REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 
JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 
Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 357–375, September 2022 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CORRELATIONS AND REGRESSION OF THE INITIAL 
AND FINAL SOUND ON READING WORDS IN THE 
SLOVENIAN LANGUAGE 
  
Potrjeno/Accepted . 
4. 2. 2022 
 
Objavljeno/Published 
23. 9. 2022 
MARIJA ROPIČ KOP 
 
University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Maribor, Slovenia 
 
 
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR 
marija.ropic@um.si 
 
 
Keywords: 
phonological awareness, 
initial/final sound, 
word reading, 
kindergarten, 1st grade 
 
 
 
 
 
Ključne besede: 
fonološko zavedanje, 
začetni/končni glas, 
branje besed, vrtec, 1. 
razred 
 
UDK/UDC: 
37.091.3:028.1 
028.1:81'34 
Abstract/Izvleček The level of pupils’ acquired phonological awareness at the 
beginning of the 1st grade of primary school presupposes a high probability 
of ability to perform initial reading. The purpose of the study was to check 
the correlation and regression between the initial and the final sound and 
reading words in the Slovenian language. Accordingly, 192 first-grade pupils 
were included in the sample. The purpose of the study was to check the 
correlation and regression between the initial and the final sound and 
reading of the words. The importance of the findings highlights the 
promotion of voice awareness in kindergarten. 
 
Korelacije in regresija začetnega in končnega glasu na branje besed v 
slovenskem jeziku 
Usvojena raven glasovnega zavedanja učencev na začetku 1. razreda 
osnovne šole predpostavlja veliko verjetnost zmožnosti začetnega branja. 
Namen raziskave je bil preveriti korelacijo in regresijo med začetnim in 
končnim glasom ter branjem besed v slovenskem jeziku. V vzorec je bilo 
vključenih 192 učencev 1. razreda. Rezultati izvedene raziskave kažejo, da 
obstaja korelacija in regresija med zaznavanjem začetnih ter končnih glasov 
in branjem besed. Pomen izsledkov poudarja spodbujanje glasovnega 
zavedanja v vrtcu. 
 
DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.15.3.357-375.2022 
Besedilo / Text © 2022 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) 
To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 
Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno 
reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod 
pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 
 
 

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Introduction 
 
Adults promote the understanding of the concept of writing in block letters among 
children in preschool, namely, how to move the hand from left to right, enable the 
reading of familiar words, phrases, and sentences, connect speaking and writing or 
writing and reading, etc. Children are quick to perceive that what is said can be 
written down and then read. Children are surrounded daily by the familiar concept 
of writing. Children are provided with a source of satisfaction, which refers to the 
promotion of a positive attitude towards reading, expectations in reading and 
motivation of children in the desire to learn to read.  
Numerous definitions of phonological awareness have been offered, each with 
relatively well-developed theoretical underpinnings and some empirical support. 
Alternative definitions vary in generality from highly exclusive to highly inclusive 
of different phonological awareness skills. Phonological awareness skills are 
distinguished by the task performed and size of the unit of sound that is the focus 
of the task. Examples of different phonological awareness skills that are 
distinguished by the type of task performed include blending sounds together, 
separating (segmenting) words into their constituent sounds, recombining sounds 
of words, and judging whether two words have some sounds in common. 
Distinctions among phonological awareness skills based on unit of word structure 
include whether syllables are the focus of the task or whether smaller intrasyllabic 
units, like onsets, rimes, or phonemes, are the focus (Anthony and Francis, 2005, 
p. 255). 
Early learning of phonological awareness is highly recommended. Most levels of 
phonological awareness are introduced in a playful way in the preschool period or 
in kindergarten and are continued in primary school (McGee and Ukrainetz, 2009; 
Mesmer and Griffith, 2005; Zorman, 2005; Manyak, 2008; Lonigan, Anthony, 
Phillips, Purpura, Wilson and McQueen, 2009; Strickland, 2011). Phonological 
awareness was found to be the best predictor of children’s ability to distinguish 
alphabetic text from nonalphabetic text (Anthony, Williams, McDonald, Corbitt-
Shindler, Carlson and Francis, 2006).  

