EUROPEAN CEMETERIES IN THE EUROPEAN YEAR OF CULTURAL HERITAGE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING Innsbruck, 20. - 22. September 2018 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage WE TOGETHER! Where is the dream that we dream? Alexander Legniti PREFACE Where is the goal, we want to make? Where is the scene that we have seen, The word culture derives from the Latin word cultura meaning „cultivation, care, farming“ all the time that we forsake? and refers in the broadest sense to all that which humankind creatively produced. The We are searching for all our life, preservation of said culture has always been the objective of humanity. but please believe me, when we – in ourselves – arrive, We commemorate this fact particularly this year, which is the European Year of Cultural Heritage. we recognize – the answer is just: Especially, in those spaces where humans have found their last resting place, and where WE! – through stones and monuments – they have attempted to commemorate their times, © Alexander Legniti we can find a number of artworks and structures that, beside said remembrance, are nothing other than a grand legacy and cultural heritage. Beyond this, these cemeteries do not only offer park areas and are the „green lungs“ within the city space but also serve as a place of calm and tranquillity. These spaces too are worth preserving. Thus, we are delighted that this year‘s annual meeting of the ASCE and the European Cemeteries Route takes place in Innsbruck, a city in the heart of Europe and the alps, which is equally steeped in history as all the other members of this beautiful European cultural route. Eighteen cemeteries grace our city with countless works of art and monuments. The preservation of this cultural heritage is dear to our hearts. How is cultural heritage practiced in your city? We are delighted that you have followed our call and want to share your passion for the theme of the AGM 2018 with us. Together we can accomplish more and can preserve cemetery culture for future generations. xx IMPRESSUM EUROPEAN CEMETERIES IN THE EUROPEAN YEAR OF CULTURAL HERITAGE EDITOR: Alexander Legniti AUTHORS OF PHOTOS: Veronika Lercher and Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe members Publication was issued in cooperation of Pogrebno podjetje Maribor, Stadtmagsitrat Innsbruck and Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe INTRODUCTORY TEXT: Alexander Legniti DESIGN: Veronika Lercher PUBLISHER: Pogrebno podjetje Maribor CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor 726.8(082)(0.034.2) ASSOCIATION of Significant Cemeteries in Europe. Annual General Meeting (2018 ; Innsbruck) European cemeteries in the European year of cultural heritage [Elektronski vir] : annual general meeting, Innsbruck, 20. - 22. September 2018 / [editor, introductory text Alexander Legniti ; authors of photos Veronika Lercher and Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe members] ; [organized by] Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe, ASCE. - El. zbornik. - Maribor : Pogrebno podjetje, 2018 Način dostopa (URL): https://www.significantcemeteries.org/2018/09/agm-2018-conference-volume.html ISBN 978-961-288-751-3 (pdf) 1. Gl. stv. nasl. 2. Legniti, Alexander COBISS.SI-ID 95257857 MARIBOR, SEPTEMBER 2018 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ............................................................................................. 3 Arnaldina Riesenberger .............................................................................. 93 Alexander Legniti MANAGEMENT AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION: THE TWO SIDES OF THE SAME COIN Alessandra Bricchetti ............................................................................................. 7 THE CEMETERY HERITAGE BELONGS TO Sophie Oosterwijk .............................................................................. 101 THE NOWADAYS EUROPEAN COMMUNITY NOT AT HOME? THE MARBLE AND BRONZE CENOTAPH OF EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN I IN INNSBRUCK Gisela Monteiro & Laura Monastier ............................................................... 15 PHOTOCERAMICS: AN UNSUSPECTED CULTURAL HERITAGE Katerina Tsatoucha .............................................................................. 103 VULNERABILITY AND SUSTAINING OF A HISTORIC CEMETERY Carlo Rosario Medico ............................................................................................. 29 HISTORICAL CEMETERY. KALEIDOSCOPE OF THE NARRATED MEMORY Renata Santoro & Federica Tammarazio ............................................... 109 THE „NON-CATHOLIC“ CEMETERY IN TURIN: WITNESSING THE Daina Glavočić ............................................................................................. 45 WALDENSIAN PRESENCE IN 19TH CENTURY PIEDMONTESE SOCIETY FUNERARY MILITARY MONUMENTS IN KOZALA CEMETERY, RIJEKA (CRO) Vladimir Huzjan .............................................................................. 119 Evangelia Georgitsoyanni .............................................................................. 59 WARIORS‘ SECTION OF VARAŽDIN CITY CEMETERY – ON THE OCCASION OF THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF EUROPEAN CEMETERIES THE CENTENARY OF THE END OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR AS AN EMERGING TOURISTIC INTEREST Tijana Boric .............................................................................. 127 Gisela Monteiro ............................................................................................. 