Lera Akhtyamovna Kamalova, PhD, Irina Vladimirovna Novgorodtseva, PhD
Mechanisms for the Formation  
of Empathic Culture of Students
Prejeto 18. 4. 2023 / Sprejeto 30. 6. 2023
Znanstveni članek
UDK 159.942-057.875
KLJUČNE BESEDE: empatija, empatična kultura, štu-
dent, učitelj, pedagoška univerza, medicinska univerza 
POVZETEK – Avtorici v svoji raziskavi poročata o 
posledicah nezadostne metodološke razvitosti meha-
nizmov in metod za oblikovanje empatije med študenti 
pedagoških in medicinskih univerz, ki je pomembna 
poklicna kompetenca bodočih učiteljev in zdravnikov. 
Empatična kultura učiteljev in zdravnikov je sestavni 
del osebne kulture, sestavni del poklicne spretnosti, ki 
zahteva namensko oblikovanje in razvoj. Namen štu-
dije je teoretično utemeljiti in eksperimentalno preiz-
kusiti mehanizme oblikovanja empatične kulture pri 
študentih pedagoških in medicinskih univerz. Glavna 
raziskovalna metoda temelji na izbrani diagnostiki. Pri 
poklicih zdravnik in učitelj smo dokazali, da je empati-
ja pomembna poklicna kvaliteta. Večina študentov pe-
dagoških in medicinskih univerz je pokazala povpreč-
no raven empatične kulture. Pri učiteljih so bolj razviti 
čustveni dejavniki in dejavnostni kanali empatije, pri 
zdravstvenih delavcih pa kognitivni dejavniki. Rezulta-
ti študije se lahko uporabljajo pri strokovnem usposa-
bljanju študentov pedagoških in medicinskih univerz.
Received 18. 4. 2023 / Accepted 30. 6. 2023
Scientific paper
UDC 159.942-057.875
KEYWORDS: empathy, empathic culture, student, 
teacher, pedagogical university, medical university
ABSTRACT – The relevance of this study is caused 
by the insufficient methodological development of the 
mechanisms and methods for empathy formation in stu-
dents of pedagogical and medical universities, which is 
an important professional competence of future teachers 
and doctors. The empathic culture of teachers and doc-
tors is an integral part of personal culture, a component 
of professional skills that requires targeted training and 
development. The aim of the study is to theoretically 
justify and experimentally test the mechanisms of em-
pathic culture formation in students of pedagogical and 
medical universities. The main research method is based 
on the selected diagnostics. We have proved that empa-
thy is an important professional trait in the profession 
of doctors and teachers. Most students of pedagogical 
and medical universities showed an average level of 
empathic culture. The emotional and active channels of 
empathy are more prominent in teachers, and the cog-
nitive channels are more prominent in physicians. The 
results of the study can be used in the professional train-
ing of students of pedagogical and medical universities.
1 Introduction
In the process of professional training of future teachers and doctors, it is especially 
important to develop an empathic culture as a basic professional quality for a modern 
specialist (Lepičnik-V odopivec, 2003). Communication plays a crucial role in peda-
gogical practice as it is a fundamental component of successful pedagogical practice 
that enables a more engaging, collaborative, and fulfilling learning experience for eve-
ryone involved (Klopčič et al., 2016). In addition, empathic communication involves 
both accepting and allowing different perspectives and emotions in others and sharing 
them with them to provide encouragement and support. Teachers, doctors and other 
healthcare workers do activities in the person-to-person system, where they try to liken 
themselves to another person to “understand” another person’s experiences and feelings 

117 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
and assume the position of a communication partner (Šimec et al., 2022). The problem 
is that much emphasis is placed on the acquisition of clinical skills and abilities in the 
education of medical students, while it is necessary to develop empathy in medical stu-
dents. A doctor’s empathy is expressed in the ability to feel empathy and understand the 
patient’s emotional state, to sympathise with him/her. A person’s empathy results from 
the double contradiction between their own experiences and the perceived experiences 
of another person.
The Professional Standard of a Teacher states that a teacher of primary general edu-
cation must be able to communicate with children, recognise their dignity, understand 
and accept them; be able to analyse the actual situation in the classroom; be able to pro-
tect the dignity and interests of students; be ready to communicate as the most important 
adult in the social situation of the development of a primary school child in conditions 
where children’s trust in the teacher grows (Professional Standard of a Teacher, 2013).
Pedagogical activity is associated with high emotional load of the teacher. The most 
important moral quality of a teacher, which contributes to the formation of his/her pro-
fessional communicative competence, is empathy in relationships with people (Hmelak 
and Rudaš, 2020). Empathy contributes to the balance of interpersonal relations, mor-
al growth of the person and effective mutual understanding in communication with 
children. In conditions of lack of “warmth” in interpersonal relations, strong negative 
changes in socio-economic structure, people face the problem of loneliness and indiffer-
ence. In this context, the problem of empathy as the ability to sympathise and empathise 
becomes relevant in the context of teacher training (Dolgova and Melnik, 2014).
The empathic culture of a teacher is an integrative quality, manifested in the ability 
to emotionally respond to the feelings of students, to build relationships with them and 
taking into account their inner attitudes. Empathy is an indicator of professional success 
of a teacher and a doctor. In this context, it seems relevant to study the mechanisms of 
empathy formation as a professionally important quality. The problem of empathy has 
been included as a scientific problem in the circle of general problems of personality 
formation. Without its understanding, it is difficult to carry out a productive analysis of 
the mechanisms and basic characteristics of a person’s mental and moral development. 
