c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 35 Slovenian Primary School Pupils’ Perception of Plurilingual Competence Tina Rozmanič* 1 , Ana Kogovšek 2 , Žan Korošec 3 and Karmen Pižorn 3 • Since plurilingual competence is crucial for effective communication, cultural understanding, cognitive development, and professional and personal growth, it should also be prioritised in education to enable the continuous development of individuals. One of the most critical aspects of achieving plurilingual competence is creating a stimulating environment that ensures that language learning and use take place in a way that ap - peals to all pupils. However, there is little research on pupils’ perceptions of plurilingualism and its stimulating environment at the primary level. Therefore, the study’ s main aim was to investigate their perceptions, which resulted in a primarily quantitative research method. As a data collection tool an online survey with a combination of a questionnaire and Likert- scales statements, which were based on the Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures, was developed. For this reason, the article concentrates on determining the level and quality of primary school pupils’ knowledge, skills and attitudes regarding lan - guages and their associated cultures, as well as on identifying pupils’ opin - ions, perceptions, and motivational factors. The research study addressed pupils aged 9 to 14. The results indicate that pupils are inclined towards language learning, perceive the importance of plurilingual competence, and express confidence in speaking in foreign languages. However, pupils seem unable to assess their metalinguistic and metacultural knowledge and skills. Keywords: plurilingual competence, primary school pupils, Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches to Languages and Cultures 1 *Corresponding Author. Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Tina.Rozmanic@pef.uni-lj.si. 2 Osnovna šola Ivana Cankarja Vrhnika, Vrhnika, Slovenia. 3 Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.1855 36 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence Zaznave slovenskih osnovnošolcev o raznojezični zmožnosti Tina Rozmanič, Ana Kogovšek, Žan Korošec in Karmen Pižorn • Ker je raznojezična zmožnost ključna za učinkovito komunikacijo, ra - zumevanje kultur, kognitivni razvoj ter za poklicno in osebnostno rast, bi morala biti prednostno obravnavana tudi v izobraževanju, da bi omo - gočila kontinuiran razvoj posameznika. Eden najpomembnejših vidikov doseganja raznojezične zmožnosti je ustvarjanje spodbudnega okolja, ki zagotavlja, da učenje in raba jezika potekata na način, ki je privlačen za vse učence. Obstaja pa malo raziskav o tem, kako osnovnošolci zazna - vajo raznojezičnost in za raznojezičnost spodbudno okolje. Zato je bil glavni cilj študije raziskati njihove zaznave, zaradi česar je bila upora - bljena predvsem kvantitativna raziskovalna metoda. Kot orodje za zbi - ranje podatkov je bila razvita spletna anketa s kombinacijo vprašalnika in trditev po Likertovi lestvici, ki so temeljile na Referenčnem okviru za pluralistične pristope k jezikom in kulturam. Članek se osredinja na ugotavljanje ravni in kakovosti znanja, spretnosti in stališč osnovnošol - cev o jezikih in z njimi povezanih kulturah ter na ugotavljanje mnenj, zaznav in motivacijskih dejavnikov učencev. V raziskavi so sodelovali učenci, stari od 9 do 14 let. Izsledki kažejo, da so učenci naklonjeni uče - nju jezikov, da zaznavajo pomen raznojezične kompetence in izražajo zaupanje v govorjenje v tujih jezikih. Zdi pa se, da učenci ne znajo oce - niti svojega metajezikovnega in metakulturnega znanja in spretnosti. Ključne besede: raznojezična zmožnost, osnovnošolci, Referenčni okvir za pluralistične pristope k jezikom in kulturam c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 37 Introduction Societies have become increasingly linguistically and culturally diverse due to the influence of globalisation, a transformation of traditional moral val - ues, and the emphasis on individual choice and migration (Strobbe et al., 2017). The world is becoming more plurilingual than ever before (UNESCO, 2019), and it is believed that half of the world’s population is at least bilingual, if not plurilingual (Grosjean, 2010; Rocafort, 2019). However, plurilingualism is still often perceived as a major challenge for individual and/or social development. In most cases, the only advantage attributed to the plurilingual individual is the competence to use two or more languages. Moreover, monolingualism seems to be treated as the norm, especially by monolinguals who might even show a patronising attitude towards those whose first language(s) is not the official language(s) of the community. Proponents of the monolingual ideology (one nation, one language) tend to view plurilingualism and linguistic diversity as an insurmountable obstacle to nation-building (Chibaka, 2018; Duff, 2015; Taylor et al., 2008). As in other domains of society, linguistic and cultural diversity is also present in the educational domain, where students should have the right to develop their language repertoires and empower their cultural identities, where linguistic capital is enhanced, where the plurilingual teaching approach as one of the most important constructs to emerge from the contemporary phenom - ena of migration and globalisation is acknowledged to contribute to social in - tegration, openness, respect and plurilingual and intercultural competencies in all learners, and finally to more harmony in our schools and society (Coste et al., 2009; Council of Europe, 2001; EU-Council of Europe declaration on mul - tilingualism, 2011; Pevec Semec, 2018; Piccardo, 2015; Sheils, 2004). Kramsch (2012) justly points out that, despite plurilingualism, society and the education system are still largely organised for monolinguals. A major challenge for edu - cation systems is to equip learners during their schooling with the skills that will enable them to act effectively as citizens, acquire knowledge, and develop an open attitude towards otherness. This approach to teaching languages and cul - tures is called plurilingual and intercultural education. Plurilingual education embraces all language learning, for example, home language/s, language/s of schooling, foreign and second languages, and regional and minority languages. It also supports the development of an awareness of languages, communication, and metacognitive strategies. Such language awareness enables students to ex - pand beyond mandatory school languages and recognise regional and minority languages, raise consciousness of language plurality, and develop more positive 38 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence attitudes towards linguistic and cultural diversity (Candelier, 2003; Moore & Gajo, 2009; Sabatier, 2004). The advantages associated with language aware - ness make a compelling argument for the need to conduct further research into language education and, more precisely, into plurilingual education in students’ perceptions and attitudes (Meier, 2017). The concept of plurilingualism and plurilingual and pluri/ intercultural competence (PIC) Europe, Slovenia being no exception, is linguistically less diverse than other parts of the world like Africa or Asia (Canagarajah, 2009; Canagarajah & Liyanage, 2012). In addition, the processes of nation-building and language standardisation in the last few centuries have resulted in the prevalent image of rather homogeneous language communities that are only in contact at their borders or peripheries via tourism, trade or political