M. Ropič Kop: Correl ations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
Slovenian Language 
359 
 
 
 
 
The least demanding activity is rhyme, then the division of sentences into words, 
the articulation and merging of syllables, the articulation and merging of initial and 
final sounds, and the articulation and merging of individual sounds in a word, 
which represents the most demanding level (Chard and Dickson, 1999; Ropič, 
2017). The study (Burns, Maki, Helman, McComas and Young, 2018) investigated 
the relationships between the phonological awareness levels of children from high-
poverty areas. The results of the measure of letter-sound knowledge and 
phonological awareness (initial phoneme isolation, blending, and segmenting) 
showed a strong connection, while rhyming did not. 
Phonological awareness skills develop in a child according to his age and mental 
development. Learning should include the promotion of phonological awareness in 
kindergarten, including wide experience with a diverse collection of exercises, 
including the systematic nature of exercises that promote the child's dominant 
skills and include phonological awareness exercises. All the above contribute to 
reading and writing. Even in the preschool period, we find large individual 
differences in the ability to perceive the initial and final sounds (Ropič, 2014; 
Ropič, 2016). Many children easily grasp the instruction for phonological 
awareness, but some find it more difficult to understand, so they need additional 
explanation. It is important to teach children the process (e.g., breaking down 
words into sounds) so that children can help themselves in critical cases. Educators 
should strive to ensure that children reach appropriate levels. Certain research 
(McGee and Ukrainetz, 2009; Manyak, 2008) shows that performing a sequence of 
exercises, as well as the variety and appropriateness of words can be beneficial in 
developing phonological awareness. Planned and systematic learning of 
phonological awareness, namely the implementation of a sequence of exercises, a 
variety of tasks and appropriateness of words, is causally related to the level of 
development of sounds in children or students (Mesmer and Griffith, 2005). 
It is important that in the preschool period, parents and educators assist by reading 
various types of books (e.g., fairy tales, encyclopaedias, poetry) and provide a 
pleasant reading experience (Strickland, 2011). Preschool educators need to be 
good observers and lesson planners as well as well-trained early childhood 
education professionals (Venn and Jahn, 2004). 
Emerging literacy in the preschool period is often reflected in the fact that 
children, according to their writing abilities, write down spoken sounds with 
written symbols – letters, or connect individual sounds into words (Grginič, 2005).

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A longitudinal study conducted in the late preschool period found that letter 
knowledge and phonological sensitivity are the only predictors of decoding 
(Lonigan, Burgess and Anthony, 2000). Similarly, research (Hogan, Catts and Little, 
2005) suggests supporting the promotion of phonological awareness in the 
preschool period. 
The authors of the study Lonigan and others (Lonigan et al., 2009) also believe that 
mastery of phonological awareness is an important milestone in the process of 
learning to read. The authors have studied the structure of phonological learning in 
preschool children. Phonological awareness and phonological memory are both 
important when reading words. At the same time, it is important that the structure 
of these skills exists unchanged in both test groups of preschool children (3.3 years 
and 4.8 years). The authors of the study find a correlation between phonological 
awareness and reading words at the end of kindergarten. Early-grade reading is also 
predicted by longitudinal research (Nithart, Demont, Metz-Lutz, Majerus, Poncelet 
and Leybaert, 2011; Gellert and Elbro, 2017) confirming that phonological 
awareness makes an important contribution to predicting children's reading 
development in kindergarten and in the first half of 1st grade. It also noted the 
reduced impact of phonological awareness on reading at the end of 1st grade. 
Promoting the knowledge of sounds in young children has an effect that increases 
over time, as confirmed by a survey of nearly 1000 children (Piasta, Farley, Philips, 
Anthony and Bowles, 2018).  
An experimental study (Jones, Reutzel and Fargo, 2010), which compared the 
effects of two different forms of kindergarten work, confirmed the importance of 
systematic work in promoting the acquisition of early reading skills. The study does 
not show greater effectiveness for one type of teaching in phonological awareness, 
knowledge of the alphabet and in reading words. 
Any prior knowledge in the field of phonological awareness, reading and writing 
that pupils bring to the 1st grade of primary school is a treasure d advantage, so we 
must appreciate and upgrade it (Ropič, 2014; Ropič, 2016; Ropič Kop, 2020). A 
study of spontaneous reading ability at the beginning of the1st grade before the 
beginning of systematic literacy training (Ropič Kop and Klar Zadravec, 2021) on a 
specific population of pupils in Slovenian primary schools showed a statistically 
significant difference between groups of pupils in reading words, reading text, and 
reading comprehension. 
 