Several foreign authors such as Jung (1996), Lipps (1907), Rogers (1994), and Kohut 
(2000) have studied empathy in its various forms. Jung (1996) saw the essence of em-
pathy in the projection of subjective content: “Since the essence of empathy consists in 
the projection of subjective contents, the unconscious act preceding it must have the op-
posite character, namely, the redemption of the object’s effectiveness. Self-activity fills 
this object to a certain extent and thus adapts to the perception of subjective empathic 
content”. Lipps (1907) presented the content of empathy as the self-objectification in an 
object different from Me, whether the objectified name of the feeling deserves it or not. 
According to Rogers (1994), the teacher must possess the following abilities: the desire 
for maximum flexibility; the ability to empathise, sensitivity to the needs of school 
children; the ability to give a personal coloring to the process of education and training; 
the attitude of creating positive reinforcements for children’s self-perception; the pos-
session of a style of simple, informal, warm communication with children; emotional 
balance, self-confidence, cheerfulness.
Kohut (2000) considered empathy a universal need for development. The infant’s 
experience of empathic “mirroring” of the caregiver is a necessary component of the 

118 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
development of a connected self, and conversely, traumatic failures to provide empathic 
“mirroring” play a critical causal role in the development of defects and pathology of 
the self. Zhou et al. (2021) conducted a systematic review of approaches to teaching and 
assessing empathy in medicine and concluded that empathy is one of the core compe-
tencies medical workers can use to provide successful patient- and relationship-centred 
care. A high level of empathy is essential for the development of professionalism in stu-
dents in training for medical professions. Other researchers (Krishnasamy et al., 2019) 
have conducted research on how medical student, patient and teacher perceptions affect 
empathy, how education influences empathy and how compassion is expressed in medi-
cal students. The results of the authors’ research include important decisions for health 
care educators and health care curriculum developers. Yu et al. (2022) studied empa-
thy in students, teachers, doctors and physicians and identified 3 factors for empathy 
stability. High stability factors form the basis for individual empathy behaviour. Low 
stability factors are those that are highly situation dependent. Medium stability factors 
are those that are persistent in the environment and can influence empathy levels in the 
long term. Researchers Sobczak and Popowicz (2019) compared the levels and scales of 
empathy of individuals studying according to different educational strategies: students 
of medical specialties, nursing, obstetrics, physical therapy, psychology, pedagogy and 
sociology. Scientists have noticed a serious decrease in the level of empathy among 
medical students. Empathy declines in students after the third year of study, regardless 
of the type of university.
Other researchers – Kanchan et al. (2018) – believe that the medical profession 
has been challenged due to declining quality of healthcare services. This decline is at-
tributed to the weakening of human values and the lack of empathy and communication 
skills among physicians. Researcher Geoffrey (2017) found that the medical profession 
has adopted a cognitive model of empathy or detached concern in its professionalism 
and practice. Currently, there is a gap in physician empathy, as evidenced by poor pa-
tient care in the United Kingdom. Medical students may also develop empathy deficits 
during their studies. Based on a study of the level of empathic communication among 
students, a group of researchers (Lermen et al., 2022) concluded that empathy is an 
important component of personal characteristics, as is the ability to manage emotions, 
which affect the quality of communication between them and patients.
Nemov (1999) suggests several classifications of the empathy types: 
 □ emotional empathy; 
 □ cognitive empathy; 
 □ predicative empathy; 
 □ aesthetic empathy; 
 □ egocentric empathy; 6) humanistic empathy. 
Zakharova et al. (2019) study empathy as the basis of doctor-patient communica-
tion and consider the development of empathic behaviour in future teachers and doc-
tors. The analysis of views of Russian and foreign scientists reflecting the essence of the 
concept of “medical empathy” is given. Empathy is the core of interpersonal relations 
based on effective professional communication between medical professionals and pa-
tients. Shkitina et al. (2014) reveal the features of pedagogical empathy. They believe 
that empathy in a teacher’s professional activity is not so much a tool as the main 

119 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
strategy of the teacher’s activity. For a teacher, empathy is a more complex quality that 
implies the organisation of a certain educational influence. The result will not always be 
a productive communication between the teacher and the student, since the educational 
process can go its own way and get out of control due to serious influences caused by 
various random factors. The personal qualities of a teacher are inseparable from pro-
fessional competencies. Podlasy (2004) refers to scientific enthusiasm, love for one’s 
professional work, erudition, mastery of the subject and teaching methods, mastery of 
the technologies of pedagogical work, organisational skills and abilities, pedagogical 
tact, mastery of communication technologies, oratory skills, and spiritual sensitivity as 
these professional competencies. Studying the professional component of the teacher’s 
psychological and pedagogical competence, Sinyagina and Derkach (1998) found that 
the teacher’s empathy, together with reflection, flexibility, sociability, and the ability 
to cooperate, stimulates a state of emotional well-being, intellectual activity, creative 
search, and promotes mutual understanding in relations with the student.
Thus, the analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature shows the interest of 
researchers in empathy and allows us to define empathy as a personality trait expressed 
in sympathy, compassion, engagement, based on genetically determined abilities of pro-
jection and emotional response to another person.
2 Materials and methods
The aim of the study is to theoretically justify and experimentally test the levels of 
formation of an empathic culture in students of pedagogical and medical universities.
Research objectives:
 □ To determine the most effective methods for the formation of empathy among stu-
dents majoring in education and medicine;
 □ Experimentally test the level of empathy formation among students of pedagogical 
and medical universities;
 □ Development of a special course on the formation of empathy among students at a 
pedagogical university.