relations but fundamen - tally monolingual in the sense of ‘one state, one language’ (Lüdi, 2022). Such perspectives are rooted in immemorial ideologies, specifically in the popular belief that the normal human being speaks only one language and lives in a homogeneous linguistic community, as illustrated by the biblical story about the Babylonian confusion of tongues. In this sense, a famous professor of the University of Cambridge affirmed in 1890: ‘If it were possible for a child to live in two languages at once equally well, so much the worse. His intellectual and spiritual growth would not thereby be doubled but halved. Unity of mind and character would have great difficulty in asserting itself in such circumstances’ (Laurie, 1890, p. 15). In the late 1990s, the concept of plurilingual and pluri/intercultural competence was first introduced (Coste et al., 1997) and has had a strong im - pact on language teaching and learning ever since. Several pluralistic teach - ing methodologies have emerged, including integrated didactics, wherein the teaching of diverse languages complements each other, and awakening to lan - guages, aimed at cultivating learners’ appreciation for the linguistic diversity in their surroundings. Moreover, approaches like intercomprehension focus on fostering comprehension within language families (Melo-Pfeifer & Reimann, 2018; Reissner, 2010; Tost Planet, 2010). These innovative teaching strategies re - flect a paradigm shift towards embracing and harnessing linguistic and cultural diversity in education. c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 39 Creating a stimulating learning environment for developing plurilingualism Plurilingualism refers to the ability of individuals or societies to use and interact with multiple languages. It goes beyond bilingualism, which typically involves proficiency in two languages. Plurilingual individuals are comfortable using and navigating various languages in different contexts. This concept em - phasises the dynamic and interconnected nature of language use in diverse lin - guistic environments (Cenoz, 2013; Garcia & Otheguy, 2020; Glaser, 2005). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages – CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) views plurilingualism as a comprehensive concept encompassing the language knowledge and experiences acquired by an individual. It empha - sises that an individual’s communicative competence is built by perceiving ex - periences and knowledge as a whole rather than isolated incidents. As per this framework, plurilingual competence signifies an individual’s ability to func - tionally communicate across diverse cultural and linguistic contexts (Conteh & Meier, 2014; Esteve et al., 2017; Kubota, 2016; Meier, 2017; Melo-Pfeifer, 2014). Creating a stimulating learning environment for developing plurilin - gualism involves fostering a setting that encourages the acquisition and use of multiple languages. Plurilingualism refers to the ability to use and communi - cate in several languages, emphasising a dynamic and interconnected language proficiency (Glaser, 2005; Grosman, 2009). Research indicates that deeply in - grained beliefs formed during childhood and influenced by family, school, and societal factors can be resistant to change. The acceptance of plurilingualism faces similar challenges (Vallejo & Dooly, 2020). Stakeholders, including par - ents, educators, students, and pupils, must actively participate for its successful integration into the educational system. Educational institutions play a cru - cial role, providing an environment where linguistic and cultural development aligns with pupils’ needs. Involving parents and teachers positively influences learning outcomes, suggesting the incorporation of pupils’ first languages into the curriculum to foster plurilingualism (Celaya & López-Flores, 2023). Despite various factors shaping pupils’ beliefs about plurilingualism, open communica - tion is crucial. Recognising the difficulty some individuals face in expressing their beliefs, persistent efforts are needed to uncover different perspectives. Foreign language teaching in Slovenia Slovenia’s linguistic landscape is diverse, with Slovenian as the official language and Italian and Hungarian as co-official languages in certain regions. 40 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence In areas with Italian and Hungarian communities, children attend either bilin - gual schools or schools where the community language is a compulsory subject. English (or German in some parts of Slovenia) is introduced in Grade 1 (age 6). Initially, students receive two hours of English (German) instruction per week from Grades 1 to 4, increasing to three lessons weekly thereafter. From Grade 4 onwards, students can choose to learn a second foreign language, with popular choices being German, French, Spanish, and Italian. This structured approach to foreign language teaching reflects Slovenia’s commitment to plurilingual ed - ucation, accommodating both national and minority language needs. Research problem Nowadays, plurilingualism is becoming increasingly important, both in terms of raising awareness and spreading tolerance towards other languages and cultures, especially regarding linguistic and cultural diversity (Cenoz, 2013; Galante, 2022). Plurilingualism is also important due to its positive effects on the human brain. It has been shown that learning and using multiple languages builds important connections in the brain that prevent early cognitive decline (Bialystok et al., 2012). However, despite all the research findings and the obvi - ous positive advantages and benefits of learning multiple languages, monolin - gualism remains the norm in today’s society and educational systems (Bailey & Marsden, 2017; Clyne, 2008; Ellis, 2008; Major, 2018; Ndhlovu, 2015). As stated by the Council of Europe’s CEFR (2001), the goal of primary education is for each individual to fully realise their potential for plurilingualism and establish an enriching atmosphere that fosters the inclusion of all pupils. With this in mind, the current study is focusing on understanding the plurilingual com - petence of Slovenian primary school pupils. Our inquiry seeks to delve into their knowledge of languages and cultures, the skills they are developing, their perspectives on plurilingualism, the intensity of these views, and the motiva - tion driving them to cultivate their plurilingual abilities. Additionally, certain factors have been researched and identified as effective in establishing a con - ducive and stimulating learning environment for the cultivation of plurilingual competencies. Research questions We have formulated the following questions: 1. What are the predominant factors that motivate pupils to learn languages? c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 41 2. Are there differences in the motivation to develop plurilingual compe - tence between pupils who started learning a foreign language at different ages? 3. How do learners evaluate their own linguistic competence? Are there differences between groups of pupils who started learning a for - eign language at different times in their attitudes regarding linguistic competence? 4. Are there differences between female and male pupils in their self-as - sessment of language competence? 5. Which attitudes towards plurilingualism are most prominently ex - pressed by primary school pupils? 6. How do primary school pupils perceive their language skills in the realm of plurilingualism? Are there differences between groups of pupils who started learning a foreign language at different times in their attitudes towards these skills? 