M. Ropič Kop: Correl ations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
Slovenian Language 
361 
 
 
 
Greater prior knowledge in reading abilities was shown by pupils in the group 
where there were significantly fewer pupils with linguistic and cultural differences. 
For several decades, researchers have been recognizing the important role of 
phonological awareness in the development of initial reading. Therefore, it is 
extremely important to continue teaching phonological awareness, even in the first 
years of school. Strickland (2011) believes that learning phonological awareness is a 
key component in the overall development of reading.  
Teachers should use specific strategies in which students carefully observe spoken 
words (e.g., by naming the picture), at individual levels of phonological awareness, 
namely the initial sound, final sound, number of sounds in the word, and word 
division into individual sounds. In this phase, the role of the teacher is crucial, as 
he provides appropriate assignments, gives real-time feedback and, if necessary, 
helps pupils. 
Research (Paratore and Jordan, 2007) reports on the positive effects of a home-
kindergarten and home-school partnership. The joint support of all participants 
affects cognitive development and linguistic skills. Homework takes care of certain 
areas such as vocabulary, comprehension of storytelling, phonological awareness 
and conversation with texts or interpretation of texts. 
The purpose of the research was to find the connection between the variables, 
namely the perception of the initial/final sound and the reading of words of 
varying difficulty, which we categorised into four groups. 
 
Research questions 
We set the following research questions: What is the connection between the 
perception of the initial/final sound in a word? What is the connection between 
the perception of the initial sound in a word and reading words of varying 
difficulty (group 1: two-letter words; group 2: three-letter words; group 3: four-
letter words; and group 4: five- to seven-letter words) and the connection between 
the perception of the final sound in a word and reading words of varying difficulty 
(groups 1, 2, 3, and 4)? And what is the influence of predictors on certain criteria. 
 
Methodology 
Sample 
The research was conducted on a specific population, on a random sample of 192 
first graders. 
 

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Pupils attended four different primary schools in north-eastern Slovenia, in the 
Styria region. 
The sample was gender-balanced, with 100 boys and 92 girls participating. The 
research is based on a descriptive and non-experimental method of empirical 
pedagogical research. 
The study took place in September 2019, at the beginning of the 1st grade and 
presented the prior knowledge of pupils in the field of phonological awareness and 
reading before systematic literacy instruction. 
It was carried out with each pupil individually, as we obtained the necessary data 
exclusively through individual examination of pupils. 
 
Instrument 
Pupils named sixteen selected pictures and perceived and said the initial and the 
final sound of the words. We carefully recorded data during this activity. Pupils 
could get a maximum of 16 points for a properly perceived initial sound, as well as 
16 points for a properly perceived final sound. Pupils who had already been 
reading tested themselves by reading sixteen words. These followed each other in 
difficulty level, so we divided them into four difficulty groups: the reading of word 
group 1, where all words had two letters each; the reading of word group 2, where 
all words had three letters; the reading of word group 3, whe re all words had four 
letters each; and the reading of word group 4 where three words had five letters 
each and two of them one consonant set and one seven-letter word and two 
consonant sets. Reading the words in the first group required pupils to decode 
two-letter sounds or establishing a letter-voice relationship and merging sounds 
i n t o w o r d s . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f r e a d i n g i n c r e a s e d f r o m g r o u p t o 
group. For correctly read words, they received a maximum of four points in each 
group of words. 
 
