AKADEMIJA
imra
AKADEMIJA MM
Slovenska znanstvena revija za trženje Slovenian scientific journal of marketing
15.
Ljubljana, maj 2010
mm
AKADEMIJA
Letnik X/15. 2010 ISSN 1408-1652
Uredniški odbor:
John MT Balmer, Brunei University, West London, Velika Britanija; William C. Gartner, University of Minnesota, ZDA; T C Melewar, Brunel University, West London, Velika Britanija; Udo Wagner, University of Vienna, Avstrija; Durdana Ozretic-Došen, University of Zagreb,Faculty of Economics & Business Zagreb, Hrvaška; Aviv Shoham, University of Haifa, Izrael; Wim Biemans, University of Groningen, Nizozemska; Graham J. Hooley, Aston Business School, Aston University, Velika Britanija; Peter Schnedlitz, Wirtschaftsuniverität, Vienna, Avstrija; Aleksandra Brezovec, Turistica, Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija; Barbara Čater, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Janez Damjan, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Urša Golob, Fakulteta za družbene vede, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Zlatko Jančič, Fakulteta za družbene vede, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Milan Jurše, Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija; Tomaž Kolar, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Maja Konečnik Ruzzier, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Maja Makovec Brenčič, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Borut Milfelner, Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija; Damijan Mumel, Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija; Aleksandra Pisnik Korda, Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija; Klement Podnar, Fakulteta za družbene vede, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Iča Rojšek, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Boris Snoj, Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija; Dejan Verčič, Fakulteta za družbene vede, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Irena Vida, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija; Vesna Žabkar, Ekonomska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija
15. številko Akademije MM je uredil izr. prof. dr. Klement Podnar.
Volume X, No. 15, 2010 ISSN 1408-1652
Editorial board:
John MT Balmer, Brunel University, West London, Great Britain; William C. Gartner, University of Minnesota, ZDA; T C Melewar, Brunel University, West London, Great Britain; Udo Wagner, University of Vienna, Austria; Durdana Ozretič-Došen, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Economics & Business Zagreb, Croatia; Aviv Shoham, University of Haifa, Israel; Wim Biemans, University of Groningen, the Netherlands; Graham J. Hooley, Aston Business School, Aston University, Great Britain; Peter Schnedlitz, Wirtschaftsuniveritat, Vienna, Austria; Aleksandra Brezovec, Turistica, University of Primorska, Slovenia; Barbara Čater, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Janez Damjan, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Urša Golob, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Zlatko Jančič, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Milan Jurše, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Maribor, Slovenia; Tomaž Kolar, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Maja Konečnik Ruzzier, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Maja Makovec Brenčič, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Borut Milfelner, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Maribor, Slovenia, Slovenija; Damijan Mumel, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Maribor, Slovenia; Aleksandra Pisnik Korda, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Maribor, Slovenia; Klement Podnar, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Iča Rojšek, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Boris Snoj, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Maribor, Slovenia; Dejan Verčič, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Irena Vida, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Vesna Žabkar, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Volume 15 was edited by Prof. dr. Klement Podnar.
Akademija MM je edina slovenska znanstvena in referenčna publikacija za področje marketinških znanosti. Kot taka vključuje tudi interdisciplinarne stroke in dognanja s področij tržnih komunikacij, integriranega komuniciranja, ekonomije, psihologije, sociologije in likovno-oblikovnih ved. Ustanovljena je bila z namenom širitve in utrjevanja marketinških znanosti v domačem okolju, prenosa znanja in aplikacije akademskih spoznanj v praksi.	Akademija MM is the only Slovenian indexed scientific publication in the field of marketing, covering interdisciplinary topics as well as marketing communications, integrated communication, economics, psychology, sociology and design. Our aim is to disseminate and strengthen marketing science both at home and abroad, and to transfer knowledge and the application of academic findings in practice.
Akademijo MM izdaja revija Marketing magazin skupaj z Društvom za marketing Slovenije.	Akademija MM is published by Marketing magazin and Marketing Association of Slovenia.
Akademija MM je indeksirana v EconLitu.	Akademija MM is indexed in EconLit.
Urednik: izr. prof. dr. Klement Podnar	Editor: Prof. dr. Klement Podnar
Jezikovni pregled: doc. dr. Igor Rižnar	Proofreading: Ass. prof. dr. Igor Rižnar
Oblikovanje ovitka: Sedna, d.o.o.	Cover design: Sedna, d.o.o.
Fotografije: Aleš Hostnik	Photo: Aleš Hostnik
Ustanovitelj: MM - Marketing magazin, v sodelovanju z Akademsko sekcijo DMS - Društva za marketing Slovenije	Founded by: MM - Marketing magazin and the Academic Section of MAS - Marketing Association of Slovenia
Založnik: MM-Marketing magazin, Medijski partner, d.o.o.	Publisher: MM-Marketing magazin, Medijski partner, d.o.o.
Direktor Medijskega partnerja, d.o.o.: Marjan Novak	Director of Medijski partner, d.o.o.: Marjan Novak
Izhaja: od leta 1997	Published: from 1997
Naklada: 1500	Copies: 1500
Tisk: Matformat, d.o.o., Ljubljana, maj 2010	Printed by: Matformat, d.o.o., Ljubljana, May 2010
Naslov uredništva: Marketing magazin, Gosposvetska 10, 1000 Ljubljana Tel.: 01/43 45 640, fax: 01/43 45 645 E-pošta: amm@dmslo.si Spletna stran: www.marketingmagazin.si, www.dmslo.si	Editor's address: Marketing magazin, Gosposvetska 10, 1000 Ljubljana Tel.: 01/43 45 640, fax: 01/43 45 645 E-pošta: amm@dmslo.si Spletna stran: www.marketingmagazin.si, www.dmslo.si
KAZALO
A PREFACE TO THE 15TH AKADIMIJA MM
15. AKADEMIJI MM NA POT
Maja Makovec Brenčič	6
EDITORIAL UVODNIK
Klement Podnar	7
Mitja PIRC
Using the Intentions and Expectations perspectives to explore the influence of determinants of loyalty	11
Vesna ŽABKAR in Sabina ŠULER Perception of corporate social responsibility and trusting organizations after product recalls	25
Tanja LEŠNIK ŠTUHEC in Damijan MUMEL Trajnostni marketing zavarovanih območij 37
Darja LESKOVEC
How to Collect Donations:
Conceptual Review and Implications
for Online Non-profit Information
Goods Provides	55
Boštjan UDOVIČ in Matevž RAŠKOVIC Export markets and types of international market(ing) cooperation of top Slovene exporters: has the crisis taught us nothing?	69
Jani TOROŠ in Mihael KLINE
Cenovna strategija v odvisnosti
od moči tržne znamke	85
MM]
AKADEMIJA
CUSTOMERS ACKNOwLEDGED RECESSION, ARE ENTERPRISES READY?
It was the current crisis and recession that decelerated the process of unrestrained globalization and marketing. Consumers decided to take a short break, enterprises had to reexamine themselves, and countries were forced to look for auxiliary and until recently unexploited resources. It is due to these developments that our jubelee 15th issue of Akademija MM was published. It covers, among other topics, corporate marketing, with authors dealing with various issues on the company level, consumers as well as domestic and international markets. If, on the one side, we have a more rational, planning-oriented, sensible and price-sensitive customer - what should, on the other side, recession-aware enterprises and their strategies look like? This is what the editor, dr. Klement Podnar discusses together with the authors who try to illuminate the new dimensions in marketing. »A learning unit in marketing «, as it was called in our previous issue has also become a given reality which resulted in different marketing activities of enterprises. How successful and efficient they are is shown by authors working in different fields, e.g. enterprise social responsibility, sustainable marketing, marketing power of brands and prices, loyalty, characteristics of international marketing of Slovenian companies and donations. Many thanks to the authors and the editor for an interesting variety of topics, which are up-to-date and which point to a new characteristics - maybe even a new marketing vision - of marketing in recession and post-recession times of social marketing. Are we ready for that?
Prof. dr. Maja Makovec Brenčič
MAS President
A PREFACE TO THE 15th AKADEMIJA MM
15. AKADEMIJI MM NA POT
PORABNIKI SO VZELI RECESIJO, STE JO TUDI PODJETJA?
Prav kriza in sedanja recesija sta tisti, ki sta globalno drveč in trženjsko naravnan svet za nekaj časa umirili. Porabnik se je malce zaustavil, podjetja so morala dobro pogledati vase, države poiskati rezervne in do sedaj neizrabljene vire. Prav temu dogajanju vsled je nastala jubilejna, 15. številka Akademija MM. Obarvana je korporativno marketinško, z različnimi razmisleki avtorjev o tem, kaj se dogaja na ravni podjetij, pa tudi v porabnikih, tako na domačih kot na mednarodnih trgih. Če imamo na eni strani mnogo bolj racionalnega, načrtno naravnanega, občutljivega in cenovno odzivnega porabnika - kakšna pa so potem recesijsko ozaveščena podjetja in njihove strategije trženja? Prav o tem razpravljajo urednik, dr. Klement Podnar in avtorji, ki skušajo osvetliti nove dimenzije trženjskih dogajanj. »Učna enota trženja«, kot smo jo poimenovali v prejšnji številki, je tako postala dana realnost in se prevedla v drugačne trženjske aktivnosti podjetij. Kako uspešne in učinkovite so, razkrivajo avtorji tako s področja družbene odgovornosti podjetij, trajnostnega trženja, tržne moči znamk in cen, zvestobe, značilnosti mednarodnega trženja slovenskih podjetij pa tudi donatorstva. Hvala avtorjem in uredniku za zanimiv nabor tem, ki je še kako aktualen in ki kaže tudi na novo značilnost, morda celo kar vizijo trženja v recesijskih ali porecesijskih časih - »socialno« ali »družbeno« trženje. Smo že pripravljeni nanj?
Prof. dr. Maja Makovec Brenčič
Predsednica DMS
AKADEMIJA
[MM]
CORPORATIVE ASPECTS OF MARKETING IN THE TIME OF CRISIS
After the breakdown of stock markets in 1929 and the global economic depression, which followed, companies looked for solutions in market communications and intensive communication with their consumers. During the time that followed different mass media showed their power.
During the fifties of the previous century, when we started speaking about the marketing revolution, marketing represented the solution for many enterprises, which were unable to sell their products. Marketing philosophy, and above all its implementation, became the postulate for ensuring companies' competitive advantages for the next fifty years. We all came to the conclusion that marketing communication represents the top of the mountain that is called marketing activities.
After gaining independence and due to the loss of traditional markets Slovenian companies were forced to become market-oriented, to start focusing on new markets and take into account customer needs. At the same time this was the time of privatisation, when all vital functions were paralysed so that the value of companies would not become out of reach for their new owners.
With the high growth of financial markets some company managements started to believe that it is more profitable to carry out financial investments than their company's basic operations. The global crisis lessened such insatiable appetites and showed that the high market value of many such companies was only a mask for skeletons that resulted from the lack of development of basic products and marketing. On the other side, some companies and experts did not loose their focus and remained aware of their basic activities and the role of marketing proved that it is possible to survive during the time of crisis and even find new opportunities.
EDITORIAL UVODNIK
KORPORATIVNI VIDIKI MARKETINGA V ČASU KRIZE
Po zlomu borze leta 1929 in veliki svetovni gospodarski recesiji, ki mu je sledila, so podjetja iskala rešitev v tržnem komuniciranju in intenzivni komunikaciji s svojimi potrošniki. V času, ki je sledil, se je izkazala velika moč množičnih medijev.
V petdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja, ko govorimo o marketinški revoluciji, je marketing predstavljal izhod za številna podjetja, ki niso več mogla zlahka prodati vsega, kar so množično proizvedla. Marketinška filozofija, predvsem pa njeno udejanjanje, je postala postulat zagotavljanja konkurenčne prednosti podjetij za nadaljnjih petdeset let. Dozorelo je spoznanje, da je tržno komuniciranje le vrh gore, ki jo imenujemo marketinške aktivnosti.
Čas po osamosvojitvi in izguba tradicionalnih trgov je tudi slovenska podjetja prisilil k tržni orientaciji, k usmeritvi na nove trge in na potrebe potrošnikov. Hkrati pa je bil to tudi čas privatizacije, ko je bilo treba vse vitalne funkcije ohromiti, da ne bi bila vrednost podjetij nedosegljiva za apetite novih lastnikov.
Z visoko rastjo finančnih trgov se je v uprave nekaterih podjetij naselila skušnjava, da je bolj dobičkonosno izvajati finančne naložbe kot temeljno dejavnost podjetja. Globalna kriza je apetite ozemljila in pokazala, da se v marsikaterem od takšnih podjetij za razblinjeno visoko tržno vrednostjo skrivajo skeleti, ki jih je povzročilo zanemarjanje razvoja temeljne ponudbe in marketinga. Nasprotno pa nekatera podjetja in strokovnjaki v njih, ki niso izgubili fokusa svoje temeljne dejavnosti in zavedanja o vlogi marketinga, dokazujejo, da je krizo mogoče preživeti in iz nje morda oblikovati priložnost.
Kriza se pogosto razlaga kot nepričakovan, negotov in grozeč proces dogodkov in sprememb, kjer se stari in uveljavljeni ustroj
A crisis is often explained as an unexpected, uncertain and threatening process of events and changes, where the old and established structure cannot sustain. Any crisis requires changes. If marketing is really in a crisis, we have to ask ourselves, what marketing as a scientific discipline and a profession can offer as the answer to existing challenges. What knowledge and findings have been forgotten, what has been neglected, what new views can be offered, what blinded us and which truths were unnoticed. All this are not only questions for Slovenian experts, they are often pondered about by their counterparts abroad, who found out that marketing was forced out of offices and corporate management and that more and more people believe that theory is one thing and that practice is something completely different. The 15th issue of Akademija MM has been made under the impression of economic recession, a painful contraction, which moved from the financial sector to the real sector, and which remains with us despite some optimism. It is the result of thorough research activities of authors and anonymous reviewers (Many thanks to you all!), who had to - within less than three months - respond to our invitation to draw attention to corporate aspects of marketing, and above all to write about topics and findings that may help Slovenian companies and their marketing managers in finding specific answers to questions posed by global circumstances. Thus the content of this issue directs the reader to try to find the solutions - in English or in Slovene - in loyalty of existing customers, attaining their trust and satisfaction, socially responsible practices, donations and sustainable development, a rethinking of international focus and the strategies to conquer international markets and optimum price strategies. In his contribution entitled »Using Intentions and Expectation perspectives to explore the influence of determinants of loyalty«, Mitja Pirc deals with the topic of customer loyalty. Within the context of customer loyalty he focuses on the difference between customer's intentions and expectations and outlines the main differences. He finds out that the intended loyalty is mostly influenced by customer satisfaction, whereas the key factor regarding customer expected loyalty is his trust.
Vesna Zabkar and Sabina Suler in their contribution »Perception of corporate social responsibility and trusting organizations after product recalls« focus their attention on the role of company social responsibility and customer trust after product recall. By using descriptive analysis and a quasi experiment they stress the
delovanja ne more več vzdrževati. Kriza zahteva spremembo. Če je marketing res v krizi, se moramo nujno vprašati, kaj lahko marketing kot znanstvena disciplina in uveljavljena stroka ponudi kot odgovor na obstoječe izzive. Na katera znanja in dognanja smo pozabili, kaj vse smo zanemarili, katere nove poglede lahko ponudimo, v čem smo se slepili in katere resnice smo spregledali. To niso zgolj vprašanja za slovenske strokovnjake, pač pa si z njimi belijo glave tudi kolegi v tujini, ki so ugotovili, da se je marketing počasi izrinil iz pisarn uprav korporacij in da vse več ljudi verjame, da je teorija eno, praksa pa povsem drugo.
15. številka Akademije MM, je nastajala pod vtisom gospodarske recesije, bolečega krča, ki se je iz finančnega preselil v realni sektor in ki kljub želenemu optimizmu še kar vztraja. Je rezultat intenzivnega dela avtorjev in anonimnim recenzentov (iskrena hvala vsem), ki so se v manj kot treh mesecih morali odzvati na vabilo, da naj opozorijo na korporativne vidike marketinga, predvsem pa na teme in ugotovitve, ki bi pomagale slovenskim podjetjem in njihovim marketinškim menedžerjem pri iskanju konkretnih odgovorov na vprašanja, ki so jim jih vsilile okoliščine globalnega dogajanja.
Vsebina pričujoče številke strokovnih člankov zato spoštovanega bralca usmerja, da rešitve, ne glede na slovenski ali angleški jezik, išče v lojalnosti obstoječih kupcev, doseganju njihovega zaupanja in zadovoljstva, družbeno odgovornih praksah, donacijah in trajnostnem razvoju, ponovnem razmisleku o mednarodni usmerjenosti in strategijah zavzemanja mednarodnih trgov in optimalnosti cenovnih strategij.
Mitja Pirc v svojem prispevku z naslovom »Using Intentions and Expectation perspectives to explore the influence of determinants of loyalty« obravnava problematiko lojalnosti potrošnikov. V kontekstu lojalnosti potrošnika se osredotoča na razliko med namero in pričakovanji potrošnika ter vzpostavi njuno distinkcijo. V svoji raziskavi ugotavlja, da na nameravano lojalnost v največji meri vpliva zadovoljstvo potrošnika, medtem ko je ključni dejavnik s strani potrošnika pričakovane lojalnosti njegovo zaupanje v ponudnika.
Vesna Žabkar in Sabina Šuler s prispevkom »Perception of corporate social responsibility and trusting organizations after product recalls« pozornost usmerjata na pomen družbenene odgovornosti podjetij in zaupanje potrošnikov v okoliščinah odpoklica izdelkov. S pomočjo deskriptivne analize in kvazi eksperimenta
importance of social responsibility and describe the effects of product recall on customer trust. In addition, they also outline the differences in consumer trust between Slovenian and American students.
Tanja Lešnik Štuhec and Damijan Mumel in their contribution »Protected areas sustainable marketing « outline basic premises of protected areas marketing. Through descriptive research they draw our attention to some possible usages of protected areas. Their research makes us familiar with a number of useful pieces of information aimed particularly at managers of protected areas when making decisions regarding marketing strategies.
Darja Leskovec in her contribution entitled »How to Collect Donations: Conceptual Review and Implications for Online Non-profit Information Goods Providers« outlines the concept of donations. In the first part of her contribution she focuses on physical surroundings, whereas in the second part of her paper she mentions some peculiarities brought into giving and collecting donations by the Internet.
Boštjan Udovič and Matevž Raškovic entitled their contribution »Export markets and types of international market(ing) cooperation of top Slovenian exporters: has the crisis taught us nothing?«. They deal with international marketing, and offer Slovenian companies a mirror showing the structure of Slovenian export markets and used marketing strategies.
The 15th, jubilee issue of Akademija MM concludes with the article entitled »Price strategy and the power of brand name«, written by Jani Toroš and Mihael Kline. The authors focus on problems of price elasticity or setting the » right « price. They try to build a model for reducing business risks that may appear when companies set prices and offer price reductions.
This issue ends with a price tag, not because this is the least important element, but because it includes both corporate and product level of marketing efforts and represents the reality of competitiveness and cooperation.
Long lives the market! dr. Klement Podnar
opozarjata na pomen družbene odgovornosti, pa tudi na vpliv odpoklica izdelka na zaupanje potrošnikov, pri čemer so še posebej zanimive razlike med slovenskimi in ameriškimi študenti.
Tanja Lešnik Štuhec in Damijan Mumel v prispevku »Trajnostni marketing zavarovanih območij« predstavljata osnovne premise marketinga zavarovanih območij in z deskriptivno raziskavo opozarjata na nekatera dejstva rabe in uporabe zavarovanih področij s strani njihovih uporabnikov. Predstavljeni podatki nosijo s seboj vrsto koristnih informacij, ki jih bodo veseli predvsem upravljavci zavarovanih območij pri njihovem odločanju, ki zadeva snovanje marketinških strategij.
Darja Leskovec s svojim prispevkom »How to Collect Donations: Conceptual Review and Implications for Online Non-profit Information Goods Providers« ponuja pregled razumevanja področja donacij. V prvem delu prispevka se osredotoča na fizično okolje, v drugem delu pa opozori na nekatere posebnosti, ki jih v problematiko zbiranja in dajanja donacij prinaša internet.
Boštjan Udovič in Matevž Raškovič sta svoj prispevek pomenljivo naslovila »Export markets and types of international market(ing) cooperation of top Slovenian exporters: has the crisis taught us nothing?«. Z njim stopata v polje mednarodnega marketinga, in slovenskemu gospodarstvu ponudita ogledalo s prikazom strukture slovenskih izvoznih trgov in uporabljenih marketinških strategij.
15., jubilejno številko revije Akademija MM zaključujemo z naslovom »Cenovna strategija v odvisnosti od moči tržne znamke«, ki označuje prispevek Janija Toroša in Mihaela Klineta . V njem se osredotočata na problematiko cenovne elastičnosti oziroma določanja »ustrezne« cene. Gre za poizkus oblikovanja modela za zmanjševanje poslovnih tveganj, ki nastanejo ob določanjih cene in cenovnih popustih.
Revija se ne konča s ceno, ker bi bila ta najmanj pomemben element, pač pa zato, ker je prav v njej na koncu skrit tako korporacijski kot tudi produktni nivo marketinških naporov in prizadevanj in ker brezkompromisno pred akterje postavlja realnost konkurenčnega boja in sodelovanja.
Trg vas živi!
Prof. dr. Klement Podnar
Dr. Mitja Pirc
A.T. Kearney Slovenia
mitja.pirc@atkearney.com
USING INTENTIONS AND ExPECTATIONS PERSPECTIVES TO EXPLORE THE INFLUENCE
of determinants
OF LOYALTY
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to extend our understanding of what are the roles of determinants of loyalty. A proposition is made that there is a difference in whether the research questions are asked with intentions or expectations perspective, which trigger different cognitive processes about the future state of exchange relationship. We find that the intentions questions create an inward-looking perspective and focus respondents on factors such as satisfaction and attitude towards switching. The expectation questions however trigger a more outward-looking perspective and create a focus on the factors beyond customers' control, such as trust and switching costs. Implications are two-fold. First, researchers interchangeably use intentions and expectations measures, which can lead to misleading findings about which determinant is important for maintaining loyalty. Second, satisfaction is an inward-looking determinant, meaning that loyal customers are typically satisfied; however satisfied customers are not necessarily loyal. Trust is an outward-looking determinant and therefore high levels of trust are actually the ones that keep clients loyal. Key words: customer behavior and decision making, customer loyalty, determinants of customer loyalty
1. INTRODUCTION
The field of marketing has come to a consensus that understanding and maintaining customer loyalty is critical for companies' financial performance (Reichheld, 1996; Zeithaml et al., 2006). However, there is still a lack of agreement about the influence of determinants of loyalty and various have been proposed as central, for example, satisfaction, trust, and switching costs (Szymanski and Henard, 2001; Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Burnham, Frils, and Mahajan, 2003). When managers aim to maintain customer loyalty, they are faced with many candidates for the focal determinant. For example, they could decide to invest in keeping customers satisfied or could decide to design contracts and procedures to increase customer switching costs. However, the determinants chosen by managers differ in how they influence loyalty. Therefore, a misunderstanding, about what roles determinants play, can lead managers to focus on the less relevant determinants and use resources without achieving desired results. In this paper we propose a way to distinguish how different determinants influence customer loyalty, which could represent a competitive advantage for companies.
When studying customer loyalty and its determinants, researchers frequently measure loyalty by asking customers to forecast their future behavior. There are two ways of forming questions about customer forecasts that are commonly used: intentions (e.g., "Do you intend to be loyal to a specific provider?") and expectations (e.g., "Do you expect to be loyal to a specific provider?"). Previous research about individual forecasting has suggested that asking about intentions or expectations differs in terms of how individuals think about future events and behaviors (Warshaw and Davis, 1985). Intentions measure a conscious intention based on determinants which are under the respondent's control, such as motivation, attitudes, abilities, or beliefs. Expectations on the other hand measure a self-prediction of one's own future, which takes into account factors beyond the individual's control. These external factors include the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior as well as the anticipated obstacles.
The following example further illustrates the difference between intentions and expectations: "I intend to lose weight" and "I expect to lose weight". Individuals might have a motivation or a reason to lose weight which is expressed in the intentions form. However, they are also aware that there are influential factors beyond their
control, which are expressed in the expectations form. These external factors additionally prevent individuals from losing weight and include eating out as well as choices of other people. Using intentions or expectations question triggers different cognitive processes and consequently consumers use different sources of information to construct forecasts of future behavior (Sheppard, Hartwick, and Warshaw, 1988; Bettman, Luce, and Payne, 1998).
We build on this difference between intentions and expectations to explore the roles of determinants in forecasting loyalty. A study is designed to measure loyalty and its determinants. As measures of customer loyalty we use both the loyalty intentions questions and the loyalty expectations questions. The selected determinants are four commonly used predictors of loyalty: customer satisfaction, trust, attitude toward switching, and financial switching costs. We hypothesize that these determinants differ in terms of what control consumers have over them, with inward-looking determinants having a higher level of control and outward-looking determinants having a lower level of control. Exposing consumers to the intentions and expectations perspectives enables us to test the inward or the outward-looking nature of determinants.
In the next section, we present in more detail the conceptual difference between the intentions and expectations perspective. Further, we discuss selected determinants (satisfaction, trust, switching costs, and attitude towards switching) and their effects on customer loyalty. Based on previous findings we develop hypotheses about how these determinants influence loyalty intentions and loyalty expectations. Next, the research design is presented with a survey as a means of collecting multiple items for each of the variables used. Based on the hypotheses, a structural equation model is proposed and tested with other models for the effects of the determinants. In the end, conclusions, managerial implications, and limitations are discussed.
2. THEORY AND HYPOTHESES
2.1. customer loyalty and its determinants
A number of different determinants of loyalty have been proposed in the literature, grounded in theory and supported with empirical studies. Determinants of loyalty can be divided into two groups, the perceptual determinants (e.g., satisfaction, trust) and the behavioral determinants (e.g., the number of items
purchased). The group of perceptual determinants has recently received an increased attention compared to the behavioral determinants. There is also a consensus in the field of marketing, that the effects of the behavioral determinants are mediated through the perceptual ones. In addition, hypotheses about the effects of perceptual determinants can be generalized across product and service categories. However, in many situations the behavioral determinants are the only data managers have about their customers, collected either through loyalty programs or information systems supporting operational processes.
Despite numerous studies, we still do not have a full understanding of how determinants influence loyalty and which are the central ones that managers should focus on (Brady et al., 2005). In this study, we have selected a group of four commonly used perceptual determinants: customer satisfaction, trust, customer switching costs, and attitude towards switching (Szymanski and Henard, 2001; Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Burnham et al., 2003; Bansal and Taylor, 1999). The aim is to further explore the nature and influence of these selected determinants. In the following sections, the intentions and expectations perspectives are presented, based on which we discuss each of the determinants and develop related hypotheses.
2.2. THE INTENTIONS AND ExPECTATIONS PERSPECTIVE
As mentioned earlier, we use two different forms of questions to measure consumers' loyalty forecasts: intentions and expectations. The purpose is to expose consumers to different perspectives on loyalty, which are hypothesized to influence the process of constructing forecasts. The differing effects of these two forms are based on a Warshaw and Davis's (1985) proposition that intentions and expectations differ as measures of forecasts. Intention is defined as a statement of conscious intention, while expectation is a self-prediction of one's own future behavior. Apart from the weight loss example in the previous section, further examples can be found with regards to consumer decisions. When consumers say that they intend to switch their internet service provider or change to a new car, they focus on their current situation and the reasons for the intended action. However, when they express their expectation about switching the internet service provider or a changing to a new car, they take into account additional factors. An example of a positive external factor could be a potential attractive
offer from a competitive provider; while an example of a negative external factor might the information about the additional cost (e.g., taxes) associated with purchasing a new car.
Individuals can therefore take two different perspectives on their future behavior. Within the intentions perspective they tend to focus on a conscious intention to perform future behavior. The resulting forecast is mainly based on the factors under the respondent's control, such as the reasons (motivation) to perform the behavior and the attitude towards performing the behavior (Warshaw and Davis, 1985; Ajzen, 1991). We shall call these the inward-looking factors. The expectations perspective is however based on a cognitive appraisal of the factors which are beyond respondent's control. Examples of these outward-looking factors include the obstacles and risk associated with performing the behavior (Warshaw and Davis, 1985; Ajzen, 1991).
The loyalty intentions (e.g., "I intend to be a loyal customer.") and the loyalty expectations (e.g., "I expect to be a loyal customer.") are frequently and interchangeably used to measure customers' forecast of their future loyalty behavior. Based in earlier discussion, the two measures of loyalty forecasts are proposed to be different constructs. H1: Loyalty intentions and loyalty expectations are different constructs.
2.3. THE ROLES OF DETERMINANTS OF LOYALTY
As discussed in the previous section, loyalty intentions and loyalty expectations cause consumers to view future behavior in different ways. When forming a loyalty intention (LI) forecast, consumers focus more on the inward-looking determinants over which they have a higher level control. On the contrary, when forming a loyalty expectation (LE), forecasts focus more on the outward-looking determinants with a lower level of control. By acknowledging the inward and the outward nature of determinants, we can develop hypotheses for each of them about how well they predict loyalty intentions and expectations.
Customer satisfaction has been extensively studied in the marketing literature (Fornell, 1992; Oliver, 1997; Garbarino and Johnson, 1999) and has been shown to be an important determinant, positively related to loyalty. These findings have achieved a high level of awareness among practitioners and it is frequently claimed that satisfied customers are more loyal. We base the definition of customer satisfaction on Johnson and Fornell (1991) as the customer's overall
evaluation of the performance of an offering to date. Satisfaction is a judgment, constructed and internalized based on consumers' personal experience with a service or a product. It is an evaluation of the past performance and as such it does not take into account future external factors. Bansal and Taylor (1999) as well as Soderlund and Ohman (2005) have proposed that satisfaction is an entity with a relatively high level of control and thus an inward-looking determinant. Based on the discussion in the preceding section, customer satisfaction should have more weight in the intentions perspective compared to the expectations perspective. H2a: Satisfaction predicts loyalty intentions better than loyalty expectations.
Attitude towards switching behavior has been frequently proposed as a determinant of loyalty (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Bansal and Taylor, 1999). It is defined as the degree to which a person has a favorable or an unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Bansal and Taylor (1999) have found support that attitude towards switching behavior is conceptually different from perceived behavioral control. Attitude towards future behavior therefore represents the individual's own attitude and is less based on external factors. Ajzen (1991) has proposed that attitude toward this behavior is more inward-looking and a better predictor of intentions. The hypothesized distinction in predicting the intention and the expectation forecast is thus similar to the one expressed for satisfaction. H2b: Attitude towards switching predicts loyalty intentions better than loyalty expectations.
Trust is another determinant of loyalty which has recently received much attention and has been claimed to be a better predictor of loyalty than satisfaction (Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Burnham, Frels, and Mahajan, 2003). It is defined as the expectation held by customers that the provider is dependable and can be relied on to deliver on promises (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). When asked about the level of trust in a specific company, customers imagine future events and how the company would keep its promises or resolve problems that could occur. Trust is therefore an evaluation of the company's future performance and explicitly includes factors that go beyond the control of the respondent. We can consider trust as a positive determinant of loyalty with an outward-looking nature, which is more closely linked to the expectations perspective. H2c: Trust predicts loyalty expectations better than loyalty intentions.
Switching costs are related to the act of switching the provider and have been shown to influence loyalty positively (e.g., Burnham et al., 2003). Various forms of switching costs have been discussed in the literature: procedural, psychological, financial, relational, and legal (Burnham et al., 2003). In this study, the focus is on the perceived financial switching cost, which acts as a barrier for customers, decreases their switching behavior, and therefore increases their loyalty. Examples of financial switching costs are penalty fees or costs related to setting up a new service or purchasing a new product. Similarly, when switching a retailer, consumers can face an increase in the transportation cost. Financial switching costs are therefore hypothesized to be an outward-looking factor which carries more weight in the expectations perspective. H2d: Financial switching costs predict loyalty expectations better than loyalty intentions.
In this paper, we are interested in the relation between the loyalty intention, the loyalty expectation, and their relations with determinants of loyalty. The link between loyalty forecasts and actual behavior is not studied here. This has been explored and empirically tested before by Sheppard, Hartwick and Warshaw (1988), who have shown in their meta-analysis that expectations are better predictors (in terms of R2) of actual behavior than intentions.
3. STUDY ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
This section presents the study developed to test for the proposed hypotheses. First, the research design is presented together with the measures used for the constructs. Next, the measurement model is tested for convergent validity, dimensionality, and discriminant validity. Finally, we test whether determinants differ in how well they predict loyalty intentions and expectations.
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN
The data were collected using a paper and pencil questionnaire distributed to undergraduate students at a university in a metropolitan area. The students were approached when leaving the classroom and were asked to fill out the questionnaire (found in Appendix at the end of the document) for academic purposes. The participants were offered a financial incentive in form of a lottery, in which 5 participants were randomly chosen to receive a prize of 10 euros each. There were in total 187 questionnaires distributed and 117 were returned. Three of the returned questionnaires were not completed and thus the final dataset had 114 observations. The
Table 1: Items used for constructs and tests of the measurement model
Items		Loading	Error	C	a	VE	VS
Switching Intention							
I1	I plan to change my mobile services provider.	.81	.24	.77	.88	.73	.56
I2	I intend to start using another provider.	.69	.35	.65			
I3	I will change my provider within the next year.	.80	.23	.78			
Switching Expectation							
E1	I expect to change my provider in the future.	.78	.22	.77	.90	.73	.47
E2	How likely is that you will stay with your current mobile phone services provider?	.76	.24	.76			
E3	How likely is that you will change it in the future?	.76	.28	.71			
Satisfaction							
S1	How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your current mobile phone services provider?	.83	.16	.84	.93	.80	.71
S2	Overall, how do you feel about it?	.86	.11	.89			
S3	How well does it meet your needs at this time?	.80	.29	.70			
Trust							
T1	I feel can trust my mobile phone services provider.	.82	.23	.77	.88	.71	.71
T2	My provider is responsive to customers' problems.	.70	.34	.65			
T3	I feel my mobile services provider is reliable.	.75	.26	.75			
Attitude towards switching							
A1	It would take me a lot of effort to choose another mobile services provider.	.64	.29	.56	.84	.61	.56
A2	I do not feel like going through the whole process of changing the mobile provider.	.76	.31	.70			
A3	Going through the process of changing to another provider would be an unpleasant experience.	.67	.32	.60			
Perceived financial switching cost							
F1	Changing my mobile provider would cost me money.	.83	.21	.84	.90	.79	.31
F2	If I choose another services provider my costs will go up.	.80	.19	.77			
F3	Changing my mobile service provider would have significant financial impact for me. *	.34	.11	.32			
Satorra-Bentler scaled %2 = 161.17 (104 df); p-value = .000; NFI = .88; NNFI = .93; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .071 (90 % interval: .048-.091); * - item F3 is not used in the measurement model
C= Communality; a = Cronbach Reliability; VE=Variance Extracted; VS= Maximum Variance Shared (Fornell & Larcker test)
survey questions were about mobile phone services, which were used by all the respondents. A pre-study had been done with 32 graduate students in order to ensure the clarity of items used.
The dependent variables were consumers' forecasts of switching their mobile provider in the future. The items for the constructs of switching intentions and switching expectations were measured on a ten-point scale and based on Warshaw and Davis (1985), Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996), and Soderlund and Ohman (2005). Satisfaction was measured using items from Fornell (1992). Attitude toward the switching was based on Bansal and Taylor (1999). Trust was measured in line with Morgan and Hunt (1994). Switching costs measured in financial terms were based on the work of Bansal and Taylor (1999), Burnham, Frels, and Mahajan (2003), and Jones, Mothersbaugh, and Beaty (2002). For all determinants of loyalty a seven-point scale was used. All the variables were cognitive, subjective variables and therefore each was measured using three items (Table 1). Table 1 also includes tests of the measurement model.
3.2. MEASUREMENT MODEL
The variables of interest in this study are perceptual determinants, collected through a survey and each based on multiple items. Testing the relations between variables is based on a structural equation modeling. The difference in the switching intentions and the switching expectations constructs (hypothesis H1) is explored by testing the measurement model: convergent validity test, dimensionality test, and discriminant validity test (Kline, 1998). Testing the hypotheses H2a to H2d is based on comparing how selected determinants influence different dependent variables (intentions and expectations). The comparison is based on the fit of structural models.
The correlations of the constructs are reported in Table 2. The exploratory factor analysis is done, using the principal component analysis and the varimax rotation. The Cronbach's alpha supports the reliability of the constructs with values between .84 and .93 (Table 1). The F3 item for the perceived financial switching cost construct has a low loading (.34) and a low communality (.32) compared with other items in the factor analysis. The measurement model without the item F3 has a significantly better fit and this item is removed from further analysis. By examining the items F1, F2, and F3, we can observe that the items F1 and F2 ask respondents about the absolute impact of switching costs, while F3 asks about the impact relative to overall wealth. The switching costs in absolute terms seem to matter for consumers, however compared to their overall wealth they could be perceived as not so relevant. This could explain low loadings of F3.
The convergent validity is tested with a confirmatory factor analysis including all the constructs (Bagozzi, Yi, and Philips, 1991). A common method factor is included as a means of accounting for random and systematic errors (Podsakoff et al., 2003). With regards to testing structural equation models, there is no consensus about which test is best for evaluating the fit of the model. Several different tests are therefore used jointly as advised by Marsh (1994). We use a chi-square test with a scaling correction to improve the approximation of the goodness-of-fit test statistics (Satorra and Bentler, 1988). An acceptable model fit is indicated when a chi-square value divided by degrees of freedom is less than 5. Next the following fit indices are also used with acceptable fits indicated by specific values: NNFI (Non-Normed Fit Index) and CFI (Comparative Fit Index) values exceeding .90 and a RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error) value less than .08 (Marsh, 1994). In Table 1 we can observe that the measurement model has a satisfactory
Table 2: Correlations of study constructs (the data are standardized)
	x1	x2	x3	x4	x5
X1 - Switching Intention					
X2 - Switching Expectation	.67**				
X3 - Satisfaction	-.83**	-.47**			
X4 - Attitude towards switching	-.20*	-.26*	-.43**		
X5 - Trust	-.78**	-.56**	.83**	-.32**	
X6 - Perceived financial switching cost	-.45**	-.65**	.11	.20*	.05
* - p < .05; ** - p < .01
fit: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square = 161.17 (104 df); NFI = .88; NNFI = .93; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .071 (.048-.091). Both the exploratory and the confirmatory factor analysis support the convergent validity of constructs.
The discriminant validity between variables exists when there is a low correlation between items measuring different variables. The following test, proposed by Fornell and Larcker (1981), is used. For each of the variables we calculate the variance extracted (VE) by the items used to measure this specific variable. Next, the variance shared (VS) of a specific variable is the highest variance shared with any other variable used in the analysis. When for a specific variable the variance extracted (VE) is larger than the variance shared (VS), then it is sufficiently different from other variables. From Table 1 we can conclude that all the variables satisfy the discriminant validity test.
The validity of the construct aggregation is tested with the dimensionality test (Bagozzi and Edwards, 1998). Two structural models are compared; one with the switching intentions and the switching expectations modeled as a single construct (Figure 1) and another, where they are modeled as two different constructs (Figure 2). Both models also include all the other variables.
Comparing the fit of structural equation models is based on the standard test of a chi-square difference (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Brady et al., 2005). The chi-square difference is the chi-square fit statistic for one model minus the corresponding value for the second model. The difference in the chi-square statistic is evaluated against the corresponding difference in the degrees of freedom. If the chi-square difference is
Figure 1: One factor model
significant, then there is a difference in the model fit.
The single-factor model (Figure 1) has the following fit: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square = 250.80 (109 df); NFI = .79; NNFI = .83; CFI = .87; RMSEA = .11 (.090 -.125). The two-factor model (Figure 3.2) has the following fit: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square = 161.17 (105 df); NFI = .88; NNFI = .93; CFI = .95; RMSEA = .071 (.048-.091). The two-factor model fits the data better as the chi-square difference is significant (chi-square difference = 89.63; difference in degrees of freedom = 4; p < .01). The measurement model is therefore supported by all three tests: the convergent validity test, the dimensionality test, and the discriminant validity test.
3.3. STRUCTURAL PATH MODEL wITH DETERMINANTS OF LOYALTY
The difference between the switching intentions and the switching expectations constructs is further tested using determinants of loyalty as the explanatory variables. Three structural models are explored, the first one with a single dependent variable (Figure 3), the second one with two dependent variables (Figure 4), and the third model with two dependent variables, however including the effect that the intentions variable has on the expectations variable (Figure 5). In all three models four explanatory constructs are used: satisfaction, trust, perceived financial switching cost, and attitude towards switching.
In Table 1 the comparison of models is done with corresponding fit indices. As we can observe the best model is the simple two dependent variables model shown in Figure 4. Using the difference in chi-square and the difference in degrees of
Figure 2: Two factor model
E2
E3
Switching Expectations
Figure 5: The model with two dependent variables, where intentions influence expectations
Table 3: Testing models for the difference in the path coefficients
Models	Fit indices					Model fit comparison
	df	X 2	NNFI	CFI	RMSEA	
Single factor (Figure 3)	109	301.54	.76	.81	.110	A x 2 / A df = 22.88 **
Two factor (Figure 4)	104	187.13	.90	.93	.077	Best model
Two factor with interaction (Figure 5)	103	236.47	.85	.88	.092	A x 2 / A df = 49.43 **
** - significant at p < .01
Table 4: Direct effects of determinants of loyalty (p - reg. coefficient; s.e. - standard error)
	Dependent variables -	ß (s.e.)		
Independent variables	Switching Intention		Switching Expectation	
Satisfaction	- .57 (.23)	**	n.s.	
Attitude towards switching	- .52 (.19)	**	n.s.	
Trust	- .44 (.21)	*	- .73 (.23)	**
Perceived switching cost	- .24 (.09)	**	.49 (.14)	**
R2	.51		.32	
Overall fit indices: Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square = 187.13 (104 df); p-value = .000; NFI = .88; NNFI = .90; CFI = .93; RMSEA = .077 (.061-.091); * - p < .05; ** - p < .01
Table 4 shows the specific results of testing the most appropriate model, the structural model with two dependent variables (Figure 4). For each of the dependent variables the coefficients of determinants are shown together with their standard errors. All the studied determinants have been previously found to have a positive effect on loyalty. The dependent variables are switching (disloyalty) forecasts and the obtained negative sign of coefficients corresponds to the literature.
3.4. COMPARING COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE SWITCHING INTENTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS
In hypotheses H2a to H2d we have proposed that the determinants of loyalty differ in how they influence the switching intentions and the switching expectations. In Table 3 we can observe that the coefficients between the intentions and the expectations appear to be different, which is in line with H2a to H2d. Both satisfaction and attitude towards switching have a stronger effect on switching intention than switching expectation. On the other hand, trust and perceived switching costs have a stronger effect on expectations than intentions. In order to test whether these differences in coefficients are significant, the two factor model based on Figure 4 is taken as the baseline model. Next, for each of the determinants a constrained structural model is constructed, where the coefficient of the specific determinant is held equal for both dependent variables. For example, the constrained model for satisfaction is based on Figure 4 with the constraint that the two coefficients for the switching intentions and the switching expectations are the same.
The baseline (unconstrained) model and the four constrained structural models are tested for fit and the fit indices are found in the Table 5. Next,
the fit of each of the four constrained structural models is compared with the fit of the baseline model. The chi-square difference test provides support that the baseline model fits the data significantly better than any of the constrained models. Therefore, support is found for each of the hypotheses H2a to H2d. Based on these empirical results we can conclude that the switching intentions and the switching expectations differ in their explanatory variables.
4. GENERAL DISCUSSION
4.1. CONTRIBUTION TO THE THEORY
The purpose of this paper is to extend our understanding of how determinants influence customer loyalty. We base our study on the difference between the intentions and expectations perspectives. A proposition was made that measuring customer loyalty with these two perspectives triggers different cognitive processes with regards to forecasting loyalty. When customers are asked about their intentions, they tend to take a more inward-looking perspective and focus on the factors that are under their control, such as their own motivation and reasons for future behavior. On the other hand, when customers are asked about their expectations, they tend to take a more outward-looking perspective and focus more on the factors beyond their control, such as the obstacles and risk associated with loyalty behavior.
We find support that determinants of loyalty differ in how they influence loyalty intentions and expectations. These differences in effects are based on the inward or outward-looking nature of determinants. Satisfaction and Attitude towards switching are more inward-looking determinants and are found to be better predictors of loyalty intentions as opposed to loyalty expectations. On the other hand, Trust and Perceived financial
Table 5: Testing models for the difference in the path coefficients
Constrained coefficient in the	Fit indices					Model comparison
model (hypothesis)	df	X 2	NNFI	CFI	RMSEA	(all A df = 1)
None (baseline model)	104	187.13	.90	.93	.077	Baseline model
Satisfaction (H2a)	105	257.34	.82	.85	.112	A x 2 = 70.21 **
Attitude towards switching (H2b)	105	223.78	.85	.88	.093	A x 2 = 36.65 **
Trust (H2c)	105	205.07	.87	.91	.088	A x 2 = 17.94 **
Switching cost (H2d)	105	217.67	.86	.90	.092	A x 2 = 30.54 **
** - significant at p < .01
switching costs are more outward-looking and are found to be better predictors of loyalty expectations as opposed to loyalty intentions.
This study therefore contributes to the discussion about the roles and influence of determinants of loyalty (e.g., Oliver, 1999; Brady et al., 2005). As mentioned previously, there is still no agreement about which determinants are central to loyalty. Our results suggest that satisfaction is the most important determinant for loyalty intentions, while trust is the most important determinant for loyalty expectations. In previous research, either intentions or expectations have been used to capture forecasts and therefore different empirical findings can be due to researchers using different measures.
Loyalty intentions and expectations have been previously proposed to be different constructs (Warshaw and Davis, 1985; Sheppard et al., 1988; Soderlund and Ohman, 2005). Here, a stronger support is provided, as they differ both in the measurement model as well as how they are influenced by determinants (Zaltman et al., 1982).
The question now remains, which of the two measures of loyalty should be used, when aiming to identify its determinants? The answer is that they can both be useful, given that it is understood that they evoke different perspectives. When loyalty behavior with few obstacles is explored, such as word-of-mouth, then the intentions perspective might provide a better insight about which determinants matter most. However, when the studied loyalty behavior is more complex and depends on external factors, such as switching the service provider, then the expectations perspective might be more suitable.
4.2. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
Marketing researchers interchangeably use intentions and expectations measures, which can lead to misleading findings about how determinants influence loyalty. When measuring loyalty with an intention question, inward-looking determinants, such as satisfaction, would be supported as central. However, if loyalty expectations were used, then outward-looking determinants, such as trust and switching costs, would emerge as key to customer loyalty. Using different measures would lead to different findings and therefore different focus and actions in loyalty programs.
The intentions and expectations measures provide different views on loyalty and can both be
of interest to managers. Loyalty intentions signal customer's motivation to remain loyal, which can lead to a positive word of mouth, willingness to pay more, or up-grade the service. However, companies would like their customers to stay loyal even in the case of a bad service or a competitive offer. The construct of loyalty expectation signals this deeper commitment to the current provider. In order to achieve a higher level of loyalty expectation, companies should refocus their attention and resources to build trust with their customers as well as to increase perceived switching costs (e.g., penalty fees).
Our findings are important both for companies that are defending their customer base, typically incumbents, as well as companies trying to expand their customer base, typically new entrants in the market. The first group is working heavily on increasing satisfaction, trust, switching costs, and attitude towards switching behavior. On the contrary, the new entrants try to win customers over by decreasing switching costs and changing attitude towards switching by making it easier for customers to switch. The new entrants can also try to undermine trust in the incumbent.
4.3. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Previous research has identified that expectations are better predictors of actual behavior compared to intentions (Sheppard et al., 1988; Soderlund and Ohman, 2005). A limitation of this study is that an actual behavior was not measured. This would make the study richer and provide a further test of the relation between loyalty forecasts and behavior. Nevertheless, the focus of this study is on the relation between determinants of loyalty and forecasts of loyalty. Understanding this aspect of loyalty is important as many academics and practitioners use customer forecasts and not actual behavior to measure loyalty, draw conclusions, and make decisions.
The second limitation comes from the sample, both in terms of the small sample size as well as the student population. The hypotheses would need to be tested using a broader population and a bigger sample. Nevertheless, as the effects are found within such a homogenous group, it is proposed that they are also present in the broader population. Further studies done in other industries and countries would provide tests for generalizing the proposition.
Another important limitation is that only switching behavior was studied. Zeithaml et al. (1996) have proposed that in order to gain the full picture of
relevant factors in customer relationship management, one needs to study a broader set of behaviors: such as positive and a negative word of mouth, complaining, cross, and up-selling. In addition to this, effects of other determinants of loyalty would need to be explored, such as value for money, quality, cost, length of relationship, and customer characteristics (e.g. gender or age).
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22.	Reichheld, Frederick F. (1996), "Learning from Customer Defections", Harvard Business Review, March/April, pp. 56-69.
23.	Satorra, Albert and Peter M. Bentler (1988), "Scaling corrections for chi-square statistics in covariance structure analysis", Proceedings of the American Statistical Association, 1988.
24.	Sheppard, Blair H., Jon Hartwick, and Paul R. Warshaw (1988), "The Theory of Reasoned Action: A Meta-Analysis of Past Research with Recommendations for Modifications and Future Research", Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15, No. 3 (December, 1988), 325-343.
25.	Soderlund, Magnus (2003), "The retrospective and the prospective mind and the temporal framing of customer satisfaction", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 37, No. 10, 2003, 1375-1390.
26.	Soderlund, Magnus and Niclas Ohman (2005), "Assessing behavior before it becomes behavior: An examination of the role of intentions as a link between satisfaction and repatronizing behavior", International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 16, No.2, 2005, 169-185.
27.	Szymanski, David M. and David H. Henard (2001), "Customer Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Volume 29, No.1, 16-35.
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29.	Zaltman, Gerald, Karen LeMasters and Michael Heffring (1982), Theory Construction in Marketing, John Willey & Sons.
30.	Zeithaml, Valarie A., Leonard L. Berry, and A. Parasuraman (1996), "The Behavioral Consequences of Service Quality", Journal of Marketing, Vol. 60, No. 2 (April, 1996), 31-46.
31.	Zeithaml, Valarie A., Ruth N. Bolton, John Deighton, Timothy L. Keiningham, Katherine N. Lemon, and Andrew, J. Petersen (2006), "Forward-Looking Focus. Can Firms Have Adaptive Foresight?", Journal of Service Research, Vol. 9, No. 2, 168-183.
APPENDIx: MEASURES USED	
FOR STUDY constructs	
Switching Intentions (ten-point scale, »do not agree at all« /	
» agree completely«)	
I1: I plan to change my mobile phone service provider.	
I2: I intend to start using another provider.	
I3: I will change my provider within the next year.	
Switching Expectations (ten-point scale)	
E1: I expect to change my provider in the future. ("do not	
agree at all" /" agree completely")	
E2: How likely is that you will change it in the future? ("very	
unlikely" /"very likely")	
E3: How likely is that you will stay with your current mobile	
service provider? (as above)	
Overall Satisfaction (seven-point scale) ("very dissatisfied" /	
"very satisfied")	
S1: How satisfied or dissatisfied are you with your current	
mobile phone service provider?	
S2: Overall, how do you feel about it? ("very unhappy" / "very	
happy")	
S3: How well does it meet your needs at this time?	
("extremely poor" / "extremely well")	
Trust (seven-point scale, "do not agree at all" / "agree	
completely")	
T1: I feel can trust my mobile phone service provider.	
T2: My provider is responsive to customers' problems.	
T3: I feel my service provider is reliable.	
Attitude towards switching (seven-point scale, "do not	
agree at all" / "agree completely")	
A1: It would take me a lot of effort to choose another mobile	
service provider.	
A2: I do not feel like going through the whole process of	
changing the mobile provider.	
A3: Going through the process of changing the provider would	
be an unpleasant experience.	
Switching cost (seven-point scale, "do not agree at all" /	
"agree completely")	
F1: Changing my mobile service provider would cost me	
money.	
F2: If I choose another service provider my costs will go up.	
F3: Changing my mobile service provider would have	
significant financial impact for me.	
Prof. dr. Vesna Zabkar
University of Ljubljana Faculty of Economics Slovenia vesna.zabkar@ef.uni-lj.si
Sabina Suler
University of Ljubljana Faculty of Economics Slovenia sabina.suler@gmail.com
PERCEPTION OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND TRUSTING ORGANIZATIONS AFTER PRODUCT RECALLS
Abstract: In today's corporate world, corporate social responsibility (CSR) clearly plays a significant role. In the context of investigating relationships between CSR initiatives and consumer attitudes towards brands, our research deals with a relationship between perceived CSR and consumer trust: whether a positive consumer perception of CSR for a specific corporation is related to higher brand trust and trust to the corporation. The relevant question is what happens to brand trust when corporations do not act socially responsible, e.g. when they appear in the spotlight of media with negative publicity over product safety issues? In order to test relationships between consumers and brands when consumers were exposed to negative publicity case, an e-mail invitation to on-line questionnaire was sent out to a convenience sample of 100 individuals in two continents (Europe and North America). Their perceptions of CSR of a selected global corporation as well as their brand trust were measured before and after they were exposed to the digital negative publicity message for the selected corporation (one group pretest-post test experimental design). Consumer trust decreased after the exposure to the message on corporate social negligence. Key words: corporate social responsibility, product recall, trust, Europe and North America
ZAZNAVA DRUŽBENE ODGOVORNOSTI IN ZAUPANJE PODJETJU PO ODPOKLICU IZDELKOV
Povzetek: Družbena odgovornost (CSR) igra pomembno vlogo v današnjem poslovnem svetu. V okviru raziskave odnosov med aktivnostmi družbene odgovornosti podjetij in stališči porabnikov do blagovnih znamk se lotevamo odnosa med zaznano družbeno odgovornostjo podjetja in zaupanjem porabnikov: ali je pozitivno dojemanje družbene odgovornosti podjetja povezano z višjim zaupanjem v blagovno znamko in zaupanjem podjetju? Pomembno vprašanje je, kaj se zgodi z zaupanjem do blagovne znamke, če podjetje ne deluje družbeno odgovorno, na primer, ko se pojavi v središču pozornosti medijev z negativno publiciteto glede vprašanja varnosti proizvoda? Da bi preverili odnos med porabniki in blagovnimi znamkami, ko so bili porabniki izpostavljeni negativni publiciteti, smo pripravili spletni vprašalnik in poslali povabilo po e-pošti na priložnostni vzorec 100
posameznikov na dveh kontinentih (Evropa in Severna Amerika). Njihovo dojemanje družbene odgovornosti izbranega globalnega podjetja kot tudi zaupanje blagovni znamki je bilo izmerjeno pred in po izpostavitvi negativni publiciteti za izbrano podjetje (eksperiment pred in po, z eno skupino). Zaupanje porabnikov se je po izpostavljenosti sporočilu o družbeni neodgovornosti zmanjšalo. Ključne besede: družbena odgovornost, odpoklic izdelkov, zaupanje, Evropa in Severna Amerika
1. INTRODUCTION
Corporations recognize the importance of having a good reputation as it relates to accomplishing business objectives and remaining competitive in today's global society (Luo, Bhattacharya, 2009). Even though some strongly oppose any additional accountability of the corporation beyond economic responsibility, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is becoming increasingly important. It is generally believed that if a company acts socially responsibly, CSR will have a positive effect on the organization as a whole (Porter and Kramer, 2006). However, also social performance of a firm (in terms of its overall social strengths as well concerns with respect to their community involvement and environment) can be influenced by firm's financial performance (Scholtens, 2008).
Corporations have economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic obligations towards themselves and for the society at large (Carroll, 1991). CSR has traditionally been conceptualized rather broadly as "the managerial obligation to take action to protect and improve both the welfare of society as a whole and the interest of organizations" (Davis and Blomstrom 1975, p. 6, in Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001). Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) further list many alternative perspectives on the role and place of firms in the social environment, e.g. CSR as maximizing returns to shareholders or a firm's long-term role in a dynamic social system and point out that due to such a broad conceptualization, there are many and diverse domains of a socially responsible behavior of firms.
CSR clearly plays a role in consumers' brand and product evaluations (Klein and Dawar, 2004). Consumer's expectations in regards to CSR have increased over the past five to ten years (BeckerOlsen et al., 2005). With the advancement of media and technology, information is spreading rapidly; including information about disputable corporate acts. Public anger over such acts can be harsh and can result in lost trust and a tarnished public image (Yoon et al., 2006). Damaged reputation can harm customer loyalty and intimidate a company's financial future (Plummer, 2005), therefore there is an immense pressure on corporations to be socially responsible. In fact, 90 % of today's Fortune 500 companies have clear corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives (Luo and Bhattacharya, 2006). CSR is important and firms are not taking the issue lightly.
The question is however, what happens when a corporation does not act in a socially responsible
manner in the eyes of consumers? Recent events over the past few years have bombarded the media with product recalls. Product recalls can be defined as a disclosure of product defects (Rhee and Haunschild, 2006). They can be understood as attempts to avoid or minimize damages to a firm's reputation. Product recalls can bring negative returns (Davidson and Worrell, 1992): the returns are significantly more negative when the purchase price is returned or products are replaced than when the products are checked and repaired. The indirect costs can be even higher than the direct costs since product recalls could also significantly damage a firm's reputation and brand integrity (Cheah et al., 2007).
Research shows that there is a positive relationship between a company's CSR initiatives and consumer attitudes towards the company's products and the company itself (Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001). The issue of this paper is how perceived CSR after a product recall affects brand trust and trust to an organization. By brand trust we understand the willingness of a consumer to rely on the capacity of the brand to perform its declared function (Chaudhuri and Holbrook, 2001). Trust to an organization is defined as a confidence in reliability and integrity of the organization by observing or learning of previous interactions with the organization (Tax et al., 1998). Study by Vlachos et al. (2009) reveals the mediating role of consumer trust in CSR evaluation frameworks. Also, when firms act proactively in their communication of CSR acts, this leads to high levels of perceived hypocrisy and can actually be counterproductive (Wagner et al., 2009). Perceived hypocrisy in turn damages consumers' attitudes toward firms. Recently, there has been a large recall in the news involving on-road vehicles of Toyota (AdAge, 2010). Because of the apparent repercussions, the recall could have a strong impact on the Toyota brand name and on brand trust. In summary, H1: Trust in a company will worsen after a product recall.
H2: People will be less likely to trust brands that have been recalled.
To take the research a step further, another aspect of demographics should be tested, that being a country of residence. Cheah et al. (2007) found marked differences in the way market participants in the two countries (one North American and one European country) responded to news of product recalls from pharmaceutical companies, while studies such as Welford's (2005) concentrated on differences in corporate
policies. Our research question is whether customers from North America differ in their perception of product recalls from those from Europe. In summary,
H3: North Americans are differently affected by product recalls than Europeans.
2. RESEARCH METHOD
The study is based on the quantitative survey with the purpose to test hypotheses about trust to brands that have been recalled. In order to obtain reliable opinions on CSR dimensions, a specific company and brand had to be chosen (a global brand of toothpaste). The criteria for the selection were the following: a well-known brand of fast-moving-consumer-goods with global presence.
The questionnaire was developed based on relevant literature: questions about consumers' beliefs about the relationship between CSR and a company's ability to make quality products (CSR-CA beliefs) were drawn from Sen and Bhattacharya (2001). Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) built on Brown and Dacin (1997) study that defines two types of corporate associations: corporate ability (CA) associations (associations related to company's expertise in producing and delivering its outputs) and CSR associations (associations related to organization's status and activities with respect to its perceived societal obligations). Scale items for trust to the organization in our study were developed by Tax, Brown, and Chandrashekaran (1998). Items for trust in the brand were adopted from Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001). A section dedicated to product recalls was developed based on study of Sen, Gurhan-Canli and Moritz (2001) on consumer boycotts. Student samples were used in most of the mentioned studies and scales varied between five point and seven point scales. A uniform five-point scale was applied for all beliefs and attitudinal questions in the questionnaire which should be less demanding for respondents (Birks and Malhotra, 2006).
In order to control for variations in the subject's opinions of the company, all respondents were exposed to the company's CSR information that can be found on the company's webpage. This way, all participants would have the same foundation with which to answer the additional questions.
A one group pre-test post-test experimental design was used. A fabricated article about the brand's recall was applied (here the brand name is replaced by "BRAND", see Figure 1). The
Figure 1: Fabricated Article
news & features
BRAND toothpaste RECALLED
Antifreeze chemical found in tubes; no injuries reported
By David Riley
The BRAND Company said Thursday that 5-ounce tubes of BRAND toothpaste sold in discount stores are being recalled because they may contain a poisonous chemical.
A Food and Drug Administration official, Doug Arbesfeld, said Wednesday that testing had found the chemical in the BRAND product.
MS USA Trading, Inc. of North Bergen, N.J., the importer involved in the initial recall announcement, said the toothpaste may contain diethylene glycol, a chemical found in antifreeze.
The company said the toothpaste, imported from China, was sold in discount stores in New Jersey, New York, Toronto and Eastern Europe.
"Made in China" is printed on the box and includes Regular, Gel, Triple and Herbal versions.
The trading company said the problem was discovered in routine testing by the Food and Drug Administration. It said no illnesses have been reported to date.
Consumers who have purchased 5-ounce toothpaste under the BRAND label can return them to the place of purchase for a refund, MS USA Trading said.
article appeared to be from the on-line version of the respectful periodical and it stated that it was written by their senior correspondent. The intent was to create a professional looking article with a senior editor so that the readers would believe the related content. The affected regions were intentionally selected to be in North America and in Europe in order to hit close to home to the participants. Before the exposure to the article, participants' perceptions about corporate social responsibility, trust related to the organization and trust in the brand were measured. Following the exposure to the article, opinions about product recalls were measured and the same set of questions on trust in an organization and trust in brand were repeated. The intent was to detect any significant effects before and after the hypothetical recall. At the end of the questionnaire, it was important to debrief the participants and to highlight that the article was fictitious and that it was made up for the sole purpose of the experiment.
An online questionnaire was used for a variety of reasons. On-line questionnaires can reduce time for gathering information especially in international surveys and give participants the
opportunity to fill them in time suitable for them. They are also more comprehensive, less costly and interviewer's bias is reduced (Birks and Malhotra, 2006). For pretesting, the questionnaire was emailed to five respondents. Based on their feedback, minor amendments to the questionnaire were made so the questions were clearer to the participants.
The questionnaire was distributed over e-mail to a convenience sample of 150 participants living primarily in Slovenia, Toronto and Florida. These individuals were asked to forward it off to their friends and colleagues. No incentives were provided to the subjects for participating. The analysis is based on 100 filled questionnaires received. The structure of the sample was 49 respondents from Europe and 51 respondents from North America; 46 females and 54 males.
3. key findings
The first set of question in the questionnaire covered respondents' general beliefs of a company's ability for corporate social responsibility, including questions related to the company's policy of social responsibility, how
failure to do so affects product offerings, or if it compensates for inferior products (see Figure 2).
It is evident that more than half of the respondents strongly agree that a company can be both socially responsible and at the same time manufacture products of high value. Almost half of the respondents clearly disagreed with the statement that firms who devote resources to social responsibility have fewer resources left over for increasing employee effectiveness. Moreover, half of the respondents strongly disagreed that socially responsible firms produce lesser-quality products than firms who do not worry about social responsibility. The last three opinions wavered on the same point. Out of the available options, respondents most commonly disagreed with the fact that socially responsible behavior is a cover-up for inferior product offerings and that is detracts from a company's ability to provide the best possible products. Similarly, Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) found that respondents' support for CSR issues was high and their CSR-CA beliefs were skewed toward win-win rather than trade-off.
Based on results it is reasonable to conclude that expectations of respondents in our survey are high and that they feel that CSR is important. It is evident that they see a positive correlation between socially responsible firms and their production of quality products. These results prove that they do not see CSR in a negative
sense. In other words, they do not see it as a tactic that companies use in order to conceal their shortcomings.
After the respondents read the article, a set of questions examined how they feel about product recalls (refer to Figure 3). All three statements "how important/unimportant is it to you that firms such as BRAND avoid product recall", "how bothered are you by the reported recall" and "to what extent are you concerned about the product recalls" received ratings above three on the five-point Likert scale. This indicates that the respondents mostly agreed with the statements. The general feeling is that companies should avoid product recalls. This idea received the highest rating.
To clear up any ambivalences for the above questions, a one-sample t-test was done in order to test whether these means were significantly different than the indifference mean (m=3). The t-test was statistically significant for all three questions (p=0.0). The respondents strongly believe that it is important for firms to avoid product recalls; they were bothered by the reported recall, and are concerned about product recalls as opposed to feeling indifferent about these issues.
Regarding trust in the organization, the subjects were asked four sub questions related to the brand before and after they were exposed to the
Figure 2: Beliefs of CSR and Company Ability (n=100)
□ strongly disagree ■ disagree Dint
Resources devoted to SR come at the expense of improved product offerings. Firms engage in SR behaviors tend to compensate for
inferior product offerings. A company can be both SR and manufacture products of high value.
Firms that devote resources towards SR actions have
fewer resources available for increasing employee SR firms produce worse products than do firms that do not worry about SR. SR behavior by firms is often a cover-up for inferior product offerings.
SR behavior is a drain on a company's resources.
SR behavior detracts from companies' ability to provide the best possible products.
□ agree ■ strongly agree
I 1				
				