7. Which factors are most commonly perceived by primary school pupils as supportive in creating a stimulating learning environment for the de - velopment of plurilingual competence? 8. What skills do primary school pupils possess in the domain of plurilingualism? Method Participants The employed sampling strategy is non-probability, purposive, compris - ing pupils in Grades 4 to 9 (aged 9–14) from 16 primary schools in Slovenia (3.5% of all Slovenian primary schools) during the 2019/20 school year that si - multaneously participated in the project Languages Matter . The main goal of the project was to determine which factors support and which hinder the creation of a supportive learning environment for the development of plurilingualism in the Slovenian school context. Based on data from target analyses and identified variables, guidelines were developed to help create a plurilingualism-friendly educational environment. By introducing intercultural aspects in linguistic and non-linguistic subjects, learners were taught to recognise and consciously ac - cept various linguistic and cultural realities. This enabled them to avoid break - downs and misunderstandings in intercultural communication and develop critical cultural awareness. With its modern and innovative web portal, the project’s long-term goal is to overcome the distinction between linguistic and non-linguistic subjects by promoting plurilingualism and developing digital 42 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence competencies to connect different subject areas with all the languages present in the Slovenian environment. Furthermore, the project aimed to reach beyond the educational context into local communities and thus give meaning to both subject content and competence development. The project paid particular at - tention to the less widespread or in our educational environment, the lesser taught languages, the languages of immigrants and languages towards which the school policy has been less favourable in recent decades (Latin, Greek). A total of 1752 primary school pupils took part in the survey, 49.01% of whom were girls and 50.99% boys. Most of the pupils who took part in the sur - vey were in Grades 6 (358) and 9 (357). There were 318 pupils in Grade 8 and 294 in Grade 7. At the time of the survey, 214 pupils were in Grade 5, and the lowest number, 211, were in Grade 4. To facilitate a clearer data interpretation, the pu - pils were categorised into two groups, namely the 2 nd cycle (Grades 4 to 6) with 782 pupils (44.06%) and the 3 rd cycle (Grades 7 to 9) with 970 pupils (55.40%). Table 1 Overview of primary school pupils divided into cycles Grade f f % f f % 2 nd cycle 4 211 12.00 5 214 12.20 782 44.60 6 357 20.40 7 294 16.80 3 rd cycle 8 318 18.20 970 55.40 9 358 20.40 Total 1752 100.00 1752 100.00 Instrument The data collection employed surveys and attitude measurements, utilis - ing a questionnaire and a Likert-type attitude scale as instruments. The adequa - cy of the measuring instruments was also checked. Sensitivity and objectivity were increased by providing a 5-point scale for the former and the same ques - tionnaires and instructions for all participants, closed-ended questions and anonymity of responses for the latter. Validity was ensured by rational content validation by the experts involved in the project, and reliability was ensured by the calculation of the Cronbach Alpha coefficient, which gave a value of 0.76. The present value means that the reliability of the questionnaire is good. These tools were developed and compiled on the web portal www.1ka.si. The survey targeted pupils in primary school Grades 4 to 9 (ages 9-14) during the 2019/20 c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 43 school year. The measurement characteristics were ensured by constructing the questionnaire using FREPA (A Framework of Reference for Plural istic Ap - proaches to Languages and Cultures) descriptors (Candelier et al., 2017). Due to the extensiveness of the FREPA descriptors, we incorporated only those we assumed to be the most important for investigating pupils’ perceptions towards plurilingualism. This decision was based on our experience and familiarity with the Slovenian school system. The instrument comprised three sections: the first addressed respondents’ demographic information through closed-ended ques - tions, the second delved into the language they used, the initiation of language learning, and the purposes for language use. Additionally, the questionnaire featured sets of statements pertaining to different languages and language learning. The questionnaire consisted of a total of 36 questions: 15 questions in the demographic section, 19 questions in the language use section and 2 ques - tions with 63 statements in the section on knowledge, skills and attitude to - wards plurilingualism. Research design The data was collected between September and December 2019. Partici - pation in the survey was anonymous and voluntary as respondents’ right to exit the study without explanation and at any point during the research process was infallibly maintained. The teachers involved in the project Languages Matter administered the online questionnaire in their schools during regular lessons. The data collected during the survey were statistically processed using the Sta - tistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Results and discussion Even though there is similar research on students’ perceptions of mul - tilingualism or plurilingualism (Benzehaf, 2023; Doiz et al., 2012; Hlatshwayo & Siziba, 2013; Ibarraran et al., 2008; Lindholm-Leary, 2016; Melo-Pfeifer, 2017; Orcasitas-Vicandi & Leonet, 2020; Prasad, 2020; Wang & Kirkpatrick, 2020), most of these studies do not include pupils of primary and lower-secondary level (aged 9-14) who learn foreign and second languages in a Slavic educa - tional context. Therefore, this section presents the outcomes of the research in accordance with the predefined research questions. The results are system - atically presented in tables, each accompanied by an interpretation of findings that address the specific research questions. 44 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence Research question 1: What are the predominant factors that motivate pupils to learn languages? Statements regarding motivation for language learning: 1. Knowledge of foreign languages is important to be able to communicate with other people. 2. Knowledge of one’s mother tongue is quite sufficient. 3. Nowadays, knowledge of English is perfectly adequate. 4. People who speak several languages are more successful in their profession. 5. Knowledge of a foreign language contributes to personal development. 6. Anyone who speaks a foreign language can develop as a person. 7. Those who speak more languages hold a higher societal status. 8. I am very interested in foreign languages. 9. I am interested in the similarities and differences between my own lan - guage/culture and the language/culture of other countries. 10. Knowledge of foreign languages is important for my friends. 11. I would like to be able to speak several foreign languages. 12. I am happy when I can use the languages I learn in my everyday life. 13. I love foreign language lessons. Table 2 Motivating factors for learning languages Statements I totally agree. I agree. I can’t decide. I disagree. I do not agree at all. Total f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % 1. 1065 65.10 460 28.10 70 4.30 23 1.4 18 1.10 1636 100.0 2. 198 12.10 211 12.90 257 15.70 660 40.3 310 18.90 1636 100.0 3. 