Various methods were used to test the hypothesis, complementing each other: obser-
vation, summative and formative pedagogical assessment, questioning, testing, analysis 
of the results of experimental work.
Within the framework of the studies, the authors used quantitative research meth-
ods, an anonymous survey of 65 first-year students majoring in General Medicine of 
the Faculty of General Medicine of the Kirov State Medical University; 60 first-year 
students of the training programme “Primary education and foreign (English) language” 
of the Institute of Psychology and Education of Kazan Federal University.
We chose the following diagnostic method for the study: 
 □ The method of diagnosis of communicative control by Schneider (Fetiskin et al., 2002);
 □ Assessment programme of non-verbal communication by Kuznetsova (Fetiskin et al., 
2002);

120 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
 □ Methodology “Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale” by Mehrabian and Epstein 
(Fetiskin et al., 2002).
Schneider’s communicative control diagnostic method aims to determine the level 
of communicative control. Participants are required to read 10 statements reflecting re-
actions to specific communication situations and rate each statement as true (t) or untrue 
(u) in relation to themselves by placing the appropriate letter next to each item. 1 point 
will be awarded for the answering “t” to questions No. 1, 5 and 7 and for answering “u” 
to all other questions. The total score is calculated as follows: 0–3 points correspond to 
low communicative control; 4–6 points correspond to average communicative control; 
7–10 points correspond to high communicative control.
In the assessment programme of non-verbal communication of Kuznetsova, test 
takers must answer 20 questions. There are 4 answer options: A – always; B – often; 
C – rarely; D – never. Each question has four possible answers, and each possibility is 
assigned a certain number of points from one to four (A – 4 points; B – 3 points; C – 2 
points; D – 1 point). This technique makes it possible to diagnose three parameters of 
non-verbal communication: 1) General assessment of a person’s non-verbal repertoire 
in terms of its diversity, harmony and differentiation (questions No. 1, 5, 8, 12, 15 
and 17). Quantitative evaluation of this parameter can range from +9 to –9 points. 2) 
Sensibility, sensitivity of a person to the non-verbal behaviour of another (expert ob-
server), the ability to identify appropriately (questions No. 2, 4, 7, 11, 14, 18 and 20). 
The quantitative assessment varies from 28 to 7 points. 3) The ability to manage one’s 
non-verbal repertoire adequately to the purpose and situation of the communication 
(questions No. 3, 6, 9, 10, 13, 16 and 19). The quantitative assessment varies from 23 
to 2 points. The level of development of each of the described skills is calculated as the 
sum of points for the answers to the corresponding questions (for questions No. 5, 8, 12, 
19, the points obtained are subtracted from the total for each of the three parameters). 
For each evaluated parameter, the arithmetic mean of three expert evaluations is calcu-
lated. Based on the total score for the three analysed parameters, a general indicator of 
the development level of a person’s perceptual and communication skills is determined. 
This indicator can vary from 0 to 60 points. Then, a qualitative analysis of the structure 
of the subject’s non-verbal communication is performed.
With the “Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale” by Mehrabian and Epstein, the gen-
eral empathic tendencies of the study participant can be analysed, i.e. parameters such 
as the level of expressiveness of the ability to respond emotionally to the experience of 
another and the degree of correspondence/inconsistency of the signs of the experience 
of the object and the subject of empathy. The objects of empathy are social situations 
and people with whom the participant can empathise in everyday life. The questionnaire 
consists of 25 closed-ended judgments. The participant must rate the degree to which 
he/she agrees or disagrees with each of these judgements. Each response is scored from 
1 to 4 points. A person’s ability to respond emotionally to other people’s experience 
(empathy) can be divided into the following levels: 82–90 points – a very high level; 
63–81 points – high level; 37–62 points – normal level; 36–12 points – low level; 11 
points or less is a very low level.

121 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
3 Results
In the summative phase of the experiment, the method of communicative control 
diagnosis (Schneider) was used to determine the level of communicative control and 
to examine the cognitive component in the experimental and control groups. The diag-
nosis showed that most of the participants in the experimental group (48.3%) had an 
average level of communicative control (4–6). Some respondents (16.7%) have a high 
level of communicative control (7–10), and 35% showed a low level of communicative 
control (0–3).
Most study participants have an average level of communicative control (46.6%) 
and have no difficulties in interaction. 18.3% of the subjects have a high level of com-
municative control and have well-developed communication skills. A low level of com-
municative control is typical for two study participants (40%).
In the summative phase of the experiment, the diagnosis of Kuznetsova was used 
to determine the level of expert assessment of non-verbal communication in the experi-
mental and control groups. The results of the diagnosis show that the general assess-
ment of the student teachers’ non-verbal repertoire in terms of its variety, harmony and 
differentiation has a high value in nine respondents (15%), a medium value in 27 people 
(45%) and a low value in 24 (40%) respondents.
10 study participants (16.7%) in the experimental group have a high sensitivity to 
the non-verbal behaviour of others and the ability to identify adequately. This group is 
dominated by the tendency to empathy and compassion. 22 people (36.6%) have low 
scores; they do not experience negative emotions when watching a movie or reading, 
because they have low sensitivity. 28 people (46.7%) have an average level of sensitiv-
ity. A high ability to control their non-verbal reactions is found in 11 study participants 
(18.2%). Most participants have the ability to control their facial expressions, gestures 
and posture. In interaction, such people tend to use and control non-verbal communi-
cation tools at the right time. A low ability to control their non-verbal repertoire was 
found in 20 participants (33%), which manifests itself in the substitution of words with 
gestures. Most subjects (48.8%) showed an average level of ability to control their non-
verbal behaviour.