II 1 1				
i i				
i i				
				
II 1 1				
				
II 1 1				
				
II 1 1				
				
II 1 1				
0%	20% 40%	60% 80% 100%
mm|
AKADEMIJA
Figure 3: Product Recalls (n=100)
How important or unimportant is it to you that firms such as this avoid product recalls.
To what extent are you concerned about product recalls?
How bothered are you by the reported product recall?
4.29
			
3.54			
			
3.39			
Scale: 1=not at all important, 5=extremely important; 1=not at all concerned, 5=extremely concerned; 1=not at all bothered, 5=extremely bothered.
1
Figure 4: Trust in Organization Pre-Recall (n=100)
□ strongly diagree ■ disagree □ indifferent □ agree □ strongly agree
Overall, I believe this firm was honest.
I would find it necessary to be cautious in dealing with this organization. I believed the organization was trustworthy. I believed the organization could not be relied upon to keep its promises.
				
1101	31		49	|6
				
	34		35	I a |3
				
171	36		46	I 7
				
	34	■	36	I 13 t
				
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 5: Trust in Organization Post-Recall (n=100)
□ strongly diagree ■ disagree □ Indifferent □ agree □ strongly agree Overall, I believe this firm was honest.
I would find it necessary to be cautious in dealing with this organization. I believed the organization was trustworthy. I believed the organization could not be relied upon to keep its promises.
				
I 8 I 47			30 110	
				
I 28 I 31 I 27 I 9				
				
I 16 I 36 I 35 17				
				
I 30 I 42 I 19 Ê				
				
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
fabricated article (see both Figure 4 and 5). Before the exposure to the brand's recall, about half of the respondents agreed overall that the firm was honest. The aftermath showed that nearly the same amount of respondents felt indifferent about the organization's honesty. It is interesting to note however, that there was a slight increase in the number of respondents who
strongly agreed that the firm was honest. According to the five-point Likert scale, the average response before the recall was 3.42. It decreased slightly to 3.32 after the recall.
Before the recall, about 34 percent disagreed and felt that it was not necessary to be cautious in dealing with this organization. The average before
AKADEMIJA
[MM]
was 2.39, whereas after it increased to 3.07. After the recall, roughly the same proportion, 31 percent, felt indifferent about the same statement.
Prior to the recall, almost half of the sample agreed that the organization was trustworthy, yet this opinion changed after the recall. It in fact declined and only about one third agreed with the same statement. The average response had decreased from 3.44 to 3.21.
Prior to the recall, nearly one third of the respondents disagreed with the statement that they felt that the organization could not be relied upon to keep its promise. Afterwards, this sample had decreased, even though it was by a small amount. In addition, if the averages are observed, it had increased from 2.52 to 2.79, clearly indicating that the respondents had been shaken up and on average had changed their opinion from disagreeing to almost feeling unsure about the organization being relied upon to keep its word.
A paired sample t-test was done in order to compare people's responses before and after the recall (refer to Figure 6). It was significant (p=0.0) that people believed the organization was more trustworthy before the recall as opposed to after, therefore hypothesis H1 can be confirmed.
The set of question relating to trust in the brand was composed of four sub questions related to the brand. The subjects were asked these sets of questions before and after being exposed to the product recall (refer to Figure 7 and 8).
Roughly half of the respondents agreed that the brand was safe prior to the recall. The results had changed afterwards. Slightly less than one third of the respondents felt the same way. Observing the change in the average response, it had decreased from 3.6 to 3.26, from almost agreeing to feeling indifferent about the brand being safe.
Figure 6: Trust in the Organization
I believed the organization was trustw orthy (before recall)
I believed the organization was trustw orthy (after recall)
				
3.47				
				
3.21				
				
Scale:
1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree
Figure 7: Trust in Brand Pre-Recall
□ strongly diagree ■ disagree □ indifferent □ agree □ strongly agree
This is an honest brand. I rely on this brand. I trust this brand.
				