223 13.60 448 27.40 398 24.30 420 25.70 147 9.00 1636 100.0 4. 878 53.70 444 27.10 173 10.60 104 6.40 37 2.30 1636 100.0 5. 290 31.70 350 38.30 189 20.70 49 5.40 36 3.90 914 100.0 6. 194 26.90 164 22.70 196 27.10 88 12.20 80 11.10 722 100.0 7. 461 28.20 443 27.10 349 21.30 246 15.00 137 8.40 1636 100.0 8. 587 35.90 504 30.80 320 19.60 142 8.70 83 5.10 1636 100.0 9. 384 23.50 492 30.10 460 28.10 211 12.90 89 5.40 1636 100.0 10. 355 21.70 483 29.50 555 33.90 158 9.70 85 5.20 1636 100.0 11. 837 51.20 423 25.90 234 14.30 85 5.20 57 3.50 1636 100.0 12. 657 37.30 569 32.30 325 18.40 56 3.20 29 1.60 1636 100.0 13. 521 31.80 522 31.90 377 23.00 120 7.30 96 5.90 1636 100.0 c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 45 A total of 1,636 respondents, constituting 93.38% of the sample, actively shared their perspectives on the provided statements. However, it is noteworthy that participation varied, with some statements garnering even fewer respons - es. We hypothesise that this discrepancy between the response and the actual sample may be attributed to factors such as time constraints, limited attention span, the questionnaire’s length, or other potential influences on respondents’ engagement. An overwhelming majority of the respondents (93.20%) agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that knowledge of foreign languages is im - portant to be able to communicate with people from diverse backgrounds. A smaller percentage, 4.30%, remained undecided, while 2.50% of surveyed pupils expressed disagreement. A similar study on students’ (and parents’) percep - tions of trilingual education was conducted by Wang and Kirkpatrick (2020) in Hong Kong primary schools, where students expressed eagerness to learn foreign languages (English in their case) to be able to communicate with other people that do not share their mother tongue. As highlighted also by Kač et al. (2010), acquiring proficiency in multiple languages is crucial for developing the competencies necessary to engage in a plurilingual and pluricultural society. Regarding the statement that knowledge of one’s mother tongue is quite suffi - cient, 15.70% of the respondents were undecided, while 25.00% of them (totally) agreed. Even though most pupils agree that knowledge of foreign languages is important, more than 40% believe their mother tongue is sufficient. Research indicates that many pupils perceive the use of their mother tongue in educa - tion as beneficial. One study found that mother tongue-based instruction helps improve students’ cognitive abilities, reasoning, interaction, and comprehen - sion. Pupils can better express their ideas and feelings when using their na - tive language, which positively impacts their learning experience and academic performance (Aktürk-Drake, 2024). However, many experts (e.g., Candelier et al., 2017; Meier, 2017) advo - cate for pluralistic approaches, urging a shift from monolingualism to under - standing the world through diverse cultural perspectives. That knowledge of English is perfectly adequate nowadays was confirmed by 41.00% of the re - spondents, while 34.70% disagreed, and 24.30% were undecided, possibly due to a lack of knowledge or experience of plurilingual context. The majority of the participants (80.80%) agreed that people who speak several languages are more successful in their profession, 10.60% were undecided, and 8.70% disa - greed. The statement claiming that knowledge of a foreign language contributes to personal development received agreement from 70.00% of the respondents, with 20.70% undecided and only 9.30% in disagreement. The statement that 46 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence anyone who speaks a foreign language can develop as a person received agree - ment from 49.60% of the surveyed pupils, with 27.10% undecided and 23.30% in disagreement. Many respondents (55.30%) agreed that those who speak more languages hold a higher societal status, while 21.30% were undecided, and 23.40% disagreed. Regarding the interest in foreign languages, 66.70% of the participants affirmed, 19.60% were undecided, and 13.80% were not inter - ested. A significant number of respondents (18.30%) are not interested in the similarities and differences between their own language/culture and the lan - guage/culture of other countries, and 28.10% were undecided, possibly due to limited exposure to incomprehension and language awareness to learning and teaching languages, and those answering negatively likely lacked such experi - ences. As observed by Dewaele and Botes (2020), being a multi/plurilingual can help a person to establish a more multi/pluricultural personality. There - fore, those who do not speak foreign languages are also not interested in other languages and cultures. Concerning the importance of foreign languages for friends, 51.20% agreed, 33.90% were undecided, and 14.90% disagreed, suggest - ing varying awareness levels among pupils. Most respondents (77 .1%) expressed a desire to speak several foreign languages, while 69.60% agreed that they are satisfied when using the languages they learn in their daily lives. Lastly, 63.70% of pupils enjoyed foreign language lessons, 23.00% were undecided, and 13.20% disagreed. These results highlight positive attitudes towards language learning; as pupils wish to learn more foreign languages, they are interested in them and enjoy them. The results of our study are consistent with the results of studies reported by Enever (2011) and Nikolov and Mihaljevi� Djigunovi� (2019). Simi - larities regarding motivation for learning languages could also be drawn with several other well-known studies that also focus on foreign language motiva - tion and factors predicting motivation (e.g., Dörnyei, 1998; Masgoret & Gard - ner, 2003; Mihaljevi� Djigunovi�, 2012). Research question 2: Are there differences in the motivation to develop plurilingual competence between pupils who started learning a foreign lan - guage at different ages? In order to examine the differences in their average agreement scores, pupils were divided into three groups according to when they started learning a foreign language (i.e., in preschool, 1 st cycle, or 2 nd cycle). As scores significantly differed from a normal distribution, non-parametric tests, namely Kruskal- Wallis, were employed to check for differences between several independent groups, followed by Dunn’s post hoc test of pairwise comparisons. Statements that referred to motivation were the same as with RQ1. c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 47 Table 3 Results of Kruskal-Wallis tests with Dunn’s post hoc tests for statements related to motivation Statements Kruskal-Wallis Dunn’s post hoc test* Mean ranks χ 2 df. p Sample 1-Sample 2 p 1. Preschool: 782.93 1 st cycle: 797.36 2 nd cycle: 853.77 8.159 2 .017 Preschool–2 nd cycle 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle .037 .040 2. Preschool: 862.90 1 st cycle: 808.95 2 nd cycle: 776.13 7.177 2 .028 Preschool–2 nd cycle .022 3. Preschool: 832.98 1 st cycle: 830.45 2 nd cycle: 758.54 8.421 2 .015 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle .019 4. Preschool: 772.59 1 st cycle: 786.54 2 nd cycle: 880.64 17.806 2 .000 Preschool–2 nd cycle 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle .001 < .0005 5. Preschool: 425.70 1 st cycle: 438.86 2 nd cycle: 480.53 7.602 2 .022 / 6. Preschool: 339.64 1 st cycle: 363.40 2 nd cycle: 366.62 1.760 2 .415 / 7. Preschool: 747.42 1 st cycle: 791.07 2 nd cycle: 890.32 22.029 2 .000 Preschool–2 nd cycle 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle < .0005 .001 8. Preschool: 731.94 1 st cycle: 782.73 2 nd cycle: 916.35 39.019 2 .000 Preschool–2 nd cycle 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle < .0005 < .0005 9. Preschool: 787.93 1 st cycle: 792.74 2 nd cycle: 858.63 7.324 2 .026 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle .036 10. Preschool: 795.46 1 st cycle: 796.56 2 nd cycle: 846.32 4.094 2 .129 / 11. Preschool: 741.40 1 st cycle: 807 2 nd cycle: 865.11 15.910 2 .000 Preschool–2 nd cycle < .0005 12. Preschool: 778.78 1 st cycle: 800.16 2 nd cycle: 851.67 6.197 2 .045 / 13. Preschool: 772.02 1 st cycle: 795.84 2 nd cycle: 864.26 9.888 2 .007 Preschool–2 nd cycle 1 st cycle–2 nd cycle .014 .026 *Showing only significant pairwise combinations. 