73 HARIŠ CHAPEL IN ZEMUN IN THE LIGHTS OF INTERACTION AND THE PORTUGUESE HOUSE IN THE CEMETERY: INTELLECTUAL EXCHANGE IN THE HABSBURG EMPIRE TRADITION AND POPULAR CULTURE Kalmar Ulm, D.Th. ............................................................................................. 87 “THE VALUE OF TALLINN’S MULTI-CULTURAL CEMETERY HERITAGE IN POST-SOVIET ESTONIAN SOCIETY” European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage THE CEMETERY HERITAGE BELONGS TO THE NOWADAYS EUROPEAN COMMUNITY Cultural researcher and project manager of non profit Cultural Association MNEME LA MEMORIA DEL BENE (Milan, Italy) Alessandra Bricchetti www.associazionemneme.it │ info@associazionemneme.it ABSTRACT In 2017 I was in UK and Italy with the Melancholy Heritage Project - thanks to the support of the Fondazione Banca del Monte di Lombardia and other partners - to find out the best practices of the cultural valorization of the cemetery heritage. This experience made me think of the cultural potential of the cemeteries spaces as cultural institutions for the nowadays European community. In this perspective I’d like to share some of these reflections. KEYWORDS places of memories / tangible and intangible heritage / individual and collective memory / cultural spaces / living spaces / multiethnic and intergenerational community / non-profit world / community engagement / identities / cemetery management THE CEMETERY HERITAGE BELONGS TO THE NOWADAYS EUROPEAN COMMUNITY The cemeteries are the places of memories of the ones who have lived and of the gestures, values, ideals, feelings, relationships of the communities through the ages. These memories are a tangible and intangible heritage for the nowadays European community. However, due to the fears and taboos of death, today‘s communities have moved away from the cemeteries spaces and a sort of rift between the city of the living and the city of the dead has been generated. In the contemporary European scenery, however, we are experiencing a time of deep cultural transformation of the cemeteries spaces which is giving them back the social and cultural function they had in the past as spaces for individual and collective memory: a resource and a right of the community itself. xx 7 If we think, for example, to the Monumental Cemeteries, they were built in Europe between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as spaces devoted to the secular cult of the memory of the disappeared affections (individual memory). At the end of the nineteenth century, the family became the group on which society was founded and within it the family feeling developed as well (collective memory). The cemeteries were built, therefore, as places where the members of the family and community approached the tomb of the loved people and kept alive the memory of their © Alessandra Bricchetti dears’ experience and story through this rite, giving them a sort of immortality. It’s this Activities for families, Mission Invertebrate Project, Forest School, Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park, London feeling, expressed in the secular cult of the dead, at the origin of the cemeteries spaces Brompton Cemetery, London throughout Europe as a worship both private and public. The respect for this cult in the cemeteries and for the historical-artistic, cultural and landscape heritage of these places makes us reflect on how to give back these memory’s places a central social role in the urban fabrics of the whole Europe. The cemeteries, in fact, should be increasingly valued as innovative cultural spaces and as living spaces for the community. This is the clear perception that one has when visiting some European realities. I was lucky enough to do so thanks to the Fondazione Banca del Monte di Lombardia who © Alessandra Bricchetti Forest School, Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park, London Forest School, Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park, London in 2017 funded my project Melancholy Heritage. The project consisted of a 5 months visiting program at some cultural management organizations of the cemetery heritage which kindly supported me (London - The Royal Parks, The Friends of Brompton Cemetery; Bologna - Museo Civico del Risorgimento di Bologna, Associazione Amici della Certosa di Bologna, ASCE; in Genoa - Comune di Genova, Museo del Risorgimento Istituto Mazziniano, ARCI Genova; in Turin - AFC Torino S.p.A. Servizi Cimiteriali della città di Torino) and the participation in the Annual General Meeting of ASCE 2017 in Athens. The comparison with two so different cultures (Anglo-Saxon and Roman Catholic) was functional to reflect on how the different cultural background affects the management of these places of memory. © Alessandra Bricchetti In London the management of cemetery heritage is moving into redeveloping projects Public Screening of the movie “Nosferatu”, Peckham Theatrical show, Shakespeare in death by Alessandro of the cemetery areas, in which all the stakeholders are involved, starting from a visitor and Nunhead Free Film Festival 2017, Nunhead Tampieri in collaboration with Rimachèride and other Cemetery, London partners, Certosa Monumental Cemetery, Bologna center and other spaces/services which are transforming the cemetery into a place of multicultural and intergenerational exchanges offered to the whole community, without neglecting the economic sustainability of these places. Brompton Cemetery Conservation Project at the Brompton Cemetery in London is a brilliant example of this approach. 