Data processing 
The data were then computer-processed with the SPSS statistical data processing 
program. The most basic way to determine the correlation of variables is to 
calculate the correlation, which is a measure of the relationship. We measured it 
with the Pearson correlation coefficient, which has values from -1 to 1.  

M. Ropič Kop: Correl ations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
Slovenian Language 
363 
 
 
 
 
Using this, we determined whether the variables were independent of each other or 
if there was a relationship between them. 
There can be very weak connectivity (0 to ±0.20, weak connectivity (±0.20 to 
±0.40), moderate connectivity (±0.40 to ±0.70), strong connectivity (±0.70 to 
±0.90), or very strong connectivity (±0.90 to ±1) between these variables. We were 
interested in whether the perception of the initial sound is related to the perception 
of the final sound and whether the successfully developed perception of the 
initial/final sound is related to reading words. We were also interested in whether 
there is a correlation between the perception of the initial sound and the 
perception of the final sound, and whether the perception of the initial/final sound 
affects the reading of words. 
After the established correlation between the given variables, we also determined 
the regression. Since there is a statistically significant correlation between all 
variables, we also calculated regression. This determined the regression of 
predictors on the criterion. We predicted the value of the criterion with the value 
of the predictor. 
 
Research results 
 
Correlation results for independent variables 
By calculating the correlation, we found the correlation of two variables: the initial 
and the final sound. There is a moderate correlation between these two variables 
(±0.40 to ±0.70). The correlation between the initial and final sound is positive (r 
= 0.657) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Pupils who perceived the final 
sound well were also more successful at perceiving the initial sound.    
 
Table 1: Pearson's correlation coefficient (r, p) between dependent variables (initial sound, final 
sound) in 1st grade pupils 
 Initial sound Final sound 
Initial sound 
r 1 0.657 
0.000 p 
Final sound 
r 0.657 
0.000 
1 
p 
 
We examined the influence of the correlation between the initial sound and reading 
the words in group 1, which is shown in Table 2. We were also interested in the 
influence of the initial sound on reading words with differing degrees of difficulty. 

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We divided the reading of words into four difficulty groups. The first group of 
words (group 1) contained the easiest words, which in reading represented only the 
connection of two letters in a single word. 
The correlation between the initial sound and the reading of group 1 words is 
positive (r = 0.487) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). A well-developed ability 
to perceive the initial sound made it easier to read the easiest set of words. There is 
a moderate correlation (±0.40 to ±0.70) between the variables. Pupils reading 
word group 1 had a well-developed ability to perceive the initial sound. 
The correlation between the initial sound and the reading of words in group 2 is 
also positive (r = 0.476) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Word group 2 
contained words with three letters. The ability to perceive the initial sound was also 
reflected in reading slightly more demanding words.   
There is a moderate association (±0.40 to ±0.70) between the initial sound and the 
reading of words in group 2. 
The correlation between the initial sound and the reading of group 3 words is 
positive (r = 0.439) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Slightly harder words, 
where each word had four letters, comprised group 3. Because these were even 
more complex words compared to previous words, pupils were slightly less 
successful at reading this group of words, despite having successfully perceived the 
initial sound. There is a moderate correlation (±0.40 to ±0.70) between these two 
variables. 
The correlation between the initial sound and the reading of group 4 words is 
positive (r = 0.386) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). The reading of words in 
group 4 required reading the hardest words, three of which had five letters each 
and one seven letters. In the most demanding group, consonant clusters increased 
the difficulty of reading: one consonant cluster in each of two words and two 
consonant clusters in one word. As expected, it turned out that the effectiveness of 
the perception of the initial sound alone would not allow reading the most difficult 
words. There is a weak correlation (±0.20 to ±0.40) between these two variables. 
The correlation between the reading of group 1 words and the reading of words 
from group 2 is positive (r = 0.916) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Most 
pupils who successfully read word group 1 were successful at reading word group 
2. There is a very strong connection (±0.90 to ±1) between these two variables. 