I 13 I 23 I 51 I 12				
				
3l 13 I 38 I 42 |4				
				
9 I 19 I 40 I 21 I 11				
				
4l 9 I 27		42 I 18		
				
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
mm|
AKADEMIJA
Figure 8: Trust in Brand Post-Recall
□ strongly diagree ■ disagree □ indifferent □ agree □ strongly agree
							
This brand is safe.	3	19	I 38		29		I 11
							
This is an honest brand.	3	11 I	54		I 25		I 7
							
1 rely on this brand.		13 I	24 I	36		19	8
							
1 trust this brand.	3	15 I	34		35		13
							
0%
20%
40%
60%
80% 100%
Figure 9: Trust in Brand
I trust this brand (before recall)
I trust this brand (after recall)
3.151
3.4
Scale:
1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree
Figure 10: Group #1 North Americans
How important or unimportant is it to you that firms such as BRAND avoid product recalls.
To what extent are you concerned about product recalls?
How bothered are you by the reported product recall?
3.800
4.450
3.700
Scale:
1=not at all important, 5=extremely important; 1=not at all concerned, 5=extremely concerned; 1=not at all bothered, 5=extremely bothered.
Figure 11: Group #2 Europeans
How Important or unimportant is it to you that firms such as BRAND avoid product recalls.
To what extent are you concerned about product recalls?
How bothered are you by the reported product recall?
3.367
3.183
4.183
Scale:
1=not at all important, 5=extremely important; 1=not at all concerned, 5=extremely concerned; 1=not at all bothered, 5=extremely bothered.
Before the recall, about 40 percent of the sample felt that the brand was an honest brand. It is apparent that the reported product recall in the fabricated article had an impact. Only one quarter of the respondents felt that this brand was still an honest brand. Moreover, the average response had decreased from 3.31 to 3.22.
Prior to the recall, almost one quarter agreed that they relied on this brand. This sample had decreased, even though it was by a small amount, from 3.06 to 2.85. In addition, trust in the brand had also worsened from 3.61 to 3.4. Approximately 40 percent of the respondents trusted the brand prior to the exposure, while only about one third felt the same way afterwards.
It is interesting to see the results after testing the hypothesis statistically. What happens to people's trust in a brand once it is recalled?
A paired sample t-test was done in order to compare responses before and after the recall (refer to Figure 9). It was statistically significant (p=0.0) that people trusted the brand more before the recall as opposed to after. Trust had decreased even though it was by a small amount, therefore the hypothesis H2 can be confirmed that people are less likely to trust brands that have been recalled.
In regards to the hypothesis H3, a difference between North Americans and Europeans in terms of how they are affected by product recalls was tested (refer to Figure 10 and Figure 11). From an independent sample t-test, it is significant that North Americans feel that it is more important for firms to avoid product recalls than Europeans do (p=.012). In addition, Canadians and Americans are more concerned about product recalls than Europeans (p=.001). Furthermore, this same group is more bothered by the reported recall than group two (p=.000).
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of the paper was to look at the relationship between perceived CSR and consumer trust. The method of systematic review of available literature was used and quantitative research was conducted. It is reasonable to conclude that respondents' expectations are high and they feel that CSR is important. They see a positive correlation between socially responsible firms and their production of quality products. They do not see CSR in a negative sense, as a tactic that
companies would use in order to conceal their shortcomings. The outcome of comparing responses before and after the recall was that respondents trusted the organization more before the recall as opposed to after. Trust had decreased by a small amount. The respondents felt the organization wasn't as honest; they felt that they should be more cautious in dealing with this firm in the future, that its trustworthiness had decreased, and that they could not be relied upon to keep their promises. For the third hypothesis, it was confirmed that respondents were less likely to trust brands that have been recalled. It was significant that they believed the organization was more trustworthy before the recall as opposed to after. In addition, they felt that the brand was not as safe or as honest as it once was. In addition, they would no longer rely on the brand since their trust in the brand has decreased.
It was interesting to note that there was a difference in respondents' reactions to product recalls depending on their country of residence. North Americans were clearly more concerned about product recalls than the European group. In addition, North Americans were more bothered by the reported recall, and felt that it was more important for firms to avoid product recalls than Europeans.
In terms of general recommendations, based on the survey, there is a need to foster CSR within corporate culture and in the global arena. This shall create a ripple effect that will be reflected in corporate culture and the behavior of individual firms. Even though there are firms who do not participate in voluntary practices, it is an important mechanism that drives good practices. In addition, just because a corporation may have chosen a CSR strategy in its home country, it does not mean that it translates into an "international" program (Galbreath, 2006). As a result, corporations need to foster CSR within their corporate culture to touch all aspects of their global operations.
With the increase of globalization and the speed of communication, business strategies have an impact and can be seen or heard about literally at the click of a button. Activities that take place in the utmost remote locations in the world have an impact on corporate reputation and brand loyalty in both a positive and negative manner. The mission is to ensure a consistency of practices and provide clear communication to ensure that the benefits are passed along to the stakeholders (Adkins, 1999).
Corporations should note that consumers' company evaluations are more sensitive to damaging CSR information than positive CSR information (Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001). It is safe to conclude that respondents felt indifferent about the corporation's CSR dimensions since they were not as sensitive to positive CSR information. However, when exposed to negative facts, they were more responsive. In summary, corporate social responsibility is important in today's global environment. From research, it is evident that if consumers feel that the corporation is acting socially responsible, then this will increase their trust in the company. In addition, if a mistake is made these consumers are also more willing to forgive.
5. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION
One of the limitations of our study is that a convenient, non-random sample was used. The majority of the sample was between 25 and 34 years of age. In addition, this was also an educated sample, as most had a university degree or held an MBA. Future research should use a representative sample based on probability sampling in order to make it possible to generalize findings and draw stronger conclusions. Also, a two-group pre-test post-test experimental design could be used, making it possible to test both an experimental group and a control group.
An interesting extension of research on CSR and consumer trust is suggested by Castaldo et al. (2009) who point to Fair Trade products and show that the link between CSR and trust only exists when under the conditions that the products comply with ethical and social requirements and the company has an acknowledged commitment to protect consumer rights and interests. Further tests about these dimensions of product and company characteristics should be included in the survey.
Furthermore, de Matos and Rossi (2006) point out to differences in how consumers' product judgments and behavioral intentions are affected differently by CSR, opening another possible future direction for the study, including consumers' involvement with the message, perceived danger, product judgment and behavioral intentions.
To summarize, the goal of this paper was to show what happens to companies when they are not acting in a socially responsible manner, more specifically, the negative impacts a product recall
can have on brand trust and loyalty. The analysis revealed some interesting bits of information. If people think that the organization is behaving socially irresponsible, for instance by encountering a product recall, their brand loyalty and trust will decrease for that organization and brand. This just reemphasizes the fact that corporate concern cannot be overlooked and that it is essential to the firm's overall strategy. In conclusion, by implementing the given recommendations it is believed that it will defend the organization's image as well as brand loyalty, especially for those companies facing product recalls.
5. LITERATURE
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7.	Carroll, B. A., & Buchholtz, K. A. (2000): Business & Society : Ethics and Stakeholder Management. 4th ed., Cincinnati (Ohio): South-Western College. 750 pgs.
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11.	de Matos, C. A., & Rossi, C. A. V. (2007). Consumer reaction to product recalls: factors influencing product judgement and behavioural intentions. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 31(1), 109-116.
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13.	Klein, J., & Dawar, N. (2004). Corporate social responsibility and consumers' attributions and brand evaluations in a product-harm crisis. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 21(3), 203-217.
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AKADEMIJA
EMI
16.	Plummer, J. T. (2005). Editorial: The Fragile Nature of Corporate Reputation. Journal of Advertising Research, pp. 289-289.
17.	Porter, E. M., & Kramer, R. M. (2006): Strategy and Society: The Link Between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 78-92.
18.	Rhee, M., & Haunschild, P. R. (2006). The liability of good reputation: A study of product recalls in the US automobile industry. Organization Science, 17(1), 101.
19.	Sen, S., & C.B Bhattacharya (2001): Does Doing Good Always Lead to Doing Better? Consumers Reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility. Journal of Marketing Research, 38, 225-243.
20.	Sen, S., Gurhan-Canli Z., & Morwitz, V. (2001): Withholding Consumption: A Social Dilemma Perspective on Consumer Boycotts. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3), 399-417.
21.	Scholtens, B. (2008). A note on the interaction between corporate social responsibility and financial performance. Ecological Economics, 68(1-2), 46-55.
22.	Tax, S. S., Brown, S. W., & Chandrashekaran, M. (1998). Customer evaluations of service complaint experiences: implications for relationship marketing. The Journal of Marketing, 62(2), 60-76.
23.	Vlachos, P., Tsamakos, A., Vrechopoulos, A., & Avramidis, P. (2009). Corporate social responsibility: attributions, loyalty, and the mediating role of trust. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 37(2), 170-180.
24.	Wagner, T., Lutz, R. J., & Weitz, B. A. (2009). Corporate Hypocrisy: Overcoming the Threat of Inconsistent Corporate Social Responsibility Perceptions. Journal of Marketing, 73(6), 77-91.
25.	Welford, R. (2005). Corporate Social Responsibility in Europe, North America and Asia. Journal of Corporate Citizenship, 17, 33-52.
26.	Yoon, Y., Gurhan-Canli, Z., & Schwarz, N. (2006). The effect of corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities on companies with bad reputations. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(4), 377-390.
TRAJNOSTNI MARKETING
ZAVAROVANIH OBMOčIJ
Mag. Tanja Lešnik Štuhec
Univerza v Mariboru Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta
Slovenija
tanja.lesnik-stuhec@vsgt-mb.si
Prof. dr. Damijan Mumel
Univerza v Mariboru Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta
Slovenija damijan.mumel@uni-mb.si
Povzetek: Upravljavci zavarovanih območij se redko srečajo z marketinškimi orodji za prepoznavanje potreb in pričakovanj ciljnih skupin svojih potrošnikov, zato so komuniciranje s ciljno javnostjo, oblikovanje in izvajanje marketinga ciljnih turističnih programov in dobaviteljskih verig zanje ter spremljanje kakovosti njihovega izvajanja, prej izjema kot stalnica. Trajnostni marketing izhaja iz tradicionalnega marketinga in vključuje štiri alternativne pristope, in sicer: ekološki marketing, socialni marketing, demarketing in marketing odnosov. Trajnostni marketing temelji na tako imenovanih priporočilih 5R, in sicer: odgovorno, realno, regionalno, raziskovalno in temelječe na odnosih. Z uporabo teh priporočil in z aktivnostmi alternativnih vrst marketinga je možno reševati problematiko zavarovanih območij. V raziskavi nas je zanimalo, kako slovenska zavarovana območja izpolnjujejo svoje poslanstvo: zagotavljanje uživanja narave in rekreacije v neokrnjenem naravnem okolju. S kvantitativno raziskavo - metodo spletnega anketiranja - smo testirali zadovoljstvo obiskovalcev v devetih slovenskih zavarovanih območjih z upravljavcem (po sistemu marketinškega spleta trajnostnega marketinga), ki smo jih predhodno raziskali z metodo kvalitativnega raziskovanja. Ključne besede: zavarovana območja, upravljanje vplivov obiskovalcev, trajnostni marketing, socialni marketing
PROTECTED AREAS SUSTAINABLE MARKETING
Abstract: Protected areas management authorities rarely use marketing instruments to recognize the needs and expectations of their target customers. Thus target public communication, target tourist programmes designing and marketing as well as supplier chains for themselves and the evaluation of their qualitative implementation are more exceptions rather than continuity in protected areas. Sustainable marketing derives from traditional marketing and includes four alternative marketing approaches: ecological marketing, social marketing, demarketing and relationship marketing. Sustainable marketing is based on 5R principles: responsible, realistic, regional, research and relationships, which should be balanced with alternative marketing for solving problems in protected areas. The research in this paper has the purpose to find out how Slovenian protected areas fulfil
their mission: to assure the nature enjoyment and recreation in unspoilt environment. With the qualitative research - an on-line inquiry method, the visitor satisfaction in nine Slovenian protected areas with management authority is verified (by the system of sustainable marketing mix), which were previously researched with qualitative method. Key words: protected areas, visitor impact management, sustainable marketing, social marketing
1.	UVOD
Obisk zavarovanih območij1 (ZO) je vedno bolj priljubljena oblika sproščanja in rekreacije v naravi na vseh kontinentih našega planeta. Obiskovalci želijo doživeti prvinskost narave, njeno neokrnjenost in svežino. Pripravljeni so svoj prosti čas preživeti v okolju, ki jim omogoča pridobivanje enkratnih in neponovljivih izkušenj ter doživetij.
Upravljanje ZO vključuje ob upravljanju naravnih in kulturnih virov ter finančnem, kadrovskem, zakonodajnem in političnem upravljanju organizacije tudi upravljanje obiskovalcev2 in turistične dejavnosti. Marketinške aktivnosti so prej izjema kot stalnica v ZO.
V raziskavi, ki jo predstavljamo v tem prispevku, smo preverjali model upravljanja ZO, ki je nastal na temelju izvedene kvalitativne raziskave. Zanimalo nas je (i) zadovoljstvo med obiskovalci slovenskih ZO z upravljavcem, torej uporabniki ZO v Sloveniji, (ii) kako dobro ZO poznajo potrebe in pričakovanja uporabnikov ZO in (iii) kako jim prilagajajo ponudbo doživetij oziroma ali obravnavajo ZO kot izdelek z značilnostmi, ki ga opredeljujejo. Za testiranje sprejemljivosti modela pri obiskovalcih smo anketirali uporabnike ZO.
2.	TEORETIČNA IZHODIŠČA
Raziskovalci (Erkkonen in Pertti, 2006; Eagles in McCool, 2004; Manning, 2001; Farrwell, 2002; National Parks Service, 1997; Parks Canada, 1994; Stankey et al., 1985; Clark in Stankey, 1979) se že dolga leta ukvarjajo predvsem z omejevanjem dostopa ljudi v ZO, da bi zmanjšali negativne vplive na naravne, socio-kulturne in družbene vire ZO. Mnogi sodobni pristopi upravljanja vpliva obiskovalcev v ZO (Brown et al., 2005; Eagles in McCool, 2004; Phillips, 2002) temeljijo na naslednjih korakih: (i) oblikovanje upravljavskih ciljev, ki so podprti s kvantitativnimi indikatorji in standardi kakovosti; (ii) spremljanje (monitoring) spremenljivk indikatorjev, ki določajo pogoje, za standarde kakovosti; (iii) upravljavske dejavnosti, ki vzdržujejo standarde kakovosti.
1	IUCN (1995) opredeljuje ZO kot: »območje kopnega in/ali morja, ki je posebej namenjeno varstvu in ohranitvi biološke raznovrstnosti, naravnih virov in kulturnih vrednot, z njim pa upravljajo z zakonskimi in drugimi ustreznimi mehanizmi« (Phillips, 2002).
2	Obiskovalci ZO (Siegrist et al., 2006; Muhar et al., 2006; Coalter et al., 1996) so podobno kot ekoturisti ljudje srednjih let, z zaključenim terciarnim izobraževanjem, z nadpovprečnimi prihodki, večjim obsegom prostega časa, večjim zavedanjem za zdrav način življenja, porabijo na osebo več kot povprečni turisti, potovanja organizirajo individualno in potujejo z avtom.
Večina pristopov predlaga, naj vključena javnost vodi celovito implementacijo upravljanja vpliva obiskovalcev v ZO, vendar pa le redko vključujejo inovativne marketinške aktivnosti.
Upravljanje obiska se nanaša na dve ključni vprašanji: (i) kako povečati kakovost doživetij obiskovalcev in (ii) kako upravljati vplive obiska na naravo, da bodo v sprejemljivih mejah in želenih rezultatih (Fyall, 2008; Swarbrook, 2007; Weaver, 2006; Eagles in McCool, 2004). Na prvo vprašanje je nujno odgovoriti s perspektive turizma v ZO: obiskovalci pričakujejo visoko kakovostna doživetja, kar pomeni, da morajo upravljavci poznati njihova pričakovanja in jih v skladu s cilji ZO poskušati tudi zadovoljiti. Na drugo vprašanje gledamo z vidika ciljev ustanavljanja ZO (ohranjanje in zavarovanje pomembnih naravnih in kulturnih vrednot) in dejstva, da ima obisk teh posebnih območij lahko tudi negativne vplive na vrednote. Upravljavci se morajo posvetiti in prepoznati želene vplive obiska na ZO, ki se odražajo v podpori skupnosti, cenjenju lokalne kulture in generiranju prihodka.
Upravljanje rekreacije in doživetij obiskovalcev v ZO zahteva celovito zgradbo in preudarno filozofijo ter nenehno spremljanje za oblikovanje baze podatkov o obiskovalcih in njihovih aktivnostih (Fyall, 2008; Swarbrook, 2007; Walder, 2006; Weaver, 2006; Phillips, 2002). Največ vplivov na ZO ne nastane zaradi prenatrpanosti, temveč zaradi neprimernega vedenja obiskovalcev (Weaver, 2006; Eagles in McCool, 2004; Eagles et al., 2001; Wearing in Neil, 1999).
V evropskih ZO je ob prej omenjenih trdih metodah upravljanja obiska nujno oblikovati mehke aktivnosti komuniciranja, informiranja ter usmerjanja obiskovalcev v manj občutljiva območja (Fyall, 2008; Swarbrook, 2007). IUCN in UNESCO3 sta kot orodji za upravljanje obiska uvrstili okoljsko vzgojo in izobraževanje.
3 Okoljska vzgoja in izobraževanje sta proces prepoznavanja vrednot ter razumevanja in spoštovanja medsebojne povezanosti človeka, njegove kulture in njegovega biofizičnega okolja (IUCN 1970). Okoljska vzgoja in izobraževanje vzgajata jasno zavest in skrb glede ekonomske, socialne, politične in ekološke soodvisnosti v urbanih in kmetijskih območjih; vsaki osebi dajeta možnosti za pridobivanje znanja ter spoznavanje vrednot, odnosov, obveznosti in sposobnosti, ki so potrebne za varstvo in napredek okolja; oblikujeta nove vzorce obnašanja posameznikov, skupin in celotne družbe do okolja (UNESCO 1977). Okoljska vzgoja in izobraževanje praktično oblikujeta odločitve in pravila ravnanja z okoljem in odnosa do njegove kakovosti (IUCN 1970). V zadnjem času se v mednarodni terminologiji pojavljajo izrazi kot »biodiversity education and public awareness«, »learning for sustainability«, »education for sustainability« ipd. (IUCN 2008).
Profesionalni vodniki z inovativnimi pristopi interpretacije popeljejo obiskovalce v unikatna doživetja narave, ki temeljijo na izobraževanju in osveščanju skozi igro in zgodbe. Za tak pristop je potrebno v uprave ZO vpeljati marketinško razmišljanje in aktivnosti ter obravnavati ZO kot turistično destinacijo, ki je največkrat podeželska, heterogena in tradicionalno lokacijsko pogojena. Ritchie in Crouch (2003) navajata, da je za kakovostno celovito doživetje destinacije (npr. ZO) nujno oblikovati Destination Management Organisation (DMO).
Funkcija marketinga ZO se mora usmeriti predvsem na: (i) segmentiranje; (ii) prepoznavanje potreb, pričakovanj in vedenja ciljnih skupin obiskovalcev; (iii) razvoj specializiranih turističnih programov in proizvodov z učinkovitimi dobaviteljskimi verigami zanje; (iv) spodbujanje povezovanja med različnimi ponudniki v destinaciji - ZO (v) učinkovito marketinško komuniciranje s ciljnimi javnostmi, (vi) spremljanje in evalviranje aktivnosti ipd.
2.1. TRAJNOSTNI MARKETING ZO
Wearing et al. (2007: 4) opredeljujejo marketing v ZO kot proces upravljavskih aktivnosti: »oblikovan za načrtovanje, promoviranje in distribucijo želenih izdelkov, storitev in idej za dobrobit ciljnih marketinških skupin ter doseganje ciljev organizacije«. Ta definicija temelji na tradicionalnem marketinškem spletu s poudarkom na privabljanju, ohranjanju in širjenju nabora odjemalcev. Izjemno pomemben element strategije tradicionalnega marketinga so marketinške raziskave, s katerimi se ugotavljajo profili potreb, vedenja in značilnosti potrošnikov. Prav razumevanje teh profilov mora biti za uprave ZO bistveni element marketinških strategij, ki prinaša dolgoročno trajnostno varstvo naravnega okolja in koristi za vse deležnike.
Wearing, Archer, in Beeton (Wearing et al., 2007) predlagajo v svojem delu 'The sustainable marketing of tourism in protected areas: moving forward' uporabo trajnostnega marketinga, ki vključuje štiri alternativne pristope, in sicer: (i) ekološki marketing, (ii) socialni marketing, (iii) demarketing in (iv) marketing odnosov.
2.1.1. Ekološki marketing
Načela ekološkega marketinga so bila vključena v marketing ZO, saj vključujejo marketing izdelkov in storitev s pozitivnim ekološkim vplivom, ki privabljajo okoljsko zavedne potrošnike. Pristop ekološkega marketinga izpostavlja, da finančni profit ni edini oziroma najpomembnejši kriterij
merjenja uspeha (Peattie, 1995). Druge koristi kot npr. dolgoročno ohranjanje okolja, večanje zavedanja potrošnikov in cenjenje naravnega okolja ter zadovoljstvo potrošnikov so veliko bolj pomembne. Bistven je tudi odnos med povpraševanjem in ponudbo, saj okolju škodljiv izdelek odvrača povpraševanje (Wearing et al., 2007). Glede na ugotovitve Richardsonove (1991), da na naravi osnovan turizem in ekoturizem rasteta hitreje kot masovni turizem, lahko pričakujemo, da bo povpraševanje po doživetjih v ZO tudi v prihodnje naraščalo, saj so ljudje vedno bolj ekološko ozaveščeni in si želijo kakovostnih doživetij narave in rekreacije. Za to so pripravljeni tudi več prispevati.
2.1.2. Socialni marketing
Socialno-marketinška miselnost temelji na teoriji družbene menjave in usmerjenosti k potrošniku (Kotler, 2004; Jančič, 1999; Andreasen, 1995). Nanaša se na »oblikovanje, implementacijo in nadzor zastavljenih programov za vplivanje na sprejemljivost socialnih idej in vključevanje premišljenega načrtovanja izdelka, cene, komunikacije, distribucije in marketinških raziskav«. (Kotler in Zaltman, 1971: 5) Andreasen (1995: 8) trdi, da: (i) socialni marketing stremi h koristim potrošnikov in družbe, ne pa k profitu ali interesom organizacije, kot je to v navadi pri komercialnem marketingu; (ii) je pri socialnem marketingu poudarek na spremembi vedenja in ne na doseganju zavedanja ali spreminjanja stališča; in (iii) imajo ciljno občinstvo oziroma potrošniki v socialno-marketinškem pristopu središčno vlogo.
Socialne marketinške strategije poskušajo vplivati na vedenje ciljnih trgov z aplikacijo marketinških idej in načel s promoviranjem družbenih problemov in aktivnosti, ki se odražajo le nad zadovoljevanjem individualnih zahtev. Uporabniki so v doživljanje in rekreacijo v ZO visoko vpleteni, zato je spreminjanje njihovega vedenja večstopenjski proces, ki ga je nujno raziskati in prepoznati (Andreasen, 1995).
Dinan in Sargeant (2000) trdita, da zahteva pristop socialnega marketinga od turističnih organizacij večji poudarek na taki segmentaciji trga, ki oblikuje segmente (kategorije) obiskovalcev, ki niso le ekonomsko privlačni, temveč so dovzetni za sporočila, ki jih spodbujajo k trajnostnemu vedenju. Andreasen (1996: 10) tudi meni, da morajo turistične organizacije za uspešen socialni marketing narediti naslednje: (i) določiti segmente obiskovalcev; (ii) proučiti in razumeti njihovo različno trajnostno vedenje, (iii) proučiti motiviranost za vedenje teh segmentov obiskovalcev (zakaj se odločijo za obisk določene
regije in kakšno zadovoljstvo pričakujejo) in (iv) prepoznati najpomembnejše spremenljivke vplivanja na vedenje obiskovalcev (Wearing et al., 2007: 5).
Za učinkovito načrtovanje in implementiranje socialnega marketinga navajajo avtorji več pristopov. Weinreichova (Weinreich, 1999) predstavlja petstopenjski model socialno-marketinškega procesa, Andreasen (1995) šeststopenjskega in Kotler et al. (2002) osemstopenjskega4. Zadnji vključuje: analizo okolja; izbiro ciljnih trgov; določitev ciljev in nalog; analizo ciljnih skupin in konkurence; razvoj socialno-marketinških strategij; oblikovanje načrta za evalvacijo in monitoring; določitev proračuna in pridobivanja finančnih virov; ter oblikovanje in izvedbo načrta.
2.1.3. Demarketing
V primeru prevelikega povpraševanja po določenih območjih ali storitvah v določenih ZO morajo upravljavci le-teh odvračati oziroma zmanjševati povpraševanje, kar so poimenovali 'demarketing' 5 (Kotler, 1971). Od poimenovanja koncepta leta 1971 je demarketing doživel že nekaj kritik (Weaver, 2006). Beeton in Benfield (2002, v Weaver, 2006) menita, da so prav promocijske aktivnosti najbolj učinkovit model demarketinga, vendar pa jih destinacije ne uporabljajo dovolj pri prepoznavanju in zadovoljevanju potreb potencialnih ciljnih skupin obiskovalcev. Dejstvo pa je, da lahko manjše število obiskovalcev vodi k boljši kakovosti doživetij in posledično k njihovemu večjemu zadovoljstvu (Fyall, 2008; Swarbrook, 2007; Wearing, 2007; Weaver, 2006; Phillips, 2002). Uporabniki pa so za unikatna doživetja pripravljeni tudi več plačati.
Groff (1998; v Kotler, 2004) navaja tri različne situacije, v katerih lahko uprava ZO uporabi strategije demarketinga, in sicer: (i) začasno pomanjkanje - zaradi manjše ponudbe ali podcenjevanja upravljanja povpraševanja po določenih območjih ali programih ZO; (ii) kronična preobljudenost - lahko resno ogrozi kakovost doživetja obiskovalcev in škoduje naravnim
4	Stopnje si v praksi ne sledijo kronološko kot so predstavljene.
5	Najbolj poznani primeri demarketinga so: (i) z Bermudskih otokov, kjer so poskušali zmanjšati masovni turizem in povečati turizem obiskovalcev z veliko turistično potrošnjo (zmanjšali so promocijo, povečali cene in izločili turistične produkte, ki bi pritegnili neželene tržne skupine); (ii) s Tajske - preusmeritev od seksualnega turizma in (iii) s Cipra - preusmeritev mladih turistov iz segmenta hrupnih ponočnjakov v segment mladih turistov, ki jih zanima narava in kulturna dediščina (Weaver 2006).
virom, ki privlačijo obiskovalce; in (iii) konfliktna raba - obsega probleme varnosti obiskovalcev, združljivosti rabe z razpoložljivimi viri in različnimi rabami ter programi, ki jih pričakujejo obiskovalci.
Včasih mora uprava ZO izvajati istočasno marketinške in demarketinške aktivnosti (Wearing et al., 2007; Weaver, 2006). Metode demarketinga lahko vključujejo: (i) rast cen z namenom, da bi povečali čas zadrževanja posameznika v destinaciji ZO; (ii) oblikovanje sistema čakalne liste za povečanje časa zadrževanja in oportunitetnih stroškov doživetij v ZO; (iii) omejitev glavne promocijske strategije le na izbrane in specializirane medijske kanale in/ali izbrane trge/javnosti; (iv) promoviranje pomembnosti območja z izobraževanjem javnosti in s potrebo po ohranjanju območja z minimalnim vplivom in trajnostnim razvojem; (v) promoviranje številnih alternativnih priložnosti v okoliških območjih, ki lahko zadovoljijo potrebe in pričakovanja obiskovalcev; (vi) poudarjanje okoljske degradacije kot posledice preobljudenosti območja; (vii) poudarjanje vseh omejitev ali težav, povezanih s potovanjem v območje (Wearing et al., 2007, Eagles in McCool, 2004; Phillips 2002; Wearing in Neil, 1999).
Za ZO bi bilo nujno koncept demarketinga dopolniti oziroma pojasniti skladno s konceptom marketinških ali mehkih ukrepov t.i. visitor managements6. S coniranjem, ki temelji na nosilni zmogljivosti območja (carrying capacity) in alternativnih modelih upravljanja rabe obiska in turistične infrastrukture (ROS, LAC, VIM, VAMP, VERP, TOMM), se usmerja obiskovalce v manj občutljiva območja z metodami razprševanja, koncentracije ali kombinacije obeh (Weaver, 2006; Eagles in McCool, 2004; Farrwell, 2002; Phillips, 2002). Med metode mehkega upravljanja rabe
6 Eagles et al. (2002) navajajo kot orodja visitor managementa v ZO: (i) sezonsko ali začasno omejevanje rabe; (ii) omejevanje velikosti skupin obiskovalcev; (iii) prebukiranje na druge
aktivnosti, kadar je želena aktivnost prezasedena; (iv) zapiranje območij za določene aktivnosti; (v) omejitev rabe ognja; (vi) omejitve po značilnostih skupin obiskovalcev; (vii) omejitve časa zadrževanja v območju; (viii) zahteva specialne opreme za obisk ZO; (ix) določitev časovnega in lokacijskega poteka organiziranih pohodov oziroma tur; (x) opozorila za zadrževanje izven območij, kjer se zadržujejo redke vrste živali ali rastlin, občutljivih mokrišč ipd.; (xi) utrjevanje območij; (xii) parkovne informacije; (xiii) interpretacija; (xiv) diferenciacija cen za istovrstne rekreacijske priložnosti; (xv) usposobljenost za obisk ZO; (xvi) turistični marketing (spletne informacije za obiskovalce, usposabljanje organizatorjev potovanj, pogodbe za promocijo ZO). Ob tem pa naštevajo še: (i) coniranje ZO; (ii) upravljanje transporta v ZO; (iii) zaračunavanje obiska v ZO (vstopnina, donacije za izvedene programe); (iv) reguliranje rabe obiska (raba informacij in izobraževanja za ocenjevanje in reševanje upravljavskih problem; vplivanje na aktivnosti obiskovalcev); (v) informiranje in interpretacijo ipd.
območja prištevajo avtorji (Fyall 2008; Swarbrook 2007; Wearing et al. 2007; Weaver 2006; Eagles in McCool 2004; Wearing in Neil 1999): (i) upravljanje števila in vedenja obiskovalcev z oblikovanjem parkovne infrastrukture (npr. sistema poti, sanitarij, parkirišč, igrišč, rekreacijskih objektov), programe informiranja (informacijski centri in točke, centri za obiskovalce, informacijske table in kažipoti), programe izobraževanja (izobraževalni oziroma učni centri, tematska vodenja, delavnice, tabori), programe interpretacije narave in kulturne dediščine (interpretativni centri, tematska vodenja, muzeji in muzeji na prostem ipd.), orodja za samostojno orientiranje v naravi (internetne storitve, promocijska sredstva, GPS idr.); (ii) upravljanje dostopa v območja z uvajanjem vstopnin in dajatev (donacij) za parkiranje in vodene programe ter uvajanjem sistema čakalnih list; (iii) upravljanje vandalizma (orodja obveščanja, kot so informativne table, naravovarstveni nadzorniki ipd.); (iv) upravljanje vožnje izven označenih poti (poligoni, termini, orodja obveščanja ipd.) ter (v) upravljanje hranjenja živali (urniki, krmišča ipd.) in drugo. Z učinkovitim managementom se izognejo konfliktom med različnimi deležniki ZO in rabi tehnik reševanja konfliktov, ki so tudi sestavni del visitor managementa v ZO (Weaver, 2006).
2.1.4. Marketing odnosov
Marketing odnosov je vodilni tržni in na potrošnike orientiran upravljavski koncept, ki stremi k oblikovanju in ohranjanju profitabilnih odnosov, ki povezujejo potrebne deležnike in vire, da omogočijo najboljšo vrednost za potrošnika (Wearing et al., 2007).
Za marketinške odnose je značilno, da temeljijo na enakovredni menjavi med partnerji -udeleženci v menjavi. Enakovredno menjavo prepoznamo po izidu »win-win« (zmagam-zmagaš), kar pomeni, da sta obe strani, ki sta se odločili za menjavo, zadovoljni z izidom (Brezovec in Nemec Rudež, 2009).
'Sodelovalna' združba, na kateri temelji marketing odnosov, ima veliko vrednost za trajnostno upravljanje ZO. Borrie, Christensen, Watson, Miller in McCollum (2002) so podali tri dimenzije medsebojnih odnosov med javnostjo in upravami ZO, in sicer: (i) socialno zaupanje (raven, kako posamezniki zaznavajo, da uprava ZO deli njihove poglede, cilje in vrednote); (ii) zavezanost (investicije, zvestoba in dolgoživost odnosov z upravo); (iii) socialna odgovornost (vključuje vedenje do ciljev ali javnega namena uprave) (Wearing et al., 2007: 7).
2.2. MODEL VODIL ZA TRAJNOSTNI MARKETING
Wearing, Archer, in Beeton (Wearing et al., 2007) so po obsežni raziskavi, v katero je bilo vključenih enajst svetovno znanih ZO, oblikovali model oziroma priporočila za trajnostni marketing ZO. Sestavlja jih 5R vodil za ohranjanje okoljske integritete (Slika 1), in sicer: (i) odgovoren -trajnostni marketing ZO se mora oblikovati in izvajati na odgovoren in etičen način; (ii) realen -trajnostni marketing ZO se mora izvajati tako, da širi realne predstave in informacije obstoječim in potencialnim obiskovalcem; (iii) regionalen -trajnostni marketing ZO se mora oblikovati in izvajati v regionalnem kontekstu; (iv) raziskave7 -raziskave so osnovni element trajnostnega marketinga in morajo biti vključene v marketinško načrtovanje in strategije; (v) medsebojni odnosi - sodelujoči odnosi med obstoječimi upravljavci zemljišč, deležniki gospodarskih dejavnosti in skupnosti lahko prinesejo korist vsem vključenim.
Priporočila so v pomoč upravam ZO in turističnim organizacijam pri oblikovanju: (i) ponudbe, (ii) rasti zavedanja potrošnikov in (iii) pristopa za sodelovalno marketinško upravljanje. Tako lahko skupaj določajo, razvijajo in aplicirajo trajnostni marketing in promovirajo naravna območja obstoječim in potencialnim obiskovalcem. Na Sliki 2 je predstavljen način povezovanja trinajstih
7 Med marketinške raziskave prištevamo raziskave želja in potreb kupcev, raziskave imidža in ugleda podjetja, storitve ali destinacije pri različnih javnostih, analiziranje konkurence, analiziranje gospodarskega, političnega in pravnega okolja itd. za potrebe upravljanja organizacije (Brezovec in Nemec Rudež, 2009).
prepoznanih problemov z marketinškim pristopom in vodili za učinkovito izvajanje marketinga in promocije ZO.
2.3. VERIGE USTVARJANJA IN POSREDOVANJA VREDNOSTI
Za ZO je dobro, če v procesu posredovanja vrednosti uporabljajo verige ustvarjanja in posredovanja vrednosti (Kumar, 2005), saj se proces marketinga prične že pred nastankom izdelka (izbira vrednosti), poteka med njegovim nastajanjem (oskrba z vrednostjo) in traja še potem, ko je izdelek že dosegljiv na trgu (sporočanje o vrednosti). V 1. fazi gre za segmentacijo, ciljanje in pozicioniranje, v 2. fazi za taktični marketing - razvijanje lastnosti, cene in distribucije izdelka; v 3. fazi se taktični marketing nadaljuje v smeri uporabe prodajnega osebja in orodij marketinškega komuniciranja8 (pospeševanja prodaje, oglaševanja itd.) (Konečnik, 2007; Kotler, 2004), vse pa v kontekstu strategije trajnostnega razvoja turizma ZO.
8 Temeljni medij, ki omogoča izvajanje elektronskega turističnega marketinga, je spletna stran turističnega ponudnika. Spletna stran mora biti privlačna in uporabna za različne ciljne uporabnike. Imeti mora kakovostno vsebino z grafiko, uporabljati mora primeren jezik in ustrezne barve, aktualne informacije, biti mora neprestano ažurirana, in vsebovati delujoče povezave in spletne podstrani. Spletna stran mora biti optimizirana tako, da omogoča čim hitrejši dostop. Pri izbiri spletnih iskalnikov je treba vedeti, kateri spletne iskalnike najpogosteje uporabljajo turisti na emitivnih turističnih trgih. Med najpogostejše oblike elektronskega marketinga sodijo tudi: (i) pasice ali oglasni trakovi (banners); (ii) vmesni oglasi (pop-ups); (iii) sponzorstva; (iv) oglas po ključni besedi (key word advertising); (v) elektronska pošta; (vi) spletne skupnosti in web 2.0 aplikacije.
Slika 1: Model 5R trajnostnega marketinga ZO
/	N
' Odgovorno '
Vir: Wearing et al. (2007); Wearing in Archer (2001)
AKADEMIJA
[MM]
Slika 2: Povezovanje ključnih problemov z marketinškim pristopom in vodilnimi načeli
		—^
	Problemi	
		—j
Pomanjkanje sporočil o i ohranjanju v marketinških in promocijskih materialih
/
Konflikt med skupinami obiskovalcev in aktivnostmi
\ i
Neenakost dostopnosti ZO
i
Preobljudenost v ZO
Pomanjkanje natančnih informacij za obiskovalce
Neučinkovita raba posrednikov informacij
r
Zmeda pri trženju/ , promoviranju ZO obstoječim r-
in potencialnim obiskovalcem ---------------K
Pomanjkljiv nadzor nad masovnimi mediji in drugimi informacijskimi viri, ki jih j'" uporabljajo obiskovalci
Zagotoviti varstvo ekološke integritete
Zagotoviti varstvo kulturne in
zgodovinske dediščine — — — — — — — — — — — — — — ^
Implikacija kulturne in intelektualne lastnine turizma, kot je spoštovanje občutljivih informacij, kopiranj in rabe imidža v marketingu in promociji
Širjenje ekonomskih in i zaposlitvenih koristi na naravi osnovanega turizma v območju
Pomanjkanje sodelovalnih partnerstev in sponzorskih programov
Marketinški pristopi za reševanje problemov
Ekološki marketing Socialni marketing Marketing razmerij
Demarketing
Socialni marketing Demarketing
Demarketing
Tradicionalni marketing Ekološki marketing
Marketing razmerij
Marketing razmerij
Marketing razmerij
Ekološki marketing
Demarketing Marketing razmerij
Socialni marketing Marketing razmerij
Marketing razmerij
Marketing razmerij
Marketing razmerij
		