8 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage In Bologna at the Certosa Monumental Cemetery a collaborative network of public and Therefore in Europe the re-interpretation of these places is proceeding towards an private organizations has been offered to the community a plan of cultural events all innovative way. New perspectives have been added to the traditional approach, capable the year round since 2009 with a significative number of public followers. Bologna has of transforming these places into cultural and emotional spaces; places of knowledge of become a very interesting national model for the management and valorization of the oneself and of the other human beings; places of inspiration of feelings, values, ideals, cemetery space, followed by other Italian cities such as Genoa, Turin, Milan. gestures for everyone “to be brought back at home” in the everyday life. How can we make this important cultural change concrete and alive? We can’t deny we are living hard times for cultural heritage in both the private and public sectors throughout Europe. In the cultural, social and creative sectors, the non-profit world plays an important role in order to face the crisis, mediating between the public and private sectors, in reaching the different stakeholders through co-planning projects and activities of the community engagement (citizens, schools…), fundraising, communication and network implementation. The non-profit world today inspires these good “community practices”. The European funds for the culture are devoted to projects involving the management of heritage and landscape and the re-use of places to create services for the physical © Alessandra Bricchetti and spiritual well-being of the community. The European community is the heart of all Theatrical show, Amore e Guerra by Teatro dei Mignoli, Certosa Monumental Cemetery, Bologna project today more than ever. How and how much we use the potential of the non-profit sector to attract human and economic resources into the territories also for the benefit of the cemetery spaces of Europe as cultural resources for the community? The cemetery heritage bears witness to the different cultural identities of all the communities that are part of Europe and can also become an opportunity to make reflect on universal humanistic themes that, in times of such great religious and cultural conflicts, can bring the comparison on an egalitarian human level. We are all equal facing life and death. How many people in Europe really know the immense cultural heritage of their cemeteries? How can they use the tangible and intangible memory of these places as cultural resource that is, for example, a matter for life and teaching? © Alessandra Bricchetti Theatrical show, Zanardi: pane, alfabeto e socialismo with Simona Sagone and Salvatore Panu by Youkali and The hope is that all the stakeholders operating in the cemetery sector would create other partners, Certosa Monumental Cemetery, Bologna a united team with goals, strategies, common and shared action plans in order to be the spokesman of a new way of looking at cemeteries: spaces of culture and life able 10 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage to bring tangible and intangible well-being to the nowadays European community. By this approach it would be possible to support the cemetery management to adopt a participatory, truly functional and sustainable method of planning projects, suitable to face the needs, wishes, necessities and expectations of the multiethnic and intergenerational nowadays community. The community itself should share the whole cultural and creative process from the beginning through the participation of citizens in the projects. This is a way to contrast the processes of degradation and abandonment of the cemeteries in order to keep them alive. In my opinion this is the cultural potential that has yet to emerge from many European cemeteries. I hope that a collective unitary movement can start involving also the communities in this cultural change. A movement that gives back to the cities of the living the heritage of the cities of the dead as places imbued of human culture to be used as a resource for all the communities that are part today of Europe. The places of memories in which to learn the value of life and its deep meanings. The only real heritage that remains, through all time, in the individual and collective memory and that we feel when we cross the threshold of a cemetery: life and its challenges. A point for reflecting and for a call to act in the European Year of Cultural Heritage 2018. 12 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage PHOTOCERAMICS: AN UNSUSPECTED CULTURAL HERITAGE Amici del Monumentale di Milano Gisela Monteiro Laura Monastier www.amicidelmonumentale.org │ segreteria@amicidelmonumentale.org ABSTRACT Photoceramics originated in France with patent no. 20230 dated 15th July 1854 by Pierre Michel Lafon De Camarsac and Joly De Saint François. It was first of all a decorating technique for pottery but it soon became a simple but significant way to represent the dead by adorning their gravestones and tombs with evocative and sometimes heart-breaking portraits. Even though photoceramics may be regarded as a minor art when compared to funerary masterpieces of great artists, nonetheless it is an important piece of a country’s cultural heritage: it hands down memories of the dead and the society in which they lived in a sober and measured but