48 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence For 11 out of 13 statements (all but 6 th and 10 th ), we can conclude that there are statistically significant differences in agreement scores across all three groups. Pertinent data-gathering was conducted on a 5-point scale, where 1 meant completely agree , and 5 stood for do not agree at all . Because of that, the lowest mean rank actually implies the highest degree of accord with a particular statement. Thus, by inspecting mean ranks, it is safe to surmise that those who started learning a foreign language in pre-school customarily express a higher degree of concurrence with selected statements than the other two groups of pupils who started learning later. The exceptions to this are the 2 nd and 3 rd state - ments, with which those who began learning in the 2 nd cycle agree the most. However, these two statements semantically do not refer to plurilingualism but are either bound by a conceptualisation of monolingualism or a limited percep - tion of the importance of foreign languages. Such views were, on average, not supported by those who started learning earlier. Dunn’s post hoc tests revealed significant differences in pairwise comparisons for nine statements; in every such case, 2 nd cycle group was found to differ significantly from either one or occasionally from both other groups. There was no statistically significant dif - ference between those who started learning a foreign language in preschool and pupils who started in the 1 st cycle of primary school. However, differences in motivation to develop plurilingual competence begin to emerge in the 2 nd cycle with older pupils. Motivation towards learning foreign languages evolves as children transition from preschool into primary and secondary school, high - lighting developmental differences and educational contexts that shape their attitudes and engagement with language learning. Studies conducted by Enever (2011), Masgoret and Gardner (2003), and Mercer et al. (2012) provide valuable insights into these developmental and contextual influences. Research question 3: How do learners evaluate their own linguistic competence? Are there differences between groups of pupils who started learn - ing a foreign language at different times in their attitudes regarding linguistic competence? Statements relating to self-assessment of language competence: 1. I always feel a bit uncomfortable when speaking in a foreign language. 2. When I speak in a foreign language, I am always afraid of making a mistake. 3. I have confidence in my own ability to learn a foreign language. c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 49 Table 4 Respondents’ attitudes toward their own linguistic competence Statements I totally agree. I agree. I can’t decide. I disagree. I do not agree at all. Total f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % 1. 256 15.60 421 25.70 322 19.70 365 22.30 272 16.60 1636 100.00 2. 421 25.70 524 32.00 252 15.40 252 15.40 187 11.40 1636 100.00 3. 475 29.00 593 36.20 414 25.30 114 7.00 40 2.40 1636 100.00 Many respondents (41.30%) agreed or strongly agreed that they feel a bit uncomfortable when speaking in a foreign language. About the same number of respondents, 38.90%, disagreed or strongly disagreed. The majority of re - spondents (57.7%) agreed that they are afraid of making a mistake when speak - ing in a foreign language. Approximately two thirds of respondents (65.2%) agreed that they are confident about their ability to learn a foreign language. More than a quarter (25.3%) could not decide. Table 5 Results of Kruskal-Wallis tests with Dunn’s post hoc tests for statements related to respondents’ linguistic competence Statements Kruskal-Wallis Dunn’s post hoc test* Mean ranks χ 2 df. p Sample 1-Sample 2 p 1. Preschool: 899.70 1 st cycle: 798.85 2 nd cycle: 768.26 16.913 2 < .001 Preschool–1 st cycle Preschool–2 nd cycle .002 .000 2. Preschool: 868.07 1 st cycle: 805.61 2 nd cycle: 778.48 7.654 2 .022 Preschool–2 nd cycle .019 3. Preschool: 745.04 1 st cycle: 796.19 2 nd cycle: 882.75 19.956 2 < .001 Preschool–2 nd cycle 1 st –2 nd cycle .000 .003 *Showing only significant pairwise combinations. We formed groups exactly as was done in RQ2; statistical significance was verified in the same manner due to the quality of applicable parameters. Results demonstrate that there are differences between groups for all three 50 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence statements; however, when assertions denote either a sensation of discomfort or being afraid of mistakes when speaking in a foreign language, those who started learning the latest (i.e., in 2 nd cycle) in fact express the highest degree of agreement (mean rank for 1 st statement is 768.26 and 778.48 for 2 nd state - ment). The situation changes when asked about their confidence; here, pupils who started learning sooner (or rather at the earliest during preschool) convey the highest degree of concurrence among all three groups (their mean rank for 3 rd statement is 745.04; for an explanation of why the lowest mean ranks imply the highest degree of agreement, consult previous RQ). As the Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant differences, we conducted Dunn’s post hoc testing as well to find significant differences between pairs of groups. In all three statements, a significant difference was found between those who started learning in preschool and pupils who began with a formalised in - struction of a foreign language in their 2 nd cycle of primary school. Based on Ta - ble 5, students who started later tended to report a higher degree of discomfort and fright when using a foreign language than others from their cohort who started sooner (this is why there are differences not only between the 1 st and 3 rd groups but occasionally even between other combinations). Research question 4: Are there differences between female and male pupils in their self-assessment of language competence? Statements relating to self-assessment of language competence: 1. I am always a bit uncomfortable when speaking in a foreign language, 2. When I speak in a foreign language, I am always afraid of making a mistake. 