussi le concours d'entrée soit en anglais (vrais débutants en français, soit en français (faux débutants). Aussi existe-t-il une forte hétérogénéité du niveau initial. En intégrant l'université, les étudiants peuvent connaître ou non le français.
nous avons mené des entretiens semi-directifs en ligne (par e-mail, Google chat, Yahoo Messenger et Skype) avec les responsables des établissements ainsi que ceux des groupes disciplinaires Pratique de la langue française dans ces trois départements de français.
La troisième méthode est l'enquête par questionnaire. Ainsi, pendant une période du mois de septembre au mois de décembre 2011, nous avons réalisé deux enquêtes par questionnaire auprès des enseignants et des étudiants en FLE au Vietnam. C'est une étude à la fois quantitative et qualitative. À côté des questions à choix multiples, nous avons utilisé des questions ouvertes afin de permettre aux personnes interrogées d'expliquer plus clairement leurs pratiques d'enseignement / apprentissage et d'évaluation du FLE ainsi que d'exprimer plus librement leurs opinions et propositions concernant l'application du CECRL au Vietnam.
La première version de nos deux questionnaires a été mise à l'essai auprès de 5 enseignants et 10 étudiants afin de nous assurer que toutes les questions étaient claires et compréhensibles. La version finale n'a été produite qu'après la prise en compte du retour de l'échantillon constitué par cette pré-enquête.
Afin d'avoir une idée plus générale de l'état des lieux de l'enseignement/apprentissage et de l'évaluation du FLE au Vietnam, nous ne limitons pas nos enquêtes aux départements de français de trois universités choisies lors de l'étude documentaire et de l'entretien semi-directif. Nous avons élargi nos enquêtes à deux universités par ville/ région. Ainsi, nous avons ajouté à la liste des institutions impliquées dans notre étude les trois universités suivantes :
•	L'Université de Hanoi, au Nord;
•	L'Université de Langues Étrangères, Université de Da Nang, au Centre ;
•	L'Université de Can Tho, au Sud.
L'échantillon de nos enquêtes par questionnaire s'élève à 334 personnes, dont 35 enseignants et 299 étudiants. En effet, nous avons élaboré certains critères de sélection. Pour l'enquête auprès des enseignants, nos répondants doivent, au moment de la réalisation de l'enquête, être enseignants et/ou évaluateurs d'au moins une des quatre compétences communicatives ; tous ceux qui ne le sont plus, même s'ils ont des expériences en enseignement et évaluation de ces compétences, ne font pas partie du public ciblé de notre enquête, celle qui vise à déterminer l'état des lieux de l'enseignement/ évaluation dans des départements de français des universités vietnamiennes. Dans ce même objectif, les répondants de notre deuxième enquête sont des étudiants en 2ème, 3ème et 4ème années de toutes les filières de formation (Didactique du FLE, Langue et Culture Françaises, Traduction-Interprétation et Français du Tourisme). Les étudiants de 1ère année, qui viennent d'entrer à l'université, ne peuvent pas encore répondre à nos questions sur les pratiques d'enseignement et d'évaluation des enseignants, ni avoir des jugements de valeurs sur ces pratiques. Ils n'entrent donc pas dans la liste des échantillons de notre enquête.
Nous avons choisi de faire répondre à nos questionnaires par voie électronique ou par les réseaux sociaux comme Facebook et Twitter. En effet, c'est un moyen largement utilisé actuellement, favorisant la couverture la plus large possible de la population
visée, car la plupart des gens ont accès à Internet, que ce soit à la maison, à l'école ou au travail. Ce type présente d'autres avantages reconnus, notamment la possibilité de collecter très rapidement des données à moindre coût. Pour augmenter le taux de réponses, nous avons contacté, par téléphone, les responsables des départements, ceux des groupes d'enseignants de la langue française et les étudiants responsables du Club de français ou de l'Association des Étudiants des établissements pour leur demander de procéder à la diffusion de nos questionnaires auprès de leur carnet d'adresses électroniques ou sur compte Facebook.
D'un point de vue technique, l'élaboration du questionnaire ainsi que le traitement des données ont été réalisés à l'aide du logiciel d'enquêtes et d'analyses de données Google Documents.
4 DISCUSSIONS DES RÉSULTATS
4.1 Des changements favorables dus à l'intégration du CECRL
Au Vietnam, la proposition du projet « Day và hoc ngoai ngù trong hê thông giáo duc quôc dân giai âoan 2006-2015 » (Enseigner et apprendre les langues étrangères dans le système éducatif national, période 2006-2015), élaboré par l'Institut de Stratégies et de Programmation Éducationnelles sous la direction du Ministère de l'Éducation et de la Formation, a précisé 3 raisons pour l'application du CECRL lors de la rénovation de l'enseignement/apprentissage des langues étrangères du pays, des écoles primaires aux universités:
•	En tant qu'outil visant à fournir une base commune pour l'enseignement/apprentissage et l'évaluation des langues, le CECRL correspond bien au contexte vietnamien où plusieurs langues (anglais, français, chinois et russe) sont enseignées ;
•	le CECRL peut être comparé aux autres cadres de niveaux d'autres organisations internationales actuellement utilisés au Vietnam comme TOEFL, IELTS, TOEIC, etc ;
•	les six niveaux de référence de compétence communs à toutes les langues, allant du niveau A1 (niveau introductif) au niveau C2 (maîtrise), en passant par les niveaux A2 (niveau intermédiaire), B1 (niveau seuil), B2 (niveau avancé) et C1 (utilisateur autonome), sont faciles à appliquer. L'ensemble des descripteurs et les échelles du CECRL permettent non seulement de tracer des profils d'apprentissage, mais aussi d'appréhender l'évaluation des compétences précises de l'apprenant.
Après l'approbation du projet « Day và hoc ngoai ngù trong hê thông giáo duc quôc dân giai âoan 2008-2020 » (« Enseigner et apprendre les langues étrangères dans le système éducatif national, période 2008-2020 »), par le Premier Ministre du Vietnam le 30 septembre 2008 et avec l'application du système de crédits capitalisables qui préconise une grande autonomie de la part des apprenants et le rôle de guide et de tuteur chez les enseignants, toutes les trois universités de notre étude entament actuellement un projet de rénovation de programmes et de méthodes d'enseignement/apprentissage et d'évaluation.
Ainsi, les nouveaux programmes de formation sont en cours d'élaboration. On utilise toujours les anciens programmes élaborés lors du changement de la formation annuelle au système de crédits. Pourtant, en fonction du nombre d'étudiants admis chaque année aux départements de français, on procède à des changements appropriés. Ceux-ci concernent également le programme de pratique de la langue française que l'on tente de mieux adapter au CECRL.
En ce qui concerne les pratiques d'enseignement/apprentissage et d'évaluation, avant l'intégration du CECRL, dans les universités de langues étrangères au Vietnam, nous constations souvent un écart non négligeable entre, d'une part, un enseignement du français que l'on pourrait qualifier de moderne, fondé sur l'approche communicative, et, d'autre part, une pratique évaluative qui reste toujours très traditionnelle, au sens où il s'agit toujours d'une évaluation sommative des connaissances linguistiques ; l'évaluation formative et celle des compétences semblent être négligées.
L'analyse des programmes de formation et les deux enquêtes par questionnaire auprès des étudiants et des enseignants des départements de français des universités vietnamiennes enseignant les langues étrangères nous permettent d'observer une certaine congruence entre l'enseignement/apprentissage et l'évaluation de la compétence de production écrite en particulier et du FLE en général, tous deux fortement basés sur le CECRL. Lorsque les établissements fixent les objectifs et les niveaux à atteindre selon le CECRL, ils utilisent la méthode de français « Tout va bien ! » dont les objectifs « respectent scrupuleusement les recommandations du Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues » (Augé et al. 2005 : 5) et d'autres manuels préparant le DELF/DALF alignés sur le CECRL comme « Activités pour le Cadre européen commun de référence-niveau A2 », « Activités pour le Cadre européen commun de référence-niveau B1 », « Réussir le DELF B2 » et « Réussir le DALF, niveaux C1 et C2 du Cadre européen commun de référence », etc. Leur modalité d'évaluation correspond également à celle du DELF/DALF, du sujet d'examen à la grille de correction et au barème de notation.