remarkable and moving approach. Images allow to retrace habits and customs of the past and present, and even changes in fashion and lifestyle, and are an important legacy to future generations. The Monumentale of Milan offers an extensive collection of fine photoceramics, of which the most beautiful were realized in the atelier of Leonida Pagliano and Giuseppe Ricordi. In particular, three large arcades and cryptoporticus of the Catholic Church are devoted to the portraits of young soldiers who died in the two World Wars. They make up a huge historic tapestry to remind the atrocity of war and witness the need to strongly foster a culture of peace for the entire mankind. KEYWORDS photography, photoceramics, memorial portraiture, Monumentale cemetery, Milan, cultural heritage. HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY OF PHOTO-CERAMIC MEMORIAL PHOTOGRAPHS Memorial portraiture is an ancient art, but before the advent of photography only the rich could afford to commission sculptures or paintings of themselves. Portraiture became available to ordinary people when photo-porcelain portraits were employed. We use to refer to photo porcelain by many names – photo-ceramic, porcelain enamel portraits, ceramic pictures – but by any name, the tradition of transferring photographs to hard xx 15 surfaces is strictly associated with the history of photography. The photograph was the Alphonse Salmon discovered a peculiar photochemical reaction: ferric citrate, exposed ultimate response to a social and cultural need for a more accurate and real-looking to light, changes its solubility and hygroscopic properties. This led to the invention of representation of reality. Photography was officially announced January, 1839, when both their “dusting-on” process with which they produced prints on paper and on glass. (Eder, Daguerre’s and Talbot’s inventions were made public. Actually, permanently fixed images 1945:566). of the camera obscura had been made by Niepce in 1826 and by Talbot in 1835. In 1860, Alphonse Louis Poitevin developed a carbon process that made use of the Similar to many inventions the basic fundamentals were known separately for years hygroscopic property given by light to a coating of perchloride of iron and tartaric acid. without anyone thinking to combine them. 1802 Thomas Wedgwood and Humphry Davy This carbon process gave excellent halftones. The picture was transferred from a glass published a paper entitled, “An account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass plate on which it had been formed onto the enamel surface to be fired in. De Camarsac and of Making Profiles by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver, with Observations is said to have changed over to this. (Eder, 1945:281) by H. Davy.” Wedgwood was apparently the first to unite the two strands of knowledge. Several photographers employed Poitevin’s One source indicates he was a brother of Josiah Wedgwood the porcelain manufacturer. method. One of his licensees was Mathieu (Knight,1867:466). Another source indicates he was the son of Josiah. (Ford, 1941:1) Deroche of Paris (later of Milan) whose firm made coloured enamel portraits 1813 Nicéphore Niepce worked at the same conception of Wedgwood and used until the turn of century. De Camarsac and bituminous varnishes and metal plates to fix permanently the images of the camera. Deroche were the most known specialists 1835 Fox Talbot developed a method consisting in washing letter paper repeatedly in this kind of work and executed orders for with alternate solutions of salt and nitrate of silver. 1839 Mungo Ponton discovered French and foreign photographers. Their that solutions of potassium dichromate spread on paper were light sensitive. The so enamel pictures were usually inscribed on called “photoceramics on paper” flourished extensively in the 1880’s until the end of the back: “Procédé Lafond de Camarsac (or the century and can be viewed as the more sophisticated forerunner of passport photo. Procédé Deroche)” with the name of the (Gilardi, 2000:143) photographer who took the original portrait, the town, the date of the photograph, and Europe during this time burst with new and exciting developments in photographic the serial number. techniques. Two French photographers, Bulot and Cattin invented the process that would give rise to photo-ceramic portraits. They were the first to recognize the necessity of firing the image in a furnace or kiln to fix it permanently to enamel or porcelain. Their method of fixing, vitrifying, and colouring photographic images taken by Collodion process, which FROM PHOTOGRAPHY TO PHOTOCERAMICS had been transferred upon enamel, metal, stone, porcelain, glass, china, and all kinds of The process of creating ceramic portraits varied from manufacturer to manufacturer, earthen ware was patented in England on December 13, 1854. (Crawford, 1979:279). who each had their own carefully-guarded formulas. The basic procedure includes the Bulot later presented this process at the 1867 Paris World Exposition. following: The most famous among the producers of enamel photographs was Lafond de 1. The original portrait was re-photographed onto a large negative, then retouched by Camarsac (1821-1905), a Parisian photographer who 1855 described his processes experienced artists to present the subject at his/her best. The corrected photo was both for monochrome and coloured enamel photographs to the Académie des Sciences. then photographed again and reproduced onto a glass plate. He brought photographic