3. I have confidence in my own ability to learn a foreign language. As normality testing (Shapiro-Wilk) proved that the distribution of dependent variables differs significantly from normal distribution, which was also corroborated by QQ-plots, all three statements were verified with Mann- Whitney U test. c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 51 Table 6 Testing significant differences between male and female pupils regarding their self-assessment of language competence Statements Mann-Whitney U Test n Sample mean Median Mean ranks U p 1. Male: 822 Female: 814 Male: 2.96 Female: 3.01 Male: 3.00 Female: 3.00 Male: 808.85 Female: 828.25 326619.00 .396 2. Male: 2.71 Female: 2.39 Male: 2.00 Female: 2.00 Male: 869.67 Female: 766,83 292491.00 < .001 3. Male: 2.11 Female: 2.25 Male: 2.00 Female: 2.00 Male: 782.09 Female: 855.27 304624.50 .001 For the 1 st statement, we retain the null hypothesis as self-assessment scores do not significantly differ between male and female pupils. Self-assess - ment is presented on a 5-point scale (1 defined as completely agree and 5 as do not agree at all ; thus, the lower the average, the higher the agreement with the statement). With the 2 nd and 3 rd statements, significant differences were found between male and female pupils, based on which the decision to reject the null hypothesis can be made. However, female pupils, on average, agree more with the 2 nd statement about making mistakes, whilst male pupils concur more with the 3 rd statement regarding trust in their own language competence. It can be concluded that male pupils often prioritise fluency, focusing on the ability to communicate ideas quickly and effectively, even if this means making more grammatical mistakes. In contrast, female pupils tend to prioritise accuracy, paying closer attention to grammatical correctness in their language use. Our study’s findings align with those of Dewaele et al. (2016), which showed that female participants exhibited more concern about making mistakes and dem - onstrated less confidence in using a foreign language compared to their male counterparts. This comparison underscores the consistent observation across studies that gender differences impact language learning experience and self- perception (Oga-Baldwin & Nakata, 2017). Research question 5: Which attitudes towards plurilingualism are most prominently expressed by primary school pupils? 1. Knowledge of one foreign language helps you learn another. 2. Knowing your mother tongue has a positive effect on learning a foreign language and vice versa. 52 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence 3. I love Slovene lessons. 4. A good knowledge of Slovene is important for a successful life in Slovenia. 5. If I want to master a foreign language well, I do not necessarily have to know the culture it comes from. 6. Learning a language is a long and arduous process. 7. It is easier to learn a foreign language if we like the culture associated with it. 8. At least two foreign languages should be taught at school. 9. It is good to have friends of different nationalities. 10. I respect everyone’s language, so they should use it at every opportunity. 11. I respect everyone’s culture. Table 7 Respondents’ attitudes towards plurilingualism Statements I totally agree. I agree. I can’t decide. I disagree. I do not agree at all. Total f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % 1. 337 20.6 499 30.5 442 27.0 236 14.4 122 7.5 1636 100.0 2. 339 20.7 436 26.7 597 36.5 182 11.1 82 5.0 1636 100.0 3. 444 27.1 537 32.8 290 17.7 192 11.7 173 10.6 1636 100.0 4. 895 54.7 468 28.6 154 9.4 91 5.6 28 1.7 1636 100.0 5. 156 17.1 250 27.4 292 31.9 155 17.0 61 6.7 914 100.0 6. 417 25.5 554 33.9 335 20.5 229 14.0 101 6.2 1636 100.0 7. 556 34.0 563 34.4 358 21.9 95 5.8 64 3.9 1636 100.0 8. 540 33.0 415 25.4 390 23.8 163 10.0 128 7.8 1636 100.0 9. 634 38.8 551 337 340 20.8 63 3.9 48 2.9 1636 100.0 10. 642 39.2 591 36.1 320 19.6 49 3.0 34 2.1 1636 100.0 11. 744 45.5 544 33.3 255 15.6 57 3.5 36 2.2 1636 100.0 Approximately half of the respondents (51.1%) believe that proficiency in one foreign language aids in learning another, while 21.9% disagree, and 27.0% are undecided. Regarding the impact of the mother tongue on learn - ing a foreign language, 47.4% see a positive connection, while 36.5% are unde - cided. More than half (59.9%) enjoy Slovene lessons, and 22.3% dislike them. Regarding the importance of Slovene proficiency for success in Slovenia, 9.4% are unsure, and 7.3% disagree. When asked about proficiency in a foreign lan - guage independent of its culture, 44.5% agree, 31.9% are undecided, and 23.7% c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 53 disagree. The majority (59.4%) perceive language learning as a lengthy process. Only 9.7% believe cultural affinity eases language acquisition. Encouragingly, 58.4% favour learning at least two foreign languages in primary school, while 17.8% disagree. The majority (72.5%) value friendships with people of different nationalities, indicating positive experiences. Respect for everyone’s language is affirmed by 75.3%, with 78.8% agreeing that language should be used when helpful. Overall, the respondents’ perspectives highlight varying opinions on language learning and cultural influences. Table 8 Results of Kruskal-Wallis tests with Dunn’s post hoc tests for statements related to respondents’ perceived language skills in plurilingualism Statements Kruskal-Wallis Dunn’s post hoc test* Mean ranks χ 2 df. p Sample 1-Sample 2 p 1. Preschool: 779.99 1 st cycle: 802.69 2 nd cycle: 846.23 4.745 2 .093 / / 2. Preschool: 742.20 1 st cycle: 827.23 2 nd cycle: 828.75 9.592 2 .008 Preschool–1 st cycle Preschool–2 nd cycle .011 .022 3. Preschool: 768.44 1 st cycle: 801.56 2 nd cycle: 856.47 8.112 2 .017 Preschool–2 nd cycle .019 4 Preschool: 775.43 1 st cycle: 818.17 2 nd cycle: 821.53 2.557 2 .279 / / 5 Preschool: 474.02 1 st cycle: 435.97 2 nd cycle: 458.56 3.352 2 .197 / / Significant differences between the three groups were found for the 2 nd and 3 rd statements (RQ6 statements), for which those who started learning in preschool expressed the highest degree of agreement (mean rank for the 2 nd statement is 742.20 and 768.44 for the 3 rd statement). Based on post hoc testing, significant differences were found between those who started earlier (1 st group) and pupils who started learning a foreign language later (2 nd and 3 rd group, respectively). Overall, pupils who commenced with foreign language instruction before school are more inclined to incorpo - rate words from foreign languages into their everyday speech and link mutual respect with varied language use more strongly than their cohort colleagues. 54 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence Research question 6: How do primary school pupils perceive their language skills in the realm of plurilingualism? Are there differences between groups of pupils who started learning a foreign language at different times in their attitudes towards these skills? Statements relating to language skills: 1. More important than speaking the language correctly is having the cour - age to speak it at all. 2. I often use words from foreign languages when talking to my peers. 3. Where people respect each other, we can use different languages. 4. Knowledge of foreign languages contributes to understanding differ - ences between individuals and their differences. 5. I present and explain the linguistic and cultural behaviour in my own en - vironment to the foreign interlocutor and compare it with the linguistic and cultural environment of the foreign interlocutor. Table 9 Respondents’ perceived language skills in plurilingualism Statements I totally agree. I agree. I can’t decide. I disagree. I do not agree at all. Total f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % 1. 519 31.7 581 35.5 392 24.0 86 5.3 58 3.5 1636 100.0 2. 599 36.6 523 32.0 308 18.8 125 7.6 81 5.0 1636 100.0 3. 406 24.8 541 33.1 543 33.2 90 5.5 56 3.4 1636 100.0 4. 423 25.9 548 33.5 552 33.7 66 4.0 47 2.9 1636 100.0 5. 