De plus, l'intégration du CECRL favorise un certain dynamisme non seulement dans l'enseignement/apprentissage mais aussi dans l'évaluation du FLE dans certaines universités de langues vietnamiennes. Premièrement, de manière générale, on pourrait commencer à observer une certaine évaluation des compétences à communiquer, comme celle qui est décrite dans la perspective actionnelle. C'est une évaluation qui porte non seulement sur la composante linguistique mais aussi, et principalement, sur les composantes sociolinguistique et pragmatique. Lors de l'évaluation d'une production (écrite ou orale), nos répondants s'intéressent premièrement aux composantes sociolinguistique et pragmatique, en mettant l'accent sur, par ordre d'importance, l'adéquation à la situation de communication, l'adéquation au sujet, la cohérence et cohésion et la richesse des idées. La composante linguistique (le lexique, la morphosyntaxe et l'orthographe), celle qui était l'objet le plus important, voire unique de l'évaluation dans les méthodes traditionnelles, est actuellement située dans les dernières positions. Deuxièmement, les enseignants s'intéressent de plus en plus à la progression de la compétence chez les étudiants et non plus seulement à la note finale obtenue. Plus précisément, 77% d'enseignants optent pour une évaluation pendant l'apprentissage. Selon ces derniers, cette évaluation formative est pour « vérifier les
acquis », « mieux suivre la progression des étudiants », afin de « rectifier la formation », « réajuster le programme », « réorganiser et améliorer l'enseignement » s'il le faut. 80% d'enseignants communiquent les critères d'évaluation aux étudiants voire leur proposent des grilles d'auto-évaluation élaborées sur la base de ces critères. Certains les considèrent comme « supports privilégiés pour l'auto-évaluation ». Comme les enseignants, 88% des étudiants répondants confirment la communication du programme d'études, le niveau visé ainsi que les objectifs d'apprentissage et les critères de l'évaluation dès le début de l'année/ du semestre de la part des enseignants et 98% la jugent nécessaire, voire indispensable pour « avoir une bonne orientation dans l'apprentissage », « bien comprendre le programme, mieux déterminer les objectifs et avoir une bonne méthode », « un bon plan d'études pour atteindre le cible », « savoir ce que nous allons acquérir et ce que nous devons faire pour réussir des études à l'université », « favoriser l'auto-apprentissage et l'auto-évaluation correspondants au programme et objectifs fixés », etc. Finalement, les enseignants s'intéressent plus à la progression de la compétence chez les étudiants qu'à la note finale obtenue. Selon nos répondants, la note finale ne peut pas bien refléter la progression et la compétence des étudiants car, d'une part, « une seule note ne suffit pas pour conclure si l'apprenant a progressé ou non », « l'évaluation doit se faire tout au long du cursus », « pour voir la progression, il faut des contrôles continus et si possible, des tests de comportement et/ ou de motivation » ; d'autre part, « le développement d'une compétence communicative est un processus qui demande du temps » ; « la note est relative, aléatoire » ; « la note finale reflète en partie la compétence des étudiants » seulement.
4.2 Les problèmes existants
Soulignons que l'université n'est pas une école de langues, ni un centre de préparation au DELF/DALF. Malgré quelques dynamismes et changements favorables, l'intégration mécanique, rigide du CECRL dans certaines universités de langues étrangères vietnamiennes, à vocation fortement professionnalisante, pourrait provoquer, et a effectivement provoqué plusieurs problèmes.
Le premier problème concerne la progression des niveaux du CECRL, lié directement à la durée de l'enseignement/apprentissage. En réalité, au Vietnam, le niveau requis à la fin de la 1ère année, de la 2e année, de la 3e année ou en fin de cursus universitaire varie d'une université à l'autre. De manière générale, bien que le niveau de départ soit hétérogène, on constate que le niveau exigé va de A2- à A2 en fin de 1ère année, de B1- à B1 en fin de 2e année, de B2- à B2 en fin de 3e année, et de B2 à C1 à la sortie de l'université. Or, dans le CECRL, le volume d'heures d'apprentissage augmente à chaque passage d'un niveau au niveau supérieur. Ainsi, s'il faut entre 60 et 80 heures pour arriver à un niveau A1, il est nécessaire d'en rajouter, de façon indicative, 100 heures pour un niveau A2 (A1+100), 150 pour un niveau B1 (A2+150), 200 pour un niveau B2 (B1+200) et 250 pour un niveau C1 (B2+250).
Nous voyons bien que, en ce qui concerne le temps, la progression des niveaux du CECRL ne peut correspondre à l'organisation de l'enseignement/apprentissage du FLE dans des universités vietnamiennes où les modules de français sont dispensés
principalement pendant les deux ou trois premières années et le nombre de crédits et/ ou d'heures de cours4 diminue d'une année à l'autre. À part l'Université de Pédagogie de Ho Chi Minh Ville, qui garde 4 crédits pour tous les modules, à l'Université de Langues et d'Études Internationales, l'UNH, les modules Français 1A, 1B, 2A et 2B (les deux premières années) ont chacun 5 crédits alors que les Français 3A, 3B, 4A et 4B (les deux dernières années) n'ont que 4 crédits pour chacun. À l'Université de Langues Étrangères, l'Université de Hue, pendant les deux premières années, chaque semestre comprend 8 crédits de FLE répartis entre quatre compétences différentes. En troisième année, il n'existe que 2 modules (4 crédits) : 2 pour CO-PO et 2 pour CE-PE, donnés au premier semestre seulement. Finalement, un module de 2 crédits de Pratique avancée de FLE (pour la CE et EE) est réservé à la quatrième année pour préparer les étudiants à l'examen de fin d'études.
De plus, si l'apport de l'échelle de 6 niveaux proposée par le CECRL contribue à réduire la disparité des diplômes et à améliorer les échanges et l'intercompréhension entre les acteurs du domaine de la didactique du FLE, la subdivision de ces 6 niveaux de référence en niveaux intermédiaires (par exemple A2+ ou B1-), sans précision pour chacun des descripteurs détaillés par les universités vietnamiennes, rendent cette intercompréhension plus difficile. En effet, lorsque le CECRL favorise une souplesse de subdiviser ces six niveaux en niveaux intermédiaires en fonction du public visé et des besoins (du public, du formateur ou du recruteur), nos établissements en question déterminent des sous-niveaux A2-, A2+, B1-, B1+, B2-, B2+ et C1- pour chaque module ou/ et à chaque semestre. Il surgit alors un double problème : 1/ Absence de description de ces sous-niveaux (à l'ULEI, UNH et à l'ULE, UH) et 2/ Descriptions trop sommaires (à l'UP de HCM ville). Conséquences : nous ne pouvons pas déterminer la différence entre ces niveaux avec les six niveaux du CECRL. Nous ne pouvons pas non plus voir si le niveau A2+ de l'ULEI, UNH est équivalent au niveau B1- de l'UP de HCM. En raison de cet « amalgame » des niveaux et faute de description détaillée des indicateurs d'échelles, comment pourrait-on évaluer si l'étudiant a atteint le niveau de compétence visé ou non ? Comment pourrait-on juger, par exemple, si le niveau A2+ d'un étudiant de l'ULEI est équivalent ou non au niveau B1- d'un étudiant de l'UP de HCM ?
Le deuxième problème réside dans la professionnalisation et dans la place accordée à la recherche scientifique menée par les étudiants à l'université.
En réalité, depuis 2010, constatant les difficultés que rencontrent les étudiants en Didactique du FLE à la fin de leur formation en raison du nombre restreint de débouchés5,
4	En fait, au Vietnam, pendant la période de transition du système de formation « par année scolaire » à celui par crédits, le nombre de crédits, notamment pour les modules de pratique de langue française, doivent correspondre au nombre précis d'heures de cours, généralement, 1 crédit 15 heures. L'augmentation ou la diminution des crédits d'un module entraîne automatiquement l'augmentation ou la diminution des heures de cours.
5	Ces dernières années, l'anglais langue étrangère connaît une forte croissance au Vietnam. Ce dernier prend de plus en plus la place du français langue étrangère dans les collèges et lycées vietnamiens. Beaucoup de classes de français sont fermées et ont dû laisser place à l'anglais. Cela pose beaucoup de difficultés aux diplômés en Didactique du FLE lors de la recherche d'un travail.
les universités ont commencé à insérer dans leurs programmes des cours d'options de français sur objectifs spécifiques tel que le français du tourisme, le français des affaires et de l'économie, le français juridique et administratif, le français du secrétariat. Ces cours de français sur objectif spécifique (FOS) visent à fournir aux étudiants des connaissances et des compétences de base dans un domaine autre que la Didactique du FLE et leur permettent ainsi d'exercer d'autres métiers que celui d'enseignant de FLE dans un collège ou lycée, tout en utilisant toujours le français. De nouvelles spécialités de formation comme « Tourisme » et « Français de l'économie » ont été développées. La description des objectifs et des filières décrits dans les programmes de formation des départements de français nous permet de dire qu'avec une telle professionnalisation, le français ne devrait plus être considéré et enseigné en tant que langue étrangère dans l'approche communicative, mais plutôt comme un outil d'action communicationnelle et surtout professionnelle dans l'approche actionnelle. Pourtant, en réalité, les étudiants de ces départements de français sont-ils « formés à la langue ou à la profession » 6? L'analyse détaillée des contenus des programmes en général et ceux de français en particulier nous montre que les départements n'ont pas encore bien fourni aux étudiants les connaissances et compétences en langue nécessaires pour l'exercice de leur future profession.
En réalité, comme le CECRL ne propose aucune activité pratique d'enseignement/ apprentissage ni d'évaluation, il existe au Vietnam une tendance à assimiler le DELF/DALF et le CECRL. Effectivement, ce n'est qu'une certification de langue qui suit bien les indicateurs de niveaux de compétences en langues préconisés par le CECRL mais qui ne peut pas refléter toute la philosophie de ce dernier. D'ailleurs, si le CECRL distingue 4 domaines pour les thèmes, textes et tâches langagières à traiter : personnel, public, professionnel et éducationnel, le DELF/DALF étant générique, ne traite pas le domaine professionnel, celui du français de spécialité voire du français sur objectifs spécifiques, ni celui de la communication académique, utile en particulier pour la mobilité universitaire. Or, n'étant pas un centre de français langue étrangère, ni un centre de préparation au DELF/DALF, les universités ont pour objectif final de former des enseignants de FLE pour les écoles secondaires, des traducteurs-interprètes, des employés qualifiés pour différents domaines : tourisme, secrétariat, etc. Dans ce contexte, le choix d'une méthode de français à vocation "universelle", s'adressant à tous publics étrangers apprenant le français langue étrangère (comme "Tout va bien !") des responsables des établissements et des groupes disciplinaires ("Pratique de la langue française"), ainsi que le recours aux manuels préparant au DELF/DALF, ne nous sembleraient pas pertinents et posent une série de problèmes.