enamel miniatures to perfection, rivalling the finest ceramic 2. The photo was put through a multi-step process of alternately washing and paintings; in fact they were compared with Sevres porcelain paintings, and earned him applying chemicals: silver nitrate, potassium cyanide, and other chemicals were a gold medal at the International Exhibition in Paris, 1867. His total output was said to applied. Various chlorides and nitrates were used (gold, silver, platinum, iridium, and be over 15,000 enamel photographs. (Crawford,1979:280). In 1858 Henri Garnier and palladium) to make the portrait resistant from chemicals, sunlight, and heat. 16 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage 3. The image was then placed on ceramic and fired at very high temperatures - In the late 1800s/ early 1900s the most common shape for portraits was the oval, usually 900°C- in a kiln to bond the image to the ceramic. The ceramic portrait was usually in vertical format, but sometimes could be horizontal if more than one subject subsequently fired five or six additional times, turning it into an impenetrable hard was present. shell. To complement and enhance the image thus obtained a brass frame was added. Frames 4. The image was sealed with a coat of transparent resin. A portrait made in this way could be plain or decorated with geometric elements, leaves or flowers. can survive in a cemetery for well over 100 years. © Carla De Bernardi Decorated frame Decorated frame CERAMIC PORTRAITS AT THE MONUMENTALE CEMETERY In Italy, photo-ceramic memorial portraits Original photo on tombstones started appearing around 1860. In 1889, various articles were published in scientific-artistic magazines, above all in Milan. In 1892, a “Dizionario fotografico ad uso dei dilettanti e professionisti” is issued by Hoepli and includes a chapter on photoceramics. In 1900, Hoepli again brought out “La smaltografia applicate alla decorazione industriale delle ceramiche e dei vetri”. © Carla De Bernardi Pagliano’s signature A vast majority of photoceramics were realized by Leonida Pagliano directly or the company Pagliano & Ricordi until 1930. Photo-ceramic memorial portraits displayed on tombstones of the benefactors of Ospedale Maggiore originate from photographs taken Slide, softened colour B/W Photoceramic Coloured photoceramics by Pagliano Atelier; his signature can be observed on the edge of the ceramic portraits. (Scala, 2009:43,44) 18 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage At the Turin National Exhibition in 1898, Leonida Pagliano is awarded a silver medal for his enamel and photoceramics works. His family portraits obtained the patent of the Kingdom of Italy. Between the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, besides the Pagliano Atelier, Milan boasted several photographic factories specialized in photoceramics: Pilotti & Poysel, Fotografia Napoli, Mario Ganzini, Renato Consolaro & Co. with his photographic workshop for paintings, miniatures, ceramics and frames. However, the photographs Deroche & Heyland became by far the actual specialists in funerary photoceramics portraits, although their working relationship lasted few years only. They compared their ceramic pictures to the vitrified pieces made in Sevres because of their unlimited duration, perfect polish to which an absolute resemblance is added. As © Carla De Bernardi © Carla De Bernardi of today, no portraits by Deroche & Heyland have been tracked down at the Monumentale. Family Group Child Presumably, they were not signed or the author’s name was written on the reverse of the portrait. (Scala, 2009:46) Like many other cemeteries, the Monumentale includes quite a good number of post-Since 1870 the Monumentale boasts an interesting catalogue of photo-ceramic memorial mortem photography, i.e. the art of taking photos after death. It came into being in the portraits, is an honoured art form that represents the deceased as he or she appeared early nineteenth century whilst before photography paintings were commissioned of in life. Small, uniformly-sized, concave ceramic disks onto which timeless photographs the dead. These portraits were precious keepsakes for families to possess. As the cost of the deceased have been fired. Happy couples, glamorous ladies, innocent children, all of photography lessened, the price for a post-mortem photograph actually increased, immortalized on their tablets and headstones. Perhaps even more so than memorial indicating its value, as well as popularity. Usually it was the only photograph ever taken sculpture, porcelain photographs connect the cemetery visitor with the cemetery of the individual, young or old. Most post-mortem photos are of children, due to the resident, gazing out from the realm of years passed. high mortality rates prevalent during the 1880s to early 1900s. The earlier photos often depict the subject in a sleeping posture, as if to depict the impermanence of sleep, rather than the finality of death. A symbol of some sort such as a rose held downward, or a broken stem was included to indicate that the child had in fact died. (Clarkson, 2008). © Carla De Bernardi © Carla De Bernardi © Carla De Bernardi © Carla De Bernardi Lady Gentleman Post-mortem Post-mortem by Pagliano 20 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The Monumentale hosts also countless memorial portraits of soldiers who were killed in At the end of the nineteenth century, Milan World War I and II. They are concentrated in three large arcades and the cryptoporticus of numbered