	Vodilna	
	načela	
		
i ■ i
s,. i i
..i
f
•1 I \
I I
Odgovorno Realno Osnovano na razmerjih
Realno Regionalno Raziskave
Odgovorno Raziskave Regionalno
Regionalno
Realno Raziskave
Realno Regionalno Osnovano na razmerjih
Osnovano na razmerjih
Osnovano na razmerjih Regionalno
Osnovano na razmerjih
Odgovorno Realno Osnovano na razmerjih
Odgovorno Osnovano na razmerjih
Osnovano na razmerjih Odgovorno Realno
Osnovano na razmerjih Regionalno
Osnovano na razmerjih Regionalno
Wearing et al. (2007: 15-16)
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AKADEMIJA
2.4. TRAJNOSTNI MARKETINŠKI SPLET
Mnogi se ukvarjajo z marketinškim spletom turistične destinacije, zelo redko pa je omenjen marketinški splet za ZO.
Ob McCartyevih (1960) 4P (product, price, place, promotion) ter Booms in Bitnerjevih 3P za storitve (people, procesing, physical evidences), je Kotler (1971) marketinški splet razširil še z dvema elementoma, in sicer: partnerstvom (partnership) in politiko (politics).
Na področju destinacijskega marketinškega spleta (9P) vključuje Prideova dva dodatna P-ja, in sicer politiko in majhno količino sredstev (proračun) (v Konečnik, 2007), kar je smiselno vključiti tudi v ZO, ki se nenehno srečujejo s pomanjkanjem sredstev.
Ekološki marketing uporablja tako imenovani »zeleni« marketing, ki vključuje 7 zelenih zunanjih P, 8 zelenih notranjih P ter 4S zelenega uspeha, ki so prikazani na Sliki 3. Weinreichova (Weinreich, 1999) vključuje v marketinški splet socialnega marketinga ob tradicionalnem marketinškem spletu za storitve (7P) še javnosti (publics), partnerstvo (partnerships), politiko (politics) in donatorstvo (donations).
2.5. PREPOZNAVANJE POTREB IN NAKUPNEGA VEDENJA OBISKOVALCEV ZO
Mnogi raziskovalci (Konečnik, 2007; Page in Connell, 2006; Kotler, 2004; Mumel, 2001; Brezovec, 2000; Middleton, 1998) raziskujejo motive za potovanja in nakupno vedenje turistov, redko pa se ukvarjajo specifično z motivi za obisk ZO in nakupnim vedenjem obiskovalcev ZO. Za izvajalce trajnostnega marketinga ZO je primerno proučevanje modela, ki ga sestavljajo prepoznavanje potreb in želja, komunikacijskih poti, značilnosti turista, procesa odločanja, nakupnih odločitev in ponakupnih občutkov v kontekstu s strategijo trajnostnega razvoja turizma ZO.
3. RAZISKAVA
Proučevana teoretična izhodišča in oblikovan model trajnostnega upravljanja slovenskih ZO z upravljavcem so bili osnova za izvedbo raziskave. Z raziskavo smo želeli ugotoviti: (i) motive za obisk določenega ZO, (ii) oceno ZO na naslednjih področjih: izdelek, cena, prodajne poti in marketinško komuniciranje; (iii) odnos obiskovalcev do ZO; (iv) zadovoljstvo obiskovalcev ZO z obiskom v izbranem ZO ter (v) socio-demografske značilnosti obiskovalcev
Slika 3: Proces »zelenega« marketinga
Zunanji zeleni P-ji
Plačujoči potrošniki
Dobavitelji
Politiki
Vplivne skupine Problemi Napovedi Partnerji
Notranji zeleni P-ji
Izdelki Promocija Cena Kraj
Zagotovitev informacij
Procesnost
Politike
Ljudje
S-ji zelene uspešnosti
•	Zadovoljitev - potreb deležnikov
•	Varnost - izdelkov in procesov
•	Socialna sprejemljivost
•	Trajnost aktivnosti
Vir: Peattie (1995: 109)
slovenskih ZO. Vprašalnik je bil oblikovan tako, da smo anketirane najprej prosili, da izberejo eno ZO izmed devetih, ki so ga obiskali v letu 2008, in za to ZO izpolnijo vprašalnik.
3.1.	ZBIRANJE PODATKOV
V	juniju 2008 smo obiskali devet slovenskih ZO z upravljavcem9 in jih prosili, da posredujejo obiskovalcem ZO povabila k sodelovanju v raziskavi. Razdeljevanje je potekalo v času od julija do oktobra 2008. Na obrazce so obiskovalci zapisali svoje elektronske naslove in tako privolili k sodelovanju v zbiranju podatkov. Glede na slabo odzivnost obiskovalcev v mesecu juliju je bil nagovor za sodelovanje v raziskavi objavljen tudi na spletnih straneh Ministrstva za okolje in prostor, sektorja za ZO in naravovarstvenih organizacij, in sicer v času od avgusta do novembra 2009. V decembru 2008 smo oblikovali bazo podatkov (elektronskih naslovov) za izvedbo spletnega anketiranja.
Vprašalnik je sestavljen iz štirih sklopov vprašanj, in sicer: (i) zadovoljstvo obiskovalcev z ZO; (ii) pričakovanja obiskovalcev v zvezi z ZO, (iii) odnos obiskovalcev do ZO; ter (iv) socio-demografske značilnosti respondentov. V tem prispevku predstavljamo ugotovitve zadovoljstva obiskovalcev z doživetji v ZO ter odnos obiskovalcev do ZO.
V	maju 2009 je bilo izvedeno zbiranje podatkov. Obiskovalce ZO smo spraševali o izkušnjah, ki so jih pridobili v enem izmed 9 slovenskih upravljanih ZO v obdobju od julija do novembra 2008. Vprašalnik smo poslali na 369 elektronskih naslovov iz baze podatkov. Zavrnjenih je bilo 20 elektronskih naslovov možnih anketiranih, tako smo v vzorec zajeli 349 možnih anketiranih. V času od 13. do 28. maja 2009 smo zabeležili 223 vpogledov v spletno anketo. Obdelali smo 127 primerno izpolnjenih anket, 96 anket pa ni bilo primernih za obdelavo (36,4 % od vseh možnih anketiranih oziroma 57 % od vseh, ki so anketo pogledali).
3.2.	OPIS VZORCA
Med respondenti je bilo 67 % žensk in 33 % moških. Največ respondentov je bilo starih med 31 in 50 let (67 %), 22 % respondentov je bilo starih 30 let in manj in 11 % več kot 51 let. Kar 71
9 V raziskavo s spletno anketo so bila vključena naslednja ZO: Triglavski narodni park, Notranjski regijski park, Park Škocjanske jame, Kozjanski regijski park, Krajinski park Sečoveljske soline, Krajinski park Logarska dolina, Krajinski park Kolpa, Krajinski park Goričko ter Narodni rezervat Škocjanski zatok.
% respondentov je pri izobrazbi označilo visoko strokovno, univerzitetno, magisterij in več. 58 % respondentov ima poklic družboslovne narave, 35 %, naravoslovne narave in 17 % tehnične narave. 89 % respondentov ima dohodek družine enak povprečnemu oz. nadpovprečnemu dohodku na družino v Sloveniji. 83 % jih potuje zaradi počitka in sprostitve, 54 % zaradi športa in rekreacije ter 42 % zaradi zdravja. Kar 80 % respondentov je na različne načine aktivnih na področju varstva narave. Več kot 60 % jih obiskuje ZO enkrat na tri mesece do enkrat na leto, vsak dan oziroma enkrat na teden je v ZO 21 % respondentov in enkrat na mesec 14 %.
Najbolj zastopana je bila skupina moških in žensk v starosti od 27 do 45 let, ki obiščejo ZO v največjih skupinah, bodisi kot družina z otroki, prijatelji in drugimi sorodniki ali s partnerjem. Družine imajo pogosto dva otroka v starosti od 15 do 18 let oziroma po enega v starosti 0 do 5 in enega v starosti od 6 do 14 let. Starejši obiskovalci so največkrat v spremstvu vrstnika.
4. REZULTATI
V	nadaljevanju predstavljamo rezultate glede na motiv, marketinški splet, odnos do ZO in zadovoljstvo obiskovalcev z doživetji v izbranih ZO.
4.1.	MOTIV
Največ respondentov je glede odločitve za obisk ZO na prvo mesto izpostavilo »predhodno lastno poznavanje območja« in na drugo »osebno priporočilo prijatelja, sorodnika« (Slika 4). Pri odločitvah se torej najbolj zanesejo nase in svoje najbližje.
Večina respondentov (Tabela 1) je izbrala ZO zaradi »preživljanja prostega časa v naravi«, sledila sta »ogled naravnih in kulturnih znamenitosti« ter »umik od vsakdanjega življenja«. Sklepamo lahko, da jim narava pomeni pobeg iz vsakdanjega življenja.
4.2.	MARKETINŠKI SPLET
V	nadaljevanju je predstavljenih 12P trajnostnega marketinškega spleta za ZO.
Marketinško komuniciranje
Informacije o ZO (Slika 5) so respondenti največkrat pridobili »na spletni strani«, sledi »v vodniku/prospektu«. Pod »drugje« so zapisali, da ZO že dolgo poznajo in ga redno obiskujejo.
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□	predhodno lastno poznavanje območja	□ osebno priporočilo prijatelja, sorodnika
□	informacije v javnih medijih (radio, televizija, časopis, in □ drugo
Tabela 1: Pogostost motivov za obisk ZO
Motiv za obisk ZO	F	Delež
Preživljanje prostega časa v naravi	86	68
Ogled naravnih in kulturnih znamenitosti	63	50
Umik od vsakdanjega življenja	47	37
Pokazati lepote prijateljem	36	28
Hoja	35	27
Opazovanje in stik z živalmi/naravo	32	25
Pridobivanje novih izkušenj v naravi	12	10
Kolesarjenje	12	10
Raziskovanje/delo na terenu	12	10
Degustiranje in nakup lokalnih izdelkov	10	8
Udeležba načrtovanih aktivnosti ZO (delavnic, doživljajskih programov)	7	5
Spoznati lokalno življenje domačinov	7	5
Plezanje	1	1
Drugo	1	1
Izdelek
Okrog 40 % respondentov je bilo v ZO več kot 1 dan (največ 4 do 5 dni) (Tabela 2). Povprečno so bili na obisku 3,3 dni. 60 % jih je prišlo le na izlet in so ostali v ZO povprečno 4,8 ure. Tisti, ki so ostali, so opravili povprečno 4,3 nočitve. Največkrat so prenočili stari 30 in manj let (6,8 dni), najdlje v urah so ostali v ZO starejši od 51 let (5,6 ur). Najpogostejši obiskovalci so respondenti vmesne starostne skupine, ki ostanejo povprečno 2,5 dni oziroma 4,8 ure, kar pomeni, da se
napotijo v ZO čez vikend oziroma na krajši oddih. Najmanj dni preživijo v ZO družine, katerih dohodki so višji od dohodkov povprečne družine (1,9 dni) in največ dni družine katerih dohodki so nižji od povprečne družine (8,3 dni). Res pa je, da družine z višjim dohodkom ostajajo dlje časa na krajših izletih (5,2 ur) kot družine z dohodki nižjimi od povprečne družine. Dve tretjini respondentov, ki prenočijo v času obiska ZO izven kraja stalnega bivališča, prihaja iz mest. Torej jim obisk ZO pomeni pobeg iz vsakdanjega načina življenja.
AKADEMIJA
[mm
Slika 5: Vir informacij, kjer so respondenti dobili informacije o ZO
50,00 45,00 40,00 35,00 30,00 25,00 20,00 15,00 10,00 5,00 0,00
44,88
37,01
27,56
22,05
18,11
1 7,32
10,24				
			7,09	
				
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Tabela 2: Število ur/dni, ki so jih respondenti preživeli v ZO
Število ur	F	Delež
<= 1,00	3	6
2,00 - 3,00	11	21
4,00 - 5,00	21	40
6,00 - 7,00	11	21
8,00 - 14,00	7	12
Povprečne vrednosti		
čas zadrževanja v ZO	Povpr. Vrednost	Std. Odklon
- dni	3,3	9,08
- ur	4,8	2,32
52 % respondentov je odgovorilo, da so v času obiska ZO prenočili izven kraja stalnega bivališča (Slika 6).
»V planinskem domu/koči« je prenočilo največ respondentov (18 %); sledilo je število prenočitev »na turistični kmetiji« (10 %); »v hotelu«, »apartmajskem naselju« in »v zasebnih sobah«. Kar 35 % respondentov je odgovorilo »drugje«, pri čemer jih je največ prenočilo doma, v lastni počitniški enoti oziroma pri prijateljih.
Respondenti stari 30 let in manj najpogosteje prenočijo v »zasebnih sobah« ali poiščejo druge oblike namestitve (pri prijateljih ipd.), srednja generacija najraje prenoči v »planinskih kočah ali domovih«, na »turističnih kmetijah« in v »apartmajskih naseljih«, pa tudi drugje (pri prijateljih, v lastnih počitniških hišah ipd.).
Marketinške poti
Največ respondentov, ki so rezervirali obisk ZO v obliki turističnega paketa (Slika 7), je rezerviralo
Slika 6: Mesto prenočevanja respondentov v času obiska ZO 40,0 35,0 30,0 25,0 20,0 15,0 10,0
5,0 ,0
hotel	apartmajsko penzion planinski dom turistična	kamp	zasebne	drugje
naselje	ali koča	kmetija	sobe
Slika 7: Odstotek opravljenih rezervacij turističnih paketov po ponudnikih
39,5
□	pri upravi zavarovanega območja □ pri lokalni ali regionalni turistični organizaciji
□	pri turistični agenciji	□ pri ponudnikih turističnih storitev ■ drugje
34,8														
														
														
														