M. Ropič Kop: Correl ations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
Slovenian Language 
365 
 
 
 
 
The correlation between the reading of group 1 words and the reading of group 3 
words is positive (r = 0.848) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Not all pupils 
who successfully read word group 1 were successful at reading word group 3. 
There is a strong correlation (±0.70 to ±0.90) between the variables. 
The correlation between the reading of group 1 words and the reading of group 4 
words is positive (r = 0.781) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). The result 
confirms that not all pupils who read word group 1 successfully could read word 
group 4, which contains the most difficult words in the whole selection. There is a 
strong correlation (±0.70 to ±0.90) between the variables. 
The correlation between the reading of group 2 words and the reading of group 3 
words is positive (r = 0.900) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Most pupils 
who were successful at reading group 3 words were also successful at reading the 
group 2 words. There is a very strong connection (±0.90 to ±1) between these two 
variables. 
The correlation between the reading of group 2 words and the reading of group 4 
words is positive (r = 0.840) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). 
As expected, it turned out that pupils had significantly more difficulty reading the 
most difficult group of words than reading the words in group 2. These variables 
are strongly related (±0.70 to ±0.90). 
The correlation between the reading of group 3 words and the reading of group 4 
words is positive (r = 0.886) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Not all the 
pupils who successfully read the group 3 words managed to read all the words of 
group 4. There is a strong connection (±0.70 to ±0.90) between these two 
variables. 
 
Table 2: Pearson's correlation coefficient (r, p) between dependent variables (initial sound, reading 
the words) of 1st grade pupils 
 Initial 
sound 
Reading 
the words 1 
Reading 
the words 2 
Reading 
the words 3 
Reading 
the words 4 
Initial  
sound 
r 1     
p 
Reading  
the words 1 
r 0.487 
0.000 
1    
p 
Reading  
the words 2 
r 0.476 
0.000 
0.916 
0.000 
1   
p 
Reading  
the words 3 
r 0.439 
0.000 
0.848 
0.000 
0.900 
0.000 
1  
p 
Reading  
the words 4 
r 0.386 
0.000 
0.781 
0.000 
0.840 
0.000 
0.886 
0.000 
1 
p 

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The correlation between the final sound and the reading of group 1 words is 
positive (r = 0.649) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). The more pupils 
developed the ability to perceive the final sound, the more successful they were at 
reading the least difficult words. There is a moderate correlation (±0.40 to ±0.70) 
between the variables. 
The correlation between the final sound and the reading of words from group 2 is 
positive (r = 0.666) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). The ability to perceive 
the final sound successfully influences the reading of simple words, each of which 
contains three letters. There is a moderate correlation (±0.40 to ±0.70) between 
the final sound and the reading of words from group 2. 
The correlation between the final sound and the reading of group 3 words is 
positive (r = 0.668) and statistically significant (p < 0.000).  
Pupils who had a well-developed ability to perceive the final sound were also 
successful at reading slightly more demanding words. There is a moderate 
correlation (±0.40 to ±0.70) between these two variables. 
The correlation between the final sound and the reading of words in group 4 is 
positive (r = 0.620) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). 
There is a moderate correlation (±0.40 to ±0.70) between the variables. Pupils who 
successfully developed the ability to perceive the final sound are more successful in 
reading. Nevertheless, we find that success in reading the most difficult words or 
word group 4 is influenced by factors other than the ability to perceive the final 
sound. 
The correlation between the reading of group 1 words and the reading of group 2 
words is positive (r = 0.916) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Pupils who 
read word g roup 1 could mostly al so read word grou p 2. T here is a very str on g 
correlation (±0.90 to ±1) between these two variables. 
The correlation between the reading of words in group 1 and the reading of words 
in group 3 is positive (r = 0.848) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). These 
variables are strongly related. Pupils who successfully read the easiest words could 
also read the much harder words that had four letters each. 
The correlation between the reading of group 1 words and the reading of group 4 
words is also positive (r = 0.781) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). There is a 
strong correlation (±0.70 to ±0.90) between the variables. 
 