a large Jewish community led by the Catholic Church. They make up a huge historic tapestry to remind the atrocity of war Rabbi Alessandro Elishà da Fano (Florence and witness the need to strongly foster a culture of peace for the entire mankind. Starting 1847 – Milan 1935) who remained in 1945, demand for photo ceramics increased significantly, and the first colour portraits charge from 1892 to 1935. He was quite began to make their appearance. worried about a low attendance at the synagogue; besides, there were quite a few indications of a cultural crisis among the Milanese Jews. For this reason, he decided to back the request of his community to combine modernity and tradition. At the time, it had become the vogue for people to set up images of the deceased upon their tombstones. Although the Jewish tradition based on the biblical injunction © Carla De Bernardi against creating idols, depicting angels or Soldier the heavenly spheres, or carving out the human form, did not contemplate placing a © Carla De Bernardi Actress, Jewish Section human image on gravestones, Rabbi Elishà endorsed the erection of statues, burial cells as well as the practice of having photos placed on headstones at the Jewish Section of the Monumentale. (De Bernardi, Fumagalli, 2017:109). © Carla De Bernardi Soldier in the cryptoporticus © Carla De Bernardi Brothers and soldiers © Carla De Bernardi © Carla De Bernardi Jewish Section 22 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage DIFFUSION OF CERAMIC PORTRAITS IN AND OUTSIDE EUROPE PRESERVATION OF PHOTOCERAMICS From the 1860s onwards, photoceramics became popular in France, but also in the When prepared in a workman-line manner, countries of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Following its official presentation at the ceramic portraits are impermeable to Universal Exhibition of Paris in 1880, it was at its height in between the two centuries. moisture, resistant to fading, and will last In general, the practice was more widely spread in – culturally speaking – Catholic more than a century without deterioration. regions than in Protestant ones. This feature is particularly obvious in countries like Nonetheless, they are exposed to many the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, in which both religions are professed. In the late hazards: first of all, vandalism and theft. 19th and early 20th centuries, Italian and Jewish immigrants brought this practice to the Many portraits bear evidence of cracking United States. Memorial portraiture was a way for immigrants to maintain connections and chipping around edges, which to family and culture in a foreign land. Prior to the 1890s, portraits would be purchased indicates an attempt to pull the ceramic through retailers (often photographers) who placed their orders with specialists in out of its setting. They actually suit a market Europe. Things changed in 1893 when Joseph Albert Dedouch established his own of antique purchasers. Sometimes the patents and company in Chicago, Illinois. Dedouch’s company produced a vast number entire portrait is taken away. Many portraits of porcelain photographs and he was so successful that his products were given a new were originally fitted with brass frames name – “Dedos.” (Ford, 2016:2) that are often removed for the value of their copper. In some instances, the During the first decade of the 1900s, Sears-Roebuck, one of US largest corporations natural patina process of copper produces operating a mail-order business advertised: “Imperishable Limoges porcelain portraits green stains that can spread to the preserve the features of the deceased. 11.20$ for a photograph set in marble, 15.75$ gravestone. Damages originate also from for one set in granite.” these portraits “competed with the cost of many burial plots.” Such improper cleaning, lawnmowers or other prices were far cheaper compared to the cost of statuary. (Rogovin, 2010:2). equipment. Preserving photo-ceramic © Carla De Bernardi portraits is a multi-faceted task. It shall be Broken portrait By the end of the 1990s gravestones with photoceramics were not that common in organized as a proper data-base including documentation, materials conservation, and American cemeteries, mostly because Americans chose not to resort to this type of skilled artisanship. It is essential in order to safeguard their cultural heritage for future memorialization. The reason being that these monuments stood out against the generations. (Ford, 2016). surrounding landscape and were at odds with the natural environment that was the dominant ideal of American cemetery. As if the continued presence of the dead that the landscaped cemetery by design is meant to suppress would bring about a lack of “quiet and restful appearance”. (Matturri, (1993:23,24). © Carla De Bernardi © Carla De Bernardi Stolen portrait Damaged portrait 24 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage PHOTO-CERAMIC PORTRAITS TODAY CONCLUSIONS Artisans are still manufacturing enamel By keeping alive the memory of the deceased, memorial portraiture helps maintaining photographs, but the process has the communion between the living and the dead upon which rests central family values changed significantly. Early 20th-century of European culture. Such portraits try to synthetize a space that overcomes generational craftspeople used chlorides or nitrates of and geographical barriers thus affirming the integrity of the family and the traditional gold, platinum, palladium, and iridium— household. stable metals that