In the control group, a high level of non-verbal repertoire was found in 4 subjects 
(6.6%), an average level in 30 subjects (50%), and a low level in 31 subjects (53.4%). 
The indicators of sensibility, sensitivity of a person to the non-verbal behaviour of oth-
ers in the control group are as follows: high – 7 people (10.8%), average – 28 people 
(43%), low – 29 people (46.2%). High ability to control their non-verbal repertoire was 
found in 8 persons (12.1%). Most of the study participants (29 people – 44.5%) have 
an average level of control over their facial expressions, gestures and posture. Twenty-
eight individuals (43.4%) demonstrated a low ability to control their non-verbal rep-
ertoire. They have difficulty correlating gestures with words. Often these individuals 
substitute words for gestures, so they are unable to explain their thoughts.
In the summative phase of the experiment, the diagnostics of Mehrabian and Ep-
stein was used to determine the level of emotional response in the experimental and 
control groups. According to the results of the diagnostics, the average optimal level of 
emotional response prevails in twenty-eight subjects (47.8%), 16.7% of the subjects had 

122 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
a high level of emotional response. 4 subjects had a very high level (6.7%). 6 subjects 
(10%) showed a very low level.
Table 1
The results of the methodology “Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale” of the control 
group (Mehrabian and Epstein)
Level Number of subjects Percentage
Very high (82–90) 5 7.6
High (63–81) 5 7.6
Average (37–62) 22 33.9
Low (12–36) 25 38.7
Very low (11 or less) 8 12.2
Diagnostics showed that the average level of emotional response predominated 
(33.9%). Students with an average level of empathy tended to judge others by their 
actions rather than trusting their personal impressions. In the control group, 7.6% of 
subjects have a very high level of emotional response. Most subjects (38.7%) showed a 
low level of emotional response (Table 1). 
During the formative experiment, during the academic year 2022–2023, in order to 
form an empathic culture of students majoring in education, the experimental group con -
ducted lectures, practical lessons and trainings on the special course “Empathic culture of 
a student-future teacher” developed by the authors, which includes the following blocks:
 □ Block 1. Formation of the emotional component of empathy.
 □ Block 2. Formation of the cognitive component of empathy.
 □ Block 3. Formation of the activity component of empathy.
The main goal of the special course is theoretical and methodological support of 
the process of formation of empathic culture of the teacher. The main tasks are to form 
empathy as a professional life value, to know ways of expressing empathy in vari-
ous situations in the pedagogical process, to use empathic listening in dialogue, and to 
show empathy in non-verbal reactions in speech. The special course “Empathic cul-
ture of a student-future teacher” consists of 24 lecture hours and 48 practice hours 
(72 hours = 2 credits). Active methods of teaching (brainstorming, theatricalisation, 
trainings) were used for implementation of the special course within the framework of 
students’ study of the course “Children’s Literature”; also the programme of teaching 
practice for students in schools, mentoring in children’s theater “Rainbow” of the Kazan 
Federal University was implemented.
Practical lessons in the form of brainstorming were conducted on the basis of the 
works of Yershov “The Little Humpbacked Horse”, Tolstoy “The Shark”, “Jump”, “The 
Lion and The Dog”, Odoyevsky “The Snuff-Box Town”. A theatrical performance based 
on the work of Aksakov “The Scarlet Flower” was staged. In the reading and analysis 
of these literary works, the method of empathic reading was used, which aims to pro-

123 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
mote the reader’s primary reactions (the level of direct impression), the formation of 
emotional reactions (the level of emotional experience) and the development of rational 
comprehension (analysis of the situation). Reading and analysing the works of children’s 
book authors contributed to the understanding of the concept of “empathy”, awareness of 
one’s emotions and feelings; the development of skills to recognise the emotional states 
characters; the formation of empathic skills and empathic understanding.
Theatricalisation of works of children’s literature aims at understanding and devel-
oping empathy. The task of theatricalisation is to develop the ability to recognise one’s 
own emotional states and those of the other person and to develop empathic skills. 
Pedagogical training of students in elementary school aims to study the personality of 
younger school children, to explore the psychology of the child, to grasp the individual 
characteristics of the school child, to recognise the empathic understanding and feelings 
of the child by the student. Mentoring in children’s theater “Rainbow” of the Kazan 
Federal University is aimed at development of emotional, cognitive and active com-
ponents of empathy in students – future elementary school teachers. The students con-
ducted lessons with children of primary school age, studied different ways of interaction 
and communication with younger school children while working on the performance 
and showed the activity component of empathy. 
Thus, the formative experiment in the experimental group allowed to develop three 
components of empathy: emotional component, cognitive component and activity com-
ponent. In the control experiment phase, the goal was set to determine the most effec-
tive mechanisms for the formation of empathic culture in students of pedagogical and 
medical universities. In the experimental and control groups of students the following 
tests were carried out: 
 □ The diagnostic method of communicative control (Schneider); 
 □ The assessment programme of non-verbal communication (Kuznetsova); 
 □ The methodology “Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale” (Mehrabian, Epstein).
Table 2
Comparative diagnostics of communicative control of the experimental and control 
groups (Schneider)
Level Experimental group (%) Control group (%) Difference
High (7–10) 20 17.0 3 % more
Average (4–6) 55 49.2 5.8 % more
Low (0–3) 25 38.8 8.8 % less
Diagnostics showed the dynamics in the development of communicative control in 
the students of the experimental group. High and average levels of development of em-
pathic control dominate. The students of this group showed sensitivity to the needs and 
problems of others, magnanimity, interest in people, emotional responsiveness, socia-
bility, and the ability to avoid conflicts and find compromise solutions. Most respond-
ents in the control group showed a low level of empathic skills, indicating the need for 

124 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
their development (intuitive, rational, and emotional channels of empathy, management 
of their emotions) in order to form communicative professional competencies.