141 15.4 259 28.3 337 41.2 85 9.3 52 5.7 914 100.0 The survey also delved into pupils’ attitudes on statements assessing their plurilingual skills. Notably, 67.2% believe daring to speak a foreign language is more crucial than speaking it correctly, with 24.8% undecided and 8.8% in disagreement. Regarding incorporating foreign words into conversation, 68.6% affirm doing so often, while 12.6% rarely do, and only 18.8% are undecided, highlighting their ability to integrate foreign language elements seamlessly. The third statement, affirming the use of different languages where mutual respect exists, received agreement from over half (50.9%), with 33.2% undecided and 8.9% in disagreement. Another statement, linking foreign language knowledge to understanding differences, garnered agreement from 59.4%, while 33.7% were undecided, and 6.9% disagreed. These responses underscore pupils’ adeptness c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 55 in language transfer, cultural awareness, and tolerance for differences. Regard - ing the 5 th statement, 48.20% of pupils did not respond at all, while from those who responded (55.9%), 43.7% agreed, and 41.2% could not decide. The results from the RQ6 may indicate that nearly half of the respondents may not have been able to answer the question about their metalinguistic and metacultural skills. The answers of the pupils also show that those who did respond were not able to decide whether they were able to compare languages and cultures. Research question 7: Which factors are most commonly perceived by primary school pupils as supportive in creating a stimulating learning environ - ment for the development of plurilingual competence? 1. The school has enough literature in foreign languages to support learning. 2. The textbooks we use in school for language learning are of high quality. 3. Teachers of other subjects know how important it is for pupils to master foreign languages. 4. In non-linguistic subjects, teachers remind us of the correct use of Slovene. 5. Foreign language learning should take place at different levels of difficulty. 6. At our school, foreign languages are also taught in other subjects. 7. At our school, the teachers of other subjects also give us foreign lan - guage literature to read. 8. I believe that the school I attend encourages learning foreign languages and getting to know other cultures. 9. At home, my parents encourage foreign language learning. 10. We have enough foreign language literature at home to help me learn. 11. My parents allow me to use digital resources (e.g. internet, TV, com - puter, radio, etc.) when I read content in a foreign language. 12. Foreign language teachers know how to motivate us to learn foreign languages. 13. In other subjects, we also learn a foreign language. 14. The school I attend encourages language learning. 56 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence Table 10 Respondents’ perceived factors of a supportive learning environment for the development of plurilingual competence Statements I totally agree. I agree. I can’t decide. I disagree. I do not agree at all. Total f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % 1. 458 28.0 544 33.3 470 28.7 108 6.6 56 3.4 1636 100.0 2. 473 28.9 546 33.4 434 26.5 112 6.8 71 4.3 1636 100.0 3. 565 34.5 537 32.8 401 24.5 85 5.2 48 2.9 1636 100.0 4. 473 28.9 524 32.0 393 24.0 173 10.6 73 4.5 1636 100.0 5. 515 31.5 487 29.8 474 29.0 90 5.5 70 4.3 1636 100.0 6. 253 15.5 341 20.8 412 25.2 377 23.0 253 15.5 1636 100.0 7. 279 17.1 384 23.5 492 30.1 264 16.1 217 13.3 1636 100.0 8. 586 35.8 556 34.0 384 23.5 61 3.7 49 3.0 1636 100.0 9. 740 45.2 476 29.1 309 18.9 72 4.4 39 2.4 1636 100.0 10. 422 25.8 479 29.3 459 28.1 177 10.8 99 6.1 1636 100.0 11. 711 43.5 475 29.0 300 18.3 90 5.5 60 3.7 1636 100.0 12. 539 32.9 509 31.1 414 25.3 96 5.9 78 4.8 1636 100.0 13. 239 14.6 311 19.0 448 27.4 348 21.3 290 17.7 1636 100.0 14. 736 45.0 517 31.6 289 17.7 49 3.0 45 2.8 1636 100.0 Regarding the adequacy of literature in foreign languages at school, 61.3% agreed, 10.0% disagreed, and 28.7% were undecided. On the quality of language learning textbooks, 62.3% deemed them good, 11.1% disagreed, and 26.5% were undecided. Concerning teachers’ awareness of the importance of foreign languages in non-language subjects, 67 .3% affirmed, 8.1% disagreed, and 24.5% were undecided. About the encouragement of foreign language learn - ing by the school, 69.8% agreed, 6.7% disagreed, and 23.5% were undecided. In terms of parental support for foreign language learning, 74.3% felt encouraged, 6.8% disagreed, and 18.9% were undecided. Regarding the availability of litera - ture in foreign languages at home, 55.1% affirmed, 16.9% disagreed, and 28.1% were undecided. On the use of digital resources for foreign language reading, 72.5% agreed, 9.2% disagreed, and 18.3% were undecided. Concerning foreign language teachers’ ability to motivate pupils, 64.0% agreed, 10.7% disagreed, and 25.3% were undecided. Regarding the integration of foreign language learning in other subjects, opinions were divided, with 39.0% disagreeing, 33.6% agree - ing, and 27.4% undecided. On the general encouragement of language learning c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 57 by the school, 76.6% agreed, 5.8% disagreed, and 17.7% were undecided. The ELLiE study found that successful foreign language acquisition is strongly influenced by the development of speaking and listening skills, a posi - tive and supportive environment, access to a variety of materials, and the ac - tive involvement of learners in language activities (Enever, 2011; Pižorn, 2009). Similar research regarding a supportive learning environment for promoting plurilingualism was also conducted by Busse (2017) in Bulgaria, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain, where the obtained data suggested that even though dedicated teachers and adequate teaching materials are important, an even more substantial effort has to be made concerning educational policies, schools and their curriculum, parents, etc. Forey, Besser, and Sampson (2015) state that a child’s academic achievement depends on parents’ cultural beliefs, their knowl - edge of various foreign language learning strategies, and their involvement in their child’s learning. Tamis-LeMonda and Rodriguez (2009) also point out that experiences in the child’s home environment, such as various home learn - ing activities (e.g. reading), parental support and a variety of learning materials (e.g. books, toys, etc.), have a significant impact on a child’s language learning. On the use of digital resources for foreign language reading, 72.5% agreed, 9.2% disagreed, and 18.3% were undecided. Research question 8: What skills and attitudes do primary school pupils possess in the domain of plurilingualism? Statements relating to knowledge in the realm of plurilingualism: 1. Language is an inseparable part of culture. 2. We can start learning a foreign language as early as possible. 3. Knowledge of Latin is useful for learning some other foreign languages. 4. It is important that the school also offers the opportunity to learn a clas - sical language (e.g., Latin), as this gives pupils a good insight into Euro - pean cultural heritage. 5. If you want to master a language well, you also need to know the history and geographical features of the country in which it is spoken. 6. Learning a foreign language in childhood has a negative impact on mother tongue skills. 7. If you learn several languages at the same time, it is difficult to master each one well. 58 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence Table 11 Respondents’ perceived skills in the realm of plurilingualism Statements I absolutely agree. I agree. I can’t decide. I disagree. I do not agree at all. Total f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % 1. 626 38.3 517 31.6 386 23.6 52 3.2 55 3.4 1636 100.0 2. 659 40.3 496 30.3 282 17.2 129 7.9 70 4.3 1636 100.0 3. 