resisted degeneration In a world in which images have become ubiquitous yet ephemeral, photo-ceramic from heat, sunlight, and other chemicals memorial portraits offer a connection to the most deeply personal and sentimental and gave the photographs a sepia tone. aspects of memorial art. The opposite of ephemeral, their tangibility and endurance These portraits could last more than 100 create in our cemeteries a memory almost even more real than the people they years. Contemporary artisans no longer memorialize. (Ford, 2016:3) In addition, they cover a broad cross-section of our society, use precious metals, which would make customs as well as fashion in different periods giving us the opportunity to glimpse back their products prohibitively expensive. into history. As the old adage goes, “The eyes are the window to the soul”, and these Technical and scientific developments ceramic memorial plaques allow us one more chance to look into the eyes of our past have improved quality of products and identify personally with someone who lived in it. significantly. Photoshop is employed to add or remove backgrounds and subjects, repair damaged photos, touch up subjects (eliminating scratches, BIBLIOGRAPHY INTERNET wrinkles, blemishes, etc.), and even © Carla De Bernardi Crawford W., (1979) - The Keeper of Light. 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P. 1. Amy Clarkson, Post-mortem photography, a lost art? In: http://arts.pallimed. org/2008/09/postmortem-photography-lost-art.html high-temperature electric ovens, laser Gilardi A., (2000), Storia sociale della fotografia, Milano, Bruno Mondadori, P.143 etching to reproduce photos directly History of Enamel Photography, VNE - Vereniging van Nederlandse Emailleurs on headstones. Despite these advanced CREDITS Kioersgaard A., Venbrux E., (2016) Still in the picture: Photographs at graves technologies, photoceramics has and social time, in: Materialities of Passing: Explorations in Transformation, Transition and Transience, Studies on Death, Materiality and Origin of Time, This text produced by Carla De Bernardi and Laura Monastier, be it the somewhat lost its peculiar elegance and Vol. 3, Routledge: P. 209 entire text or parts thereof, including any web support as well as any image © Carla De Bernardi created by Carla De Bernardi may not be reproduced in any form without the Contemporary portrait refinement. In most cases, photos depict Matturri J., (1993) Windows in the Garden: Italian-American Memorialization permission in writing of the authors. the deceased in a favourite activity, such as playing the guitar or fishing, or on happy and the American Cemetery, in Ethnicity and the American cemetery, edited by Meyer E., Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular occasions thus providing a quite prosaic representation. Whereas previously formal Press: P.23-24 portraits made by professional photographers were fixed upon the headstone, people Scala D., (2009), La fotoceramica a Milano tra Otto e Novecento: una breve nota, P. 43-47 in: I Benefattori dell’Ospedale Maggiore di Milano, Storia, Arte, now place informal snapshots taken by themselves at the grave, which reflects how this memorie – Silvana Editoriale – edited by di Sergio Rebora and Daniele Cassinelli P. 43-47 type of photography has come to dominate family collections and the gravesites are conceived of as an increasingly personalised space. (Kioersgaard, Venbrux 2016) On the other hand, use of ceramic pictures has extended to mausoleum doors, benches, cremation urns, and columbaria. 26 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage HISTORICAL CEMETERY. KALEIDOSCOPE OF THE NARRATED MEMORY A POSSIBLE PROTOCOL OF METHOD FOR THE KNOWLEDGE PLAN, PREVENTIVE AND PLANNED CONSERVATION, VALORIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF BURIAL ASSETS CARLO ROSARIO MEDICO Architect, Independent researcher │ carlorosariomedico@gmail.com │+39 3208240311 ABSTRACT The methodological approach proposed aims at a twofold objective: to extend the strategy of «preventive and planned conservation» to the historical cemeteries and to involve the owners of the sepulchral assets in the preservation process, although they are not experts in cultural heritage. The protocol of method, prepared on a scheduling system, in a GIS environment, will allow to register, to manage, to compare and to provide a dynamic support to the decisions related to cemetery planning, planning of conservation activities, actions of protection and valorization. KEYWORDS Planned Conservation, Integrated Conservation, Sepulchral assets, protocol of method, Knowledge plan, Strategic conservation guidelines INTRODUCTION The cemeteries, within the terms established by the Charter of Krakow in 2000, are part of the cultural and environmental heritage of the peoples, worthy of being valued in their valences of place, landscape environment and sacral architecture. Places symbol of inner transcendence, ductile containers of historical memory, archives suggestive of art, cemeteries identify a «repertoire of knowledge», for which the recovery and preservation of their own and multiple expressions of civilization should necessarily be confronted with a more careful conservation planning of the cemetery spaces, however, still disregarded by local administrators. The intent is to promote the concept of conservation and care of cultural heritage as a process, in order to follow and monitor correctly all the phases of the conservation process, and to extend the strategy of Preventive and