M. Ropič Kop: Correl ations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
Slovenian Language 
367 
 
 
 
Pupils who read word group 1 were not equally successful in all cases of reading 
t h e w o r d s f r o m g r o u p 4 . A s expected, it turned out that some pupils could not 
read the most demanding word group successfully. 
The correlation between the reading of group 2 words and the reading of words in 
group 3 is positive (r = 0.900) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). These 
variables are very strongly related (±0.90 to ±1). Pupils who successfully read word 
group 3 were also successful at reading word group 2. 
The correlation between the reading of group 2 words and the reading of group 4 
words is positive (r = 0.840) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). Pupils who 
successfully read the words from group 4 also read the words in group 2. There is 
a strong correlation (±0.70 to ±0.90) between the variables. 
The correlation between the reading of group 3 words and the reading of group 4 
words is positive (r = 0.886) and statistically significant (p < 0.000). There is a 
strong correlation (±0.70 to ±0.90) between these two variables. 
Pupils who were successful in reading group 3 words were mostly also successful 
in reading the more difficult words in group 4. 
 
Table 3: Pearson's correlation coefficient (r, p) between dependent variables (initial sound, reading 
the words) of 1st grade pupils 
 Final 
sound 
Reading 
the words 1 
Reading 
the words 2 
Reading 
the words 3 
Reading 
the words 4 
Final sound r 
1     
p 
Reading the 
words 1 
r 0.649 
0.000 
1    
p 
Reading the 
words 2 
r 0.666 
0.000 
0.916 
0.000 
1   
p 
Reading the 
words 3 
r 0.668 
0.000 
0.848 
0.000 
0.900 
0.000 
1  
p 
Reading the 
words 4 
r 
p 
0.620 
0.000 
0.781 
0.000 
0.840 
0.000 
0.886 
0.000 
1 
 
The results of regression analysis 
Table 4 shows that there is a statistically significant correlation between the 
variables, so regression is justified. 43.2% of the variance in the ability to perceive 
the final sound explains the ability to perceive the initial sound. Pupils who 
successfully perceive the final sound are also successful at perceiving the initial 
sound. 
 

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Table 4: The result of the regression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the initial 
sound on the final sound in the 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Initial sound  
0.657 
 
0.000 
 
0.432 
 
0.000 Final sound 
 
Table 5 presents the influence of the initial sound on the reading of word group 1, 
for which regression analysis was used. The initial sound has a statistically 
significant effect (Beta = 0.487, p < 0.000) on the reading of word group 1. Thus, 
23.7% of word group 1 reading variance is explained by the ability to perceive the 
initial sound. In reading the words from group 1, those pupils were more 
successful who could successfully recognize the initial sound. 
 
Table 5: The result of regression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the initial sound 
on reading word group 1 in the 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Initial sound  
0.487 
 
0.000 
 
0.237 
 
0.000 The reading of word group 1 
 
The ability to perceive the initial sound is statistically significant in explaining (Beta 
= 0.476, p < 0.000) the ability to read the word in group 2, with 22.6% of the 
variance of the criterion being explained. 
Pupils who showed significantly less ability to perceive the initial sound in the test, 
a l s o s h o w e d l o w e r a b i l i t y a t r e a d i n g t h e w o r d s i n g r o u p 2 , o r t h e y d i d n o t r e a d 
these successfully. 
 
Table 6: The result of regression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the initial sound 
on reading word group 2 in 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Initial sound  
0.476 
 
0.000 
 
0.226 
 
0.000 Reading words 2 
 
Initial sound perception does have a statistically significant effect on achievement 
in the reading of word group 3. Pupils with better developed phonological 
awareness in initial sound perception are also more successful at reading more 
complex words that consist of four letters. The results in Table 7 show that there 
are 19.2 variances in the criterion of reading group 3 words. Pupils with a 
successful ability to perceive the initial sound are more successful in reading the 
words in group 3. 

M. Ropič Kop: Correlations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
Slovenian Language 
369 
 
 
 
Table 7: The result of regression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the initial sound 
on reading group 3 words in the 1st grade 
 
The results in Table 8 show that in the criterion of reading group 4 words, there 
are 14.9 variances. Pupils with good prior knowledge of phonological awareness in 
the ability to perceive the initial sound are more successful even when reading the 
most demanding words. 
 