														
9,1 9,1							1 0,6	9,1						
									6,1					
				3,0										
storitev »pri ponudnikih turističnih storitev« in »drugje«.
Pri rezervaciji posameznih storitev so respondenti ravnali sledeče: prevoz po destinaciji, prehrano in rekreacijo so rezervirali osebno v destinaciji; namestitev, vodene oglede in delavnice pa po telefonu.
Glavnina respondentov se je pripeljala v ZO (Slika 8) z »avtom«, sledilo je »kolo« in nato »peš«. Ta rezultat pogojujemo z dejstvom slabih povezav z javnimi prevozi iz mest na periferijo ter z nizko ozaveščenostjo skrbi za okolje obiskovalcev ZO,
ki jim je direkten prevoz od doma do ciljnega kraja najugodnejši.
Cena
Največ respondentov je v času obiska ZO porabilo »do 50 evrov« (Tabela 3). Sledili so respondenti, ki so porabili »več kot 251 evrov«. Povprečno so respondenti porabili 186,16 evrov, kar ni najbolj relevanten podatek, saj je standardni odklon 276,6. Največ denarja so potrošili respondenti s poklicem tehnične narave in respondenti stari med 31 in 50 let. Najverjetneje gre za polna gnezda, ki prihajajo v ZO kot družina z otroki. Najmanj potrošijo stari 30 let in manj.
Tabela 3: Znesek denarja v EUR-ih, ki so ga respondenti porabili v času obiska ZO
4.3. ODNOS RESPONDENTOV DO ZO
S Sliko 9 predstavljamo povprečne vrednosti, ki so jih respondenti namenili posameznim trditvam (od 1 do 5; 1 najslabše in 5 najboljše) in tako izrazili svoj odnos do problematike ZO. Najvišjo povprečno vrednost 4,6 so respondenti namenili trditvi: »Oblikovanje in spoštovanje parkovnega reda in kodeksa vedenja v ZO je nujno,« kar pomeni, da si močno želijo (predvsem najmlajša starostna skupina) usmerjenega in nadzorovanega vedenja v ZO in njihovega načrtovanega razvoja za naslednje generacije.
Povprečno oceno 4,1 (Slika 9) je pridobila trditev: »Pripravljen bi bil plačati višjo ceno za storitve opravljene v ZO, če bi bil del sredstev (npr. 5 % cene) namenjen za ohranjanje ZO in spodbujanje tradicionalnega načina življenja v območju.«. Najvišjo oceno so podali respondenti najstarejše starostne skupine. Ocena je spodbudna in upamo lahko, da bo spodbudila uprave ZO k načrtovanju in izvajanju marketinških aktivnosti ter oblikovanju programov, ki bodo vključevali tradicionalni način
življenja v območju. Z umnim oblikovanjem cen ter vključevanjem prispevkov za spodbujanje ohranjanja kulturne dediščine in tradicionalnega načina življenja bi lahko spodbudili podjetniške iniciative v ZO in njihovem okolju. S povprečno oceno okrog 4 je bila ocenjena trditev: »Za nakup eko ali bio proizvoda s tržno znamko ZO bi plačal višjo ceno kot za proizvod iz konvencionalne pridelave brez znamke ZO.« (Slika 9). Najvišjo oceno je podala srednja starostna skupina respondentov, kar kaže na njihovo ozaveščenost in prepoznano potrebo po standardiziranih procesih, eko in bio pridelavi ter uvajanju tržnih znamk v ZO.
S povprečno oceno 4 je bila ocenjena trditev: »Prispeval bi za ohranjanje narave, če bi lahko prispevek uveljavil kot davčno olajšavo,« (Slika 9) kar je spodbudna ideja, ki bi jo bilo smiselno vključiti v davčne olajšave. Najvišje je to trditev ocenila najstarejša starostna skupina in respondenti naravoslovne narave.
Trditev: »Ob naravovarstvenem coniranju bi bilo smiselno urediti tudi doživljajsko coniranje ZO (npr.: mirna, doživljajska rekreacijska, infrastrukturna cona),« je bila ocenjena s povprečno oceno 3,98 od 5 (Slika 9). Srednja generacija je to trditev z oceno 4,04 postavila na četrto mesto in s tem dokazala, da pozna problematiko ZO in si želi s coniranjem pridobiti kakovostnejša doživetja narave in rekreacije.
Trditev: »Za učinkovitejše poslovanje in promocijo ZO bi bilo smiselno ustanoviti združenje slovenskih ZO.«, je bila ocenjena s povprečno oceno 3,8, kar pomeni, da se respondenti delno zavedajo te potrebe.
F		Delež
<= 50,00	26	46
51,00 - 100,00	10	17
101,00 - 150,00	3	5
151,00 - 200,00	3	5
251,00+	15	27
Pripravljen bi bil plačati višjo ceno za storitve opravljene v ZO, če bi bil del sredstev (npr. 5 % cene) namenjen za ohranjanje ZO in spodbujanje drugačnega načina življenja v območju.
Za nakup eko ali bio proizvoda s tržno zmanko ZO bi plačal višjo ceno kot za proizvod konvencionalne pridelave brez znamke ZO.
Prispeval bi za ohranjanje narave, če bi lahko prispevek uveljavil kot davčno olajšavo.
Ob naravovarstvenem coniranju bi bilo smiselno urediti tudi doživljajsko coniranje ZO (npr.: mirna, doživljajska rekreacijska, infrastrukturna cona).
Za učinkovitejše poslovanje in promocijo ZO bi bilo smiselno ustanotivi združenje slovenskih ZO.
Politično okolje v Sloveniji je naklonjeno ohranjanju narave v ZO.
Veliko sredstev državnega proračuna je namenjenega za upravljanje ZO.
Slovenci smo zelo osveščeni o pomenu ohranjanja narave za naslednje generacije.
Slika 9: Strinjanje respondentov s trditvami
Oblikovanje in spoštovanje parkovnega reda in kodeksa vedenja v ZO je nujno.
0,51
0,82
0 83
1,02
0,88
1,03
0,91
),90
2,6
2,40
2,39
4,62
4,13
4,06
3
79
4,00
3,97
0
T
6
9
Trditev: »Politično okolje v Sloveniji je naklonjeno ohranjanju narave v ZO,« (Slika 9) so ocenili z 2,7 od 5 in s tem poudarili, da politično okolje tako na vladnem, regionalnem in lokalnem nivoju ne spodbuja ohranjanja narave in v njem ne vidi dolgoročne priložnosti za dobrobit posameznikov in skupnosti kot celote. Tega se zavedajo še predvsem respondenti srednje starostne skupine in tisti s poklicem naravoslovne narave.
Povprečno oceno 2,4 od 5 so respondenti namenili trditvi: »Veliko sredstev iz državnega proračuna je namenjenega za upravljanje ZO.« (Slika 9) Najnižjo oceno so podali respondenti najmlajše starostne skupine in tisti s poklicem naravoslovne narave. Pokazali so, da poznajo zapostavljenost ohranjanja narave v državnem proračunu in upamo lahko, da se zavedajo njenih dolgoročnih posledic.
Trditev: »Slovenci smo zelo ozaveščeni o pomenu ohranjanja narave za naslednje generacije,« (Slika 9) so ocenili le s povprečno oceno 2,4 od 5, kar pomeni, da se zavedajo splošne nizke okoljske ozaveščenosti v Sloveniji, ki je bila najnižje ocenjena pri najmlajši starostni skupini.
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50 4,00 5,50 5,00
4.3. ZADOVOLJSTVO
Povprečna vrednost za splošno zadovoljstvo respondentov z obiskom (merjeno z lestvico od 1 do 5) je 4,4. 94 % respondentov je zelo zadovoljnih in zadovoljnih z obiskom ZO. Najbolj zadovoljni z obiskom so respondenti stari 30 let in manj (4,4) in tisti z dohodkom višjim od povprečne družine (4,5). Povprečna vrednost zadovoljstva (Slika 10) s prenočitvijo je 4,2, s prehrano 4,1, z doživetji pa najvišja, in sicer 4,6.
Med pet najpomembnejših elementov ZO, s katerimi respondenti niso bili zadovoljni (Tabela 4), so uvrstili »neurejene javne zmogljivosti (sanitarije)«, »ni naravovarstvenih nadzornikov«, »neprimeren promet v ZO«, »odpadki«, »ni prometa z javnimi prevoznimi sredstvi«. Mlajši respondenti so bolj občutljivi na odpadke, srednja generacija na sanitarije in neprisotnost naravovarstvenih nadzornikov, kar velja tudi za najstarejše respondente.
AKADEMIJA
[mm
Slika 10: Zadovoljstvo respondentov s posameznimi storitvami pri obisku ZO
z doživetji
, J						
|0,71						
s prehrano
s prenočitvijo
splošno zadovoljstvo z obiskom
0,88
0,33
0,79
4,56
4,10
4,16
37
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50 2,00 2,50 3,00 3,50 4,00 4,50 5,00
□ Povp. vrednost	□ Std. odklon
Tabela 4: Dejavniki, s katerimi so bili respondenti najbolj nezadovoljni
4
F		Delež
Neurejene javne zmogljivosti (sanitarije idr.)	49	39
Ni naravovarstvenih nadzornikov	37	29
Neprimeren promet v zavarovanem območju	35	28
Odpadki	35	28
Ni prometa z javnimi prevoznimi sredstvi	25	20
Ni dovolj informacij/interpretacij	24	19
Premalo parkirnih mest	22	17
Neurejena mesta za piknik	19	15
Ni postojank za osvežitev in prehrano	18	14
Ni razpisanih doživljajskih programov	18	14
Respondenti z nižjimi dohodki od povprečne slovenske družine najbolj pogrešajo naravovarstvene nadzornike, motijo pa jih odpadki, neurejene javne zmogljivosti ter dejstvo, da ni prometa z javnimi prevoznimi sredstvi.
Med pet najpomembnejših izboljšav (Tabela 5), ki bi si jih respondenti želeli v ZO so uvrstili »urediti sanitarije«, »ponuditi več lokalno pridelanih proizvodov«, »jasno predstaviti pravila obnašanja za obiskovalce (npr. za lastnike psov idr.)«, »ponuditi letake, zemljevide in vodnike za samostojno odkrivanje narave«, »ponuditi bolj lokalno obarvane jedi in pijače v gostinskih podjetjih« itd.
Prav vse starostne skupine so na prvo mesto izpostavile »urediti sanitarije«, na drugo »ponuditi
več lokalno pridelanih proizvodov« oz. »jasno predstaviti pravila za obnašanje obiskovalcev« (pod »drugo« so zabeležili tudi pravila za domačine in podjetja). Respondenti z dohodki nižjimi od povprečja in tisti z višjimi od povprečja si najbolj želijo »več lokalno pridelanih proizvodov«, tisti z dohodkom enakim povprečju so izpostavili »urediti sanitarije«.
5. ZAKLJUčEK
Predstavljena raziskava je prva te vrste v Sloveniji in podaja dobra izhodišča za oblikovanje vizij celovitega trajnostnega razvoja slovenskih ZO, v katere je nujno vključiti strategije trajnostnega turizma, trajnostnega marketinga ZO ter upravljanja vplivov obiska v ZO.
Tabela 5: Najpomembnejše izboljšave, ki bi si jih respondenti želeli v ZO
F		Delež
Urediti sanitarije	54	43
Ponuditi več lokalno pridelanih proizvodov	44	35
Jasno predstaviti pravila obnašanja za obiskovalce (npr. za lastnike psov idr.)	36	28
Ponuditi letake, zemljevide in vodnike za samostojno odkrivanje narave	34	27
Ponuditi bolj lokalno obarvane jedi in pijače v gostinskih podjetjih	31	24
Urediti več informativnih/interpretacijskih tabel	30	24
Urediti razgledne točke	27	21
Uvesti posebne dogodke/prireditve	26	21
Izboljšati povezave z javnimi prevoznimi sredstvi	25	20
Urediti usmerjevalno in informativno signalizacijo	24	19
Urediti več parkirišč	24	19
Enotno urediti označene poti	22	17
Kvantitativna raziskava (spletna anketa) je bila izvedena med uporabniki - obiskovalci ZO. S proučevanjem rezultatov raziskave smo prepoznali socio-demografske značilnosti respondentov - obiskovalcev slovenskih upravljanih ZO, motive za odločitev o obisku določenega ZO, ZO z marketinškega vidika -vidika 4P (ZO kot izdelek, z vidika cene, prodajnih poti in marketinškega komuniciranja), odnos respondentov do problematike ZO ter njihovo zadovoljstvo z obiskom izbranega ZO.
Iz rezultatov spletnega anketiranja lahko sklepamo, da je večina respondentov obiskala Slovenska upravljana ZO zaradi njihovega predhodnega lastnega poznavanja ali priporočila ljudi, ki jim zaupajo. Njihov obisk je bil povezan s preživljanjem prostega časa v naravi, z ogledi naravnih in kulturnih znamenitosti ter z umikom iz vsakdanjega življenja, kar so dobra izhodišča za oblikovanje doživljajskih produktov v ZO.
Respondenti so najpogosteje pridobili informacijo o ZO na spletnih straneh, pri razvrstitvi petih najpomembnejših izboljšav pa so na drugo mesto postavili potrebo po ponudbi letakov, zemljevidov in vodnikov za samostojno odkrivanje narave. Prav tako so izpostavili, da ni naravovarstvenih nadzornikov ter dovolj informacijskih in interpretativnih tabel, kar pomeni, da je potrebno razviti več orodij, ki promovirajo naravo in sporočajo naravovarstvena vodila.
Ugotavljamo tudi, da imajo ZO sicer vzpostavljene spletne strani, vendar pa na njih ne
predstavljajo celovite ponudbe ZO, saj je večina respondentov, ki so rezervirali turistične pakete, rezervirala storitve pri delnih ponudnikih turističnih storitev. Iz tega sklepamo, da ZO ne oblikujejo in promovirajo celovite turistične ponudbe, šibko pa je tudi komuniciranje ZO z javnostmi. Iz proučevanja odgovorov respondentov se da razbrati, da ZO niso močan partner v prostoru in da se slabo povezujejo s turističnimi organizacijami, vladnimi in nevladnimi organizacijami ter lokalnimi skupnostmi.
Respondenti, ki so prenočili, so v ZO ostali povprečno 3,3, dni, enodnevni obiskovalci pa nekaj manj kot 5 ur. ZO bi naj oblikovala privlačna krajša doživetja za dnevne obiskovalce ter 3- in 5-dnevne celovite turistične produkte, ki bi morali biti podprti z zelenimi dobaviteljskimi verigami.
Več kot polovica respondentov je v času obiska ZO prenočila izven kraja stalnega bivališča. To je priložnost, da gostinska podjetja, turistične kmetije in drugi ponudniki predstavijo in tržijo celovito turistično ponudbo, ki lahko kakovostno popestri bivanje in podaljša zadrževanje obiskovalcev v regiji. Sklepamo lahko, da respondenti ne stremijo po kapacitetah najvišje kakovosti, temveč želijo bivati v avtohtonem okolju, saj so izpostavili prenočevanje v planinskih kočah, na turističnih kmetijah in v apartmajskih naseljih.
Iz raziskave lahko ugotovimo, da obiskovalci ZO pri rezerviranju storitev najpogosteje uporabljajo
telefon, na drugem mestu so rezervacije osebno v destinaciji, na tretjem je elektronska pošta.
Slabe povezave z javnimi prevoznimi sredstvi iz mest na podeželje vplivajo na dejstvo, da se večina obiskovalcev pripelje v ZO z avtomobilom. Z okoljsko vzgojo bi lahko vplivali na obiskovalce, da izberejo okolju prijaznejšo obliko prevoza, ki pa bi jo država morala tudi omogočiti.
Zanimivo je, da je največjo porabo zaznati pri respondentih, katerih dohodki so enaki dohodkom povprečne družine v Sloveniji; drugi dve dohodkovni skupini sta po potrošnji precej usklajeni. Pri tem ne smemo pozabiti, da ostajajo tisti z najvišjimi dohodki v ZO najpogosteje nekaj ur (do 5 ur), tisti z najnižjimi pa več dni (8,3 dni). Najpogostejša ciljna skupina obiskovalcev ZO so družine z otroki, ki prihajajo na dnevne izlete ter tiste, ki ostanejo v ZO več dni. Zanje bi bilo potrebno oblikovati privlačne turistične programe in jim omogočiti čim unikatnejša doživetja, da bodo porabili več in se večkrat vrnili v zeleni objem ZO.
Respondenti so zelo realno izrazili odnos do problematike ZO in pokazali pripravljenost k izboljšanju stanja na področju ohranjanja narave in kulturne dediščine. Izpostavili so: (i) potrebo po usmerjenem in nadzorovanem vedenju v ZO, ki zahteva oblikovanje in izvajanje parkovnega reda in kodeksa vedenja za vse deležnike ZO; (ii) pripravljenost za večje plačilo izdelkov in storitev, kupljenih v ZO, če bi bil del sredstev namenjen za ohranjanje ZO in spodbujanje tradicionalnega načina življenja v območjih; (iii) pripravljenost za nakup eko ali bio proizvodov s tržno znamko ZO po višjih cenah, kot če te nimajo; (iv) pripravljenost k prispevanju za ohranjanje narave, če bi lahko prispevek uveljavili kot davčno olajšavo; (v) da je nujno ob naravovarstvenem coniranju urediti tudi doživljajsko coniranje ZO; (vi) da bi bilo smiselno ustanoviti združenje slovenskih ZO za učinkovitejše poslovanje in promocijo ZO; (vii) da se zavedajo nenaklonjenosti političnega okolja v Sloveniji za ohranjanje narave v ZO; (viii) da je premalo sredstev iz državnega proračuna namenjenih za upravljanje ZO; in (ix) da so slabo ozaveščeni o pomenu ohranjanja narave za naslednje generacije.
V povprečju so respondenti zelo zadovoljni z obiskom v ZO, še predvsem z doživetji. Med najpomembnejše elemente, s katerimi niso bili zadovoljni, so uvrstili: »neurejene javne zmogljivosti (sanitarije)«, »ni naravovarstvenih nadzornikov«, »neprimeren promet v ZO«,
»odpadki« ter »ni prometa z javnimi prevoznimi sredstvi«. Med najpomembnejše izboljšave, ki bi si jih želeli v ZO, pa so prav vse starostne skupine uvrstile: »urediti sanitarije«, »ponuditi več lokalno pridelanih proizvodov«, »jasno predstaviti pravila za obnašanje obiskovalcev«, »ponuditi letake, zemljevide in vodnike za samostojno odkrivanje narave« ter »ponuditi bolj lokalno obarvane jedi in pijače v gostinskih obratih«.
Na osnovi ugotovitev smo oblikovali predloge in jih zapisali v obliki priporočil za upravljavce ZO.
Sklenemo lahko z mislijo, da imajo upravljana ZO v Sloveniji velik potencial, da postanejo razvite trajnostne turistične destinacije z raznoliko in kakovostno turistično ponudbo s poudarkom na doživljajskih krajših izletih in počitnicah. S kakovostno oblikovanimi, atraktivnimi in raznolikimi doživljajskimi produktnimi tržnimi kombinacijami za specifične ciljne skupine obiskovalcev ter učinkovito verigo dobaviteljev za njihovo izvajanje, bi s taktnim komuniciranjem, v primernem časovnem obdobju, ZO lahko postala tudi zaželene destinacije za daljše počitnice.
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Darja Leskovec
University of Ljubljana Faculty of Economics Slovenia darja.leskovec@ijs.si
how to collect
DONATIONS: CONCEPTUAL REVIEw AND IMPLICATIONS for ONLINE NON-PROFIT INFORMATION GOODS PROVIDERS
Abstract: The question why some people give to the needy and others not has puzzled researchers from various disciplines for decades. Previous research extends from exploring motivation, donor behavior and donor characteristics to importance of social information and relationship marketing in different contexts of donating. This paper draws together previous scientific work in order to provide a coherent insight into the issue of how non-profit organizations should collect donations. After indicating existing models of donor behavior and supplementary literature, the paper focuses on monetary donations collected in virtual environments. I am especially interested in online non-profit information goods providers collecting donations in order to ensure their existence in the future. The properties that make information goods unsuitable for common market transactions are uncertainty (one must experience information good to know what it is), scarcity (can be reproduced and distributed relatively inexpensively) and public availability (information is non-rival and nonexcludable). Besides these dimensions, the facts that price alone cannot signal the quality of the content and that information on the Web is in general perceived to be widely accessible make online non-profit information goods providers hard to survive. In this aspect, I distinguish between voluntary payments and monetary donations. I draw from previous research conducted in the off-line environments and show how findings can be applied to the online world. Finally, implications for marketers of online non-profit organizations and directions for further research are provided.
Key words: donor behavior, online monetary donations, voluntary payments, non-profit organizations, information goods
KAKO ZBIRATI DONACIJE: KONCEPTUALNI PREGLED IN IMPLIKACIJA NA SPLETNE NEPRIDOBITNE PONUDNIKE
informacijskih dobrin
Povzetek: Vprašanje, zakaj nekateri ljudje dajejo tistim, ki so potrebni pomoči, drugi pa ne, že dlje časa vznemirja raziskovalce na različnih znanstvenih področjih. Prvotne raziskave temeljijo na proučevanju motivacije, obnašanju donatorjev in značilnostih donatorjev, kakor tudi na pomenu družbenih informacij in marketingu odnosov v različnih kontekstih doniranja.
S tem člankom, ki združuje predhodno znanstveno delo na tem področju, želim podati koherenten vpogled v to, kako naj nepridobitne organizacije zbirajo donacije. Za tem, ko predstavim obstoječe modele obnašanja donatorjev in dodatno literaturo, se osredotočim na denarne donacije, ki jih je mogoče zbirati v virtualnem okolju. Posebej me zanimajo spletni nepridobitni ponudniki informacijskih dobrin, ki zbirajo donacije zato, da bi zagotovili svoj obstoj v prihodnosti. Lastnosti, ki naredijo informacijske dobrine neprimerne za tržne transakcije, so negotovost (informacijsko dobrino je potrebno izkusiti, če jo želimo spoznati), omejenost (dobrino je mogoče razmeroma preprosto reproducirati in distribuirati) in dostopnost javnosti (informacije med seboj ne tekmujejo in se ne izključujejo). Poleg teh dimenzij pa tudi dejstvo, da cena sama po sebi ne more sporočati kakovosti vsebine ter to, da so informacije na spletu razmeroma lahko dostopne, zmanjšuje zmožnosti za preživetje spletnih nepridobitnih ponudnikov informacijskih dobrin. V tem kontekstu razlikujem med prostovoljnimi plačili in denarnimi donacijami. Pri tem črpam iz predhodnih raziskav, ki so bile opravljene v nespletnih okoljih ter skušam rezultate teh raziskav uporabiti v spletnem okolju. V članku so prav tako podani napotki za trženje spletnih nepridobitnih organizacij ter smernice za nadaljnje raziskave na tem področju. Ključne besede: obnašanje donatorjev, denarne spletne donacije, prostovoljna plačila, nepridobitne organizacije, informacijske dobrine
1.	INTRODUCTION
In this paper, I focus on donor behavior connected with donations to online non-profit organizations. Other forms of donations, such as for example time, organ and blood donations, are not considered since variables influencing and explaining such donations are usually different from variables explaining monetary donations and findings cannot be applied to the online donor behavior. Of special interest are online non-profit providers of information goods (e.g. Wikipedia, OpenCourseWare), non-profit organizations, which provide free of charge information goods in virtual environments. Their existence depends to a large extent on individual donations, yet research on donor behavior in this area is scarce.
2.	DONATING AND MODELS OF DONOR BEHAVIOR
The act of donating is best characterized 'as voluntary surrender of resources to a resource starved beneficiary' (Bajde, 2006, p. 75). Donating can take many different forms, but is usually connected with people helping the needy through an intermediary organization, e.g. charitable non-profit organization (Varadarajan & Menon, 1988), which takes two major forms, namely volunteering (donation of time) and monetary donations (Lee & Chang, 2007).
In the literature, many terms are used to discuss voluntary contribution to a charitable non-profit organization, such as pro-social behavior (Burnett & Wood, 1988), charitable giving (Sargeant, 1999), helping behavior (Bendapudi et al., 1996), voluntary payments (Borck et al., 2006), altruism (Guy & Patton, 1989), impure altruism (Andreoni, 1990), warm glow (Mayo & Tinlsey, 2009; Crumpler & Grossman, 2008) and philanthropy (Harbaugh, 1998; Ilchman, Katz & Queen, 1998). Although the authors make certain distinction between these terms, they are often used interchangeably (Bajde, 2006).
Philosophers and economists have been puzzled by the issue why individuals help one another since antiquity (Wispe, 1978). In the past centuries we see contribution to the subject from the fields of economy, clinical psychology, social psychology, anthropology, sociology and as well in the late 20th century from the field of marketing (Sargeant, 1999). When discussing motives behind making donations, authors are usually divided between the ideas of altruism, 'altruistic gene', and egoism, 'selfish gene', (Guy & Patton, 1989).
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The term 'altruism' was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in the early nineteenth century (Flescher & Worthwn, 2007, p. 8). It was described as social behavior that reflects an unselfish desire to live for others (Flescher & Worthwn, 2007, p. 8). Contemporary authors warn that concept of altruism is still unclear and thus should be studied from perspectives of different disciplines such as psychology, biology, philosophy, sociology, economy, religion and others (see Flescher & Worthen, 2007; Piliavin & Charng, 1990; Krebs, 1970; Khalil, 2004). Piliavin and Charng (1990, p. 27) see altruism as 'acting with the goal of benefitting another', Margolis (1982) as behavior that creates an intrinsic reward from giving for the benefit of others, while Flescher and Worthen (2007, p. 53) state that 'altruism occurs when one acts for the sake of another or others and their wellbeing and welfare become the ultimate object of one's concern'.
However, Andreoni (1990) states that when people make donations to charity, there may be many factors influencing their decision other that altruism, such as social pressure, guilt, sympathy or a desire for a warm glow. Andreoni (1989) supports the concept of warm glow with the statement that people may get some private goods benefit from their gift per se, i.e. receive utility from the act of giving (Crumpler & Grossman, 2008). Combining altruism and the selfish motive for donating, Andreoni (1989) established a concept of 'impure altruism', which also indicates that progressive taxation may actually increase charitable giving.
Throughout the past four decades, several attempts were made to understand donor behavior, and to develop a broad perspective of why people may or may not give to charitable non-profit organizations (Sargeant et al., 2006). Especially factors motivating donations were studied thoroughly in disciplines of economics, psychology, social psychology, sociology, anthropology, management and marketing (Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007).
The existing models of donor behavior offer an integrative insight into donating behavior; thus their detailed presentations are provided. However, Bajde (2006) claims that this is a part of the literature being far from exhaustive.
Guy and Patton (1989) developed a decision process supporting helping behavior. They propose a linear decision process, leading from awareness to implementation, which is however, affected by several internal and external mitigating factors as shown in Figure 1. Authors base their model on the belief that the strongest motive of helping behavior is the 'basic, deep-seated need to help others without expectation of reward other than the joy or pleasure of helping'. Intrinsic motivation is triggered and reinforced by the fact that someone needs help, while it is inhibited when external rewards are offered.
Guy's and Patton's (1989) helping decision process has five stages. First awareness that another person needs help should be triggered, which is a result of noticing that one is in a
Figure 1: The helping decision process and potential mitigating factors
Internal Mitigating Factors
1.	Demographics
2.	Personality variables
3.	Social status
4.	Mood
5.	Knowledge, ability, resources
6.	Previous Experience
Helping Decision Process
Awareness of another person in need
I
Interpretation of the situation
I
Recognition of personal responsibility
I
Perception of ability/ Competence to help
I
Implementation of helping action
External Mitigating Factors
1.	Nature of the appeal for help
-	ambiguity/consequences
-	urgency/immediacy
-	accountability/uniqueness
2.	Other people involved
-	person(s) in need of help
-	person(s) requesting help
-	other helpers/givers -'bystanders'
3.	Availability of alternative courses of action
4.	Environmental factors
Source: Guy & Patton, 1989
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situation 'in which undesirable consequences are probable'. The rest of the process depends largely upon interpretation of the situation in term of the intensity, urgency, potential consequences, etc. After interpreting the situation, the donor should recognize his/her personal responsibility for helping. However, the desire to help and the ability to help are different concepts, thus act of helping depends upon donor's perception of ability or competence to help. After all the previous stages are reached, the implementation of helping action can occur.
Further on, authors discuss potential factors which may enhance or hinder a donor's progress through the helping decision process. They divide them to internal factors, arising from donor's characteristics, and to external factors, arising from characteristics of the situation. Recognized internal mitigating factors are demographics (income, age, place of residence), personality variables (other- or self-directed, valuing of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards), social status (power, profession), mood (good or bad mood), knowledge, ability, resources (self perception of capabilities) and previous experience (past experience with altruistic cause organization). Moreover, external factors, with a considerably stronger influence, may mitigate donor's decision process. Guy and Patton exposed the nature of the appeal (see Figure 1), other people involved (see Figure 1), availability of alternate courses of action (if no action is considered appropriate
individual will not help) and environmental factors (barriers to the act of helping).
Guy's and Patton's research (1989) is pioneering the donor decision process, but it offers little additional insight and fails to address the motivating intrinsic need for helping in detail (Bajde, 2006).
Bajde (2006) categorizes literature on donor behavior into two waves, with the first taking place only at the end of 1980s. Its peak was Burnett's and Wood's (1988) study of donor behavior, with an elaborate model of donor behavior. In the second half of 1990s the second wave of research on donor behavior took place, beginning with Bendapudi's et al. (1996) study on enhancing helping behavior. Their study focuses on enhancing helping behavior with emphasis on marketing communications that influence and motivate donors. Authors propose a conceptual framework with people's helping behavior in a centre, surrounded by its antecedents, moderators and consequences (see Figure 2).
Since helping to charities may be affected by many variables, authors demonstrate controllable promotional variables as antecedents and uncontrollable variables as moderators affecting relationship between antecedent variables and helping behavior. Charity organization may control source, message and request variables
Figure 2: A conceptual framework of people's helping behavior toward charities
Antecedents		Moderators			Behavior			Consequences
Charity controlled factors								
Source variables		Donor variables				—^		Beneficiary
- Image: familiarity,		- Persistent:						- Need relief
efficiency, effectiveness		perceptions, motives,						
		abilities						Charity
Message variables		- Transient: moods,					—^	- Level of success
- Cause of need		media exposure,						- Adaptation
- Beneficiary portrayal,		attention			Helping behavior			
Picture appeal					- No help			Community
- Beneficiary / Solicitor		i	r		- Token help			- Cultural
similarity		i	L		- Serious help			- Social
- Labeling								- Economic
- Perspective advocated		Non-donor variables						
- Social comparison		- Government policies						Donor
- Choices provided		- State of economy						- Perceptions
		- Social norms					_h.	- Motives
Request variables		- Technology						- Abilities
- Nature of request		- Competing charities						- Helping behavior
- Size of request								
Source: Bendapudi et al., 1996.
(antecedents), while donor and non-donor variables cannot be controlled (moderators). However, both groups of variables affect donor's respond, which may capture one of three different degrees of helping behavior. Finally, helping behavior may have several different consequences, which can affect the beneficiary, charity, community or/and the donor. Combining marketing and social psychology research, Bendapudi's et al. (1996) framework adds to the investigation of interaction effects for charity and donor variables on helping behavior.
Sargeant's (1999) model of donor behavior is "managerially inspired" and presents individual giving behavior as an input/output process. Donation decision process mirrors the traditional production process (input-work-output), where charity organizations provide the input and collect the output (Bajde, 2006). Based on thorough literature review, Sargeant (1999) develops a model (see Figure 3) which starts with external inputs of decision-making process, such as charity appeals, brands, facets, etc. When a donor is faced with the inputs, several variables affect his perceptual reaction to the conveyed message, e.g. portrayal of the individual in need, fit of the charity with a given donor's self image, strength of the stimulus and the degree to which perceptual noise is present. Further on, processing of the giving
decision is impacted (processing determinants) by the donor's past experience with a given charity and charitable giving in general, and by the criteria donor might use to evaluate potential organization for support. Finally, the model ends with the output of the decision making process, which may be expressed in a variety of different ways, e.g. money, time, etc. Moreover, Sargeant (1999) introduces intrinsic and extrinsic variables which may affect the manner in which charity appeals are perceived and decision-making process conducted. Within the model, Sargeant (1999) stresses the importance of processing determinants.
Bendapudi et al. (1996, p. 34) were the first to provide a thorough overview of the literature on helping, i.e. donor behavior from the late 1970s up to the year of 1995. Then, only after more than ten years, another extensive review of the field was conducted. Sargeant and Woodliffe (2007) examined existing literature regarding monetary donations up to the year 2005. They formed an extended model of donor behavior (see Figure 4) and provided empirical evidence for each determinant of the model. In continuation the key prepositions of donor behavior the authors identified through the literature review are summarized.
Figure 3: Model of individual charity giving behavior
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Figure 4: Extended model of donor behavior
Source: Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007
The model starts at the source of fundraising request. Authors propose that performance in fundraising is connected with non-profit brand recognition and understanding, while the perceived differentiation of a charity brand influence the portion of donor's charity 'pot' that will be allocated to a specific organization. Successful performance in fundraising is as well associated with good or positive reputation of the non-profit. However, influence of reputation varies by media context (stronger in impersonal fundraising). Several studies which dealt with the mode of ask suggest that lowering the sum requested and multiple asks will increase donor compliance, and that characteristics of the fundraiser are associated with donor compliance as well (e.g., in face-to-face context female fundraisers generate higher compliance then males). Lastly, bigger proportion of seed money (amount of the total fundraising goal) increases compliance and the level of giving, while offering contributor refunds increases the level of average donation.
Perceptual reaction's variables impact the donor's reaction to the message being communicated. The way in which the beneficiaries are presented,
affects the level of compliance achieved (picture of 'excessive' need decreases compliance, picture that the needy may be blamed for his/her condition decreases compliance, etc.). If the donor perceive the needy similar to him or her, the compliance is increased, as well as if fundraising requests depicts donors as generous and loving. Lastly, individuals tend to exhibit behavior they believe is normative for their social group.
Processing determinants impact the manner in which the giving decision is processed. Hence, non-profits offering high level of material or emotional utility and non-profits perceived as efficient, effective and professional generate higher levels of compliance and support. Donor's retention and level of giving is associated with trust, satisfaction and quality of service provided by the organization.
External influences impacting donor behavior are role models (especially in circumstances of social ambiguity), communities of participation (bringing individual in contact with the need) and public contribution (donor's motivation determines whether public contributions crowd in or crowd out his/her donations).
Table 1: Studies of donation behavior conducted after 2005
Author, Year	Research method	Focus	Findings
Bennett (2007)	Role-playing	Premium incentives for stimulating donations.	Incentives can enhance favorable donor behavior, but are more appropriate for lover-value donations. 'Committed' donors oppose more to the idea of donor incentives; hence incentives might be less relevant for relationship building.
Lee & Chang (2007)	Survey	Determinants affecting donation behavior in the Taiwanese context, using extrinsic (demographic and socio-economic) and intrinsic (psychographic and attitudinal) variables.	Monetary donations are usually determined by extrinsic variables such as gender, age, marital status, family loading and income rather than intrinsic variables. Authors compare their findings with previous research conducted in the Western countries and show for some differences between the Taiwanese and Western cultures.
Smith & McSweeney (2007)	Survey	Revised theory of planned behavior and predicting donation intentions.	Attitudes, perceived behavioral control, injunctive norms, moral norms and past behavior predict charitable giving behavior. This does not hold for descriptive norms.
Basil, Ridgway & Basil (2008)	Experiment	Guilt, empathy, efficacy and consumer response to charity appeals.	Impact of empathy on charitable donation intention is fully, and impact of self-efficacy partially mediated by guilt and maladaptive responses. Both determine whether guilt or maladaptive responses give results.
Crumpler & Grossman (2008)	Experiment	Effect of warm glow on charitable giving behavior (in environment with no motivation for altruistic giving).	Warm glow giving exists and is significant (subjects donated on average 20% of their endowment, and approximately 57% of the participants made a donation).
Das (2008)	Experiment	Effectiveness of fundraising messages.	Abstract information is more effective when combined with a negatively sounded message, while anecdotal information is more effective when combined with a positive message. Messages that address charity goal attainment issues increase donation intentions.
Martin & Randal (2008)	Field experiment	Influence of previous donations of others on the donation behavior.	Provided social information has a significant impact on donation composition, frequency and value.
Ranganathan & Henley (2008)	Survey	Impact of religiosity on individual's charitable donation process.	Religiosity is an important determinant of attitudes towards helping others, attitudes towards charitable organizations, and towards advertisement, and of behavioral intentions.
Sargeant & Hudson (2008)	Survey	Donor retention and recruits.	Lapses donors are younger than active recruits, and have experienced some form of pressure at the point of recruitment.
Sargeant, Ford & Hudson (2008)	Survey	Charity brand personality and donor behavior.	Traits associated with benevolence, progression and conservatism are incapable of distinguishing between brands, while traits associated with emotional engagement, service, voice and tradition can serve as a basis for differentiation and are linked to facets of individual giving behavior.
Mayo & Tinsley (2009)	Theoretical model	Warm glow, households, income and charitable giving.	Biased perceptions of effort and luck (causes of reward distributions) reduce warm glow of high-income households, which explain the essentially flat relationship between income and percentage donations to charity.
Winterich, Mittal & Ross (2009)	Survey	The role of gender and moral identity in differential donations to in-groups and out-groups.	For donors with a feminine gender identity, moral identity importance tends to increase donations to out-group, while for donors with masculine gender identity, moral identity importance increases donations to in-group.
Individual characteristics affecting donor behavior, are age, gender, socio-economic status, lifestyle and geo-demographic variables (distinguishing between donors and non-donors, or donors to one category of cause from another).
Indicated motives for donating are altruism (pure altruism or need for material or emotional utility), empathy (higher level of empathy results in higher compliance and giving), sympathy (the level of sympathy in appeals affects compliance and support), feelings of fear, pity and guilt (the stronger these feelings are, the higher compliance and support), need for social justice (motivator in situations where the need is likely to be short and the needy cannot be blamed for his/her condition), prestige (organizations offering higher levels of prestige and impact on the cause generate higher compliance and support) and taxation (donating is price elastic).
Inhibitors of making donations are lack of money, time, risk to individual's ego and doubts over the worthiness of cause. Lastly, feedback the nonprofit provides to the donor in terms to establish an ongoing relationship can be affected by labeling (positive labels increase donor loyalty and subsequent donations; effective labels are credible, effective, reflect donor's self-image) and recognition and/or rewards (recognition perceived adequate influence donor loyalty and subsequent donations).
The above presented Sargeant's and Woodliffe's (2007) study of donor behavior provides a deep insight into the literature on monetary donations to charitable non-profit organizations. However, their review extends up to the year 2005, thus in the Table 1 a simple overview of the literature on donor behavior, which was identified as published after the year 2005, is presented.
3. DONATING ONLINE
After commercial world has been increasing its focus in the Internet presence in the 90s, non-
profit organizations followed somewhat slower in the 2000s, when a large number of non-profits were establishing Web presence for the first time. The most tempting was the opportunity to reach a large number of potential donors with the organization's message. Despite the fact that presence of the non-profits on the Web is increasing, they are often being criticized for offering nothing more than static representations of their off-line marketing efforts (Sargeant, 2001a). Moreover, contributions collected on the Web still represent a small percentage of charities' overall fundraising, hence not everyone agrees on how important online fundraising as a source of charities' revenue actually is (Wallace et al., 2005).
Although many authors (see for example Nonprofit World Magazine and Days, 2009; Hagenbuch, 2007; Carrol, 2003) talk about the importance of the Internet for the charitable fundraising (e.g. 'The Internet has changed the way nonprofits raise funds. And the revolution is far from over.' (Days, 2009, p. 20)), not much scientific research was conducted in the field and there is little information regarding the performance of the online fundraising (Sargeant, 2007; Bennett, 2009). However, in the following paragraphs I present some findings from literature regarding the issue of the donor behavior and collecting donations online. The two key authors of the field are Adrian Sargeant and Roger Bennett, which shows that the focus of prominent researchers of donor behavior has shifted to the online environment and specifics.
In 2001, fundraising on the Internet was perceived to be in its beginnings and considerable opportunities were recognized to improve the quality of the online fundraising, particularly by taking advantage of the unique characteristics of the medium (Sargeant, 2001b). Sargeant (2001b) pointed out some elements of the Internet which create distinct marketing opportunities for the non-profits, such as search engine optimization, one-to-one communication,
online communities, web rings, news groups, e-mail and viral marketing. In accompanying study Sargeant (2001b) ascertained that a high portion of non-profit sites were not yet capitalizing on these opportunities. The majority of studied non-profit's web sites were categorized either ornamental (only to obtain Web presence, no concrete marketing objectives) or informational (provide information to potential or existing customers), while only a few were categorized relational (build and maintain relationships). Almost the same results were found few years later by Kang and Norton (2004), who examined non-profits' use of the Web in fulfilling the organizational goals. Data showed that non-profits are using the Web extensively to present traditional public relations material and to connect with the public. However, they were found to be unsuccessful in making interactive and relational communications.