Table 3
Comparative diagnostics of assessment program of non-verbal communication of the 
experimental (EG) and control groups (CG) (Kuznetsova)
Indicators
General assessment of 
the non-verbal repertoire 
in terms of its diversity, 
harmony, EG and CG
Sensibility, sensitivity 
of a person to the non-
verbal behaviour of 
others, EG and CG
The ability to adapt one’ s 
nonverbal repertoire to 
the purpose and situation 
of communication, 
EG and CG
High 18.4 (EG); 6.1 (CG) 20 (EG); 10.8 (CG) 21.6 (EG); 12.1 (CG)
Average 53.3 (EG); 47.5 (CG) 55 (EG); 46.1 (CG) 53.4 (EG); 46.1 (CG)
Low 28.3 (EG); 46.4 (CG) 25 (EG); 43.1 (CG) 25 (EG); 41.8 (CG)
Diagnostics showed the ability of students of the experimental group to analyse and 
appropriately interpret the state of the subject, to use empathic listening in dialogue, 
to show empathy in non-verbal responses in speech, indicating the development of the 
activity channel of empathy.
Table 4
Comparative diagnostics of the difference in expert assessment of non-verbal comm-
unication of the experimental (EG) and control groups (CG) (Kuznetsova)
Indicators
General assessment of 
the non-verbal repertoire 
in terms of its diversity, 
harmony, EG and CG (%)
Sensibility, sensitivity 
of a person to the non-
verbal behaviour of 
others, EG and CG (%)
The ability to adapt one’ s 
nonverbal repertoire to 
the purpose and situation 
of communication, 
EG and CG (%)
High 12.3 more 9.2 more 9.5 more
Average 5.8 more 8.9 more 7.3 more
Low 17.9 less 17.9 less 16.8 less
In the experimental group, students demonstrated the dynamics of changes in em-
pathic abilities during the process of vocational training as future elementary school 
teachers. For students in this group, the emotional component of empathy dominated, 
followed by the cognitive and active components.
In the control phase of the experiment, the development of the emotional compo-
nent of empathy was demonstrated in the students – future teachers. For the students of 
this group, empathy manifests itself as a professional life value, a positive emotional 
attitude to the situation in professional pedagogical activity, a positive emotional at-
titude to people.

125 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
Table 5
Comparative diagnostics of the level of emotional response according to the method 
Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale” of the experimental and control groups (Mehrabian, 
Epstein)
Level Experimental group (%) Control group (%) Difference (%)
Very high (82–90) 13.4 7.6 5.8 more
High (63–81) 23.3 10.8 12.5 more
Average (37–62) 23.3 30.7 14.3 more
Low (12–36) 15 38.7 23.7 less
Very low (11 or less) 3.3 12.2 8.9 less
The experimental group developed a cognitive component of empathy, which con-
sists of a certain knowledge about empathy, its nature and place in professional activity, 
understanding of the peculiarities of situations in pedagogical activity and the ability 
to understand a person and put oneself in his/her position. The diagnostic results dem-
onstrated the development of the activity component of empathy in the students of the 
experimental group as the ability to analyse and appropriately interpret the state of the 
subject in the educational process, to use empathic listening in dialogue, and to show 
empathy in non-verbal reactions in speech and behaviour.
Particularly important is the formation of the emotional component of empathy in 
the experimental group – the ability to empathise with a school child, understand his/her 
feelings and emotions and sympatise with him/her. The results of the study showed that 
all three components of empathy gradually developed in the student teachers, while the 
cognitive component of empathy predominated in the medical students.
The experimental study showed that an empathic culture is essential for future el-
ementary school teachers and general physicians to be competent in the person-to-per-
son profession. The special course developed and implemented to form components of 
empathic culture of students of pedagogical and medical universities contributes to the 
development of empathy as an important professional quality of a teacher and a physi-
cian. The special course helps to form the emotional, cognitive and active components 
of empathy, the formation of empathic culture of students of pedagogical and medical 
universities. The results of the study can be used for professional activity of elementary 
school teachers, medical students and general physicians.
4 Discussion
One of the main reasons for the ineffective professional activity of teachers and 
doctors is the low level of empathy, which leads to a significant decrease in professional 
success. Foreign and domestic scholars provide evidence of the relationship between 

126 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
high professional success and high levels of empathy in a number of papers. According 
to Rogers (1975), a person’s ability to help another depends on building warm, sincere 
empathic relationships. The doctor must feel the patient’s inner world as if it were his 
own, without losing the quality of “if.” In medical practice, empathy is considered an 
integral, stable personal quality that affects the social-perceptual and communicative 
sphere in the “doctor–patient” system. Scholars consider empathy as a communication 
skill that can be mastered and, to a lesser extent, as a purely subjective emotional ex-
perience or an innate, unchangeable personality trait. Haque (2020) considers empathy 
to be the most important professional quality that needs to be formed during medical 
university. Omid et al. (2018) revealed the relationship between empathy and human 
emotional intelligence: the higher the empathy, the higher the emotional intelligence. 
Shapiro et al. (2004) investigated the process of teaching empathy to first-year medical 
students by assessing an elective course in literature and medicine. Chen et al. (2019) 
analysed data on the mediating role of anxiety, self-efficacy, and sleep quality in the re-
lationship between physician-reported empathy and patient illness. Garnett et al. (2020) 
conducted an online survey to determine the level of empathy among British medical 
students. Students’ empathy levels were found to decrease in the third year of study, 
whereas first-year medical students had a higher empathic culture.