D'une part, de manière générale et surtout pour les filières de Langue et Civilisation françaises ou de Didactique du FLE, la qualité de l'enseignement universitaire est garantie par son lien étroit avec la recherche menée par les étudiants (aussi bien en linguistique qu'en didactique de langues), le recours à des certifications de langue telles que le DELF/DALF pourrait faire courir le risque de rendre l'enseignement/
6 Cette question a été posée par Sophie Bailly lors de la table ronde sur l'axe thématique « Approche par compétences » du Séminaire régional de recherche-action « Recherches francophones en Asie du Sud-Est : Dynamique, Formation et Professionnalisation », organisé à Da Lat, Vietnam, en décembre 2009.
apprentissage de la langue trop utilitaire, trop fonctionnel, coupé d'une réflexion sur la langue (à tous niveaux)7.
D'autre part, dans des filières non linguistiques comme Traduction-Interprétation ou Tourisme, les connaissances en langue et la compétence de communication dans la vie quotidienne sont nécessaires mais pas suffisantes. Il faudrait parler d'une dimension professionnelle de la langue, autrement dit, des compétences en langue qui s'associent étroitement aux compétences professionnelles. Suivant cette logique, l'enseignement/ apprentissage et l'évaluation des compétences en FLE devraient revêtir une dimension professionnalisante. Dans cette perspective, le développement des compétences à communiquer langagièrement dans des situations professionnelles devrait se faire dès les premiers cours à l'université. Dans ce contexte, certaines compétences peuvent être développées beaucoup plus tôt que ce qui est prévu dans le CECRL ; de même, le développement des compétences et les niveaux visés pour chacune des compétences ne devrait pas être identique dans les différentes filières de formation. Ainsi, à la fin de la formation, un étudiant en filière de Traduction pourrait, par exemple, atteindre le niveau B2 en compréhension et production orales et le niveau C1 en compréhension et production écrites. À l'inverse, un étudiant en Tourisme, pour pouvoir exercer son métier de guide touristique, devrait atteindre le niveau C1 en compréhension et production orales et le niveau B2 en compréhension et production écrites.
Finalement, il ressort également de la conception des épreuves un problème de fond : la divergence dans la nature même des épreuves. En effet, nous constatons que les épreuves d'examen du DELF/DALF sont plutôt centrées sur la vérification des savoirs linguistiques que culturels alors que celles des universités doivent, théoriquement, évaluer l'acquisition et le développement des compétences aussi bien linguistiques que communicatives. De plus, les épreuves du DELF/DALF ne mettent pas souvent en jeu des compétences mixtes (CO et PO ou CE et PE), sauf aux niveaux avancés (synthèses de documents pour le C1 et C2). Pour une telle certification de langue, ce que l'on mesure est le degré des performances au moment de l'évaluation. Avec les épreuves de DELF/DALF, on évalue difficilement la mobilisation des ressources ainsi que le processus de développement des compétences de l'apprenant tout au long de son apprentissage.
Effectivement, dans l'optique de l'application du modèle du DELF/DALF, malgré la conscience du rôle et de l'importance de l'évaluation formative et l'auto-évaluation des étudiants, les enseignants de FLE au Vietnam privilégient la vitesse à l'assimilation des connaissances par les étudiants ; ils visent à les préparer au test final, qui est effectivement une épreuve du DELF/DALF pour atteindre le niveau fixé ; par conséquent, ils ne pratiquent pas fréquemment l'évaluation formative et ne préparent pas suffisamment leurs étudiants à l'auto-évaluation.
7 D'ailleurs, il faut souligner que le CECRL n'est pas fait pour ce type de public.
5 EN GUISE DE CONCLUSION
Bien que le développement de la perspective actionnelle et l'application de l'échelle des six niveaux de compétences du CECRL favorisent un certain dynamisme et changement favorable dans l'enseignement/apprentissage et dans l'évaluation, l'intégration mécanique, maladroite de ce référentiel élaboré en Europe, pour la réalité multilingue, multiculturelle, plurilingue, pluriculturelle européenne, pose beaucoup de problèmes dans le contexte de certaines universités de langues étrangères vietnamiennes à vocation fortement professionnalisante. Le premier est la discordance entre la progression des niveaux du CECRL et l'organisation de l'enseignement/apprentissage du FLE dans certaines universités vietnamiennes. Le deuxième consiste dans la professionnalisation et la place de la recherche à l'université. La conception des épreuves d'examen selon le modèle du DELF/DALF, une certification internationale suivant bien les indicateurs de niveaux de compétences en langues précisés par le CECRL, soulève le troisième problème, celui de la divergence de fond sur la nature des épreuves dans des universités et celles du DELF/DALF.
Tous ces problèmes existants imposent ainsi la nécessité, d'une part, d'une reconsidération de l'application du CECRL et, d'autre part, d'une réforme profonde dans l'enseignement/apprentissage et l'évaluation du FLE au Vietnam. Lorsqu'on se trouve dans une démarche professionnalisante de la formation du/en FLE dans des universités de langues étrangères au Vietnam, il est indispensable d'envisager la construction d'un référentiel réservé particulièrement aux étudiants en français des universités de langues étrangères au Vietnam afin d'assurer une harmonisation des contenus et des méthodes sur les quatre années d'études et dans différents établissements. Cela permettrait également de mieux préparer les étudiants aux échanges de plus en plus nombreux et normalisés entre universités et entreprises et entre les différentes universités. La présente étude est considérée comme le premier pas dans un projet de recherche-action d'élaboration d'un document de référence qui sera expérimenté, testé, évalué par des opérateurs de terrain (étudiants, enseignants et spécialistes dans le domaine), puis validé par des instances institutionnelles avant d'être mise en pratique.
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Résumé
ENJEUX DE L'INTÉGRATION DU CECRL AUX UNIVERSITÉS DE LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES AU VIETNAM
Dans la mondialisation actuelle, un processus d'enseignement/apprentissage des langues étrangères conforme aux normes internationales proposées par le Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les langues (CECRL) s'avère nécessaire, voire indispensable. Le présent article traite des enjeux de l'intégration du CECRL au contexte vietnamien en analysant les résultats d'une étude des programmes de formation de six universités de langues étrangères réparties sur trois zones géographiques (nord, centre, sud) du Vietnam.
Malgré quelques dynamismes et changements favorables, l'intégration mécanique, rigide du CECRL dans certaines universités de langues étrangères vietnamiennes, à vocation fortement professionnalisante, pourrait provoquer, et a effectivement provoqué, plusieurs problèmes : 1/ l'incohérence entre la progression des niveaux du CECRL et l'organisation de l'enseignement/apprentissage ; 2/ le risque d'un enseignement/ apprentissage trop « utilitaire », trop fonctionnel et 3/ une évaluation davantage centrée sur la vérification des savoirs linguistiques, sur le degré des performances au moment de l'évaluation que sur la mobilisation des ressources ainsi que le processus de développement des compétences de l'apprenant tout au long de son apprentissage, etc.
Les résultats de l'étude nous ont ouvert des pistes de réflexions pour l'élaboration d'un document de référence réservé aux étudiants, vietnamiens entre autres, en FLE.
Mots clés : CECRL, enseignement/apprentissage et évaluation du FLE, profession-nalisation, contexte vietnamien.
Abstract
CHALLENGES OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES AT FOREIGN-LANGUAGE UNIVERSITIES IN VIETNAM
In today's globalized world, it seems necessary, or even indispensable for the teaching/ learning of foreign languages to be based on international standards proposed by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL). The present
article deals with issues of integration of the CEFRL in the Vietnamese context by analyzing the results of a study of training programs at six universities specializing in foreign languages, which are based in three regions of the country (Northern, Central and Southern Vietnam).
Despite some positive changes and the dynamism characteristic of the approach, a mechanical and rigid introduction of CEFRL in foreign-language universities in Vietnam has actually caused several problems. These include (1) the inconsistency between the levels established by the CEFRL and the organization of teaching/learning; (2) the risk of teaching/learning becoming too "utilitarian" and too function-oriented and (3) excessive attention given to the evaluation and assessment of linguistic knowledge and of performance level rather than on the ability to use various resources as well as to long-term process of competence development.
The study results show some possible ways for the development of a referential frame for learning/teaching French in Vietnam.
Keywords: CEFRL, teaching/learning and evaluation of French foreign language, pro-fessionalization, Vietnamese context.
Povzetek
IZZIVI VPELJAVE SKUPNEGA EVROPSKEGA JEZIKOVNEGA OKVIRA NA UNIVERZE ZA TUJE JEZIKE V VIETNAMU
V dobi globalizacije je po splošnem mnenju potrebno - če ne že kar nujno - poučevati/ učiti se tuje jezike tako, da sledimo normam, ki jih zastavlja Skupni evropski jezikovni okvir. V članku predstavljamo izzive, ki jih uporaba SEJA predstavlja v vietnamskem kontekstu in analiziramo rezultate študije, s katero smo raziskali programe šestih vietnamskih univerz za tuje jezike. Univerze izhajajo s treh različnih geografskih področij Vietnama (sever, osrednji del, jug).