Similarly, Holt and Horn (2005) offer several reasons for non-profits to move towards acceptance of online donations. First, the Web creates another giving venue and an opportunity for the organization to collect more donations. The number of individuals and families engaged in e-commerce and e-banking increases, hence organization not present on the Web might be seen negative, especially due to the fact that the Web allows donors from outside organization's place-oriented market to give donations. Moreover, Internet tools make it easy for the nonprofit to maintain e-business relationship with customers and create lower costs than paper-based transactions do. Lastly, Holt and Horn (2005) identify five factors which motivate giving behavior, namely the organization's mission, community responsibility, financial stability of the organization, quality of volunteer leadership and quality of staff, which are recognized to be as important in the online world as they are in the place-oriented transactions.
Sargeant, West and Jay (2007) examined the relational content of non-profit Web sites (facets of site's design and management) in relationship to the fundraising performance. Based on e-relationship marketing literature review, the authors define eight relational constructs, namely (1) Accessibility - does the site make it easy to offer support, (2) Case for support - clearly articulated reasons for appealing the support, (3) Respect - organization's communication with the donor in appropriate manner, (4) Accountability -identification of the way in which donated funds and personal data are used, (5) Interaction -variety of ways in which users communicate with
the organization, (6) Education - provision of an appropriate facility for the donor to learn about the cause, (7) Customization - possibilities for users to tailor the site or the communications received to reflect their own interest, (8) Empowerment - degree to which users are allowed to take action or to have an impact on the cause. In the study authors empirically test whether these relational dimensions are related to the fundraising performance of the site. The results suggest that Case for support is not associated with any dimension of site's performance, as well as Respect and Customization, which may however be correlated with a subsequent loyalty. On the other side, Accessibility, Accountability, Education, Interaction and Empowerment are correlated with the number of new donors the site can attract, while the last construct is also related with the average donation level.
One of the Bennett's (2009) latest studies investigates impulsive donation decisions during online browsing of charity websites. The sample consisted of donors who reported to have donated impulsively and of donors whose gifts were reported to be pre-planned. After providing extensive literature review, Bennett explored both donor groups' socio-demographic characteristics, level of impulsiveness and attitude towards impulsive behavior, charity donation history, prior knowledge of organization's cause and issues, subjective norms and personal involvement with charity giving. The issue was examined in two website scenarios, i.e. one containing informative messages and other containing emotive messages and imagery. Findings suggest that in the case of hospice organization, 15 per cent of the charity's total online income came from impulsive donations and that emotively oriented homepage increased the volume of impulsive donations for 31 per cent, but lowered the value of average donation. A typical impulsive giver is impulsive by nature, does not perceive such behavior as undesirable, possesses prior knowledge of the organization, donates to charities regularly and experiences an emotional uplift when donating. Lastly, author provided three clusters of impulsive donors, i.e. knowledgeable and committed givers, irregular givers and emotive givers. Key implication Bennett (2009) suggests is that charitable web sites can be created in order to encourage impulsive gifts.
4. DONATIONS TO ONLINE INFORMATION GOODS PROVIDERS
Equipped with knowledge from existing studies of online donor behavior I preformed an extensive search for literature on collecting donations in organizations which provide free of charge information goods in virtual environments.
Varian (1998) defines information good as anything that can be digitized. The three most distinctive properties of information goods are: (1) experience - one must experience information before he can know what it is; (2) returns to scale - typically information has a high fixed production cost, but a low cost of reproduction; (3) public -typically information goods are non-rival (one person's consumption does not diminish the amount available to other people) and nonexcludable (other person cannot exclude another person from consuming the good). These properties make information goods difficult for market transactions, especially on the online market (Varian, 1998; Varian 1996). In this context, Bourreau and Lethiais (2007) analyze the incentives of online information goods providers to offer content whether for free or not. They found that low quality provider usually offers no content for free, while high quality content provider offers content freely, particularly to signal the quality of content. Hence, the price alone cannot signal the quality of the content. Rather offering free content separates high quality provider from the low quality one. On the other hand, providing free content diminishes the willingness to pay for the paid content. However, besides a cheap and efficient distribution of information goods, the Web also presents a space for online gathering of like-minded people to develop their common interest. Hence, users of information goods services are rather than for fixed payment often asked for voluntary contributions to support the provider's development (Borck et al., 2006).
When discussing about providers of information goods collecting voluntary monetary contribution for their provision, I will distinguish two different concepts, i.e. donations and voluntary payments. Voluntary payments are associated with the information content user posses after acquiring it. Such items are for example music, digital newspapers or newsletters, respectively the content which is 'downloadable' to user's computer. On the other hand, donation collecting is sensible in a case where information provided cannot become user's possession and the organization providing the content is operating on
non-for-profit basis (see for example OpenCourseWare service or Wikipedia). In such a case, beneficiary is the organization providing information goods, which collects donations in return for the benefits, such as for example cultural capital (see Bourdieu, 1986) a user gets from the free-accessible content. Further, discussion on voluntary contributions for information goods is impacted by two other important factors. First, when individuals are asked for voluntary contributions, free riding is easily possible (Borck et al., 2006). Secondly, information goods are also experience goods and their actual value might be unclear prior to the purchase (Regner & Barria, 2009). Sargeant et al. (2007) developed another important thought, which is actually in favor of organization providing information goods. They point out that people are unlikely to search the Web in order to find organizations to give to. However, it is more likely that large number of people will find themselves searching for information. Consequently, Web sites with a high level of information provision and capacity to educate donors about the cause of raising money will be more effective in collecting voluntary monetary contributions. This should be a strong enough motivation for online information goods providers to educate themselves in collecting voluntary monetary contributions in virtual environments.
However, I identified few papers examining donations to online non-profit organizations which provide free of charge information goods in virtual environments.
Borck et al. (2006) conducted a study on voluntary contributions for information public good (newsletter destined to amateur and professional writes) provided via the Internet. Their research model arises from the model of private provision of a public good, which predicts that 'individuals contribute less if other individuals contribute more'. Moreover, they investigate some additional determinants of willingness to pay for public information good, namely income (wealthier individuals should contribute more), benefit received form information good (relevance of information affects user's sense of reciprocity; value of information good is a function of user's needs and interests), age (cooperativeness and generosity increase with age, older users are less likely to free ride, cohort effect) and gender (women behave differently than men, etc.). The results suggest that in the case of voluntary payments for information goods on the Internet, the decision is largely driven by variables related to norms, or the importance attached to norms, namely age (users contribute more the older they are), gender (women tend to be more
cooperative) and (presumed) behavior of others. However, the finding that readers are more likely to contribute the more they expect others to give is not consistent with the simple private provision model, but with more refined private provisions or fairness models.
Krishnamurthy and Tripathi (2009) examined characteristics of monetary donations to an open source software (OSS) platform. This study is somehow specific for donors being an open source community members (factor of personal engagement, i.e. obtaining private benefits while creating a public good, collective action). Two studies were conducted, the first examining factors that cause some community members to donate and not others (subscriber to OSS, longer association with OSS, association with active projects), and the second focusing on factors which drive the level of donation (donating to OS project, openness to financial compensation for OSS development). The results indicate that relation commitment with the OSS platform, accepting donations from others and donation to projects all affect user's decision to donate. The level of donation is impacted by the length of association with the platform and relational commitment. Lastly, authors point out that in the context of providing monetary donations to OS platform, users (i.e. developers) may not be entirely altruistic, since the co-existence of the public and private motives.
The last study is not directly connected with collecting donations, but it offers an insight in voluntary paying for information goods online. Regner and Barria (2009) conducted research on Web portal selling music, where the price of an album is not directly stated. Instead, a price range is provided; letting the consumers to decide individually how much do they believe the album they downloaded is worth. The given price range is $5 - $18 for an album, besides seller provides the recommended price, which is $8 for an album. The empirical analysis of collected payments showed that the average payment for an album was not only significantly higher from the stated minimal price, but was even slightly higher from the recommended one, namely $8.20. Authors explain the phenomenon of consumers paying voluntary with a sufficiently high level of social preferences, i.e. reciprocity, warm glow and guilt. Despite the fact that this study has several limitations, it pioneers the research of payments for information goods when a price range is present.
5. IMPLICATIONS FOR ONLINE NON-PROFIT INFORMATION GOODS PROVIDERS
From the conceptual review of off-line and online donations presented in the previous sections of the paper, many implications for collecting donations in return for providing free of charge information goods can be derived. First of all, the special features of the Internet as a media should be considered (Sargeant, 2001b). Regarding the acquisition of new donors online Allen (2002) puts emphasis especially on appeals on organization's Web site, appeals in the e-newsletter, and promotions and banner ads on other Web sites. Moreover, high-quality and appropriate use of search engine may be essential for fundraising performance (Sargeant, 2007). In this aspect, previously listed findings about donor characteristics should serve as a base for targeting marketing.
Despite the fact, that majority of existing studies on donor behavior examined off-line charitable environments; their findings, with some adjustments, can be applied to online provision of information goods. However, firstly the roles and relationships in such context should be identified, e.g. organization enabling access and providing information goods is the non-profit organization collecting donations to support its own existence. Thus, in such a case there is no middle party maintaining interaction between the donor and the beneficiary. Rather, the user of the organization's Web site should decide, based on his/her own experience and perceived benefit/ utility he or she gets from the organization, whether to become a donor and support the information good provider.
Maybe the most distinctive characteristic of the Internet is its capacity of providing two-way interactions. In this aspect, online non-profits providing information goods should engage extensively in relationship marketing which was indicated to impact donor behavior especially in terms of duration of relationship with the organization and level of donation (Bennett & Barkensjo, 2004). Internet tools provide many opportunities for relationship advertising, database marketing and two-way marketing contacts which enhance organization's relationship building with the users. Relationship marketing in the context of online information goods provision is worth considering as well from the perspective that the value of information goods is usually unclear prior their 'consumption' (we may assume that user will execute voluntary
contribution to the information good provider only after recognizing the value of the service, i.e. after consuming the information good). However, Hart and Johnston (2002) claim that building trust is the key to building relationships online. They divide the trust building to six essential stages, namely ensuring online security with seals of approval, communicating the organization's mission, providing easy site navigation, maintaining stewardship, acknowledging needs and expectations of donors and providing effective technology that enables donors to find the information they need. When the donor trust to the organization, relationship building becomes essential. Above all, organization must provide the donor with immediate customer service, e.g. responding to inquiries, etc.
However, motivation to donate is translated into behavior only after a user has completed a decision process (Guy & Patton, 1989). Since donation to online non-profit information goods providers is not yet a widely recognized concept, the most of all providers should learn about implications for actions that arise from understanding of motivations and donor's helping decision process. First, online non-profit information goods providers should recognize that donor is actually searching for opportunity to help the organization to survive. As well, his action enables other/ensuing users to benefit from the organization's services in the future. Hence, external rewards for giving, e.g. admission to special events, may be counterproductive since they can overshadow the satisfaction of the intrinsic need for helping others. However, it is essential that the organization generates awareness that the need for funds exists. All users should be reached by appeal for help (e.g. via banners, e-mail or newsletter), convincing them that the need is urgent and deserved (e.g. by explaining resources needed for organization's existence and their current level). Besides, donor should embody that he or she as an individual should help. To achieve that, potential donors should be approached as individuals, the best via one-to-one personal contact. Here the organization should take advantage of the Internet as a media, e.g. engage into database or e-mail marketing, and strive to achieve users spreading the word for help. Through the appeals, donors should recognize that they possess the ability to help and that their donation is crucial. Thus, the organization may provide a list explaining how a certain amount of money helps it to operate in the future. Lastly, the organization should make donating as easy as possible, so that the intention can translate into
actual behavior, e.g. make the donating form clear, trustworthy and easy to use (epitomized after Guy & Patton, 1989).
As an example of an online information goods provider, being successful at collecting donation, I would expose Wikipedia. Wikipedia is a nonprofit organization, maintaining a site for knowledge and information sharing. It does not engage in advertising and funds itself through donations. Wikimedia, a foundation behind the site, appeals its users to donate in order to ensure the site's survival. A campaign is running yearly and is supported by Wikipedia founder's personal appeal for donations. Enabling users to donate online and via text messages the foundation raised $6.2 million from 125,000 donors in 2008 and $7.5 million in 2009. Moreover, Wikimedia encourages donors to spread the word and to share their personal stories about Wikipedia (Wikimedia Foundation 2010; Parfeni, 2009; Lardinois, 2009).
6. FUTURE RESEARCH PREPOSITIONS
Plethora of studies examining donations and donor behavior was identified. However, the vast majority of them apply to the off-line environment, whereas online donation collecting has not been studied extensively yet. Moreover, little application was made to online non-profit information goods providers. These issues need to be addressed in the future.
There is a need for an elaborate model of donor behavior in virtual environments. Besides, it should be tested whether already existing models can be applied to the online context. This is true as well for the studies dealing with donors' characteristics and motivations for donor behavior. There is no empirical evidence that findings from the off-line environment can be addressed to the online environment. Hence, there may be several other, not yet defined variables affecting online donation behavior and should be examined in the future.
Moreover, the context of online non-profit organizations providing information goods opens an array of new research questions. At the time being, we don't know anything about motives and factors of support of such an organization. Hence, personal, demographic and behavioral characteristics of users who donate to an online non-profit organization should be examined. It would be important to analyze individual's perceived value of consumed online information good to define its influence on the decision to
donate to the online provider. Another aspect possibly influencing donor decision and not examined yet is how individual's involvement with the online non-profit organization (dimensions of tenure, virtual community, personal contribution, etc.) influence the decision to donate to the online information goods provider and whether loyal donors promote the donating activity among their peers. Finally, effective marketing practices to enhance voluntary contributions to online nonprofit information goods providers should be defined in the future.
acknowledgement
The author would like to thank to prof. dr. Vesna Zabkar for her suggestions and very helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper.
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Dr. Boštjan Udovič
University of Ljubljana Faculty of social sciences Slovenia
bostjan.udovic@fdv.uni-lj.si
Mag. Matevž Raškovic
University of Ljubljana Faculty of economics Slovenia
matevz.raskovic@ef.uni-lj.si
EXPORT MARKETS AND TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL MARKET(ING) COOPERATION OF TOP SLOVENIAN EXPORTERS: HAS THE CRISIS TAUGHT US NOTHING?
Abstract: The article analyses geographical concentration, foreign market entry modes and selected types of international market(ing) cooperative behaviour of a sample of top Slovenian exporters. The authors presume that, due to (special) characteristics of the Slovenian national character (e. g. namely individualism/collectivism and monochronism), the internationalisation behaviour of Slovenian exporters is based on geographical and cultural proximity of foreign export markets. Within these markets, companies' autonomy is larger, because cooperation is not a conditio sine qua non, but more an option. The empirical results support the authors' presumptions. Firstly, Slovenian companies mostly operate in a geographical radius of about 1,500 km, focusing especially on EU-27 and Ex-Yugoslav markets. Secondly, the key motives for internationalisation are client following, followed by domestic market replacement (small domestic market) and risk spreading (risk aversion). Furthermore, the export (product) portfolio of Slovenian top exporters mostly bases on products instead of a balance of products and services. This is apparent in the domestic market, and even more so on foreign markets. In addition, the internationalisation motives of the sample export companies are most often complemented by lower levels of contractual foreign market entry modes (e. g. contract manufacturing). Thirdly, Slovenian companies are reluctant towards a joint appearance on foreign markets with other Slovenian or even foreign companies and display a very low degree of coordinated market(ing) behaviour with other Slovenian companies. This can be explained by a high level of within group collectivism and low degree of between group collectivism in the Slovenian national culture character. And lastly, at the corporate level, sample companies lack tendencies to include the whole value chain in formulating corporate and marketing-level strategies, often only including customer, and to lesser extent suppliers, distributors and other publics (e.g. media, local environment, etc.). It must also be noted that all the above-mentioned characteristics of the Slovenian sample exporters may also be linked to Slovenia's position within ExYugoslavia and its gradualist transition to a market economy. In particular, a strong drive towards EU
harmonisation and the absence of a severe shock to the Slovenian export economy after the disintegration of Ex-Yugoslavia (with the overnight loss of the 22 million Yugoslav market) all contributed to the self-complacency of Slovenian exporters in terms of geographical, industry and product diversification. Furthermore, the influence of socio-cultural determinants (e. g. national character) should also not be omitted in understanding the economic and market(ing) behaviour of Slovenian exporters. The results of our study on a sample of 81 top Slovenian exporters show that there is a necessity to enhance cooperative and collaborative behaviour among Slovenian companies, especially in the field of international market(ing) cooperation, which can sustain the achievement of companies' economies of scale and scope. Furthermore, Slovenian companies should be more proactive, meaning more courageous and aggressive, when entering and operating in foreign markets. Therefore, they should divert from traditional (EU-27 and Ex-Yugoslav) export markets towards emerging markets and global market nieches that play an important role in the world economic structure. At the same time, Slovenian companies have to be able to switch to higher levels of contractual entry modes, as well as towards more complex, cooperative and market(ing)-oriented behaviour with other Slovenian and foreign companies.
Key words: export orientation, export cooperation, international marketing, Slovenia
IZVOZNI TRGI TER IZBRANE OBLIKE MEDNARODNEGA TRŽENJSKEGA SODELOVANJA VODILNIH SLOVENSKIH IZVOZNIKOV: ALI NAS KRIZA NI NAUČILA NIČESAR?
Povzetek: Pričujoči članek analizira značilnosti izhodne internacionalizacije slovenskih podjetij - geografsko in proizvodno koncentracijo, načine vstopa na tuje trge in trženjsko delovanje na teh trgih. Analiza temelji na vzorcu 81 podjetij, ki so sodelovala v raziskavi. Avtorja na začetku članka izpostavljata, da zaradi posebnosti slovenskega nacionalnega značaja (nagnjenosti k individualizmu) slovenska podjetja mednarodno poslujejo na trgih, ki so jim tako geografsko kot kulturno blizu zaradi tega, ker so na teh trgih bolj suverena in lahko delujejo samostojno, brez nujnosti poslovnih povezav.
Rezultati ankete, ki je bila izvedena med 81 podjetji, to tezo dokazujejo, saj ugotavljajo, da:
a)	večina slovenskih podjetij posluje v premeru 1500 kilometrov, s posebnim fokusom na trge nekdanje Jugoslavije, EU27 in držav SND;
b)	so ključni motivi za delovanje na tujih trgih (i) sledenje strankam, (ii) nadomeščanje (majhnosti) domačega trga ter (iii) razpršitev tveganj;
c)	portfelj najpomembnejših slovenskih izvoznikov temelji na proizvodni strukturi, namesto da bi kombiniral proizvodno in storitveno strukturo;
d)	slovenska podjetja na tujih trgih redko nastopajo skupaj z drugimi slovenskimi ali tujimi podjetji oz. je kakršnokoli njihovo sodelovanje v okviru trženjskih aktivnosti z drugimi podjetji na zelo nizkem nivoju.
Avtorja vse te ugotovitve pojasnjujeta predvsem s posebnostmi slovenskega nacionalnega značaja, ki podjetja spodbuja k avtonomnemu nastopanju in se izogiba kolektivni aktivnosti podjetij. To se kaže tudi v aktivnostih znotraj korporativnega pozicioniranja podjetij, kjer podjetja v svoje odločitve ne vključujejo vseh delov dobavno-potrošniške verige, temveč njihovo odločanje temelji predvsem na željah in okusih potrošnikov, manj pa na posebnostih dobaviteljev. Končno avtorja ugotavljata, da bi morala slovenska podjetja bolj intenzivno sodelovati med seboj kot tudi z drugimi partnerji in s tem dosegati večje ekonomije obsega in sinergij, še posebej na področju trženjskega upravljanja. Prav tako pa morajo podjetja postati »bolj drzna« pri vstopu na tuje trge, še posebej z zasledovanjem strategije niš, ki je za podjetja iz male države ključna strategija dolgoročnega uspeha. Ključne besede: orientacija izvoza, izvozno sodelovanje, mednarodno trženje, Slovenija
1. INTRODUCTION
The current financial and economic crisis confirmed that small (and open) economies are less resilient to outside economic changes. Within the EU-27, 2009 was the worst year for small states like Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia that encountered a decrease in GDP growth upwards of 10 per cent, followed by Iceland and Slovenia where the fall was around 8 per cent. The fall of GDP growth in the listed states can be attributed to the share of export/import in their GDP structure. Export in these states represents a large share in their total GDP. Furthermore, geographical, industry and product structures of these states' exports are relatively undifferentiated. The export concentration is mostly based on geographical proximity of key trade partners.
The purpose of this article is to analyse the behaviour of the Slovenian export economy on a sample of 81 top Slovenian exporters. We argue that the gradualist transition from a planned to a market economy has not changed much, because a large extent of Slovenian internationalisation is still based on geographical and product concentration, as well as a limited degree of diversification. This is, on one hand, determined by socio-cultural characteristics of Slovenian companies, while on the other hand this also influences the behaviour of Slovenian companies in their entry to new markets. Our hypothesis is that a high level of risk-aversion (a relevant component of the Slovenian national character) hampers Slovenian export companies to take up the challenges and changes offered by international business environment. This may be the reason why the outward internationalisation of Slovenian export companies is based more on push-based rather than on pull-based factors. Such conservative positions lead to the fact that Slovenian companies internationalise in markets of geographical proximity (where they know the market and consumer particularities), with a limited set of products and a low degree of services in their value offers.
The framework of outward internationalisation also determines the foreign markets entry modes. If the driving gear of companies' internationalisation is 'smallness' of the domestic market or the spreading of risks, companies will internationalise in modes that grant gains and reduce risks. Even more, companies will decide for entry modes, which allow higher shares of control, without taking large risks. Next to export, contract manufacturing is the usual client following type of market entry. On cultural very
familiar markets green field and brown field investments are also chosen. On the other hand, Slovenian companies will be less favourable towards strategic alliances and M&As (mergers and acquisitions), since such commitments do not grant the possibility of 'individualistic behaviour', as well as due to financial limitations.
In the field of international market(ing) cooperation, we posit that Slovenian companies are not favourable to congruent company cooperation with other companies, especially if this implies coordination market(ing) activities. Even more, they base their own marketing activities on consumers' attitudes and characteristics, ignoring the inclusion of the whole value chain. The market(ing) activities of Slovenian export companies are also based on the conservative approach of reaction to consumer needs. Therefore, their marketing positioning is mostly based on the relation between price and quality, followed by product-based and product-type positioning. Consequently, for most sample companies the 'client-based factors' (like strategies based on purchasing behaviour) that include proactive operations is less relevant, when entering foreign markets.
From the corporate level point of view, respondents mostly elaborate and fulfil the vision and mission of the company. Similarly, the business and marketing strategy are present, but there is a lack in fulfilling it in an integrated manner, which is most present in absent planning of integral marketing processes. In terms of including different types of stakeholders and reference sources in the process of marketing strategy formulation and operationalization, only customers are most often taken into consideration when entry market(ing) strategies are formulated. Distributors and suppliers only partly influence the formulation of market(ing) strategies, while other publics (e. g. local public, media, etc.) are mostly excluded.
The article is composed of three parts. The first part of the paper presents a short theoretical overview of selected literature establishing a framework for empirical analysis and results presented in the second part of the article (Chapters 3 to 6). In the last part, we reassume the key findings presented through the text, with the emphasis on confirming or rejecting our hypothesis on the characteristics of operational marketing and market-entry modes of Slovenian companies. Managerial implications are also provided in the last part of the paper.
2. SHORT THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
2.1. EXPORT STRUCTURE
The current financial and economic crisis confirmed the axiom that small and open economies are less resilient to outside economic and non-economic shocks (e. g. Kisanga and Briguglio, 2004; Ibitoye, 2009; Briguglio et al., 2009 etc.). This can, among other things, be attributed to the percentage that export and import have in their total GDP. For illustration: close to 70 per cent of Slovenia's GDP is related to exports (National Statistics Office of Slovenia, 2010). Compared to large states, small states base their export (and import)1 on geographical proximity and therefore concentrate it. This is linked to the limited resources and the resource-based view in internationalization theory of companies from small markets (Roth, 1995; Ahokangas, 1998; Luo, 2000; Ruzzier, Antončič and Konečnik, 2006). The preposition of influence on 'geographical export concentration' was tested several times in the past; and different studies (e. g. Hirschman, 1945; Michaely, 1958; Kuznets, 1964; Khafal, 1974; James, 1980 etc.) have proved an inverse relationship between country size and export concentration (cf. James, 1980). According to Meilak (2008), the limited size of internal/domestic market causes that "trade takes a more magnified dimension in small economies" and therefore, "countries export to a small number of client countries, due to the problems associated with further fragmenting (of) their already small volume of export" (ibid.). At the same time, the small domestic market motive remains one of the most prominent motives for internationalization of small country companies, often before either technological or marketing advantage (Glas at al., 1999; Hollensen, 2007).
Slovenia, as a small state, (cf. Senjur, 1992; Damijan, 1995; Alessina and Spolaore, 2005; Udovič and Svetličič, 2007) similarly faces this phenomenon. Since the 1970s, when the first wave of liberalization started, Slovenian companies started to internationalise and invest abroad (Jaklič and Svetličič, 2005). During the 1980s, export to developed countries amounted to 58 per cent of total Slovenian export (Jaklič and Svetličič, 2003), but at the same time, intrastate trade was still important for the Slovenian economy.2 After the dissolution of Yugoslavia and
1	Kuznets (1964, 40) proved »the inverse association between (country) size and geographic concentration of both - export and import - but particularly of export«.
2	According to the Statistical Report of Yugoslavia (1989, 309), Slovenia had exported 23 per cent of the total Yugoslav export in 1987.
a decade of continuous wars in the region (Gligorov, 2004, 16ff), Slovenian companies were forced to 'find' new trade partners outside the region.3 However, the redirection has not included a diversification of markets, but rather reinforcement of (already propulsive) key trade partners' relations (e. g. EEC markets).4 Therefore, the turn from Ex-Yugoslav towards EEC markets missed the opportunity of geographically diversifying export of Slovenian companies. Even though the share of export of goods and services in GDP rose from 45 per cent (1996) to 68 per cent (2008), the share of EEC markets (in the same period) remains steady at almost 70 per cent. Figure 1 displays the structure of Slovenian exports, according to market types for 2009.
In terms of trying to link the socio-economic complexity of Slovenia's quick transition (Katsu, 2004) from a socialist to a market system Mencinger (2004) points to certain characteristics of the Slovenian economy at the time of its independence in 1991, which have had also a profound impact on Slovenia's foreign trade a predominant EU market focus today. Thus, Slovenia was considered one of "the richest parts of Eastern Europe", with a "well diversified manufacturing sector" and "a predominantly private agriculture, a partly privately owned services sector, well-established economic links with Western markets, and a good geographical position" (Mencinger, 2004, 73). By 1990 17.9 per cent of sales and 15.2 per cent of purchases were tied to other non-socialist markets (Mencinger, 2004). Trying to explain such a predominant EU market focus of the Slovenian export economy Majcen & Kaminski (2004, 140) point to Slovenia's zeal in EU foreign trade, stating "unlike the other candidates for EU accession, Slovenia has followed very closely the vision and policies designed by the European Union to carry out Eastern enlargement" also in the area of foreign trade. Majcen and Kaminski (2004) also link the quick abolishment of trade barriers between the EU and Slovenia, as a very important push towards increased foreign trade with the EU. Furthermore, they stress that "the European Union is both an economic superpower
3	This prudent redirection towards 'known partners' should be understood within the discourse of Slovenian national character (cf. Žižek, 1987; Damjan, 2000). The choice for transitional gradualism should also be understood within this discourse (cf. Šušteršič, 2004, 400ff).
4	In 1970, the total export to four key trade partners (Austria, Italy, Germany and France) represented almost 50 per cent of the total Slovenian export, while this share increased to 55 per cent in 1991. Statistical data shows that the importance of Ex-Yugoslav markets partly diminished during the 90-ies, but rose again after 2002 (cf. also Damijan, 2004, 335ff).
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and Slovenia's natural trading partner for reasons of both geography and economic potential" (Majcen and Kaminski, 2004, 142). Adding to this, Domadenik and Prasnikar (2004) point to an extensive privatization and restructuring process of the Slovenian business economy in the first part of the 1990s, which limited the 'external orientation' of many Slovenian companies. Thus, according to Prasnikar and Gregoric (2002) a vast majority of "successful and internationally accepted firms in fact took advantage of internal buyouts" again focusing more on internal ownership issues, rather than a strategic diversification of their external trade. While the complexity of Slovenia's transition falls outside the scope of this paper, the high degree of connection to EU markets prior to Slovenia's independence, a gradualist and bilateral foreign trade expansion, accompanied by a strong drive towards EU integration all contributed to Slovenia's current export structure. Furthermore, Slovenia's geographical position, its historic ties to key EU markets (e. g. Germany, Italy and Austria), socio-cultural characteristics (uncertainty avoidance and resistance to change), as well as the absence of a severe economic depression following Slovenia's independence, all paved the way for Slovenia's complacency in terms of foreign trade, which is still very much evident today, and as shown in Figure 1.
In the group of EU-27, key trade partners include: Germany (20.01 per cent of the total Slovenian exports), Italy (11.60 per cent), France (8.29 per cent) and Austria (8.03 per cent). The situation is
even more radical among Ex-Yugoslav states, where Croatia imports 47.84 per cent of all Slovenian export to the Ex-Yugoslav region, followed by Serbia (23.56 per cent), and Bosnia and Herzegovina (19.16 per cent). This data shows that Slovenia exports 86.40 per cent to EU-27 and Ex-Yugoslav markets jointly, thus concentrating the bulk of its exports in a narrow geographical radius of 1,500 km. Due to this export concentration, Slovenia can be marked as an economically vulnerable state and should therefore adopt "appropriate policies to enable it to cope with its vulnerability" (self-made scenario) (Briguglio et al., 2004, 2).5
In addition to a low degree of geographical diversification addressed in Figure 1, Slovenia's exports are also very much undiversified in terms of industry structure. Thus, according to the Standard International Trade Classification Slovenia's exports are mainly in the area of Machinery and transport equipment (39.8 per cent), followed by Manufactures classified by material (23.8 per cent), Chemical products (14.4 per cent) and Miscellaneous manufactured articles (12.2 per cent). Among specific product categories the most common export product categories include: road vehicles (14.4 per cent), electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances
5 The study of Briguglio et al. (2004) ranked Slovenia on the 40th place (among 77) countries. It explains that Slovenia is bordering between two categories - self-made and best-case scenario. The latter is defined as "not inherently vulnerable, which at same time adopt resilience-building policies" (2004,
3)
Figure 1: Key export markets for Slovenian economy in 2009*
Source: Bank of Slovenia, Economic Relationships of Slovenia with abroad, December 2009.
*The structures are based on the data for the first 11 months of 2009. Complete data for 2009 was not yet available.
(9.5 per cent), medicinal and pharmaceutical products (7.9 per cent) and general industrial machinery and equipment (6.2 per cent) (Slovenia in figures, 2009). Looking at the created gross added value as a percentage of total economy, Slovenia's added value is still too much derived from the industry (34 per cent), compared to the EU-27 (26.4 per cent) and not from the services (Slovenia: 63.7 per cent, opposed to EU-27: 71.7 per cent) (Eurostat, 2010).
Economic vulnerability is even further more concerning when the distribution of Slovenian outward foreign direct investments (FDIs) is taken into account. The data of the Bank of Slovenia shows that over 67 per cent of all outward FDIs by Slovenian companies are to Ex-Yugoslav markets (Bank of Slovenia, 2009, 67-68). At the same time, the degree of inward FDIs are, due to national peculiarities (e.g. risk aversion and conservatism), extremely low.
How can this data be explained? Theoretically, the best explanation is offered by the paradigm of sequential internationalization model, known as the Uppsala model (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977/1990; Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975), explaining that the decision for internationalisation includes three variables, namely: (1) regional aspect, (2) entry mode specifics (pertaining to control, risk and flexibility) and the (3) investment sector (Svetlicic, 2003, 5). The central implication of the Uppsala model is in its capability to explain market-oriented internationalisation, which is based on classical competence-endowment preposition (Makovec Brencic, 2009, 22). However, the Uppsala School is to narrow to explain all internationalisation processes. In a more recent critical overview of traditional internationalization theories, Axinn and Matthyssens (2002) point to new technological and economic forces making "existing internationalization theories insufficient in explaining the behaviours of companies in the market place" (Akhter and Robles, 2006, 98). In particular, this may be linked also to the emergence of the network paradigm in internationalization theories, as well as international business and marketing (e. g. Anderson, Hâkansson & Johanson, 1994; Johansen and Johansen, 1999; Hollensen, 2007), with the behaviour of individual companies being dependent on the networks in which they are embedded, as well as through the actor-resource-activity network relationships (Hâkansson and Snehota, 1995).
The widened approach of the Uppsala School is valid also in the case of Slovenia, where competence-endowment can be found in its historical relations and cultural nearness (cf. also Raskovic, 2009) to Ex-Yugoslav and EU-27 countries (cf. Makovec Brencic and Hrastelj, 2003, 418ff), as well as in knowing the market and consumer particularities (cf. also Zabkar, Kolar and Sunko, 2009). Therefore, Slovenian companies invest more in countries, where they have the comparative advantage based on cultural proximity and where their products have a good reputation, while they export in countries where their competitive position is weak compared to other competitors. On these markets, they usually sell under other brands or act as contract manufacturers and second-tier suppliers.
2.2. FOREIGN MARKET ENTRY MODE FACTORS