Medical empathy is defined as the ability to understand the patient’s situation, point 
of view, and feelings, to show their understanding in a conversation, to act on that un-
derstanding, and to provide (therapeutic) help to the patient. According to Friedemann 
(2013), empathic behaviour does not require witnessing the patient’s feelings, which 
can lead to excessive identification of the doctor with the patient and overstepping pro-
fessional boundaries. Rogers (1994) points out the processual side of empathy: it is the 
entry into the inner world of another person, the sensitivity to ever-changing meanings. 
Pedagogical empathy is an emotional feature of the teacher, which plays a great role in 
the relationship between the participants in the educational process, in the perception of 
the other and in establishing mutual understanding between them. Ilyin (2013) confirms 
that teachers’ empathy should manifest itself as a basic professional skill in the form of 
sympathy. Sympathy leads to activation of relationships of warmth, trust, care, open-
ness and support for the child. Simonova (2013) considers it appropriate to abandon 
the technocratic model of training future doctors. The integration of the humanitarian 
component into the clinical disciplines will solve the problem of training a competitive 
specialist with a stable value system and the necessary general cultural and professional 
competencies that will enable them to perform their professional duties with high qual-
ity and responsibility.
Empathy contributes to the balance of interpersonal relations; it makes a person 
socially adjusted. Empathy developed in a person is a key factor of success in activi-
ties that require understanding one’s own “I”, emotional empathy with a partner and 
especially in training and education. Therefore, empathy is considered a professionally 
important quality of a teacher and a doctor.

127 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
5 Conсlusion
In our study, it was found that empathy distinguishes the following components: 
cognitive, emotional and active. The formation of empathy mechanisms is carried out 
through the implementation of the model of the special course “Empathic culture of the 
student-future teacher”: 
 □ the use of active teaching methods for students; 
 □ using the method of empathic reading; 
 □ theatricalisation of literary works; 
 □ pedagogical practice of students in school; 
 □ mentorship in children’s theater “Rainbow” of the Kazan Federal University.
Implementation of the special course allowed to develop three components of em-
pathy in the experimental group: emotional component, cognitive component and activ-
ity component. The data of our study showed that students of a pedagogical university 
demonstrated dynamics in the developmental level of empathy. The general assessment 
of the non-verbal repertoire in terms of its diversity, harmony: high – more by 3.4%, 
average – more by 8.3%, low – less by 11.7%. Sensibility, sensitivity of a person to 
another’s non-verbal behaviour of another: high – more by 3.3%, average – more by 
8.3%, low – less by 9.6%. The ability to use one’s non-verbal repertoire appropriately to 
the purpose and situation of communication: high – more by 3.4%, average – more by 
4.6%, low – less by 8%. We can see the dynamics in the development level of emotion-
al response in the experimental group. Very high – more by 6.7%, high – 6.7%, aver-
age – less by 1.6%, low – less by 5%, very low – less by 6.7%. According to the results 
of diagnostics, it can be stated that the average optimal level of emotional response 
prevails in 27 respondents (45%), 23.3% of respondents have a high level of emotional 
response. Eight people have a very high level (13.4%). A very low level was found in 
2 people (3.3%). The diagnosis showed that the high level of communicative control in 
the experimental group increased by 3.3%, the average level decreased by 6.7% and the 
low level decreased by 10%.
The results of this study can be used in the training of students – future teachers of 
elementary school and students of medical universities majoring in “General Medicine”.
This paper has been supported by the Kazan Federal University  
Strategic Academic Leadership Program (PRIORITY-2030).
Dr. Lera Akhtyamovna Kamalova, dr. Irina Vladimirovna Novgorodtseva
Mehanizmi za oblikovanje empatične kulture študentov
V procesu strokovnega usposabljanja bodočih učiteljev in zdravnikov je še posebej 
pomembno razvijati empatično kulturo kot temeljno strokovno kvaliteto sodobnega spe-
cialista (Lepičnik-Vodopivec, 2003). Komunikacija ima v pedagoški praksi ključno vlo-
go, saj je temeljna sestavina uspešne pedagoške prakse, ki omogoča bolj sodelovalno in 
izpolnjujočo učno izkušnjo za vse vpletene (Klopčič idr., 2016). Empatična komunikaci-

128 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
ja vključuje sprejemanje, dopuščanje različnih perspektiv in čustev pri drugih ljudeh ter 
njihovo deljenje, tako da se omogoči ustrezna spodbuda in podpora. Učitelji, zdravniki 
in drugi zdravstveni delavci izvajajo aktivnosti v sistemu z neposredno komunikacijo, 
kjer se poskušajo primerjati z drugimi ljudmi, “razumeti” izkušnje in občutke drugega 
človeka, se postaviti v njegovo vlogo ter zavzeti položaj komunikacijskega partnerja 
(Šimec idr., 2022). Težava je v tem, da se v procesu izobraževanja in usposabljanja 
študentov medicine in drugih zdravstvenih delavcev veliko pozornosti posveča pridobi-
vanju kliničnih veščin in spretnosti, premalo pa empatiji. Empatija zdravnika se kaže v 
sposobnosti občutiti empatijo in razumeti čustveno stanje bolnika, sočustvovati z njim. 