Kljub dinamičnemu pristopu in nekaterim koristnim spremembam bi povsem mehanična vpeljava in uporaba SEJA na univerzah lahko izzvala več problemov, kar se je tudi zgodilo. Zaznali smo naslednje težave: 1) neskladje v prehajanju med ravnmi SEJA in organizacijo poučevanja/učenja, 2) tveganje, da bo poučevanje/učenje postalo preveč utilitarno, preveč funkcionalno in 3) vrednotenje je lahko bolj osredotočeno na preverjanje/ocenjevanje jezikovnih znanj kot na uporabo jezikovnih orodij in na proces dolgoročnega razvoja jezikovnih zmožnosti.
Rezultat raziskave nakazuje možne poti za izdelavo referenčnega okvira za vietnamske študente francoščine kot tujega jezika.
Ključne besede: SEJO, poučevanje/učenje, ocenjevanje/preverjanje francoščine kot tujega jezika, profesionalizacija, vietnamski kontekst.
Rong Zhang Fernandez	UDK 811.581'243(44):37.091.3
Université Paris-Est Créteil Val de Marne*	DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.54.1.485-498
L'ENSEIGNEMENT DU CHINOIS DANS UNE CLASSE HÉTÉROGÈNE: STRATÉGIES ET PRATIQUES
1 INTRODUCTION
Que ce soit dans l'enseignement secondaire ou dans l'enseignement supérieur, une des difficultés les plus récurrentes dans l'enseignement du chinois en France réside dans l'hétérogénéité des élèves. Cette hétérogénéité existe à plusieurs niveaux : différences de niveaux langagiers, d'objectifs, d'origines, de parcours, de culture et d'ordre psychofamilial. Comment faire face à cette hétérogénéité et adapter au mieux l'enseignement du chinois à la complexité des profils et à la diversité des capacités langagières ? La pédagogie différenciée peut-elle être une solution nécessaire et adaptée pour faire face à une classe pluri-niveaux ? Quelles stratégies et quelles pratiques à adopter dans l'enseignement du chinois pour mieux répondre aux exigences du CECRL (Cadre Européen Commun des Référence pour les langues) en matière de contenus, de tâches, de structures et d'évaluation dans le contexte d'une classe hétérogène ? Notre réflexion commence par l'analyse d'une classe de terminale et des difficultés rencontrées pour gérer cette classe hétérogène. Ensuite, nous allons étudier les possibilités d'une pédagogie différenciée applicable à l'enseignement du chinois dans cette classe. Dans un troisième temps, nous essayons de montrer les pratiques pédagogiques et les stratégies mises en œuvre pour l'application de la pédagogie différenciée avec les problèmes rencontrés.
2 ANALYSE DE LA CLASSE DE TERMINALE
L'évolution des théories de l'apprentissage et des méthodes d'enseignement des langues vient bousculer le rapport traditionnel de maître à l'élève, vis-à-vis des savoirs, et l'appropriation de ces savoirs. L'enseignant remplace le maître, et l'apprenant l'élève, et cette notion d'apprenant met l'apprenant au centre du processus d'apprentissage et le reconnaît comme individu-personne. Il est acteur actif aux processus d'appropriation et l'enseignant n'est qu'un « facilitateur » de l'appropriation des savoirs (Martinez 2004 : 4). Une des tendances majeures depuis les années 90 est l'approche communicative qui a le grand mérite de mettre l'apprenant au centre de l'apprentissage. Par cette méthode, l'enseignant doit tenir compte d'une façon très fine des caractéristiques et des besoins des apprenants. D'où l'importance de prise en compte des « représentations des élèves », comme Przesmycki (2004 : 32-33) le souligne :
Adresse de l'auteur : Faculté d'Administration et Echanges internationaux de l'Université Paris Est Créteil, 61, avenue Charles de Gaulle, 94100 Créteil, France. Courriel : rong.zhang@laposte.net.

Dans une situation d'apprentissage, les élèves arrivent avec un bagage plus ou moins dense et complexe de représentations qu'ils ont constituées en combinant des informations émises par leur propre espace corporel, psychologique, intellectuel, avec celles fournies par leur environnement familial, social, culturel, économique et géographique.
Nous avons choisi une classe de terminale de chinois comme objet d'étude dans un lycée où le chinois, enseigné comme langue « inter établissement » (LIE), est ouvert à des élèves en provenance de divers établissements secondaires publics de l'Académie de Paris. Cette classe très chargée comprend 31 élèves, dont 25 sont d'origine sino-asiatique. Le tableau ci-dessous représente la diversité des origines des élèves :
Origine des élèves
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
			14		
				11	
6					
-					
■ Nés en France □ Nés en Chine
Française
Sino-asiatique
Cette hétérogénéité ne concerne pas seulement l'origine ethnique. Pour résumer grossièrement en deux axes, disons que l'hétérogénéité est patente 1) dans les niveaux atteints, 2) dans les objectifs, d'où la nécessité d'une différenciation pédagogique. En ce qui concerne leur différence de niveaux, parmi les 25 élèves d'origine sino-asiatique, il y en a 11 qui sont nés en Chine et y ont été scolarisés. Mais la durée de leur scolarité en Chine varie. Leur point commun : le chinois est leur langue maternelle. Ils maîtrisent le chinois aussi bien à l'oral qu'à l'écrit. Après leur arrivée en France, ils sont dans un bain linguistique favorable (chinois parlé en famille). Leur différence existe surtout au niveau de la rédaction en chinois.
Les autres élèves d'origine sino-asiatique sont nés en France. Leur situation par rapport au chinois est, elle aussi, très variée. Par exemple, il y a une élève qui a commencé le chinois dès l'âge de 4 ans et parle le chinois avec ses parents, une autre a commencé le chinois à 10 ans mais parle le chinois depuis son plus jeune âge. Une élève parle le chinois depuis son enfance avec sa mère mais a commencé à apprendre à
lire et à écrire très tard. Une douzaine d'élèves d'origine chinoise ou asiatique mais nés en France présentent un niveau de chinois relativement faible. Leur lieu de pratique linguistique se limite aux cours. Leur niveau à l'oral est très limité, mais ils ont un niveau relativement correct à l'écrit. Des difficultés existent aussi au niveau du vocabulaire et de la syntaxe.
Il n'y a que 6 élèves d'origine française dans cette classe. En général, leur niveau de compréhension et d'expression orale du chinois est très faible, par contre le niveau à l'écrit correspond à leur niveau d'études. Ils éprouvent des difficultés en prononciation, en syntaxe, en grammaire. Ces difficultés réduisent leur chance de réussite à l'examen du baccalauréat.
S'appliquant l'apprentissage de toutes les langues, le CECRL nous sert de référence fondamentale dans trois domaines essentiels de l'enseignement des langues : apprentissage, enseignement et évaluation. Selon les six niveaux définis par le CECRL, nous avons évalué cinq compétences par niveau pour cette classe, ce qui donne le schéma ci-dessous (les chiffres représentent le nombre d'élèves possédant le niveau concerné) :
	A1	A2	B1	B2	C1	C2
Compréhension de l'oral	3	13	5	6	4	
Interaction orale	3	13	5	7	3	
Expression orale	3	13	6	6	3	
Compréhension de l'écrit		16	8	5	2	
Expression écrite		17	4	7	3	
En matière de différence d'objectifs, la majorité des élèves ont la lourde tâche de passer le baccalauréat. Il y a 4 élèves d'origine chinoise qui ont choisi le chinois comme LV1 (langue vivante 1) en série S (série scientifique) pour passer l'épreuve écrite. Ils se sont inscrits aux cours de chinois pour se préparer aux examens, se familiariser avec les formes d'épreuves, s'y conformer, et surtout, réussir le mieux possible. L'examen de chinois est un des leurs atouts pour gagner des « points ». Deux élèves d'origine chinoise ont opté pour le chinois comme LV2 (langue vivante 2) en série S, épreuve écrite. Trois autres élèves ont le chinois comme LV2. Leurs séries diffèrent : 2 sont en série ES (Bac économique et social), un en STI (Bac technologie). Ce sont des épreuves orales. 14 élèves vont passer l'épreuve orale de chinois comme LV3 (langue vivante 3). Tous ces 14 élèves ont besoin de s'entraîner beaucoup à l'oral. Le tableau ci-dessous montre les différences d'objectifs de ces élèves pour le baccalauréat.
Différences d'objectifs
13 %
En plus de l'hétérogénéité des niveaux et des objectifs, il nous manque des supports pour le contenu de l'enseignement du chinois : problème crucial et primordial. Comme l'enseignement doit s'adapter aux exigences de l'examen du baccalauréat et que la plupart de ces élèves vont passer l'oral, il s'agit de créer une liste de textes à étudier durant toute l'année pour qu'ils puissent la présenter à l'examen. Cette liste de textes sera le support de base. Quels en sont les critères de choix ? Comment intégrer le contenu culturel dans ces choix ? Comment accorder ces choix avec les points grammaticaux du programme ? Face à cette classe pluri niveaux, les supports peuvent-ils être les mêmes ? Si la réponse est négative, quels sont les autres supports possibles pour répondre aux différents objectifs ? D'autres difficultés en découlent avec les supports communs et différents : comment organiser les cours ? Quels sont les moyens ou stratégies que nous pouvons envisager et les mettre en œuvre pour assurer le bon fonctionnement de la classe et favoriser les élèves faibles à l'oral ? Que faire pour assurer une progression à la fois cohérente et personnalisée des séquences ? Comment favoriser l'oral en provoquant l'interaction entre l'enseignant et l'apprenant, et celle entre les apprenants ? En quoi cette hétérogénéité peut jouer un rôle positif pour que les élèves sinophones et les francophones s'entra-ident mutuellement dans l'amélioration de leurs connaissances linguistiques et dans leur échange interculturel ? Autant de questions pour faire fonctionner l'enseignement d'une manière efficace et fructueuse, et permettre une réussite à l'examen. Ces problèmes sont à la fois pour nous des difficultés à surmonter et un défi à relever.