221 13.5 366 22.4 630 38.5 228 13.9 191 11.7 1636 100.0 4. 222 24.3 272 29.8 270 29.5 90 9.8 60 6.6 914 100.0 5. 242 14.8 342 20.9 490 30.0 364 22.2 198 12.1 1636 100.0 6. 193 11.8 232 14.2 439 26.8 361 22.1 411 25.1 1636 100.0 7. 360 22.0 533 32.6 421 25.7 205 12.5 117 7.2 1636 100.0 A majority (69.9%) affirm that language is integral to culture, with 23.6% undecided and 6.6% in disagreement. Concerning the starting point of learn - ing foreign languages, 70.6% supported early initiation, while only 12.2% disa - greed, and 17.2% were undecided. Regarding the usefulness of Latin for learn - ing foreign languages, 35.9% agreed, 25.6% disagreed, and 48.2% provided no response. 54.1% believed schools should offer the chance to learn a classical language, showcasing insight into European cultural heritage. Regarding the impact of history and geography knowledge on language learning, responses are evenly distributed, reflecting varying perspectives and experiences. With the statement about childhood language learning affecting mother tongue pro - ficiency, 26.0% agreed, 19.7% disagreed, and 26.8% were undecided. A majority (54.6%) believed mastering multiple languages simultaneously is challenging, while 25.7% were undecided, and 19.7% disagreed. These diverse responses in - dicate varying perspectives and experiences among pupils. Conclusion Our research focused on the plurilingual ability of Slovenian primary school pupils and aimed to explore both the theoretical background and prac - tical aspects of this research topic. The survey involved assessing knowledge, attitudes, and skills through a questionnaire, with a focus on motivating fac - tors, self-assessment of language competence, attitudes toward plurilingual - ism, language skills, and supportive/stimulating learning environments. The first research question focused on the motivating factors for language learning, c e p s Journal | V ol.14 | N o 3 | Y ear 2024 59 awareness of its importance, and interest in cultural differences. The results in - dicated a preference among pupils for learning foreign languages, driven by factors such as peer influence, a desire to know languages, awareness of career opportunities, interest in cultural differences, and quality teaching. The sec - ond research question explored motivation differences among many learners with varying starting points for language learning. Pre-primary school learn - ers showed higher motivation compared to those starting in later grades. The third research question centred on learners’ self-assessment of linguistic com - petence, revealing a combination of confidence and occasional discomfort, possibly linked to limited experience. The fourth research question examined gender differences in pupils’ confidence, comfort, and fear when using foreign languages, revealing nuanced variations. The fifth research question identified positive attitudes towards plurilingualism, with pupils expressing a preference for language learning, making international friends, and respecting diverse lan - guages and cultures. The sixth research question explored perceived language skills, revealing pupils’ proficiency in using foreign languages for communi - cation but less confidence in discussing languages and cultures. The seventh question identified factors contributing to a supportive and stimulating learn - ing environment, with respondents highlighting the importance of a positive school climate, quality literature, ICT tools, adapted teaching, peer encourage - ment, and support from home. The eighth question assessed pupils’ knowledge of plurilingualism, with varied responses possibly attributed to their limited experience with Latin learning in Slovenian primary schools. As in similar studies, it is important to acknowledge certain limita - tions. The present study might be biased as it only included responses from primary school pupils, leaving out perspectives from parents and teachers, even though it is good to hear the voices of the pupils themselves. Also, focusing solely on Slovenian primary schools involved in the Languages Matter project, the findings might not apply to other age groups or educational settings. The statements in the questionnaire were not always neutral and might have been interpreted differently by various respondents. Frequently, we used similar types of statements, particularly those regarding competence, motivation, and attitude, which would need to be reassessed if used in future questionnaires. Additionally, since the study was conducted in 2019, it might not reflect recent changes in plurilingual education. However, the study emphasised the impor - tance of nurturing plurilingualism among primary school pupils, suggesting tailored educational interventions to promote language learning and intercul - tural understanding. Including input from teachers and parents could offer a fuller understanding of factors influencing plurilingual education, informing 60 slovenian primary school pupils’ perception of plurilingual competence collaborative strategies between home and school environments. To support plurilingual learners, educators should use diverse resources like quality litera - ture and technology. Further research could track plurilingual competence over time, comparing various age groups and cultural contexts to reveal differences in motivation and language skills development, focus more on the digital com - petence of the pupils and teachers, and investigate policy changes’ impact on plurilingual education, thus informing strategies to enhance language learning outcomes and embrace cultural diversity in schools. References Aktürk-Drake, M. (2024). Has language as a resource been the basis for mother-tongue instruction in Sweden? 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International Journal of Multilingualism , 17(4), 430–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2018.1509980 Biographical note Tina Rozmanič is a teaching assistant of FL teaching methodology at the Department of Educational Studies. She is a PhD student and is cur - rently writing her thesis on plurilingualism in Slovenian primary schools. She finished her MA thesis on developing primary pupils FL literacy skills through storytelling. She gives lessons in courses such as Language and Intercultural Awareness, The Didactics of Teaching English on the Early Level, and English Phonetics for Primary Teachers of English. Ana Kogovšek is a former student of Faculty of Education of the Uni - versity of Ljubljana. She studied at the Department of Primary Teacher Educa - tion and finished the programme with MA thesis on Slovene primary student’s perceptions of their plurilingual competencies. She is currently working as a primary school teacher in one of Slovene schools (Osnovna šola Ivana Cankarja Vrhnika). Žan Korošec is a Teaching Assistant for the fields of Pedagogical Methodology and Statistics and English in Education. His main research areas and points of interest encompass research ethics, mixed methods design and triangulation. In the context of his linguistic inquiries, he focuses on the dimen - sion of communicative competence and its transmission into the classroom. Karmen Pižorn is Professor of English in Education at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana. Her research interests lie in second lan - guage acquisition, language learners with special needs, language assessment, and plurilingualism. She has run a 6-year-long national ESF project which has resulted in several findings and the most comprehensive plurilingual portal in Slovenia LANGUAGES MATTER – https://jeziki-stejejo.si/en/.