Pedagoška dejavnost je povezana z veliko čustveno obremenitvijo učitelja. Naj-
pomembnejša učiteljeva moralna lastnost, ki prispeva k oblikovanju njegove profesio-
nalne komunikacijske kompetence, je empatija v odnosih z ljudmi. Empatija prispeva 
k uravnoteženosti medosebnih odnosov, moralni rasti osebe in učinkovitemu medse-
bojnemu razumevanju. V razmerah pomanjkanja topline medčloveških odnosov, ostrih 
negativnih sprememb v družbenoekonomski strukturi se ljudje soočajo z osamljenostjo 
in brezbrižnostjo okolja (Dolgova in Melnik, 2014).
Empatična kultura učitelja je integrativna lastnost, ki se kaže v sposobnosti čustvene-
ga odzivanja na občutke učencev, vzpostavljanja odnosov z njimi in upoštevanja njihove-
ga notranjega položaja. Empatija je kazalnik poklicnega uspeha učiteljev in zdravnikov. 
V zvezi s tem je treba pomembno preučiti mehanizme oblikovanja empatije kot poklicno 
pomembne lastnosti. Problem empatije je vključen v krog splošnih problemov oblikova-
nja osebnosti kot znanstveni problem. Brez njegovega razumevanja je težko opraviti ana-
lizo mehanizmov in temeljnih lastnosti duhovnega in moralnega razvoja osebe. Številni 
tuji avtorji, kot so Jung (1996), Lipps (1907), Rogers (1994) in Kohut (2000), so preuče-
vali empatijo v njenih različnih oblikah. Lipps (1907) je vsebino empatije predstavil kot 
samoobjektivizacijo v predmetu, ki je drugačen od mene, ne glede na to, ali si objektivi-
zirano ime občutek zasluži ali ne. Po Rogersu (1994) mora imeti učitelj naslednje spo-
sobnosti: željo po čim večji prilagodljivosti sposobnosti empatije, občutljivost za potrebe 
učencev; zmožnost osebnega obarvanja procesa izobraževanja in usposabljanja; odnos 
do ustvarjanja pozitivnih spodbud za samopodobo otrok; način lahkotne, neformalne in 
tople komunikacije z otroki; čustveno ravnovesje, samozavest in veselje.
Kohut (2000) je menil, da je empatija univerzalna razvojna potreba. Dojenčkova iz-
kušnja empatičnega “zrcaljenja” skrbnika je nujna sestavina razvoja povezanega jaza 
in nasprotno. Travmatične napake pri zagotavljanju empatičnega “zrcaljenja” imajo 
ključno vzročno vlogo pri razvoju pomanjkljivosti in patologije jaza. Zhou idr. (2021) 
so naredili sistematičen pregled pristopov k poučevanju in ocenjevanju empatije v me-
dicini in ugotovili, da je empatija ena od ključnih kompetenc zdravstvenih delavcev, ki 
jo lahko uporabijo za uspešno oskrbo bolnikov. Visoka raven empatije je bistvena za 
razvoj profesionalizma pri študentih, ki se usposabljajo za zdravstvene poklice. Drugi 
znanstveniki (Krishnasamy idr., 2019) so opravili raziskave o tem, kako zaznave štu-
dentov medicine in učiteljev vplivajo na empatijo; kako izobraževanje vpliva na empa-
tijo in kako se pri študentih medicine izraža sočutje. Rezultati raziskav vključujejo tudi 
vlogo visokošolskih učiteljev, ki pripravljajo in izvajajo izobraževanje po učnih načrtih 
za področje zdravstva. Yu idr. (2022) so preučevali empatijo pri študentih, učiteljih in 
zdravnikih ter opredelili tri dejavnike stabilnosti empatije, ki so temelj posameznikove 
lastnosti empatije. Dejavniki nizke stabilnosti so tisti, ki so zelo specifični za določen 

129 Kamalova, PhD, Novgorodtseva, PhD: Mechanisms for the Formation of Empathic...
položaj, in dejavniki srednje stabilnosti so tisti, ki so v okolju trajni in lahko dolgoročno 
vplivajo na raven empatije. Znanstvenika Sobczak in Popowicz (2019) sta primerjala 
ravni in lestvice empatije pri študentih, ki se izobražujejo po različnih izobraževalnih 
strategijah: študentih medicinskih specializacij, zdravstvene nege, porodništva, fiziote-
rapije, psihologije, pedagogike in sociologije. Znanstveniki so opazili resen upad ravni 
empatije med študenti medicine. Empatija pri študentih upade po tretjem letniku študi-
ja, ne glede na vrsto univerze. Kanchan idr. (2018) menijo, da je zdravniški poklic pod 
drobnogledom zaradi vse slabše kakovosti zdravstvenih storitev. Ta upad pripisujejo 
slabšanju človeških vrednot ter pomanjkanju empatije in komunikacijskih spretnosti 
med zdravniki. Geoffrey (2017) je ugotovil, da je medicinski poklic v svojem profesio-
nalizmu in praksi sprejel kognitivni model empatije ali distancirane skrbi. Trenutno ob-
staja vrzel v zdravniški empatiji, kar dokazujejo izpadi v oskrbi bolnikov v Združenem 
kraljestvu. Pri študentih medicine se lahko tudi med študijem razvijejo primanjkljaji 
empatije. Skupina znanstvenikov (Lermen idr., 2022) je na podlagi študije o stopnji 
empatične komunikacije med študenti ugotovila, da je empatija pomembna sestavina 
osebnostnih lastnosti, prav tako pa sposobnost obvladovanja čustev vpliva na kakovost 
komunikacije med njimi in bolniki.