3 LA PÉDAGOGIE DIFFÉRENCIÉE COMME SOLUTION NÉCESSAIRE À
UNE CLASSE HÉTÉROGÈNE ET PLURI NIVEAUX EN LIE DE CHINOIS
Nous nous sommes orientés vers la pédagogie différenciée pour chercher des pistes de réflexion nous offrant des possibilités de résoudre les difficultés rencontrées. Selon Halina Przesmycki, la pédagogie différenciée se définit comme « une pédagogie indi-
vidualisée qui reconnaît l'élève comme une personne ayant ses représentations propres de la situation de formation ; une pédagogie variée qui propose un éventail de démarches, s'opposant ainsi au mythe identitaire de l'uniformité » (Przesmycki 2004 : 10). Mais la démarche d'enseignement reste collective dans un cadre plus souple où les apprentissages sont diversifiés. Dans son analyse de l'hétérogénéité, Przesmycki définit ainsi l'hétérogénéité (Przesmycki 2004 : 75) :
Celle-ci (hétérogénéité) comprend à la fois l'hétérogénéité de leur cadre de vie ainsi que de leurs processus d'apprentissage. Seront mises en valeur les incidences de l'appartenance socio-économique, de l'origine socioculturelle, des cadres psycho familiaux, des stratégies familiales et du cadre scolaire sur la façon dont un élève réussit dans un apprentissage. L'hétérogénéité des processus d'apprentissage met l'accent sur l'importance de la motivation, de l'âge, des rythmes, des styles cognitifs, ainsi que des modes de communication et d'expression.
Les objectifs fondamentaux se précisent en trois points (Przesmycki 2004 : 14):
•	enrichir l'interaction sociale et cognitive
•	améliorer la relation enseignés/enseignants
•	apprendre l'autonomie
La finalité de la pédagogie différenciée est « la lutte contre l'échec scolaire en alliant la transmission des savoirs au développement de chacun » (Przesmycki 2004 : 13). C'est pourquoi la pédagogie différenciée est souvent liée à la notion de soutien et de rattrapage. La pratique de la pédagogie différenciée pour cette classe de terminale en chinois LIE ne vise pas un tel but. Il s'agit plutôt « d'amener tous à aller le plus loin possible, au maximum de leurs capacités » (Gillig 1999 : 94) et de leurs possibilités tout en conservant de l'idée de « la lutte contre l'échec scolaire » celle de n'abandonner en route si possible aucun élève. Il ne faut surtout pas retarder les meilleurs élèves (en l'occurrence les natifs) en les laissant se débrouiller seuls. Philippe Meirieu (2012) insiste sur ce point : « La pédagogie différenciée est conquête de nouveaux possibles, découverte de nouvelles satisfactions dans l'apprendre, accès renouvelé au plaisir de comprendre et à la joie de penser. Elle est construction de l'humain par toutes les voies possibles, quand on ne se résigne pas à laisser quiconque au bord de la route. »
Philippe Perrenoud parle de la pédagogie différenciée comme étant une approche nouvelle plus centrée sur l'apprenant et son itinéraire (Perrenoud 2008 : 44), ce principe de la différenciation au cœur de la pédagogie différenciée « participe du dispositif didactique et de l'action pédagogique quotidienne » (Perrenoud 2008 : 46).
Dans son ouvrage intitulé « Pédagogie différenciée », Sabine Kahn (2010) explique la problématique de départ de la pédagogie différenciée par la difficulté qu'a l'enseignant à s'adapter à des élèves ayant des capacités et des modes d'apprentissage très variables impliquant un niveau d'hétérogénéité importante des groupes. Pour elle, ce phénomène nécessite une mise en place de pédagogies adaptées aux situations rencontrées, et les stratégies pédagogiques à utiliser sont plutôt des solutions données à un
moment donné à partir d'un groupe d'élèves donné. Ces techniques sont une « boîte à outils » pour optimiser l'enseignement.
Cette approche née de l'évolution progressive de la reconnaissance de l'élève comme personne, est basée plutôt sur des éléments caractéristiques de l'hétérogénéité des élèves comme leurs différences cognitives, socio-économiques, socioculturelles, psychologiques et familiales pour différencier la pédagogie à partir d'objectifs communs. Elle ne saura pas s'adapter à cent pour cent à l'enseignement du chinois dans la classe de terminale dont l'hétérogénéité relève de plusieurs niveaux. L'important est de nous inspirer de cette pédagogie différenciée en nous appuyant sur ses idées, son processus, ses stratégies, sa méthodologie d'ensemble pour les mettre au service de l'enseignement du chinois.
La pédagogie différenciée en classe de chinois devient une nécessité surtout pour la LIE. Les raisons sont les suivantes : le niveau de connaissances linguistiques et de pratique est trop différent, la diversité des capacités langagières des élèves rend cette pédagogie nécessaire. Le parcours personnel, le cadre de vie, sont autant de données méthodologiques, sociales, culturelles, psychologiques différentes à prendre en considération pour adapter au mieux l'enseignement à la diversité des profils. Le grand mérite de cette pédagogie est qu'elle est plutôt laissée à l'initiative des enseignants qui sont libres de recourir ou pas à des pratiques différenciées selon la constitution de sa classe et selon ses propres possibilités.
Concernant les méthodes et les formes possibles de la pédagogie différenciée, Philippe Meirieu propose six formes de différenciation pédagogiques possibles :
•	Une différenciation successive dans la classe
•	Une différenciation des stratégies d'apprentissage dans la classe
•	Une différenciation des stratégies d'apprentissage par regroupement d'élèves de différentes classes
•	Une différenciation simultanée dans la classe
•	Une différenciation des objectifs par regroupement d'élèves de différentes classes
•	Une différenciation par utilisation de la diversité des contenus disciplinaires pour l'acquisition de capacités (Meirieu 1986 : 7-23).
Christian Puren, quant à lui, a repris les termes de Meirieu de « différenciation successive » et de « différenciation simultanée », préférant réserver le concept de « différenciation » au second cas qui « est le seul à impliquer une véritable modification des pratiques [...] Seule la différenciation simultanée oblige l'enseignant à déplacer la centration sur ses élèves, puisqu'il va devoir se poser lui-même et en contexte la question des critères de différenciation » (Puren 2001 : 64-65). De ce fait, il a proposé une distinction entre variation et différenciation. Pour lui, la variation est la diversification des tâches d'apprentissage successives qui existe traditionnellement en didactique des langues, ces activités diversifiées sont utilisées à l'identique, de manière très rigide et en enseignement collectif constant. La « différenciation » proprement dite est que « les élèves, individuellement ou en groupes, réalisent à un moment donné des tâches différentes » (Puren 2001 : 64). Mais il reconnaît que dans la pratique les enseignants combinent souvent différenciation et variation dans la même séquence. Il a retenu
dans la pratique des enseignants les domaines de différenciation suivants : objectifs, contenus, supports, dispositifs, aides et guidages, tâches, méthodes, évaluation et remédiation (Puren 2001 : 15-20). Przesmycki parle de plusieurs démarches différenciées ou des dispositifs de différenciation : le travail autonome (Przesmycki 2004 : 121), la pédagogie du contrat (Przesmycki 2004 : 139), la différenciation des contenus (Przesmycki 2004 : 143) et la différenciation des structures (Przesmycki 2004 : 146).
4 LA MISE EN ŒUVRE DES PRATIQUES PÉDAGOGIQUES ET DES STRATÉGIES À LA LUMIÈRE DE LA PÉDAGOGIE DIFFÉRENCIÉE
À partir de ces éléments théoriques, nous avons mis en pratique une pédagogie différenciée dont la différenciation se situe au niveau des contenus, des tâches, des structures et de l'évaluation. La première différenciation porte sur les contenus et les tâches. Cela nécessite d'abord une organisation de la classe. Comme la majorité de la classe doit préparer le baccalauréat, nous avons décidé de diviser la classe en deux groupes différents en tenant compte de leurs objectifs en terme d'examen, c'est-à-dire ceux qui vont passer le chinois à l'oral comme LV2 ou LV3 forment un groupe, et ceux qui vont passer l'épreuve écrite en LV1 ou LV2 en forment un autre. La répartition des deux groupes peut se présenter comme le tableau suivant :
GROUPE 1 = GB (groupe de base)	GROUPE 2 = GA (groupe avancé)
17 élèves	14 élèves
Pour avoir un noyau commun d'enseignement et d'apprentissage dans cette classe hétérogène, nous avons décidé de créer la liste de textes que ces élèves vont présenter à leur examinateur à l'oral comme supports communs de base. Cette décision est loin d'être une solution idéale, c'est plutôt un compromis pour que les élèves puissent avoir des références communes qui les aident à dialoguer ensemble et s'entraider. Le choix des textes s'est opéré pour intégrer le mieux possible contenu culturel et contenu linguistique en fonction des exigences du programme de chinois pour classe terminale (Bulletin officiel, hors-série N° 5, 9 septembre 2004). Nous prenons comme exemple le texte « Conduire » pour illustrer cette démarche.