Table 8: The result of re gression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the initial sound 
on reading group 4 words in the 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Initial sound  
0.386 
 
0.000 
 
0.149 
 
0.000 The reading of words 4 
 
Table 9 shows the existence of correlation and the ability to perceive the final 
sound at the beginning of the 1st grade in the reading of word group 1, with 42.1% 
variance. Pupils with effective final sound perception were also more successful at 
reading the words in group 1. 
 
Table 9: The result of regression analysis for the influence of final phonological perception ability on 
reading group 1 words in 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Final sound  
0.649 
 
0.000 
 
0.421 
 
0.000 The reading of words 1 
 
Table 10 shows the statistically significant effect of final sound perception on 
reading the words in group 2 (Beta = 0.666, p < 0.000), representing 44.3% of the 
variance of this criterion. The reading of word group 2 is more challenging and 
therefore challenges reading ability. The power of the predictor increases in the 
reading of word group 2. Pupils who have successfully developed the ability to 
perceive the final sound are also more successful in reading. 
 
Table 10: The result of the regression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the final 
sound on reading group 2 words in the 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Final sound  
0.666 
 
0.000 
 
0.443 
 
0.000 The reading of words 2 
 
 β p R2 p 
Initial sound  
0.439 
 
0.000 
 
0.192 
 
0.000 The reading of words 3 

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We also find a statistically significant effect of final sound perception on the 
reading of words in group 3 (Beta = 0.668, p < 0.000). Regression analysis shows 
that 44.6% of the variance in reading word group 3 is explained by the ability to 
perceive the final sound. Reading words in this group is even more challenging. 
Reading ability is affected by the ability to perceive the final sound as well as by 
other factors that we did not control in our study. 
 
Table 11: The result of the regression analysis for the influence of the ability to perceive the final 
sound on reading group 3 words in the 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Final sound  
0.668 
 
0.000 
 
0.446 
 
0.000 The reading of words 3 
 
The regression coefficients in Table 12 show that they are statistically significant. 
Thus, 38.5% of the variance in the reading of group 4 words is explained by the 
ability to perceive the final sound. Pupils with good final sound perception are 
more successful even whenn reading the most difficult words. 
 
Table 12: The result of regression analysis for the influence of final sound perception ability on 
reading group 4 words in 1st grade 
 β p R2 p 
Final sound  
0.620 
 
0.000 
 
0.385 
 
0.000 The reading of words 4 
 
We found that the selected levels of phonological awareness (initial/final sound) 
were statistically significantly related. Moreover, all predictors were statistically 
significant in explaining the selected criteria. 
 
Discussion 
 
The study showed the connection between two variables: the ability to perceive the 
initial and the final sound. Research (Ropič, 2014; Ropič 2016; Ropič, 2017; Ropič 
Kop, 2020) confirms that individual levels of phonological awareness develop in a 
certain order, depending on complexity. In our case, the research confirms that the 
ability to perceive the initial sound develops before the ability to perceive the final 
sound. 
There is a moderate association between the ability to perceive the initial sound 
and the reading of word groups 1, 2, and 3. 
 

M. Ropič Kop: Correl ations and Regression of the Initial and Final Sound on Reading Words in the 
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371 
 
 
 