Nemov (1999) predlaga več klasifikacij vrst empatije: čustvena empatija, kognitiv-
na empatija, predikativna empatija, estetska empatija, egocentrična empatija in huma-
nistična empatija. Zakharova idr. (2019) preučujejo empatijo kot osnovo komunikacije 
med zdravnikom in pacientom, obravnavajo razvoj empatičnega vedenja pri bodočih 
učiteljih in zdravnikih. Podana je analiza stališč ruskih in tujih znanstvenikov, ki od-
ražajo bistvo pojma “zdravniška empatija”. Empatija je jedro medosebnih odnosov, ki 
temeljijo na učinkoviti strokovni komunikaciji med zdravniki in bolniki. Shkitina idr. 
(2014) razkrivajo značilnosti pedagoške empatije. Menijo, da empatija v poklicnem 
delovanju učitelja naj ne bo toliko orodje kot glavna strategija njegovega delovanja. 
Za učitelja je empatija kompleksnejša lastnost, ki predstavlja organizacijo določenega 
vzgojnega vpliva. Rezultat tega ne bo vedno produktivna komunikacija med učiteljem in 
učencem, saj lahko vzgojno-izobraževalni proces zaradi resnih vplivov več naključnih 
dejavnikov poteka po svoje in uide izpod nadzora. Osebnostne lastnosti učitelja so ne-
ločljivo povezane s strokovnimi kompetencami. Podlasy (2004) k tem poklicnim kompe-
tencam prišteva znanstveno navdušenje, ljubezen do svojega poklicnega dela, erudici-
jo, obvladovanje predmeta in učnih metod, obvladovanje tehnologij pedagoškega dela, 
organizacijske sposobnosti in spretnosti, pedagoški takt, obvladovanje komunikacijskih 
tehnologij, govorništvo in duhovno občutljivost. V procesu preučevanja poklicne kom-
ponente psihološke in pedagoške kompetence učitelja sta Sinyagina in Derkach (1998) 
razkrila, da učiteljeva empatija skupaj z refleksijo, fleksibilnostjo, družabnostjo in spo-
sobnostjo sodelovanja spodbuja stanje čustvenega ugodja, intelektualno dejavnost, 
ustvarjalno iskanje in medsebojno razumevanje v odnosih z učenci. Analiza psihološke 
in pedagoške literature kaže zanimanje raziskovalcev za empatijo in nam omogoča, da 
empatijo opredelimo kot osebnostno lastnost, ki se izraža v sočutju in zavzetosti na pod-
lagi genetsko pogojenih sposobnosti projekcije in čustvenega odziva na drugo osebo.
Namen študije je bil teoretično utemeljiti in eksperimentalno preveriti ravni obliko-
vanja empatične kulture pri študentih pedagoških in medicinskih univerz. 

130 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (2, 2023)
Cilji raziskave so bili naslednji: 
 □ ugotavljanje najučinkovitejših metod za oblikovanje empatije pri študentih pedago-
ških in medicinskih smeri; 
 □ eksperimentalno preverjanje stopnje oblikovanja empatije pri študentih pedagoških 
in medicinskih univerz; 
 □ razvoj posebnega predmeta za oblikovanje empatije pri študentih pedagoške univerze.
Za preverjanje hipoteze smo uporabili različne metode, ki se med seboj dopolnjuje-
jo: opazovanje, sumativno in formativno pedagoško ocenjevanje, spraševanje, testira-
nje in analizo rezultatov eksperimentalnega dela. V okviru študij sta avtorja uporabila 
kvantitativni pristop s tehniko anketiranja, v kateri je sodelovalo 65 študentov prvega 
letnika, smeri splošna medicina, Fakultete za splošno medicino Kirovske državne me-
dicinske univerz ter 60 študentov prvega letnika izobraževalnega programa Primarno 
izobraževanje in tuji (angleški) jezik Inštituta za psihologijo in izobraževanje Kazanske 
zvezne univerze.
Raziskava je pokazala, da se študenti razlikujejo glede na naslednje komponente 
empatije: kognitivna, čustvena in aktivna. Oblikovanje mehanizmov empatije poteka z 
izvajanjem modela posebnega predmeta, ki je poimenovan Empatična kultura študenta 
in prihodnjega učitelja: uporaba aktivnih učnih metod za študente, uporaba metode 
empatičnega branja, teatralizacija literarnih del, pedagoška praksa študentov v šoli, 
mentorstvo v otroškem gledališču Mavrica Kazanske zvezne univerze.
Rezultati so pokazali, da so študenti pedagoške univerze pokazali dinamiko v sto-
pnji razvoja empatije. Glede na rezultate diagnostike lahko ugotovimo, da prevladuje 
povprečna raven čustvenega odziva pri 45 % anketiranih, 23,3 % anketirancev pa ima 
visoko raven čustvenega odziva. Zelo visoko raven ima 13,4 % anketirancev. Zelo nizka 
raven se je pokazala pri 3,3 % anketirancev. Rezultate te študije je smiselno uporabiti 
pri usposabljanju študentov oz. bodočih učiteljev v osnovni šoli in študentov medicin-
skih univerz na področju splošne medicine.
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Lera Akhtyamovna Kamalova, PhD (1957), Associate Professor at Kazan Federal University and 
Institute of Psychology and Education, Department of Primary Education.
Naslov / Address: 18 Kremlyovskaya Street, 420008 Kazan, Russia
Telefon / Telephone: (+7) 8432 065 289
E-mail: kamalova.kpfu@bk.ru
Irina Vladimirovna Novgorodtseva, PhD (1971), Assistant Professor at Kirov State Medical University.
Naslov / Address: 112 Karl Marx Street, 610027 Kirov, Russia
Telefon / Telephone: (+7) 8332 374 955
E-mail: novgorodtseva.ksmu@ro.ru