Il s'agit d'un texte contemporain qui traite un sujet d'actualité. Ce texte, sous couvert d'une simple histoire drôle, est très riche en sous-entendus culturels, socio-économiques et psychologiques. Il permet de parler de la Chine actuelle, de son développement économique considérable depuis son ouverture, et surtout celui de l'industrie automobile qui change la vie des Chinois. Plus profondément, le texte amène à réfléchir sur l'écart creusé entre les nouveaux riches et les pauvres. Il permet aussi d'aborder les problèmes de pollution et de protection de l'environnement, et plus généralement les thèmes tels que la mondialisation, la modernisation, les relations commerciales sino--européennes, les échanges technologiques et les présences étrangères actuelles. Du point de vue du contenu linguistique, ce texte donne l'excellente occasion de parler de la forme verbale résultative et d'aborder aussi la construction en « ba » en introduisant la préposition « bei » (marqueur du passif).
Si les supports de base sont les mêmes pour toute la classe, les tâches se diffèrent entre GB et GA. Pour les premiers, les tâches se concentrent sur la lecture du texte, les questions-réponses concernant la compréhension du texte, le résumé ou la synthèse du texte, la traduction à l'oral, l'explication des points grammaticaux à l'oral. Pour les plus avancés, les tâches s'orientent davantage vers la compréhension rapide après une première écoute du texte avec les questions-réponses portant aussi bien sur le sens explicite du texte que sur sa signification profonde, l'expression libre, la réflexion plus approfondie, le débat sur le sujet traité (capacité de défendre un point de vue, d'exprimer un jugement, de commenter un fait de civilisation), et la traduction en français par écrit. Ces tâches et exercices ont pour objectif de renforcer l'aptitude à la compréhension de la langue écrite et l'aptitude à l'expression écrite et d'améliorer leur niveau de traduction en français.
Pour que les élèves les plus avancés se sentent concernés et impliqués dans un débat ou une discussion, et les inciter à y participer plus activement, nous guidons la discussion vers ce qui est proche de leur vie, de leurs expériences personnelles, de leurs parcours individuels et de leur environnement quotidien. Par exemple, quand on étudie le texte « Beijing et Shanghai », en comparant ces deux villes, nous introduisons aussi Paris et Wenzhou dans la discussion, parce que la plupart de ces élèves sont originaires de Wen-zhou, région de la province de Zhejiang dans le sud de la Chine avec une longue tradition d'immigration vers l'Europe. En parlant de leur pays natal et de leur environnement familier, ces élèves montrent un dynamisme surprenant qui les favorise à s'exprimer davantage et à réfléchir sur les différences entre les cultures, les mentalités des gens, les modes de vie. Les discussions leur donnent un sentiment d'être valorisés par rapport à leur origine. Et ces séances de débat et de discussion deviennent un véritable lieu pour réfléchir et pour exprimer leurs points de vue d'une manière profonde et efficace. Pour les francophones minoritaires, tels témoignages les aident à comprendre l'itinéraire de leurs camarades dans un environnement culturel différent et à faire une comparaison avec le leur.
Pour les plus avancés, il est impossible de les faire travailler avec les mêmes supports compte tenu de leur différence de niveaux et d'objectifs. Il faut les faire travailler à leur niveau et progresser vers leurs objectifs. La solution que nous avons adoptée est de prendre des petits articles de journaux en rapport avec le texte de base. Par exemple, pour accompagner le texte « Conduire », nous avons choisi deux textes d'accompagnement pour les plus avancés : « Journée internationale sans voitures, pourriez-vous ne pas conduire ? » et « Ce n'est qu'après avoir acheté une voiture que l'on comprend pourquoi ». Ces textes authentiques donnent lieu à des discussions sur le développement des transports en commun et la protection de l'environnement.
Ces supports différents exigent bien sûr des tâches différentes. Les élèves doivent effectuer d'abord une lecture rapide en repérant les mots qu'ils ne comprennent pas. Ensuite ils vont faire un résumé du texte en dégageant les grandes lignes, pour raconter l'histoire avec leurs propres mots, et répondre à une série de questions pour la bonne compréhension du texte. En phase finale de ces tâches, en insistant sur le thème du texte, nous proposons aux élèves une discussion libre pour les aider à développer leur aptitude à l'expression personnelle.
Avec une classe pluri-niveaux, non seulement la différenciation des contenus s'avère nécessaire, mais aussi les structures, l'organisation des cours et des séances de différen-
ciation. Deux groupes distincts ne signifient pas forcément deux cours complètement différents. Pour que chacun travaille à son niveau et progresse d'une manière efficace, les cours doivent être organisés d'une façon intelligente, le professeur doit savoir gérer son temps et répartir son enseignement d'une façon plus ou moins égale entre les deux groupes. Nous avons organisé les cours selon le schéma suivant : pour démarrer un nouveau texte, nous commençons par un cours commun pour une entrée en matière avec différents supports (documents iconographiques, cartes postales, séquence de documentaire, documents en chinois et en français, etc.). Après cette entrée en matière s'adressant à tous, ils écoutent le texte pour la première fois. GA a compris le texte sans trop de difficultés, nous leur avons donné alors des tâches écrites. Pendant ce temps-là, GB travaille d'une manière plus fine sur le vocabulaire, la compréhension et l'expression orale. Une séquence finie avec GB, ils se consacrent aux tâches écrites ; nous revenons alors au GA qui travaille à la compréhension globale du texte, à sa reformulation (résumé, expansion, argumentation) et aux discussions plus profondes sur le sujet du texte. Pour la partie de la grammaire, nous donnons des cours communs avec des fiches d'explications et des exercices. Les explications grammaticales se font en général en français, un des points faibles des élèves pour qui le chinois est leur langue maternelle est la non maîtrise de la terminologie grammaticale. Ce cours commun sur la grammaire leur donne l'occasion de se poser des questions sur les faits de langue et d'apprendre à les expliquer.
Le schéma ci-dessous représente le déroulement d'une séance qui dure environ trois ou quatre semaines :
L'évaluation ne peut qu'être différenciée par obligation. Pour l'évaluation formative qui intervient en cours d'apprentissage et permet de situer la progression de l'élève par rapport à un objectif donné, la différenciation est une nécessité pour suivre et soutenir l'avancée des deux groupes. Dans le cas d'une évaluation formative, l'objectif est d'obtenir une double rétroaction sur l'élève et sur le professeur. C'est pour indiquer à l'élève les étapes qu'il a franchies et les difficultés qu'il rencontre et, indiquer au professeur comment se déroule son programme pédagogique et quels sont les obstacles auxquels il se heurte. Pour GB, cette évaluation formative est souvent basée sur des exercices tels que la dictée, des exercices grammaticaux, les ajustements phonétiques, l'entraînement à la transcription, le questionnement oral et écrit. Pour GA, l'évaluation formative s'appuie plutôt sur les exercices de rédaction et de traduction, l'expression libre orale et écrite pour tester leur capacité de comprendre l'implicite, de reformuler des opinions et points de vue, de défendre différents points de vue, et de conduire une argumentation.
L'évaluation sommative est différenciée également. Cette évaluation permet de faire la somme des connaissances et des savoir-faire des élèves à un moment précis sous forme de contrôles. Après chaque leçon, un contrôle est prévu pour chaque groupe. La différenciation de l'évaluation se joue sur les différents objectifs des élèves pour l'examen du baccalauréat et leurs différents niveaux de langue. Des contrôles oraux sont organisés pour GB selon les exigences de l'épreuve orale du baccalauréat. Pour GA, les élèves ont comme contrôle écrit des sujets de rédaction et des sujets du baccalauréat de différentes séries en LV1 ou en LV2. Ces activités leur permettent de se familiariser avec la forme de l'examen et de gagner la confiance en eux-mêmes.
Nous avons recours aux autres stratégies d'enseignement telles que le travail de groupe et le travail en tandem. Le travail de groupe nous permet de mettre en valeur les aspects positifs de l'hétérogénéité. Les différences entre élèves sont aussi des richesses à exploiter, ces richesses peuvent favoriser l'échange linguistique et interculturel. Or, cette dimension interculturelle est bien intégrée aux objectifs de l'enseignement des langues par le CECRL qui met l'accent sur l'importance d'une prise de conscience de « la dimension interculturelle », des « aptitudes interculturelles » et du « savoir être » ou « compétence existentielle » (Byram/Gribkova/Starkey 2002 : 7). Le travail de groupe intègre d'une manière appropriée les élèves forts (souvent les natifs) dans les petits groupes et leur permet de « prendre conscience de leur rôle social d'assistants » et « leur donne la possibilité de mettre en œuvre leur supériorité de performances de telle manière que leurs camarades la considèrent comme un avantage pour eux-mêmes » (Przesmycki 2004 : 97). C'est particulièrement vrai pour une classe en LIE chinois du fait que l'échange interculturel se fait constamment entre les élèves natifs et les élèves francophones, ils sont transformés en locuteurs interculturels. Sur différents sujets de débat, les élèves travaillant en groupe s'affrontent à des points de vue, des valeurs et des comportements différents qui les aident à relativiser leurs propres cultures, leurs propres croyances et comportements. Le travail de groupe offre un lieu idéal pour l'interaction en temps réel entre ces élèves de différentes origines et cultures.
Avec le travail de groupe, une sorte de tandem se forme au fur et à mesure tant que la possibilité s'offre à l'intérieur du groupe. C'est l'occasion privilégiée pour les apprenants francophones pour dialoguer directement avec un locuteur natif. Cette com-
munication interpersonnelle entre deux natifs de langues différentes est authentique et très fructueuse. Les élèves étaient motivés pour s'entraider mutuellement et se donner de l'assurance. Les élèves forts se sentaient valorisés dans leur rôle d'assistant en prodiguant leur aide à leur partenaire francophone qui, à son tour, profitait d'une communication intensive et authentique et d'une correction constante non publique.