In these reading cases, the words were two-, three-, or four-letter words. Pupils 
who successfully read these words also had a well-developed ability to perceive the 
initial sound. Pupils with a successfully developed ability to perceive the initial and 
final sound could read the individual words. There is only a weak correlation 
between the ability to perceive the initial sound and the reading of the most 
difficult words (group 4), and simultaneously, this represents the weakest link 
between the two variables in our study. 
There is a very strong connection between the reading of wo rd g roup s 1 and 2, 
which is reflected in the fact that pupils who could successfully read word group 2  
also read word group 1. The reading of words succeeded according to difficulty 
level, so this result did not surprise us. There is a strong correlation between the 
reading of word group 1 (the easiest words) and the reading of word groups 3 and 
4.  
At the same time, the proportion of pupils who could not read the hardest and 
most difficult words is increasing. Those pupils who successfully read the hardest 
words had also read the easiest words. There is a very strong connection in the 
reading of word groups 2 and 3. Almost all pupils who could read word group 2 
could also read the words in group 3. The difficulty level of reading word group 3 
increases only slightly, extending the range of letters by one letter, with the final 
letter in all cases a vowel, which slightly increases the complexity (Lenin, 2007). We 
also note a strong correlation between the reading of word groups 2 and 4 and the 
reading of word groups 3 and 4. Pupils who could read the group with the most 
difficult words could also read the easier words. 
Our study shows a moderate association between the ability to perceive the final 
sound and the reading of all four groups of words (1, 2, 3, 4). The ability to 
perceive the final sound involves a higher level of phonological awareness 
compared to the initial sound. Our prediction was borne out that the ability to 
perceive the final sound would be related to reading success. Pupils who could 
read the most difficult words could also successfully read easier words. 
Since statistically significant correlations were found in all cases of correlation 
between variables, regression was also calculated. The announcer, namely the 
ability to perceive the initial sound, correlates with reading the words. The greatest 
correlation was on reading the easiest words; significantly lower correlation applied 
t o r e a d i n g t h e w o r d s t h a t c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e o r f o u r l e t t e r s ; a n d t h e l e a s t 
correlation was found for reading the hardest words. 
 

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The greatest correlation of the ability to detect the initial sound on reading the 
easiest words is explained by the fact that pupils with successful perception of the 
initial sound have already been reading simple words to a large extent. The more 
demanding the reading, the less correlation with the ability to perceive the initial 
sound.     
Regression analysis was used to determine regression of final sound perception 
ability on reading. The perception of the final sound has a strong regression on the 
reading of the easiest words and an even greater one on the reading of word 
groups 2 and 3. The smallest regression, although still high, involved the ability to 
perceive the final sound on the reading of the most difficult words. These words 
had five to seven letters and contained consonant clusters, which caused the 
regression in the ability to read.  
Our findings accord with those of previous research (Nelson, Lindstrom, 
Lindstrom and Denis, 2012) and show that the skill of reading words in 
kindergarten and first grade is best predicted by phonological awareness. 
Our research was conducted early in 1st grade, so it can be compared to the earlier 
study by (Hogan, Catts and Little, 2005). We also note the interrelationship 
between phonological awareness and reading. The study by the authors Gellert and 
Elbro (2017) cannot be fully compared with our research. Nevertheless, we notice 
a similarity. In our research, similarly, the influence of phonological awareness in 
reading is reduced in the case of reading more complex words. 
To these findings we add findings of correlation and impact between variables. 
Unfortunately, these findings cannot be compared with other research, since there 
are significant differences (language, etc.). 
The shortcoming of our research lies in its balanced consideration of initial and 
final sounds at the level of consonants and vowels in words; therefore, we would 
change this by reading word groups 1, 2, and 3 and thus check the findings of 
Levin (2007). This would increase the difficulty level of reading in these three 
reading groups, as well. Group 4 requires the reader to read more complex words 
and draws appropriate attention to successful readers, so no changes would be 
made to this group of words. 
 

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Conclusion 
 
Pupils enter the 1st grade with diverse levels of prior knowledge in the field of 
phonological awareness, that is, with differently developed ability to perceive the 
initial and final sound and with a significant proportion of pupils who are already 
reading before systematic literacy instruction. The study fully answered our 
questions about the relationship between individual variables and the influence of 
the predictors on individual criteria. It is important to promote phonological 
awareness during the preschool period. The results of our research confirm that 
the ability to perceive the initial sound and, more importantly, the ability to 
perceive the final sound in a word mutually and causally influence reading. With 
appropriate and frequent exercises, we will be able to successfully develop the 
phonological awareness of the initial and final sounds. The effectiveness of 
phonological awareness could also be promoted in partnership with educators and 
teachers, engaging parents in homework that should take place through play. 
 
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Author 
 
dr. Marija Ropič Kop, PhD 
Assistant Professor, University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, 
e-mail: marija.ropic@um.si 
Docentka, Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, e-pošta: 
marija.ropic@um.si