The explanation, why Slovenian companies invest more in Ex-Yugoslav markets and export more in EU-27 markets, determines the question of entry modes and inter-company cooperation activities on the selected markets. Czinkota et al. (2009, 233) list four different types of foreign market entry modes, varying in terms of the available level of: control, inherent risk and offered flexibility. These four groups include: (1) exporting, (2) contractual entry types (i. e. licensing), (3) joint ventures and (4) foreign direct investment (FDIs). Makovec Brencic (2009, 82ff) complements the Czinkota et al. (2009) classification with franchising, contractual agreements and strategic alliances (cf. also Onkvisit and Shaw, 2004, 248ff). Each entry mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, which influence the selection of the appropriate type of market entry mode. Export is the easiest and less risky way of internationalisation (Onkvisit and Shaw, 2004, 246), which - compared to licensing - does not allow the transfer of the technical know-how and industrial property (ibid., 249). If export and licensing deals with market-operational modes, franchising and contractual agreements focus more on stipulating contracts and operate as a subcontractor. However, the most complicated forms of internationalisation are joint ventures and strategic alliances, determined by non sole economic interests. The investment types of market entry (i. e. green field and brown field investments) on the other hand, offer the highest possible levels of control and inherent risk, while enabling lower levels of flexibility (cf. Makovec Brencic and Hrastelj, 2003, 167ff).
No matter which form of outward internationalisation is chosen, companies have to market and sell their products and services. This can be carried out individually or in cooperation with other (Slovenian) companies operating in the same market - coordinated campaign approaches (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 2007, 591ff). As implied by Goffin et al. (2006) cooperative behaviour is always prone to being desirable. The positive effects of cooperative behaviour in (international) business ventures has also been substantially tested empirically (e. g. Monczka et al., 1993; Bagchi et al., 2005; Das et al., 2006 etc.). However, as pointed by Johnston and Kristal (2008) cooperation may also lead to dependence and may consequently have also an adverse impact on business performance.
The market(ing) cooperation models may vary from lax marketing activities (like coordinated marketing) to more intense, almost amalgamated marketing approaches (e. g. joint market brands in foreign market) (Czinkota and Ronkainen, 2007, 491, 597). Regardless of the cooperation type, Akhter and Robles (2006) clearly point to individual companies having to make a decision at the market entry stage, as well as subsequent international business and marketing activities, on whether and how to cooperate with other companies. Gomes-Casseres (1989) further points out to the importance of differing capabilities in terms of internalization or cooperation in international business, again, directly referring to the resource-based view in internationalization theory.
There are three key variables that influence the cooperation decision, namely: a) company size,
b)	market size (or market share) and
c)	'ethnocentrism' of the management. These three factors are further complemented by the internal availability of resources (Williamson, 1975), international experience (Hollensen, 2007), and the company network (Koch, 2001). A good classification of the various different factors influencing cooperation decisions in the context of internationalization can be found in Akhter and Robles (2006) conceptual model. They classify/ group different factors in two groups;
(1) competency-related factors (e. g. strategic resources, asset specificity, and context specificity) and (2) uncertainty-related factors
(e. g. level of competition, brand recognition, political and economic stability, product and market type etc.).
In terms of company size, large companies are often more capable to operate individually, with adequate resources and experience, as well as being averse to cooperating with other companies, especially on a small market, while they are more prone to cooperation on large markets. Even more, if a company has a large market share, it is hard to expect that it will cooperate with other companies, while if the opposite is true, cooperation is more credible.
2.3. SELECTED SOCIO-CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
In addition to market and historical characteristics, socio-cultural characteristics are also an important factor in foreign market entry modes (Hollensen, 2007), as well as in terms of determining the economic behaviour of companies (Birley, 1987; Franke, Hofstede and Bond, 1991; McGrath, MacMillan and Scheinberg, 1992; Thomas and Mueller, 2000; Gerard and Shaker, 2002). In this context in particular, cultural characteristics such as (a) risk taking or uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980; Palich and Bagby, 1995), (b) individualism (Morrison, Davis and Allen, 1994), (c) masculinity (Hofstede, 1980; McGrath, MacMillan and Scheinberg, 1992) and (d) power distance (Thompson, 1967; Hofstede, 1980) have all been directly linked to entrepreneurial and economic behavior of companies, having thus also implications for export behavior. Table 1 displays the selected cultural characteristics of the Slovenian national culture according to Hofstede's indices.
As can be seen from the corresponding data from Table 1, Slovenia's national cultural character scores very low on individualism and masculine values, relatively low on power distance and quite high on uncertainty avoidance. In terms of export behavior implications, high level of uncertainty
Table 1: Slovenia's cultural characteristics according to Hofstede's national character typology*
Country	PDI	UAI	IND	MAS
Slovenia	37	88	27	19
Source: Hofstede, 2001.
*Values are on a 0 to 125 point scale. PDI=power distance, UAI=uncertainty avoidance, IND=individualism, MAS=masculinity.
avoidance may imply resistance to change and strong risk-aversion, which may limit openness to cooperation with unknown external partners. The research of Hofstede (1980/2001) and Jazbec (2005) has presented quite a high level of 'risk avoidance' and 'femininity' of the Slovenian population (Zagorsek, 2005, 6); similar results can be found also in the GLOBE Research done for Slovenia in 2004 (Zagorsek, 2005, 8). Furthermore, while high levels of collectivism may foster cooperative behaviour; high degrees of risk avoidance limit this behaviour to within group collectivism, not between group collectivism (House et al., 2004).
No matter if the market share is big or small, or the company is a SME or a large company, the ethnocentrism/national character can play a decisive role in influencing cooperative behaviour in marketing affairs. The decision for cooperating or 'going solo' is strongly based on the monochronism and polychronism (cf. Makovec Brencic, 2003, 254; Czinkota et al., 2009, 76; Onkvist and Shaw, 2004, 158) of the management. When the managements' values and strategies are based on collectivism, cooperation is much more probable than if the management stimulates competitiveness and individualism (masculinity) among its members.
The presented short theoretical overview is a basis for further discussion of empirical data that will be presented in the next two chapters. In the third chapter, sampling and sample characteristics are presented, while in the fourth chapter, we analyse the empirical findings and examine if practice supports our theoretical overview.
3. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
The sample consists of 81 Slovenian export companies (n=81). These companies were selected first among 1,000 top Slovenian exporters, based on 2008 data, and in terms of the absolute value of their exports. Based on this ranking, a final respondent e-mail listing of 499 companies was prepared and contacted by the market research agency GfK Slovenia, which was also in charge of the data collection process. Data collection took place in spring and early summer of 2009, by means of an electronic survey, preceded by both regular mail and telephone announcements. The response rate of the survey was 16.23 per cent. A structured instrument survey was applied, consisting of mainly 7-point Likert scales and open-end marketing and export performance questions.
Regarding sample characteristics, despite somewhat limited size of the sample, the structure of exports of sample companies is quite comparable to the structure of overall Slovenian exports, with close to 70 per cent of exports tied to the EU-27 and followed by Ex-Yugoslavia and Russia. In terms of company size, the sample includes above average shares of middle-sized and large companies, compared to the Slovenian industry structure. However, it must be noted that data collection was based on a ranking of top Slovenian export companies in terms of their absolute value of exports, and thus biased according to size. Hence, the results mirror the export and international marketing behaviour of top Slovenian exporters, not all Slovenian exporters or the whole real sector.
Corresponding with their predominant export orientation, 63 per cent of all surveyed companies realize over 70 per cent of their sales on foreign markets. Over the last three years, the majority of these companies (40.7 per cent) realized compounded annual growth rates of sales in foreign markets between 6 and 15 per cent. Among the companies that have a marketing department, only 20.8 per cent have a separate international marketing department as well. While most companies (40.7 per cent) have up to 5 per cent of foreign-based assets, an additional 30.9 per cent do not know or did not wish to answer this question. A majority of sample companies (30.7 per cent) have up to 1 per cent of foreign-based employees in their total employee structure.
In terms of specific market entry types, 97.53 per cent of respondent companies use various export types, while only 16.05 per cent of respondent companies also use contractual market entry types (e. g. licensing and franchising). Furthermore, only 13.58 per cent of respondent companies employ FDIs as a mode of internationalization, followed by mergers and acquisitions (7.41 per cent).
4. CURRENT AND FUTURE
export markets FOCUS
In terms of current importance of export markets, EU-27 markets represent the most important export destination for the Slovenian sample companies, with only 4.94 per cent of companies exporting to other markets and not to the EU-27 markets. For about half of the sample companies (55.56 per cent) EU-27 markets represent at least 61 or more per cent of their total value of exports in foreign markets, thus displaying a strong export dependence on the EU-27 markets. In
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Figure 2: Current structure of exports (foreign sales in total foreign sales) according to specific market
Source: International business activities of Slovenian companies, 2009 (n=81).
Figure 3: Importance of selected markets in terms of current export value (foreign sales in total foreign sales) in three years (7-point scale)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
EU-27
Ex-Yugoslav markets
Russia and CIS countries
Other non-European countries...
North America
Other European countries (e.g. Albania)
1 2 3 4 S 6 7
Source: Study of international business activities of Slovenian companies, 2009 (n=81).
11-Significantlvless important 12
13
14
15
16
17-Significantlymore important ■Average score
second place, only 18.52 per cent of sample companies do not export to Ex-Yugoslav markets, while for most companies (54.32 per cent) these markets represent between 1 and 20 per cent of their total value of exports. 70.3 per cent of respondent companies do not export to North American markets at all, while 59.26 per cent do not export to other non-European markets (excluding Russia and CIS countries). Figure 2 displays a more detailed structure of the
current export orientation of the sample export companies.
Having presented the data in Figure 2, we can see that the bulk of exports of the sample companies falls within a radius of about 1,500 kilometres from Slovenia and is geographically relatively undifferentiated. In the next section, Figure 3 presents how important the given markets will be to the sample companies in three
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years (on a 7-point scale, where 1 corresponds to significantly less important and 7 to significantly more important).
(Not)surprisingly, EU-27 markets have the highest stated importance score (6.40 on a 7-point scale) in terms export importance in three years time, followed by Ex-Yugoslav markets (5.36), while North America remains last (3.41). What we see is that the sample companies believe that their main current export markets will be even more important in three years time, disregarding the potential in other markets and showing no indication of export diversification in terms of geographical markets. In addition, the degree of importance of North American markets will actually drop slightly among the sample Slovenian export companies over the next three years.
Regarding most common motives for internationalization, client following was stated as the most common motive by respondent companies (average value of 5.52 on a 7-point scale). This motive was followed by small domestic market (5.44) and risk spreading (5.23) (cf. also chapter 2). All three motives indicate low levels of proactiveness, in terms of proactive internationalization. Also very important, geographical proximity (average grade of 4.56 on a 7-point scale) was ranked second most important after market size (5.88) in terms of main factors market selection. Cultural proximity was ranked third with an average grade of 4.50 (cf. also Chapter 2).
5. PRODUCT PORTFOLIOS OF TOP SLOVENIAN EXPORTERS AND CORPORATE LEVEL MARKETING STRATEGIES
5.1. SELECTED PRODUCT PORTFOLIO INDICATORS
In terms of the available and selected data on product portfolios of top Slovenian exporters in the sample (n=81) most respondent companies rely heavily on revenue generation from products, little from services, which is also in-line with sources of added value generation outlined earlier. In addition, an even stronger reliance on product revenue generation is apparent on foreign markets, compared to the domestic market, again pointing to a heavy reliance on contract manufacturing and subcontracting. Thus, on the domestic market 69.14 per cent of respondents realize between 81 and 100 per cent of revenues from products, while 50.62 per cent of respondents realize between 1 and 20 per cent of revenues from services. In contrast, 80.25 per
cent of respondents generate revenues from pure products on foreign markets, while 46.91 per cent also generate revenues from services (in addition to products). However, a staggering 39.51 per cent of respondents do not generate any revenues from services on foreign markets (while this share is only 25.93 per cent on the domestic market). Here, the difference is statistically significant (a=0.05).
Looking at perceived market positioning, most respondents (n=75) employ competitive market positioning strategies vis-a-vis main competitors on the market (70.8 per cent). This does, however mean that on the other hand 29.2 per cent of respondents do not employ any kind of competitive market positioning. Furthermore, the majority of respondents also employ basic price-quality positioning strategies (66.7 per cent), followed by positioning based on product/service usage (61.1 per cent), product type positioning (54.2 per cent) and positioning according to potential benefits (50.0 per cent). On the other hand, only 30.6 per cent of respondents (n=75) use also positioning strategies in terms of purchasing power and positioning strategies based on purchasing behaviour (25.0 per cent), indicating limited adaptation of positioning strategies to purchasing characteristics and more push-based, as opposed to pull-based positioning strategies on foreign markets.
Evaluating emphasized elements in competitive positioning (relative to main competitors), most Slovenian respondent exporters usually try to position their products and/or services as better quality and reliability (average grade of 6.45 on a 7-point scale), compared to their competitors. This is followed by accessibility of products/ services (5.06) and competitive positioning in terms of warranty (5.05). On the other hand low cost positioning (3.96) and payment terms (4.26) are the least employed sources of competitive positioning. Linking this to market position, 34.7 per cent of respondent companies (n=75) perceive themselves as market leaders, followed by market challengers (26.7 per cent) and market followers (25.3 per cent).
Further, in terms of the product/service life-cycle, most respondents (34.7 per cent) in the mature life-cycle phase employ product/service changes (upgrades), followed by changes in the marketing mix (28 per cent) and market changes (switching). These results may indicate a high level of reactiveness, rather than proactiveness in the maturity phase of their products and/or services.
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5.2. corporate level marketing strategies
Directly relevant to the scope of this special issue on corporate marketing, most of the respondent companies (n=75) have clear set corporate goals (average grade of 5.99 on a 7-point scale), followed by a clearly defined vision (5.89) and mission (5.77). While the existence of defined business strategies is relatively high (5.92), marketing strategies are ranked a bit lower (5.46 on a 7-point scale), with 8 per cent of respondents not having or following marketing strategies. Additionally, 14.7 per cent of respondents do not have or follow a clear marketing plan (5.16), operationalizing these marketing strategies. Last, but not least, a quarter of respondents does not practice planning of integral marketing processes (average grade of 4.57 on a 7-point scale), indicating limited coordination of marketing processes on foreign markets.
In terms of including different types of stakeholders and reference sources in the process of marketing strategy formulation customers (average grade of 6.30 on a 7-point scale) are most frequently included in formulating marketing strategies, followed by technical, technological, organizational and business characteristics of the company (5.64) and the competitors (5.58). Distributors (5.13) and suppliers (4.70) are included much less in
formulating marketing strategies, while other public (e. g. media, local communities etc.) are included even less frequently (3.65).
6. COOPERATION AND SYNERGIES ON FOREIGN MARKETS
Looking at particular market(ing) cooperation types and sources of synergies of the sample Slovenian export companies on foreign markets, we can conclude that none of the stated cooperation and synergy types are extremely important to the respondent companies. Among these, contract manufacturing scores highest (3.92 on a 7-point scale), followed by membership in various associations (3.60) and participation in various technology platforms (3.52). On the other hand, clusters (2.64), mergers and acquisitions (2.72) and licenses, patents and franchises (2.73) score lowest in terms of their importance on foreign markets. Figure 4 displays a more detailed overview of all stated collaboration and synergy types.
In particular, relevant to international marketing, joint (coordinated) marketing with other companies, suppliers and buyers, including co-branding (3.24), connecting (networking) with other Slovenian companies (3.30), as well as being present under joint or other market brands
Figure 4: Importance of selected cooperation types and sources of synergies of sample Slovenian export companies (7-point scale)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Source: Study of international business activities of Slovenian companies, 2009 (n=81).
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in foreign markets (3.42) all display relatively low stated levels of importance among sample companies, indicating also a very limited degree of marketing-coordinated activities and networking behaviour among individual Slovenian export companies on foreign markets. At the same time, unwillingness of Slovenian companies to cooperate or help was ranked as the least important entry barrier (average grade of 3.49 on a 7-point importance scale), showing that the general perception among companies regarding potentially available cooperation available cooperation is high, but that companies willingly do not perceive it as useful or use it to their advantage. This was followed by inadequate help from the state and institutions (4.00) and low recognition of Slovenia and Slovenian brands on foreign markets (4.13), as the least important entry barriers, again showing that companies do not believe that Slovenian brands are unrecognizable on their foreign markets.
Further on, while a high share of sample export companies state that they continuously seek synergies with their business partners in their foreign market business activities (average grade 5.12 on a 7-point scale), most respondents do not consider collaborations with other Slovenian companies in developing new products and services (2.95), again indicating a higher degree of individualistic behaviour in the context of joint research and development. Figure 5 displays the summarized results in greater detail.
Additionally supporting this view, most companies do not consider thinking about joint
appearance on foreign markets with other Slovenian or even foreign companies and their products/services (average score 3.22). Only a limited share of companies (34.56 per cent)6 also check which Slovenian companies are already present on a particular market, before entering this market themselves (average score 3.60 on a 7-point scale).
7. IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS AND MARKETING
In terms of managerial implications, based on the corresponding results, let us once again point to the limited sample size and sample characteristics outlined earlier. Bearing this in mind, the sample results clearly show a lack of proactive motives in terms of internationalization drive.
The first problem that can be located is the structure of the Slovenian outward internationalisation. Results show that an average sample company generates revenue from products, to a very limited extent also from services. This phenomenon is even more apprehensive in foreign markets, where sample companies usually act as contract manufacturers. Therefore, companies should disperse their business activities by enhancing their service offer and portfolio, especially in foreign markets. On the other hand, within the diversifying 'content' of outward internationalisation,
6 Refers to answers 5, 6 and 7 on a 7-point scale.
Figure 5: Evaluation of selected types of marketing-related cooperative behaviour in foreign markets
Source: International business activities of Slovenian companies, 2009 (n=81).
companies should also diversify their outward internationalisation both geographically, as well as in terms of industry and product portfolios. While a narrow 1,500 km radius of most Slovenian exports grants the opportunity of a high level of 'market knowledge' and a 'quick withdrawal' option (if required), it at the same time presents a high level of dependence-based risk and a potential lock-in in low end contractual market entry modes (e.g. contractual manufacturing). In terms of other and non-traditional export markets (e.g. so called emerging markets), these markets have a potential that is underexploited. However, if Slovenian export companies want to enter and be successful on these markets, they have to convert their reactive operational modes to the proactive market(ing) strategies and marketing positioning. These will enhance companies' capability to follow successful niche strategies and to increase their competitive advantage, which will retain gains and retract risks.
With regards to the selection of foreign markets entry modes, the results show that contract manufacturing appears to be the most common form of foreign market engagement, related to exporting. This is due to the low level of proactiveness that is needed within contract manufacturing, which is of relatively low 'value' in terms of growth potential, learning, future development and long-term economic sustainability. In this context one might posit that a majority of sample export companies are locked-in on traditional EU-27 export markets with no indication of wanting to change. Here, Slovenian companies should change this 'bandwagon' attitude, because reactiveness is of limited range. Instead of answering to market/ consumer needs, firms ought to enhance their capability in creating or promoting market/ consumer needs. This can be achieved by searching synergies within and among different entry modes, particularly in the face of constrained and limited resources and the inability to tap into economies of scale on the domestic market.
The second implication that is relevant for international business and marketing is linked to the economies of scale in market(ing) actions. As seen from the results, Slovenian enterprises still focus on 'doing/going solo' and lack joint (coordinated) marketing, including co-branding. This market(ing) approaches should be more utilised among Slovenian and/or with foreign partners, because joint marketing offers more possibilities for Slovenian firms, which are - from
the vista of world economy - small enterprises with limited resources. Therefore, Slovenian companies should invest more resources to become more market(ing)-oriented players, albeit in groups, instead of being isolated market(ing) followers, with limited resources, locked-in low added value export relationships. However, switching from 'going solo' to 'joint market(ing) actions', needs changes in the whole production-sell process, which includes suppliers, distributors, performers and customers and a radical re-thinking of current corporate and marketing strategies, as well as their operationalization.
The third implication is that Slovenian companies should enhance cooperative approaches and behaviour within their companies, to enable themselves to cope with the complexity of the international business environment. Thus, they should move from 'low' value-added concept of reliability and quality as a competitive advantage towards more aggressive forms like innovations of products/services and innovativeness in market(ing) approaches, based on corporate level strategies, which should extend companies' activities to other - non business - actors. There is a necessity of widening the corporate decision-making process in international marketing of Slovenian companies with other actors that constitute the whole value chain. This should replace the conservative and isolated position of Slovenian companies with the more audacious, innovative one. The result of such a shift will be the capacity of dealing with market challenges, with a mindset of a leader, not as a follower.
To summarise; Slovenian companies face shortages in cooperative and collaborative behaviour. Even though respondents state that "they are continuously seeking synergies with business partners in foreign markets", they admit the lack of coordination with other Slovenian companies, especially in the field of market(ing) cooperation. Even more so, Slovenian companies are not even considering joint appearance or developing new products and services with other Slovenian companies. In terms of a more active intra-company collaboration, synergies should be explored both in the early market entry phase (gathering market data), as well as in branding and other marketing activities. This could be achieved at least on Ex-Yugoslav markets, where the tradition of Slovenian firms operations is of long standing.
In terms of market and product concentration, companies should diversify their key export
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markets and the products, as well as include more services in their offers. At the same time, it is also necessary that companies redirect their export towards more service-oriented segments, because the value-added is achieved much easier in services than in production of merchandise products.
Finally, the key recommendation for Slovenian companies is to replace their reactive attitude with a more proactive market(ing) driven mindset. This proactive attitude will influence strategic decisions and alliances, which are extremely important, because of the small Slovenian market and its limited resources.
8. CONCLUSION
The current economic downturn has shown that Slovenian companies have not learned a lot from past mistakes, nor changes that are expected in the near future. The transition period has not changed the steady export patterns, neither in terms of product or geographical diversification. Slovenian exporters still export a limited range of merchandise products that represents the larger part of revenue generation, comparing to the export of services. This export is concentrated within a narrow 1,500 km radius, encompassing EU-27 and Ex-Yugoslavia markets. A motive for such geographical concentration can be found in historical roots of outward internationalisation of Slovenian firms, while on the other hand, this concentration is a motive for their reactive behaviour. As explained above, Slovenian companies' characteristics are determined also by national character and socio-cultural particularities of the Slovenian society, which instead of being proactive and competitive supports conservative reactive manners, based on collective decision-making and uncertainty/ risk avoidance. Such a business environment is not favourable for bold actions, supported by agility and flexibility, which are the key characteristics of successful small country exporters.
The second problem of Slovenian exporters is the case of market(ing) positioning in foreign markets. As already discussed, Slovenian companies are more favourable to 'push-based positioning' (like price-quality marketing position etc.) compared to the 'pull-based positioning' (e. g. marketing position based on purchasing behaviour). This can be again linked to national character and to the lack of proactiveness, because 'push-based' allows firms to invest less in market(ing) actions and to act sporadically, while the 'pull-based' positioning, has to be defined and determined by
strategic thinking and operations. Even more, 'push-based' market(ing) positioning is parallel with the short-run strategy, which is an option and not a necessity, comparing to the 'pull-based' that is a long-run performance that needs a well worked out strategy, which is more complex and employs a lot of human (and other) resources. However, a well prepared strategy for the long-run activities offers higher gains comparing to scattered short-run actions. We argue that Slovenian companies should change their behaviour towards a more competitive mindset when exporting/investing in foreign markets, which certainly increases risk, but at the same time gains. Therefore, Slovenian companies should become bolder, while risk avoidance should be replaced by risk spreading actions, reinforced through a higher level of cooperative behaviour. This would enhance their competitiveness towards other foreign companies, but at the same time inward changes would occur, favourable to becoming a leader instead of a band-wagon. As known from Darwin "survival is not a question of the biggest, but of the fittest".
Last, but not least, the research presented in the previous chapters indicated that there is a lack of team spirit among Slovenian companies' international business and marketing ventures. This is reflected in absence of joint market(ing) actions, as well at the corporate level, where only consumers (preferences) influence the formulation of marketing strategies. This reasoning derives from the B2C marketing approach, which is to narrow, especially in the current world economic structure, where intermediate products/services presents a great share of world trade. Omitting B2B market(ing) can be a mistake, especially for Slovenian enterprises, if following the niche strategy. Owing to this fact, Slovenian enterprises should invest more in creating their own market(ing) strategies, in which all main partners in the supply-demand chain should be included. Corporative marketing can not be separated with the production process and for this it is necessary to alter the current behaviour of Slovenian companies towards more cooperative and joint proactive activities. This should be simultaneously started 'at home' and on foreign markets.
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CENOVNA STRATEGIJA V ODVISNOSTI OD MOčI TRŽNE ZNAMKE
Mag. Jani Toroš
Univerza na Primorskem Fakulteta za management Koper
jani.toros@fm-kp.si
Dr. Mihael Kline
Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za družbene vede Ljubljana mihael.kline@fdv.uni-lj.si
Povzetek: Določanje in spreminjanje cen sodi v najpomembnejši sklop strateških odločitev vsakega podjetja. Cena je instrument marketinga, ki mora delovati usklajeno z ostalimi instrumenti in upoštevati stališča kupca. Ta je pripravljen sprejeti določeno ceno v zameno za pridobljeno vrednost. V pričujočem članku proučujemo vrednost tržne znamke v očeh potrošnika, izmerjeno s stopnjo preference nakupa v povezavi s cenovno elastičnostjo. V ta namen je bil uporabljen asortiman artiklov konkurenčnih tržnih znamk znotraj kategorije izdelkov za vsakdanjo rabo. V primeru uveljavljene tržne znamke, ki je bila proučevana v raziskavi, je zniževanje cene z namenom povečevanja prodajnih količin nesmiselno. Ključne besede: marketing, cena, tržna znamka, vrednost, izdelki za vsakdanjo rabo, cenovna občutljivost
Abstract: One of the most important strategic decisions of every company is setting and defining price points for its products and services. The price, as one of marketing instruments, has to be synchronized with other marketing tools while respecting consumer needs and perceived price to value ratios. The article analizes products from FMCG (fast moving consumer goods) industry. We evaluated consumers' brand value perception, which we measured through purchase intent and price elasticity and benchmarked to competitor's products. The product that we studied was a known national brand - and in this case our findings confirmed that decreaseing the price point did not drive enough incremental volume sales to offset the loss due to lower price.
Key words: marketing, price, brand, value, fast moving consumer goods, demand, price elasticity
1. UVOD
Cena ima v ekonomski teoriji jasen pomen in je osrednji dejavnik mehanizma trga (Monroe, 1990: 87). Temeljni mikroekonomski zakon povpraševanja trdi, da povzroči povišanje cene padec obsega povpraševanja in obratno. Postavlja pogoje, po katerih se opravlja menjava izdelkov ali storitev (Miller, 2008). Za doseganje menjave sta zahtevana dva pogoja. Prvi je, da so kupci pripravljeni izdelek ali storitev kupiti po tržni ceni in drugi, da so prodajalci po tej ceni pripravljeni izdelek ali storitev prodati. Tako se po mnenju ekonomistov pretakajo izdelki ali storitve v last tistih, ki so tržno ceno pripravljeni plačati. Ta princip ni vedno etičen, je pa učinkovit (Hirshleifer, 2005). Z vidika določanja cen je rezultanta teh strategij ravnovesna cena. To je cena, ki označuje optimalno raven vrednosti izdelka, tako z vidika kupca kot z vidika podjetja.
Uspešna cenovna strategija temelji na prepoznavanju in razumevanju zaznane vrednosti izdelka, ki je kot koncept znotraj marketinga prepleten s koncepti zaznane kakovosti, zaznane cene in zadovoljstva uporabnikov (Pisnik Korda, 2008). Pomembno je, da uporabnik to vrednost prepozna kot pridobitev oziroma korist. Če uporabnik ne razbere koristi, ki mu jih nudi izdelek, če ima nelagoden občutek, da tvega z nakupom, in meni, da bi lahko s pogajanji ali večjim vložkom v nakupni proces dosegel več, potem čuti ceno kot nekorektno (Smith in Nagle, 2002: 20). Pri ustvarjanju vrednosti za porabnike podjetja nujno zadržijo del te vrednosti za nadaljnji razvoj in oblikovanje oziroma razvoj novih izdelkov, z novimi vrednostmi, kar je temeljno vodilo uspešne cenovne strategije (Silk, 2006: 24).
Namen pričujočega članka je usmerjen v proučevanje ravnovesne cene in posledic njene spremembe. Pri tem smo za analizo ustreznosti cene tržne znamke iz skupine izdelkov vsakdanje rabe uporabili model diskretne analize. Za eksperiment je bila izbrana uveljavljena tržna znamka, ki zagotavlja dobiček in dosega visok, skoraj petdesetodstotni tržni delež. Predpostavljamo, da bi znižanje trenutne cene kratkoročno povečalo prodajne količine. Se pa ob tem postavlja vprašanje, ali bi bilo povečanje količin dovolj veliko, da bi povečalo dobiček. Naloga je torej opredelitev ustreznega modela, ki bo omogočal merjenje reakcij kupca pri spreminjanju cene z namenom ugotoviti, ali cena ustreza vrednosti, ki jo zaznava kupec pri izbrani tržni znamki.
V luči opredeljenega namena je vsebina članka razdeljena na tri dele. V prvem delu bomo poiskali
teoretično osnovo za opredelitev cene, ki pomeni ravnovesje med pričakovanjem kupcev in potrebami podjetja ter predstavili instrument akcijskega zniževanja cen. V drugem delu bomo z empirično analizo ugotovili ustreznost cene izbranega izdelka. V tretjem sklepnem delu uresničimo sintezo ključnih ugotovitev.
2. TEORETIČNI VIDIK RAVNOVESNE CENE
Teorija marketinga obravnava ceno izdelka ali storitve kot pomemben instrument v procesih menjave. Kotler (2004: 470) jo opiše kot edini instrument marketinškega spleta, ki prinaša dobiček. Najpogosteje uporabljena definicija se glasi, da predstavlja cena število denarnih enot, ki jih mora žrtvovati kupec v zameno za kupljeni izdelek ali storitev (Armstrong in Kotler, 2008: Solomon, 2008: Simon, 1989). Vendar je cena zgolj eden izmed dejavnikov, ki vpliva na nakup. Nastopa v spletu z izdelkom, tržnimi potmi in tržnim komuniciranjem, kjer je njena pojavnost sorazmerna z drugimi instrumenti. To pomeni, da povečana vlaganja v izdelek, komuniciranje ali tržne poti narekujejo višjo ceno, ker je skladno s konceptom vrednosti. V zadnjih dveh desetletjih teorija marketinga obravnava izdelke in storitve z vidika vrednosti ali koristi, ki jo prinašajo kupcu (Kotler in Armstrong, 2008: Solomon, 2008). Višja vrednost opravičuje višjo ceno in obratno.
Določanje in spreminjanje ali prilagajanje cen sodi med zahtevne poslovne odločitve. Nagle in Hogan (2006) k temu dodajata, da je cena pomembnejša za prodajalca kot za kupca. Kupci jo, če se jim zdi previsoka, preprosto zavrnejo. Podjetja, ki tega dejstva ne prepoznajo in pri postavljanju cen vztrajajo samo na svojih notranjih potrebah, s takšnim ravnanjem izgubljajo.
Nesporno je, da sprememba cene povzroči odziv kupca, vendar ta odziv ni linearen. To dejstvo avtorji pripisujejo različnim dejavnikom, kot so: zvestoba znamki, priložnostni nakup, odsotnost konkurence in podobno. Vsem izdelkom ali storitvam se cene pogosto spreminjajo glede na čas in kraj nakupa ali pa so dane cenovne ugodnosti pri nakupu več izdelkov hkrati in podobno (Simon, 1989). Nizkocenovni letalski prevozniki na primer oblikujejo ceno glede na čas nakupa vozovnice. Bolj se približujemo dnevu poleta, bolj narašča cena vozovnice. Kompleksna je tudi cena pogovora z mobilnim telefonom, ki je odvisna od vrste podrobnosti v načinu, času in količini uporabe. Razvejanost je moč razbrati v raznolikih paketih, ki nudijo uporabnikom različne vrste mesečnih naročnin in tarif pogovora v posameznih omrežjih.
Kupci sprejemajo nakupne odločitve na osnovi ocenjevanja lastnosti izdelkov. V primeru izdelkov vsakdanje rabe ima pri tem največ vpliva znamka. Kupcem omogoča prepoznavanje izdelkov in izbiro, ki praviloma temelji na izkušnjah iz preteklosti (Brakus, Schmitt in Zarantonello, 2009). Zato so znamke za večino podjetij prioriteta, saj jim prinašajo številne prednosti. V marketingu obravnavamo znamko na različne načine, precej podrejene čustvenim dražljajem. Med porabnikom in izdelkom ustvarja odnos, ki presega zgolj kupoprodajni okvir. Uspešne znamke obravnavamo kot obliko dodane vrednosti ter način razvoja izdelka, od neoznačenega blaga, do najvišjih oblik odnosa s porabnikom (De Chernatony, 2002). Močne tržne znamke pomagajo pri vzpostavljanju identitet podjetij na tržiščih (Aaker, 2002), so manj ranljive ob napadih konkurence, zagotavljajo doseganje višjih marž, predstavljajo boljšo osnovo za pogajanja s posredniki in zagotavljajo možnost širitve izdelkov za nove tržne priložnosti (Delgado-Ballester in Munuera-Aleman, 2005).
V	matriko lastnosti izdelka sodijo tudi vrsta embalaže, količina izdelka v posamezni maloprodajni enoti, morebitna poprodajna funkcija embalaže in podobno. Vendar je pomen vrednosti znamk v procesu trženja tako velik in vpliven, da so ga raziskovalci in tudi praktiki pričeli obravnavati kot koncept premoženja, ki ga znamka prinaša proizvajalcu, trgovcu in tudi porabniku (Aaker, 2002, Baldinger, 1990, Keller, 1993).
Močna in uveljavljena znamka je osnova, ki dopušča dvig cene. Visoka lojalnost tržni znamki zagotavlja manjšo elastičnost na cenovne spremembe (Giddens, 2002). Prav tako (Benson, 1955, Gabor 1988, Griffith in Rust, 1997, Scriven in Ehrenberg, 2004) potrjujejo spoznanje, da je povpraševanje po izdelkih poznanih in uveljavljenih znamk cenovno relativno manj elastično. Njihovi kupci so ob nakupu na raven njihove cene manj občutljivi. Zanje so preprosto pripravljeni plačati več, ker zaznavajo v izbrani znamki vrednost, ki je višja od konkurenčne. To proizvajalcem dopušča več možnosti za oblikovanje uspešnih cenovnih strategij.
V	procesu nakupnih odločitev uporabljajo kupci referenčno točko oziroma referenčno ceno, po kateri ocenjujejo, ali je cena izdelka, ki ga nameravajo kupiti, visoka ali nizka (Monroe, 1973). Ravnovesna cena v svoji osnovni opredelitvi pomeni denarno vrednost, pri kateri se opravi menjava med ponudnikom in povpraševalcem (Littler, 2006: 260). Vendar za ceno, ki jo kupec
zaznava kot ustrezno vrednost izdelka, ki ga namerava kupiti, najdemo v teoriji več opredelitev. Ko gre za ceno, ki jo kupci pričakujejo in je posledica poznavanja izdelka in dosedanjih izkušenj z njim, jo razumemo kot pričakovano ceno (Kalwani, 1990: 252). Skoraj enak pomen ima tudi poštena cena (angl. Fair price). Ker pa je odnos do cene subjektiven in se med segmenti kupcev razlikuje, je smiselno vpeljati koncept zaznane cene, ki izhaja iz teorije zaznane vrednosti (Della Bitta in Monroe, 1974). V vseh primerih je skupno, da obravnavamo ceno, ki jo kupci pričakujejo glede na pričakovano kakovost in pridobljeno korist. Zaupanje v pridobljene koristi se najbolje izrazi pri izdelkih z uveljavljeno tržno znamko (Kamen in Toman, 1970). Tudi v primeru, če je cena višja od cen konkurence, se kupci zavestno odločajo za nakup, v prepričanju, da jim višja cena prinaša dodatne koristi.
V procesih preverjanja cenovne ustreznosti je smiselno obravnavati ceno kot referenčno ceno, ki jo kupci poznajo in pričakujejo. V podzavesti kupca se nahaja tako imenovana mentalna cenovna lestvica, ki upošteva pretekle informacije (Witt, 1998). Percepcija cene je tako neposredno povezana s predhodnimi izkušnjami z izdelkom, poznavanjem cen konkurence, priklicem oglaševalskih sporočil, percepcijo znamke in splošnega občutka oziroma vtisa, ki ga kupec dobi ob pogledu na izdelek in njegovo ceno. V empiričnih raziskavah so raziskovalci (Kalwani idr. 1990, Kalyanaram in Little 1994, Winer, 1986) preverjali učinek referenčne cene za nakupno odločitev v smeri pozitivne razlike, ki so jo poimenovali »pridobitev« in negativne razlike imenovane »izgube« med referenčno ceno in ceno, ki jo mora kupec plačati za nakup izdelka. Njihovi rezultati so potrdili predpostavko, da referenčna cena nastopa kot osnova vrednotenja in primerjanja in ima neposreden učinek pri odločitvah o nakupu izdelka.
2.1. OPREDELITEV OPTIMALNE CENE
Kupci zaznavajo neko ceno na lestvici od prepoceni do predrago. Millerjeva (2006) razlaga pojem razumevanja cenovne elastičnosti z okni pričakovanj. Vsak kupec ima okno sprejemljivih cen za oznamčeni izdelek. Meje sprejemljivih cenovnih okvirov se med kupci razlikujejo in povprečje njihovega razpona kaže, ali je določen trg bolj ali manj občutljiv na ceno. Pri postavljanju cen morajo marketinški strokovnjaki od uporabnikov pridobiti podatke in ugotoviti te cenovne razpone.
Podjetje, ki uporablja strateški pristop pri določanju cen, vključuje načrtovanje cenovne
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Slika 1: Gabor Grangerjev model iskanja optimalne cene
ns c Q) O
	