5 CONCLUSION
En conclusion, il n'y a pas une seule pédagogie différenciée, il y a des pédagogies différenciées. Nous avons expérimenté certaines différenciations dont les résultats sont plutôt positifs. Cette pédagogie centrée sur l'apprenant a permis à l'enseignant d'adapter son enseignement aux besoins de ses élèves. Elle a aussi permis aux apprenants de s'impliquer dans leur apprentissage autonome, de se motiver davantage et de se responsabiliser sur leurs progrès. Il est bénéfique de différencier la pédagogie pour faire face à l'hétérogénéité de la classe, mais existe-t-il des limites ? Trop d'écart de niveaux entre les élèves pose le problème du seuil d'hétérogénéité. Mais il est très difficile de définir d'une manière précise ce seuil d'hétérogénéité. La solution d'organiser la classe en deux groupes distincts et de leur aménager des cours différents est loin d'être idéale et demande beaucoup de préparation des cours de la part de l'enseignant. De nouveaux modes d'organisation de la classe de langue pourraient à l'avenir aider à résoudre le problème de l'hétérogénéité, par exemple, le regroupement des élèves non plus en fonction du niveau académique, mais par groupes de compétences constitués en fonction des compétences d'expression et de compréhension orales et écrites des élèves.
Références bibliographiques
BYRAM, Michael/Bella GRIBKOVA/Hugh STARKEY (2002) Développer la dimension interculturelle de l'enseignement des langues: une introduction pratique à l'usage des enseignants. Strasbourg : Conseil de l'Europe, Division des politiques linguistiques.
GILLIG, Jean-Marie (1999) Les pédagogies différenciées : origine, actualité, perspectives. Paris/Bruxelles : De Boeck & Larcier s.a., département de Boeck Université. GRANDGUILLOT, Marie-Claude (1993) Enseigner en classe hétérogène. Paris: Hachette éducation. KAHN, Sabine (2010) Pédagogie différenciée. Éditions De Boeck. KAHN, Sabine (2013) « Actualité de la pédagogie différenciée. » Cahiers pédagogiques N°503 Coordonné par Sabine Kahn et Dominique Seghetchian, 11- 57. MARTINEZ, Pierre (2004) La didactique des langues étrangères. Paris : PUF. MEIRIEU, Philippe (1986) Différencier la pédagogie. Lyon : CRDP. MEIRIEU, Philippe (2004) L'école, mode d'emploi, des méthodes actives à la pédagogie différenciée. Paris : ESF. MEIRIEU, Philippe (2012) « Retours sur la "pédagogie différenciée". » Réponse de Philippe Meirieu à Sabine Kahn, coordinatrice du N° 503 des Cahiers pédagogiques sur la « pédagogie différenciée », http://www.meirieu.com/, octobre 2012.
PERRENOUD, Philippe (2008) Pédagogie différenciée : des intentions à l'action. Paris : ESF.
PERRENOUD, Philippe (2012) L'organisation du travail, clé de toute pédagogie différenciée. Paris : ESF.
PRZESMYCKI, Halina (2004) La pédagogie différenciée. Paris : Hachette.
PUREN, Christian (2001) « Pédagogie différenciée en classe de langue. » Cahiers pédagogiques N° 399, 64-66.
ZAKHARTCHOUK, Jean-Michel (2014) Enseigner en classes hétérogènes. Paris : ESF.
Résumé
L'ENSEIGNEMENT DU CHINOIS DANS UNE CLASSE HÉTÉROGÈNE: STRATÉGIES ET PRATIQUES
En chinois l'hétérogénéité de la classe est une réalité dans l'enseignement en France, tant dans l'enseignement secondaire que dans l'enseignement supérieur. Cette hétérogénéité a plusieurs sources : différences de niveaux, d'origines, de parcours, d'objectifs, de culture, etc.
Pour notre propos, nous avons choisi comme objet d'étude une classe de terminale en LIE (langue inter-établissement) dans un lycée français. Nous nous interrogeons sur les questions suivantes : Comment adapter au mieux l'enseignement du chinois à la diversité des profils? La pédagogie différenciée peut-elle être une solution nécessaire pour faire face à l'hétérogénéité d'une classe pluri-niveaux ? Quelles stratégies et quelles pratiques adopter dans l'enseignement du chinois pour mieux répondre aux exigences du CECRL (Cadre Européen Commun des Référence pour les langues) dans un contexte d'hétérogénéité de la classe en matière de contenus, de tâches, de structures et d'évaluation?
Après une analyse fine de cette classe en termes de typologie des élèves, de différence de niveaux langagiers et d'objectifs pour le baccalauréat, en évoquant les problèmes de supports et de la gestion de cette hétérogénéité, nous nous sommes appuyés sur la théorie de la pédagogie différenciée avec ses idées maîtresses, son processus, ses stratégies, sa méthodologie d'ensemble, et ses techniques de mise en pratique afin de résoudre les difficultés rencontrées face à une classe pluri niveaux. La différenciation mise en pratique se situe au niveau des contenus, des tâches, des structures et de l'évaluation.
Il est bénéfique de différencier la pédagogie pour faire face à l'hétérogénéité de la classe, mais existe-t-il des limites ? Trop d'écart de niveaux entre les élèves pose le problème du seuil de l'hétérogénéité et d'autres problèmes tels que la gestion de la différence dans le rythme de chacun et la surcharge de travail de l'enseignant. De nouveaux modes d'organisation de la classe de langue tels que le regroupement des élèves par compétences peuvent aider à résoudre le problème de l'hétérogénéité.
Mots clés: hétérogénéité, pédagogie différenciée, enseignement du chinois.
Abstract
TEACHING CHINESE IN HETEROGENEOUS CLASSROOMS: STRATEGIES AND PRACTICES
The heterogeneous nature of the Chinese classroom is a reality in the teaching of Chinese in France, both in secondary and higher education. This heterogeneity is due to several reasons: different levels of language knowledge, different origins and backgrounds of the students, different teaching/learning objectives, different cultural and family background, and social factors.
Our research has been conducted in a final-year LIE college class (langue interétablissement;) in a French secondary school. In our study, the following questions have been posed: How to best adapt the teaching of Chinese to fit the needs of all students? Would differentiated instruction be a solution? What would be the best strategies and practices, in view of the CEFR requirements related to teaching content, to tasks and to assessment?
Taking into account a detailed analysis of the class in question in terms of the type of students, the differences in their knowledge of language, and their learning goals, , we adopt the theory of differentiated instruction - its main ideas strategies, its overall methodology and practical techniques to address the difficulties ensuing from classroom heterogeneity. The differentiation is implemented at the level of content, task selection, course structure and evaluation.
Are there any limitations to differentiated instruction? Strong discrepancies in the levels of students' knowledge is potentially a problem, and differences in their work pace as well as the teachers' increased workload can also present difficulties. New ways of organizing language classes such as grouping students on the basis of their various language skills could help solve these issues.
Keywords: heterogeneity, differentiated instruction, teaching Chinese.
Povzetek
POUČEVANJE KITAJŠČINE V HETEROGENEM RAZREDU: STRATEGIJE IN PRISTOPI
Heterogeni razredi so pri poučevanju kitajščine v Franciji vsakdanji pojav, tako na srednješolski kot na univerzitetni stopnji. Heterogenost izvira iz različnih vzrokov: obstajajo razlike v ravni znanja, v poreklu učencev, razlike v poprejšnjem šolanju, kulturi učencev itn.
Za predmet preučevanja smo si izbrali zaključni razred gimnazije, kjer se jezik poučuje v kontekstu LIE (langue inter-etablissement; jezik med ustanovami). Zastavili smo si naslednja vprašanja: kako poučevanje kitajščine prilagoditi različnim profilom? Ali je diferenciran pouk primerna izbira za poučevanje, ko gre za razred, v katerem so učenci z različnimi ravnmi znanja? Kakšne strategije in pristope lahko uporabimo pri
poučevanju kitajščine, da z njimi ustrežemo zahtevam SEJA - se pravi, da zadostimo heterogenim potrebam razreda glede vsebin, nalog, struktur in vrednotenja?
Po podrobni analizi razreda in potreb posameznih učencev, njihovih jezikovnih ravni in različnih ciljev pri maturi, smo se naslonili na teorijo diferenciranega pouka in upoštevali njene ključne ideje, procese, metodologijo in tehnike. Pouk smo diferencirali pri vsebinah, nalogah/opravilih, strukturah in vrednotenju.
Ko se znajdemo v heterogenem razredu, je diferenciran pouk vsekakor smiseln; sprašujemo pa se, ali ima tudi svoje omejitve. Ob prevelikih razlikah v ravni znanja se namreč sprašujemo, do kakšne mere je heterogenost še sprejemljiva, postavljajo pa se tudi drugi problemi, kot sta na primer vodenje razreda ob ustreznem upoštevanju ritmov posameznikov in preveč dela za učitelja. Novi načini organizacije dela, na primer skupinsko delo po posameznih zmožnostih, lahko omilijo težave, ki jih prinaša heterogenost razreda.
Ključne besede: heterogenost, diferenciran pouk, poučevanje kitajščine.
NOTE DE LECTURE Recenzija
Goranka Rocco:
Textsorten der Unternehmenskommunikation aus kontrastiv-textologischer Perspektive. Eine Untersuchung der Aktionärsbriefe und Einstiegseiten der deutschen und italienischen Banken. Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien: Peter Lang, 2013. 240 S. ISBN 978-3-631-64813-1.
Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt einen Beitrag zur kontrastiven Erforschung deutscher und italienischer Wirtschftstextsorten dar. Im Schwerpunkt der Studie stehen deutsche Wirtschaftstexte, die zuerst nach unterschiedlichen textologisch relevanten Kriterien analysiert und darafhin mit entsprechenden italienischen Texten kontrastiv verglichen werden. In bestimmten Punkten werden zum Vergleich bzw. zur Erweiterung des Blickwinkels auch andere Sprachen herangezogen, allem voran das Englische als lingua franca der internationalen Wirtschaftskommunikation, das Französische als eine weitere Großsprache und von den Kleinsprachen das Kroatische.
Im Mittelpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit stehen zwei Textsorten - die Einstiegseiten der größten deutschen und italienischen Geldinstitute und die Aktionärsbriefe derselben. Obwohl ein Aktionärsbrief einen in sich geschlossenen Text darstellt, so ist er gleichzeitig ein integraler Bestandteil des Geschäftsberichts. Beide Textsorten sind zugleich auch Bestandteile eines komplexen Gebildes - der Online-Unternehmens-präsenation, die aus vielen verschiedenen, durch Hyperlinks miteinander vernetzten Texten besteht und der unterschiedliche Textsorten zugeordnet werden können. Die Online-Unternehmenspräsentation wird als eine Großtextsorte definiert. Dieser Terminus bezieht sich auf größere, heterogene und komplexe Textsorten, die aus Teil- bzw. Subtexten bestehen. Obwohl einzelne Subtexte in sich abgeschlossen sind - wie etwa der Aktionärsbrief, wird ihre kommunikative Funktion dennoch wesentlich erst durch die Gesamt-Textfunktion der Großtextsorte bestimmt.
Das Buch besteht aus drei Teilen: In Teil I werden Gegenstand der Studie, Forschungsstand und Untersuchungsdesign präsentiert bzw. thematisiert. Während in Kapitel 1 der Versuch unternommen wird, die Großtextsorte „Unternehmenspräsentation" als Form der institutionellen Wirtschaftskommunikation darzustellen, wird in Kapitel 3 das holistische Modell der kontrastiven Textologie detaillierter dargestellt. Das Analysemodell besteht aus sechs Ebenen und umfasst 1. pragmatisch-kommunikative und 2. thematisch-strukturelle Merkmale, 3. die sprachliche Gestaltung, 4. die visuelle Gestaltung und mediumbedingte Besonderheiten, 5. den Verbreitungs- und Standardisierungsgrad sowie 6. die interkulturellen Implikationen der ermittelten Textmerkmale.
Das präsentierte Modell stellt ein umfassendes Kriterienraster dar, „das ausreichend flexibel ist, um eine Vielzahl von Textsortenmerkmalen zu erfassen und zugleich zentrale Aspekte der jeweiligen Textsortenrealisierung herauszufiltern" (Rocco 2013: 63). Von der jeweiligen Textsorte hängt es ab, auf welche Forschungsfragen vertieft und weiter ausdifferenziert eingegangen werden soll und welche eher von sekundärer Bedeutung sind. Außerdem kann das Modell je nach Textsorte und den Schwerpunkten der Untersuchung um weitere Merkmalsgruppen erweitert werden. Anhand des vorgestellten Modells können Texte sowohl zweier wie auch mehrerer Sprachen miteinander verglichen werden, oder es können zwei Sprachen durchgehend und im Hinblick auf alle relevanten Merkmalsgruppen verglichen werden, wobei an bestimmten Stellen eine oder mehrere andere Sprachen in die Analyse einfließen können (was auch bei der vorliegenden Studie der Fall ist).
In Teil II werden die Analyseergebnisse präsentiert. Die Geschäftsberichte, die der Großtextsorte Unternehmenspräsentation angehören, spiegeln einerseits die Globalisierung der Wirtschaft wider, werden aber andererseits auch von der landesspezifischen Bankenstruktur, der aktuellen Wirtschaftsentwicklung und der Art und Weise, wie diese in der Politik und in den Medien präsentiert werden, geprägt. Die in der vorliegenden Studie untersuchten deutschen und italienischen Bankinstitute sind Bestandteil des europäischen und internationalen Bankwesens und weisen in dieser Hinsicht zunehmend Parallelen, gleichzeitig aber auch nationalspezifische Unterschiede auf.
Obwohl die Textsorte Aktionärsbrief einer Reihe von rechtlichen Vorschriften unterliegt, die seine Struktur und Inhalte bestimmen, bleibt dennoch beim Verfassen dieser Textsorte noch viel Gestaltungsspielraum. Im Vergleich zu Aktionärsbriefen haben die Verfasser von Einstiegseiten rechtlich gesehen mehr Gestaltungsfreiheit, obwohl selbst hier zahlreiche Vorgaben, internet- und branchentypische Normen und Konventionen mitberücksichtigt werden müssen.
Die Großtextsorte Unternehmenspräsentation (und somit auch die beiden untersuchten Textsorten) verfolgt drei miteinander zusammenhängende Ziele bzw. erfüllt drei Funktionen: die Funktion der positiven Selbstdarstellung, die informative Funktion (informiert über Aktivitäten, Produkte und Leistungen des Unternehmens) und die Funktion der Beziehungspflege (es wird versucht, Beziehungen zu potentiellen Partnern aufrechtzuerhalten bzw. zu potentiellen Kunden aufzubauen). Diese drei Funktionen schlagen sich nicht nur in der inhaltlichen Seite der beiden Textsorten nieder, sondern prägen auch ihre sprachliche Gestalt.
Ein wichtiger Unterschied zwischen den beiden untersuchten Textsorten - dem Aktionärsbrief und der Einstiegseite - besteht auch darin, dass Einstiegseiten eine speziell für das Internet konzipierte (Teil)Textsorte sind und somit außerhalb dieses Mediums nur schwer realisierbar sind. Aktionärsbriefe waren früher nur Insidern und direkt Beteiligten vorbehalten; durch die medienbedingte Erweiterung des Adressatenkreises - Aktionärsbriefe sind heutzutage im Internet frei zugänglich - hat aber heute jeder die Möglichkeit, den Aktionärsbrief jedes beliebigen Unternehmens abzurufen. „Der Laie, der einen Aktionärsbrief, einen Geschäftsbrief oder einen Börsenbericht liest, wird sich diesen in Ermangelung der entsprechenden Fachkenntnisse interpretativ so
zurechtschneiden, wie er nur kann - und gerade diese Demokratisierung stellt neue Anforderungen an die sprachliche und inhaltliche Gestaltung der Wirtschaftstexte und besonders der Unternehmenstexte" (Rocco 2013: 90).
Das untersuchte Korpus setzt sich aus 60 Geschäftsberichten für die Jahre 20092011, 20 Einstiegseiten und einem Zusatzkorpus aus mehreren weiteren, z. T in anderen Sprachen veröffentlichten Texten zusammen und wird aus der Perspektive der kontrastiven Textologie analysiert.
Die Studie stellt einen Versuch dar, die Methodik der kontrastiven Textologie um einige Elemente zu erweitern und den - oben erwähnten - veränderten Textproduktions- und Textrezeptionsbedingungen anzupassen. Diese Zielsetzung spiegelt sich auch in der methodischen Konzeption der Untersuchung wider: Ausgehend von dem in Teil I präsentierten holistischen Modell der kontrastiv-textologischen Analyse werden die Texteigenschaften in Bezug auf unterschiedliche textologisch relevante Merkmalgruppen analysiert.
In der Arbeit werden an mehreren Stellen konkrete ökonomische Umstände genannt, die einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Besonderheiten der Wirtschaftssprache haben, und es werden die Faktoren hervorgehoben, die Änderungen in der Kommunikation zur Folge haben. Damit werden dem Leser nicht nur die sprachlichen Eigenheiten der Wirtschaftssprache, sondern auch einige Besonderheiten des Fachbereichs näher gebracht. So wird z. B. an mehreren Stellen auf die Besonderheiten und die Kulturspezifika des deutschen und italienischen Bankensektors, auf den klar erkennbaren Globalisierungs-prozess dieser sowie auf die Eingebundenheit der beiden Systeme in das europäische und globale Bankenwesen hingewiesen, und nicht zuletzt auch auf die Wirtschaftskrise, die vor allem auf die Bankinstitute ein neues Licht geworfen hat.
Zusammenfassend kann somit gesagt werden, dass die vorliegende Arbeit von Goranka Rocco sehr wohl einen bedeutenden Beitrag sowohl für den Bereich der Wirtschaftssprache als auch für die Fachsprache allgemein darstellt. Denn das verwendete Modell zum Vergleichen der ausgewählten Textsorten lässt sich mit einigen geringeren Modifikationen auch auf andere Fachgebiete bzw. auf andere Fachsprachen übertragen. Vor allem aber ist die Arbeit wegen ihres kontrastiven Ansatzes auch im Bereich der Textlinguistik zweifellos eine Bereicherung, da es hier vor allem an kontrastiven Untersuchungen mangelt. Die Monografie zeichnet sich durch ihre Übersichtlichkeit, eine dem Leser leicht zugängliche Sprache und einen klaren Stil aus.
Ada Gruntar Jermol Universität Ljubljana
LINGÜISTICA LIV
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