/ 4	\Prihodek
/ / / Optimalna cena	
i i	^^Cena i i I
	Količina
Vir: Hague, 2004: 5
ravni že v fazi razvoja izdelka (Marn idr., 2004). Z boljšim razumevanjem konceptov, ki vplivajo na ustvarjanje in zagotavljanje zaznane vrednosti, lahko zagotovijo ravnovesje med potrebo po vrednosti, ki jo pričakuje potrošnik za ceno izdelka, ki predstavlja interes podjetja po pokrivanju stroškov in ustvarjenem dobičku (Nagle, 2002, Kalwani idr., 1990: 252).
Odstopanja od ravnovesne cene se gibljejo navzgor ali navzdol. V praksi je slednjih mnogo več. Razlog je želja po povečani prodaji in pritiski drugih deležnikov, predvsem trgovcev po znižanju cen. Mehanizem zniževanja cen praviloma res povzroči povečanje prodajne količine, vendar to ne pomeni tudi povečanja dobička (Hague, 2004). V praksi pogosto uporabljeni Gabor Grangerjev model, prikazan na sliki 1, temelji na klasičnem neposrednem anketiranju, ki respondente povprašuje po ceni, ki so jo za izdelek pripravljeni plačati. Njegova kvalitativna naravnanost predstavlja problem pri pridobivanju relevantnih podatkov.
2.2. ZAčASNA ZNIŽANJA CEN KOT INSTRUMENT POSPEŠEVANJA PRODAJE
Vse bolj pogosta so začasna, akcijska zniževanja cen, z namenom povečati prodajo v določenem časovnem obdobju ali tržnem segmentu. V osnovi so takšna znižanja koristna, imajo pa večkrat dolgoročne posledice, izguba na ugledu tržne znamke ali pojav, kjer kupci vrnitev cene na predhodno raven lahko doživljajo kot podražitev. Zavedati se moramo, da so prodajni učinki rezultat še drugih spremljajočih dejavnikov, kot na primer: očem bolj izpostavljen izdelek, spremljajoča promocija in označitve na prodajnih policah, ki kupce informirajo o cenovno
ugodnejšem nakupu. Pri raziskovanju prodajnih učinkov zaradi znižanih cen so raziskovalci ugotovili, da le 50 odstotkov kupcev pozna redne cene izdelkov vsakdanje rabe, kar bi naj omogočalo objektivno presojo promocijskega popusta (Dickson in Sawyer, 1990). Zato je potrebno velik del uspeha akcijskih prodaj pripisati tudi drugim že prej omenjenim dejavnikom.
Dolgoročni učinek akcijskih popustov pa je vprašljiv, saj ima večina teh akcij le kratkotrajen učinek (Srinivasan, 2002). Tudi stopnja znižanja je vprašljiva. V želji po čim boljšem prodajnem učinku se cene znižajo za več deset odstotkov, celo prek petdeset. Urbany (2001) analizira primer znižanja cene in primerja učinek cene v prvem primeru, kjer prodamo izdelek po običajni ceni, in v drugem primeru, kjer ga prodamo po znižani. V drugem primeru smo sicer prodali večje število izdelkov, vendar je bil dobiček enak kot pri prodaji po normalni ceni. Poudarja le povečano tveganje, ki nastopi pri prodaji po znižani ceni in ima lahko dolgoročne posledice na kupčeva pričakovanja v prihodnosti. Pri izdelkih vsakdanje rabe so glavni pobudniki akcij cenovnih znižanj trgovci, vendar se v teh akcijah tudi njim znižuje dobiček. Še posebej v primerih, kjer so znižani le posamezni izdelki. Raziskave so pokazale, da se kupci veliko bolj odzovejo na ponudbo znižanja cenovne ravni v celotni maloprodajni verigi kot pa na znižanje cene posameznega izdelka (Kashyap in Rossi, 2005).
V obeh primerih, tako pri določanju cen novih izdelkov kot prilagajanju cen z namenom odziva na tržne priložnosti, je ključnega pomena prepoznati, kakšen bo odziv kupca. Sprašujemo
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se, ali cena tržne znamke A ustreza vrednosti, ki jo zaznava kupec kot pričakovanju pričakovanjem ponudnika. Empirična metoda mora vključiti zahtevo po uporabi vseh elementov strateškega pristopa določanja in prilagajanja cen (Nagle, 2002) in podati odgovor na vprašanje, ali je sedanja tržna cena izdelka ustrezna oziroma, kaj dosežemo z njeno spremembo.
Namen pričujočega članka je prikaz raziskovalnega eksperimenta, ki odpravi slabosti Gabor - Grangerjeve metode pri pridobivanju informacije o ceni z neposrednimi vprašanji. To bomo nadomestili s simulacijo, ki deluje kot približek nakupnega odločanja pred prodajno polico. Uporabili bomo model, ki temelji na zaznavanju vrednosti tržnih znamk na podlagi diskretne analize dveh spremenljivk, tržne znamke in cene.
Cilj naloge je prikaz uporabe conjoint analize pri ugotavljanju cenovne elastičnosti kupca. Zastavljamo si raziskovalno vprašanje, ki se glasi: »Ali znižanje cene tržne znamke A poveča prodajno količino v takšnem obsegu, da je za podjetje smiselna uporaba tega instrumenta v občasnih akcijah pospeševanja prodaje?« Pri tem je ključni cilj povečanje prihodka in posledično tudi dobička. Obstajajo pa tudi drugi tehtni razlogi, povezani s trgom ali notranjimi dejavniki podjetja.
Na zastavljeno vprašanje bomo odgovorili z diskretno analizo, ki jo sestavljajo naslednji ključni koraki:
•	izračun delnih koristi na vseh ravneh v raziskavo vključenih lastnosti,
•	izračun relativnega deleža vpliva na nakupno odločitev,
•	izračun preferenčnih deležev in
•	izračun cenovne elastičnosti.
Zato postavljamo hipotezo: H: Znižanje cene izdelka a povzroči povečanje prodaje, ker je koeficient cenovne elastičnosti povpraševanja večji od ena.
3. RAZISKAVA CENOVNE USTREZNOSTI
3.1. VZOREC
Namenski vzorec predstavlja petdeset kupcev, uporabnikov testiranih izdelkov, ki jih kupujejo bodisi zase ali za člane svoje družine. Z uvodnim vprašanjem, katere v raziskavo vključene tržne znamke poznajo in/ali jih bolj ali manj pogosto kupujejo, smo preverili in potrdili ustreznost vzorca. Na sliki 2 vidimo, da je opazovana znamka A vodilna. Vsi respondenti jo poznajo in kar 98 odstotkov izmed njih jo bolj ali manj pogosto kupuje. Pridobljeni rezultat potrjuje ustreznost izbranega vzorca. Namenski vzorec uporabnikov opazovane kategorije in dobro
Slika 2: Stopnja poznavanja in nakupovanja proučevanih tržnih znamk
■ Pozna in kupuje	■ Pozna in ne kupuje	■ Ne pozna
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poznavanje tržne znamke A nam je v nadaljevanju služilo kot opora pri ugotavljanju cenovne elastičnosti. Razen tega ugotavljamo, da so na trgu še tri tržne znamke, ki izkazujejo visoko stopnjo poznavanja in tudi pogostih nakupov. Kot prikazuje Slika 2, so to še tržne znamke B, C in D. Trije konkurenti E, F in G so slabše poznani in jih tudi manj pogosto kupujejo.
3.2.	METODA
Izbor metode temelji na predpostavki, da sodijo cene v občutljivo področje raziskovanja, kjer so odgovori respondentov zadržani, neiskreni ali pa pod vplivom različnih interesov. To je bil razlog za izbor conjoint analize11 (Orme, 2007), metode CBC (Choice based conjoint). Metoda temelji na diskretni izbiri med lastnostmi, ki jih vključuje raziskava (Orme, 2006). V našem primeru sta to tržna znamka in cena. Model diskretne izbire omogoča zbiranje podatkov in analizo na način medsebojnih primerjav obeh spremenljivk, to je vseh v raziskavo vključenih tržnih znamk z vsemi vnaprej opredeljenimi nivoji cen (Pinnell in Olson, 1996). Gre torej za več možnih kombinacij tržne znamke in cene, ki tvorijo tako imenovane koncepte izdelkov. Respondenti imajo možnost izbire med določenim številom konceptov, ki jih tvori računalniški program. V več iteracijah se pojavi najmanj toliko konceptov, da so zajete vse tržne znamke in vse cene. Število iteracij je pogojeno s številom uporabljenih lastnosti in številom njihovih ravni.
Pri raziskovanju cen ne zadoščajo atributi »veliko«, »srednje« ali »malo«, temveč se morajo meritve opraviti bolj natančno, saj nas zanima razlika reakcije kupca, če ceno spremenimo na primer za 5 odstotkov ali za 10 odstotkov. Za ta primer najbolj ustreza metoda diskretne izbire med dvema spremenljivkama, ki zagotavlja zelo precizno meritev elastičnosti cene v povezavi z znamko (Johnson in Olberts 1996). Naš model temelji na predpostavki, da sta tržna znamka in cena nosilki ključnih informacij, potrebnih za kupčevo nakupno odločitev.
3.3.	MERILA
Anketiranje je bilo izvedeno s pomočjo prenosnega računalnika po nakupovalnih centrih v bližini prodajnih polic testiranih izdelkov. Anketa z grafičnim prikazom tržnih znamk pri različnih cenah je bila prikazana na ekranu prenosnega računalnika. Respondentom so bile prikazane
1 Conjoint analiza sodi med popularna raziskovalna orodja v
marketingu. Temelji na merjenju vpliva posameznih lastnosti na celotno vrednost izdelka ali storitve. Najbolj je uporabna pri razvoju novih izdelkov in pri določanju cen.
različne kombinacije, kjer se v raziskavo vključene tržne znamke in cene izpostavijo v obliki koncepta izdelka. Število različic vprašalnika je bilo v programu nastavljeno glede na predvideno število respondentov. Vsakemu respondentu je bilo ponujenih 15 različic z možnostjo izbirati med tremi koncepti (tržnima znamka in cena) ali da izberejo četrto možnost, odgovor: »Ničesar od ponujenega.«
Različice vprašanj, prikazanih na računalniškem monitorju, so predstavljale kombinacije, kjer so se cene tržnih znamk spreminjale. Konkurenčne tržne znamke so v enih kombinacijah dražje, v drugih cenejše. Če je torej med dvema ponujenima opcijama izbral tržno znamko A zato, ker je bila najcenejša, mu je bila v drugem primeru prikazana kot dražja. Če se ponovno odloči in izbere A, to pomeni, da njegova odločitev temelji na tržni znamki in ne ceni in obratno. Če njegove odločitve temeljijo na izboru nižjih cen, to pomeni, da prevladuje cena.
3.4. DRAŽLJAJI
V raziskavi smo analizirali izdelke za vsakdanjo rabo. Sedem bolj ali manj prepoznavnih tržnih znamk. Predmet proučevanja je bila tržna znamka A, ki ima vodilni tržni delež pri najvišji ceni. Poleg nje je bila respondentom ponujena možnost izbire še med šestimi tržnimi znamkami in sedmimi cenami.
Prva v raziskavo vključena lastnost je tržna znamka, ki je imela sedem ravni in jih v prispevku predstavljamo s črkami A, B, C, D, E, F in G. Obravnavane tržne znamke tvorijo pretežni del ponudbe na slovenskem trgu.
Druga v raziskavo vključena lastnost je bila cena. Tudi ta ima sedem ravni in predstavljajo razpon od 1 € do 2,8 € v enakomernih razmikih 1; 1,3; 1,6; 1,9, 2,2; 2,8; 2,8.
Postopek
Za izvedbo analize je bil uporabljen računalniški program »SSI Web« proizvajalca Sawtooth Software. Respondenti so bili v intervju vključeni po načelu uporabe obravnavane skupine izdelkov. Vprašanja, podprta z grafičnim prikazom konceptov izdelkov, so pričarala približek razmeram, kot jih imajo kupci pri vsakdanjem nakupnem procesu. Sledilo je 15 enakih vprašanj (na ekranu) s tremi različnimi koncepti izdelkov, sestavljenih s fotografijami tržnih znamk in cenami. Respondenti so izbirali enega izmed treh ponujenih konceptov, tistega, za katerega so presodili, da jim med tremi ponujenimi najbolj ustreza. Presoja je temeljila na tehtanju med tržno
znamko in ceno. V primeru, da jim ni ustrezal nobeden od prikazanih konceptov, so izbrali tudi odgovor: »Ničesar od ponujenega.«
Proces anketiranja je s pomočjo računalnika trajal nekaj minut. Respondenti so odgovarjali sami z uporabo tipk na tipkovnici. Prisotni anketarji so jim nudili zgolj morebitna dodatna pojasnila glede tehnične izvedbe ankete.
4. REZULTATI
4.1. IZRAČUN DELNIH KORISTI
Za obdelavo v anketi zbranih podatkov smo uporabili simulator (SMRT modul) programa Sawtooth software. Za vsako lastnost smo opredelili njene ravni in izračunali pripadajoče delne koristi. Višja delna korist neke ravni pomeni, da je ta raven bolj zaželena. Negativna delna korist ne pomeni, da raven ni zaželena. Metoda izračuna, ki se izvaja s pomočjo računalniškega programa, izračunava delne koristi tako, da je vsota vseh delnih koristi pri neki lastnosti enaka 0. Zato določene ravni dobijo predznak plus, druge minus. Za razumevanje interpretacije podatkov v nadaljevanju si moramo razložiti, da so delne koristi intervalni podatki. Višja delna korist pomeni, da si kupec to raven lastnosti bolj želi. Izračun delnih koristi za posamezne ravni je prikazan na sliki 3. Izmerjene so za vseh sedem tržnih znamk in vseh sedem cen. Kot smo že navedli, visoka pozitivna vrednost pomeni večjo zaželenost. Kot vidimo na sliki, ima tržna znamka A najvišjo delno korist 84,6, sledi ji B, C, F, E, D in kot zadnja, ki je v očeh respondentov najmanj zaželena, je tržna znamka G z najnižjo delno koristjo, ki znaša -63,0.
Pri ceni je najbolj zaželena najnižja cena, to je 1 evro, ki ima delno korist 24,2. Povsem logično ji
sledijo intervali cen, ki se v očeh respondentov manj zaželeni. Najmanj zaželena je najvišja cena, ki v našem primeru znaša 2,8 evra. Njena delna korist je tako najnižja in znaša -27,6.
V nadaljevanju bomo izračunali pomembnost lastnosti pri odločitvi o nakupu. V našem primeru gre za dve lastnosti, tržno znamko in ceno. Poznavanje relativne pomembnosti nam pomaga razumeti, katera lastnost je gonilo v procesu nakupnega odločanja. V primeru kategorije izdelkov za vsakdanjo rabo, ki je predmet naše raziskave, ima tržna znamka pri odločitvi za nakup precej večji vpliv kot cena. Kupci pri izbiranju pralnega stroja najprej vrednotijo tržno znamko in šele zatem ceno.
Relativno pomembnost posamezne lastnosti izračunamo na osnovi razpona delnih koristi obeh lastnosti (tržna znamka, cena). Pri »tržni znamki« je razpon delnih koristi 147,6. To je seštevek najnižje delne koristi -63 in najvišje ravni delne koristi 84,6. Pri lastnosti »cena« je razpon delnih koristi le 51,8. Prav tako zajema izračun seštevek najnižje -27,6 delne koristi in najvišje delne koristi, ki je 24,2 v pozitivno smer.
Na osnovi razpona delnih koristi za posamezno lastnost lahko izračunamo tudi relativne pomembnosti obeh proučevanih lastnosti, ki imajo pomemben vpliv na nakupno odločitev. Razponom delnih koristi za posamezno lastnost delimo s seštevkom obeh razponov: 147,6 + 51,8 = 199,4
in dobimo:
•	za tržno znamko
147,6 : 199,4 * 100 = 73,4 %
•	za ceno
51,8 : 199,4 * 100 = 26,6 %
Slika 3: Prikaz delnih koristi za vse tržne znamke in vse proučevane ravni cene
LASTNOSTI NA VSEH RAVNEH
mm|
AKADEMIJA
Izračun deležev relativne pomembnosti obeh v analizo vključenih lastnosti, to je tržne znamke in cene, je pokazal, da ima v opazovani skupini tržna znamka pri intenci nakupa mnogo večji vpliv kot cena. Torej je gonilo nakupnega odločanja. Po ocenah respondentov znaša vpliv tržne znamke 73,4 odstotkov, medtem ko predstavlja vpliv cene
le slabih 26,2 odstotkov. Iz tega sklepamo, da je v skupini vsaj ena močna tržna znamka, ki jo kupci kupujejo ne glede na ceno. Poudariti moramo, da cenovne spremembe razumemo znotraj pričakovanega okvira, to je v našem primeru interval cen, ki smo jih uporabili v raziskavi in imajo razpon od 1 do 2,8 evra.
Slika 4: Preferenčni deleži na podlagi tržnih cen
A = 2,58 €
B = 1,97 €
F = 1,68 €
C = 2,37 €
D = 1,74 €
E = 1,08 €
G = 1,66 €
6,7
6,2
5,9
5,9
50,5
J
0
10
23,3
1,5
Slika 5: Preferenčni deleži vseh tržnih znamk pri vseh nivojih cen
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
AKADEMIJA
[MM]
4.2. IZRAČUN PREFERENČNIH DELEŽEV
S simulacijo istih podatkov smo v simulatorju (SMRT modul) izračunali preferenčne deleže, ki odražajo intenco nakupa za posamezno tržno znamko v odvisnosti od cene. Vsaki tržni znamki smo dodelili ceno, ki je veljala v maloprodajnih verigah v času izvajanja raziskave.
Preferenčni deleži so prikazani na sliki 4. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da je pri ceni 2,58 € preferenčni delež nakupa tržne znamke A 50,5 odstotka, naslednja je tržna znamka B, ki dosega 23,3-odstotni preferenčni delež pri ceni 1,97 €. Ostale tržne znamke dosegajo pod 10-odstotni preferenčni delež.
S pomočjo simulatorja smo analizirali preferenčne deleže za vse tržne znamke pri vseh cenah. Izračun prikazujemo grafično, za vse tržne znamke skupaj, na sliki 5. Izračun za vsako krivuljo temelji na izhodišču, da se vsem ostalim tržnim znamkam cena ne spreminja.
Grafični prikaz preferenčnih deležev pri proučevanih cenah kaže veliko razliko med tržno znamko A in vsemi drugimi konkurenti. Tako pri stopnji preference kot pri občutljivosti na ceno. Pri ceni 1 €, ki je opredeljena kot najnižja, je tržna znamka A dosegla 86,3-odstotno stopnjo preference, naslednja znamka B pa le 44,7 odstotka. Z višanjem cene vsem ostalim tržnim znamkam preferenčni delež padel pod 5 odstotki, razen znamke B, ki je preferenčni delež ohranila na ravni 11 odstotkov.
Opazovana tržna znamka A je pri najvišji ceni, to je 2,8 €, še vedno ohranila 49,3 odstotka preferenčnega deleža.
Izračun koeficienta cenovne elastičnosti
Za izračun koeficienta cenovne elastičnosti je bila uporabljena naslednja formula (prirejeno po Miller, 2008: 528):
Qmm Qmsoi . Qmax Qmm (P - P )2 (P +P )2
V-1 mm max/ V-1 max min/ Pri tem pomeni:
Qmin - minimalna stopnja preference, Qmax - maksimalna stopnja preference, Pmin - najnižja cena v modelu = 1 €, Pmax - najvišja cena v modelu = 2,8 €.
V tabeli 1 so prikazani koeficienti cenovne elastičnosti za vseh sedem proučevanih tržnih znamk. Ugotavljamo, da ima od vseh obravnavanih samo tržna znamka A cenovno elastičnost nižjo od minus ena, kar pomeni, da ima sprememba cene na nakupno odločitev manjši vpliv, torej imamo »neelastično povpraševanje«. Če ceno znižamo za 1 odstotek, se preferenca nakupa poveča le za 0,573 odstotka.
Vse ostale tržne znamke (B, C, D, E, F, G) so na ceno bolj elastične in se preferenčni delež nakupa pri spremembi cene za en odstotek spremeni več kot za en odstotek.
Upoštevajoč še dejstvo, da dosega opazovana tržna znamka A višjo ceno od vseh konkurentov in pri tem zavzema vodilni skoraj 50-odstotni tržni delež smo model preizkusili s primerjavo aktualnih podatkov. V isti tabeli je prikazana primerjava tržnih podatkov s preferenčnimi deleži.
Tabela 1: Primerjava cenovnih ravni, preferenčnih deležev in tržnih deležev
Tržna znamka	Cena (v €)	Indeks cenovne ravni A = 100	Koeficient cenovne elastičnosti	Preferenčni delež (v %)	Tržni delež* (v %)
A	2,58		- 0,576	50,5	45
B	1,97	76	- 1,270	23,3	13
F	1,68	65	- 1,437	6,7	11
C	2,37	92	- 1,518	6,2	12
D	1,08	67	- 1,499	5,9	Ni podatka
E	1,67	42	- 1,485	5,9	3
G	1,66	64	- 1,529	1,5	Ni podatka
*Vir: Pridobljeno od lastnika tržne znamke A (Panel trgovin AC Nielsen)
Analizo tržnih in preferenčnih deležev kaže, da imajo tržni in preferenčni deleži enak rang. Izstopa tržna znamka A, ki ima v primerjavi z ostalimi oba deleža izjemno visoka. Pomembno je poudariti, da tržna znamka A dosega zelo visok tržni delež pri precej višji ceni, kot so cene konkurenčnih znamk. Kar dobrih 30 odstotkov od prvega sledilca, kar je prikazano z indeksi cenovnih ravni. Izjema je znamka tekmeca C, ki se tržni znamki A približa v ceni, vendar znaša njen tržni delež le 12 odstotkov. Vse ostale tržne znamke imajo bistveno nižje cene.
Z modelom, ki temelji na zaznavanju vrednosti tržnih znamk in na podlagi diskretne analize dveh spremenljivk, tržne znamke in cene, smo preverjali postavljeno hipotezo za vsako znamko posebej. Za tržno znamko (A) hipotezo zavrnemo, ker je njena cenovna elastičnost povpraševanja manjša kot 1. Koeficient cenovne elastičnosti pri tržni znamki A znaša -0,576 in pokaže, da znižanje cene za en odstotek poveča intenco nakupa kot indikatorja verjetnega povečanja prodaje za manj kot odstotek. Rezultat potrjuje, da gre za uveljavljeno in močno tržno znamko ter nizko cenovno elastičnostjo. Nižanje njene cene s ciljem povečevanja prodaje ni smiselno.
Iz tabele 1 je razvidno, da imajo vse druge proučevanje znamke (B, C, D, E, F, G) koeficiente cenovne elastičnosti višje od minus ena, zato z zniževanjem cene lahko povečajo prodajo in prek tega količinski delež trga. Očitno je, da doslej niso razvile psihološke vrednosti svojih znamk in zato ni ovire za velik vpliv cen pri odločitvah kupcev, povezanih z nakupom teh znamk. Gre torej za slabo ali napačno označene izdelke, ki so dejansko bolj generični izdelki. Pri vseh pa velja izpostaviti, da znižanje cene povzroči povečanje prodaje in s tem povečanje tržnega deleža.«
Proučevanemu ponudniku znamke A se ne splača spuščati cene, mora pa si zastaviti
nasprotno vprašanje: »Kako smiselno je povišanje cene, znižanje tržnega deleža in s tem boljše ekonomike?« Relativno veliko premoženje tržne znamke, nizka cenovna elastičnost in visok delež trga nakazujejo možnost povišanja cene kljub zmanjšanju volumna prodaje. Slednje sicer pomeni, da se posledično odpira možnost za izboljšanje tržnega položaja drugih tekmecev. Zato smo s pomočjo tržnega simulatorja preverili spremembe preferenčnih deležev na intervalih, kjer smo ceno tržni znamki A znižali za 3 in 6 odstotkov in zvišali za 3 in 6 odstotkov. Cena znamke A se je v simulaciji spreminjala in je bila: 2,43 €, 2,5 €, 2,58 €, 2,66 €, 2,71€. Ostalim tržnim znamkam so v simulaciji ostale cene nespremenjene, takšne kot so v tabeli 1.
V tabeli 2 so prikazani preferenčni deleži vseh znamk, glede na intervalne spremembe cene za znamko A. Pri tem je potrebno opozoriti, da je bila simulacija izvedena v zgornjem cenovnem pasu od 2.43 do 2,71 evra. Celotni cenovni pas je v raziskavi segal od 1 do 2,8 evra.
Bolj nazorno si spremembe preferenčnih deležev lahko ogledamo na sliki 6.
Na grafu lahko razberemo, da se potrjuje smisel razmišljanja o dvigu cene, saj vidimo, da je v tem intervalu sprememba cene malo vplivala na spremembo preference nakupa. Zlasti od cene 2,5 do 2,71 evra je preferenčna krivulja položna. Prav tako z grafa lahko razberemo, da spreminjanje cene tržni znamki A najbolj vpliva na znamko C.
Proučevanemu ponudniku znamke A se odpira tudi izziv in možnost uvedbe nove znamke (X), kot druge znamke, ki služi prvi (A) za obrambo pred konkurenti. Sočasno pa napada konkurente s strategijo nižje cene. Podroben opis te tržne strategije bi presegel okvir pričujočega članka.
Tabela 2: Primerjava preferenčnih deležev vseh znamk pri spremembi cene znamke A
Cena za znamko A	2,43	2,5	2,58	2,66	2,73
Preferenčni delež A	54,85	51,06	50,86	50,29	49,59
Preferenčni delež B	23,05	24,88	24,88	24,80	24,58
Preferenčni delež C	3,33	4,27	4,45	5,24	6,35
Preferenčni delež D	6,95	7,35	7,36	7,33	7,25
Preferenčni delež E	5,62	5,94	5,96	5,91	5,87
Preferenčni delež F	5,13	5,38	5,36	5,33	5,26
Preferenčni delež G	1,07	1,13	1,13	1,10	1,09
AKADEMIJA
[mm
Slika 6: Preferenčni deleži v simulaciji spreminjanja cene za znamko A
2,5	2,58	2,6
Cena tržne znamke A
10,00
0,00
2,43
2,73
Prav tako velja omeniti, da je prikazana simulacije le primer možnosti, ki jih nudi tržni simulator. Za poslovno odločitev lahko raziskovalec vnese tudi spremembo cene konkurenta, ki je pogosta reakcija na ceno vodilnega ponudnika. Še posebej je to značilno za tekmece, ki imajo na trgu podoben tržni delež. V teh primerih zaznavamo v niansah, ki jih podjetja lahko izkoristijo v prid razmerja med tržnim deležem, ceno in seveda dobičkom.
5. SKLEP
5.1. IMPLIKACIJE ZA TEORIJO
Model CBC z uporabo dveh spremenljivk cene in tržne znamke se je izkazal kot učinkovit pripomoček pri ugotavljanju cenovne elastičnosti. Z uporabo metode diskretne izbire se v veliki meri omeji možnost subjektivnih vplivov, ki imajo prav na področju raziskovanja cen veliko težo. Z njo smo respondente približali realni situaciji nakupnega odločanja, ki poteka na prodajnem mestu. S tem smo zagotovili relevantne podatke za izračun delnih koristi za posamezno lastnost kot tudi delež pomembnosti vpliva vsake izmed lastnosti na nakupno odločitev. Na drugi strani so delne koristi tudi dober pokazatelj zaznave vrednosti proučevanih tržnih znamk. S pomočjo simulatorja smo v naslednjem koraku iz dobljenih rezultatov izpeljali še krivulje intence nakupa za vse proučevane tržne znamke pri vseh cenovnih intervalih. Validacija z uporabo tržnih deležev kot kriterija je pokazala zadovoljiv rezultat.
Ocenjujemo, da uporabljeni model diskretne analize predstavlja dobro teoretično osnovo za napoved intence nakupa in izračun cenovne elastičnosti za celoten spekter konkurenčnih tržnih znamk v posamezni kategoriji izdelkov.
5.2. IMPLIKACIJE ZA PRAKSO
Dileme o ustreznosti cene ali bolje rečeno možnostih, da s spremembo cene dosežemo boljši rezultat, so v večini podjetij nenehno prisotne. Dnevno se sprejemajo odločitve o popustih, ki na prvi pogled prispevajo k povečanju prodaje, ostali kazalniki poslovanja pa so pogosto pod pričakovanji. Predvsem se zelo redko poveča dobiček. Uporabljeni model zmanjša negotovost pri poslovnih odločitvah. Podana je krivulja, po kateri se podjetja odločajo, ali je zniževanje cene smiselno ali ne. V danem primeru bi bila odločitev o znižanju cene slaba. Koeficient prožnosti je namreč pokazal, da bi bila izguba prihodka in posledično dobička zaradi nižje cene višja, kot jo nadomesti povečana prodajna količina. S tem je pojasnjena nesmiselnost odločitve o znižanju cene z motivom o pričakovanem povečanju prodajnih količin izdelka, označenega z močno tržno znamko.
Ponudniku ostaja še druga možnost. V situaciji nizke cenovne elastičnosti si mora namreč zastaviti drugačno vprašanje: »Ali je smiselno in smotrno povišanje cene na račun znižanja tržnega deleža?« Visok tržni delež, nizka cenovna
prožnost in relativno veliko premoženje tržne znamke, mu pokažeta na možnost povišanja cene na račun delnega zmanjšanja količinskega tržnega deleža. Slabost takšne enostranske odločitve je, da odpira možnost drugim, konkurenčnim tržnim znamkam, ki bi zapolnili nastalo vrzel v količini, povečali svoj delež in okrepili vpliv na trgu. Vendar lahko vrzel zapolni z uvedbo nove, svoje druge tržne znamke v kategoriji, ki mu služi kot krilna znamka in služi kot obramba pred konkurenti. Namenjena je lahko cenovno bolj občutljivim kupcem. Z njo zadrži izgubljeni delež kupcev, ki nastane zaradi dviga cene pri znamki A in hkrati napade konkurenco, ki vlada v tej kategoriji. S strategijo dveh znamk lahko sočasno zadovolji zahtevne kupce, tiste, ki strmijo k višji kakovosti z višjo ceno in segment kupcev, ki so cenovno bolj občutljivi in jim nižja cena predstavlja pomemben dejavnik nakupa. Ostale tržne znamke imajo možnost pridobivanja tržnega deleža, če je njihov koeficient cenovne elastičnosti dovolj velik in nimajo prenizkega indeksa cenovne ravni.
5.3.	SUGESTIJE ZA NADALJNJO RAZISKOVANJE
Model diskretne analize na podlagi dveh spremenljivk bi bilo smiselno uporabiti pri nadaljnjem proučevanju cen. Predvsem tistih kategorij, ki jih respondenti dovolj dobro poznajo, da jim fotografija oznamčenih izdelkov služi kot zadostna informacija za njeno prepoznavo ter s tem zaznavanje kakovosti in vrednosti. Za presojo cen storitev se kaže možnost uporabe logotipa kot grafičnega prikaza in tekstualnega opisa storitve. Predstavljeni primer temelji na relativno majhnem vzorcu, zato bi bilo smiselno ponoviti raziskavo na večjem reprezentativnem vzorcu uporabnikov izdelkov.
5.4.	SKLEPNA UGOTOVITEV
Z modelom, ki temelji na zaznavanju vrednosti tržnih znamk in na podlagi diskretne analize dveh spremenljivk, smo na raziskovalno vprašanje, ali znižanje cene uveljavljene tržne znamke v zadostni meri poveča nakupno količino in hkrati zagotovi koristi, dobili negativen odgovor. Koeficient cenovne prožnosti -0,576 nam ovrže hipotezo, da znižanje cene tržne znamke (A) za en odstotek poveča prodajno količino za en odstotek.
Sklepamo, da je uveljavljena tržna znamka na ceno relativno malo občutljiva, njeno cenovna prožnost je majhna, zato je instrument zniževanja cene z namenom povečanja prodaje nesmiseln.
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MM
AKADEMIJA
AKADEMIJA MM: GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
A Brief Description of the Journal: Akademija MM is a Slovenian scientific journal for the field of marketing. The articles in the journal are classified either as professional or scientific and can be in Slovene or in English. They should be related to Slovenia or deal with content which is of interest to Slovene readers.
Length of Manuscripts: 4000 to 8000 words (including the abstract, keywords, bibliography, tables and charts).
Language: Manuscripts can be either in Slovene or in English. Manuscripts in Slovene should still include the title, abstract and keywords in English. Manuscripts in English should be accompanied by an extensive abstract, which, if the article is accepted for publication, will also be translated into Slovene. The authors of manuscripts are required to exhibit appropriate linguistic proficiency. Slovene manuscripts should also include appropriate translations of terminology.
Manuscript Style: Manuscripts should be formatted for A4-sized paper. The font should be Times New Roman, size 12, all page borders should be set to 2.5 centimetres and line spacing to 1.5. Tables and charts should be included in the text.
Page one should contain the following information: author's name and surname, author's affiliation and author's e-mail address. Page two should include the title, abstract (150 to 200 words) and keywords (4-6) in Slovene. These should be followed by the title, abstract and keywords in English. If the manuscript is in English, the second page should include the title, an extensive abstract (600 to 700 words) and keywords (4-6) in English. The author(s) should suggest whether the manuscript is to be included in the scientific or the professional section of the journal. Page three should include the title and the text of the article. The headings and the subheadings should be clearly numbered (1, 2, 2.1, etc.). The bibliography should be listed at the end of the manuscript.
Citing literature in the text and at the end of the manuscript. When citing in the text, the following style should be included: author's surname, year of publication and, when so required, the page number, i.e. (Gartner, 1993). Each citation in the text should have a
NAVODILA ZA PRIPRAVO PRISPEVKOV ZA REVIJO AKADEMIJA MM
Kratek opis revije: Akademija MM je slovenska znanstvena revija s področja trženja, pri kateri so prispevki ločeni na strokovne in znanstvene in so lahko napisani v slovenskem ali angleškem jeziku. Prispevki se morajo nanašati oz. biti vsebinsko povezani s področjem Slovenije ali zajemati teme, ki so zanimive za njene bralce.
Obseg prispevkov: od 4.000 do 8.000 besed (vključno s povzetkom, ključnimi besedami, literaturo, tabelami in grafi).
Jezik: Prispevki so lahko napisani v slovenskem ali angleškem jeziku. Za članke, napisane v slovenskem jeziku, je treba poleg slovenskega povzetka in ključnih besed v slovenščini pripraviti tudi naslov, povzetek in ključne besede v angleškem jeziku. Angleški članki morajo vsebovati razširjeni povzetek, ki bo v primeru objave preveden v slovenski jezik. V obeh primerih se od avtorjev zahteva ustrezna jezikovna raven. V slovenskih člankih je zaželena raba ustreznega slovenskega strokovnega izrazja.
Oblika članka: Poslani prispevki morajo biti ustrezno oblikovno urejeni. Besedilo naj bo oblikovano na papirju formata A4, pisava naj bo Times New Roman velikosti 12 pik, vsi robovi naj bodo široki 2,5 cm, razmak med vrsticami pa 1,5. Tabele in grafi naj se nahajajo med tekstom.
Prva stran naj vključuje naslov članka ter ime in priimek, naziv, institucijo in elektronski naslov avtorja oz. avtorjev. Druga stran naj vključuje naslov, povzetek (od 150 do 200 besed) in ključne besede (4-6) v slovenskem jeziku. V nadaljevanju naj bodo naslov, povzetek in ključne besede predstavljene tudi v angleškem jeziku. V primeru angleških člankov naj druga stran vključuje naslov, razširjeni povzetek (od 600 do 700 besed) in ključne besede (4-6) v angleškem jeziku. Avtor(ji) naj tudi predlaga(jo) uvrstitev članka med znanstvene oziroma strokovne. Tretja stran vključuje naslov in besedilo članka. Naslovi poglavij in podpoglavij naj bodo ustrezno oštevilčeni (1., 2., 2.1 itn.). Seznam literature naj bo na koncu članka.
Navajanje literature med tekstom in na koncu prispevka: Med tekstom se navede priimek avtorja oz. avtorjev, letnica izida dela in po potrebi številka strani, npr. (Gartner, 1993). Vsaki bibliografski navedbi med tekstom naj ustreza navedba dela v seznamu literature na koncu prispevka. V seznamu literature naj ne bodo
corresponding bibliography entry at the end of the manuscript. The bibliography should not include works that are not cited in the manuscript.
Bibliographical entries at the end of the manuscript should be listed in accordance with the APA standards. The bibliography list should be in alphabetical order of (the first) authors' surnames. Entries by the same author should be in chronological order.
The following are some basic examples of citations in accordance with the APA standards.
Journal Articles
Gartner, W.C., & Bachri, T. (1994). Tour operators' role in the tourism distribution system: An Indonesian case study. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 161-179.
Books
Aaker, D., & Joachimsthaler, E. (2000). Brand leadeship. New York: The Free Press.
Chapters in Books
Gartner, W.C. (1993). Image formation process. In M. Uysal, & D.R. Fesenmaier (Eds.), Communication and Channel Systems in Tourism Marketing (pp. 191-215). New York: The Haworth Press.
Reviewing Process: Manuscripts will first be reviewed by the editorial board and then sent to either local or foreign independent referees. The reviewing process will adhere to the principle of blind reviews. The authors will receive feedback by e-mail. If required, they will be asked to make suitable modifications to and improvements of their contributions.
Papers should be submitted by e-mail at amm@dmslo.si. Add also the author's postal address where we can send your issue of the review.
navedena dela, na katere se avtor v besedilu ne sklicuje.
Bibliografske enote na koncu prispevka naj bodo navedene v skladu s standardi APA. V seznamu literature se bibliografski opisi navajajo po abecednem redu (prvih) avtorjev, literatura istega avtorja pa po kronološkem zaporedju.
V nadaljevanju so podani osnovni primeri navajanja v skladu s standardi APA.
članki v revijah
Gartner, W.C., & Bachri, T. (1994). Tour operators' role in the tourism distribution system: An Indonesian case study. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 6(2), 161-179.
Knjiga
Aaker, D., & Joachimsthaler, E. (2000). Brand leadeship. New York: The Free Press.
Poglavje v knjigi
Gartner, W.C. (1993). Image formation process. In M. Uysal, & D.R. Fesenmaier (Eds.), Communication and Channel Systems in Tourism Marketing (pp. 191-215). New York: The Haworth Press.
Recenzijski postopek: Poslani prispevki bodo najprej pregledani s strani uredništva ter v nadaljevanju s strani domačega oz. tujega neodvisnega recenzenta. Recenzija bo narejena po načelu slepe recenzije. Avtorji bodo o povratnih informacijah recenzijskega postopka obveščeni ter po potrebi pozvani k ustreznim prilagoditvam oz. nadgradnjam prispevkov.
Prispevke pošljite po elektronski pošti na naslov amm@dmslo.si. S prispevkom pošljite tudi poštni naslov, da vam bomo lahko poslali avtorski izvod revije.
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Informativni dan, 15. junij 2010