Programmed Conservation - approach through which it is possible to manage the transformations of the cultural heritage over time, due to the passage of time - also to the burial assets, understood in their meaning of material assets and intangible assets. xx 29 The final objective is to provide an executive instrument that it can support the process THE METHODOLOGICAL PROPOSAL of conservation of the funerary heritage (architectural and plant) up to the delicate phase The methodological approach proposed aims at promoting the concept of «preventive of management and valorization and an operational structure that it can provide services and planned conservation», with the aim of involving the managers of the sepulchral of accompaniment and advice for the compilation/drafting of the Conservation Plan for assets, despite, not being experts in the field of intervention on cultural heritage. The both public and private property. Specifically, the research project has pursued the goal of planned conservation differs from the traditional restoration process as it does not developing a method protocol that, set up on a scheduling system in a GIS environment, intervene as a result of degradation, but it aims to prevent the degradation from triggering: it allows to register, to manage, to compare and to provide dynamic support to decisions this is achieved through a series of practices and continuous vigilance, which it allows related to cemetery planning, planning of conservation activities, protection and early diagnosis and timely interventions . It is possible to consider, therefore, the drafting valoritazion actions. The applicability of the procedural aspects was also verified, so that of the conservation plan as a way of making verifiable the cure applied to the sepulchral the building model of the conservative process management can be used extensively to asset and to the cemetery heritage. Developing a conservation plan on the burial unit all the historical cemeteries, considering the specific needs of the cemetery studied. The and the cemetery sector it is basically a process carried out in three phases related to reliability of the protocol has been ascertained making it operative to the most historic each other: part of the municipal cemetery of San Cataldo, in the province of Caltanissetta, Sicily. 1. Knowledge of the state of conservation and definition of the indexes and synoptic judgments of conservation and degree of urgency of intervention; The following pages illustrate the methodological proposal, in its procedural phases, and 2. Evaluation of intervention priorities and definition of strategic guidelines; the operational results obtained from the application of the method protocol to the 3. Planning of preventive interventions and definition of inspection activities. pilot project. These research outcomes have been presented during the discussion of the Master‘s thesis in Architecture, Department of Architecture of the University of Palermo, On the sector and on the sepulchral unit of study, the systematic collection of general done in Agrigento on March 14, 2018, together with dr. Arch. Liborio Torregrossa information on the cemetery complex, with the construction of an informatics instrument, articulated through relational databases in textual and iconographic data, constantly updated, allows defining a complete cognitive panorama of conservative problems on the sepulchral heritage. It is essential preliminary to the technical solutions proposed, aimed to the planned conservation, to organize a careful study of anamnesis, based on the reconstruction of historical events, its environmental context and the processes of deterioration and instability in progress. These cognitive contributions are systematized in cataloging and conservation cards of the cemetery sector and sepulchral unit. The «conservation Index» and the «degree of urgency Index» are closely linked to the state of conservation and to the seriousness of the damage in progress, through which they are assessed, respectively, the state of conservation and the urgency of the repair intervention of the sepulchral assets, understood in their meanings of sepulchral unit and cemetery sector. The planning of the preventive interventions follows the phase of the knowledge and the consequent understanding of the current and expected damage. These are preventive © Medico Carlo Rosario 2018 conservation actions, hierarchically according to the urgency of the damage detected, for Covers of the degree thesis in Architecture discussed by Medico Carlo Rosario and Liborio Torregrossa in Agrigento on March 14, 2018 which verification methods and monitoring times are defined. 30 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage In this phase, it is critical the participation of the users/managers, who are not The cemetery identifies itself as a container of tangible and intangible values, of necessarily involved in the work, it is essential to process and to spread among users architectures, of spaces, of events, of characters and families that have left a tangible and managers of a vademecum, with the aim of providing useful suggestions on the use sign or that have contributed to the birth or development of the cemetery. But the and the conservation of burial and cemetery assets: a «Guide for the care, cataloging conservation of memory also passes through the knowledge of materials, their state of and preservation of burial assets», with the aim of sensitizing the managers a greater conservation and the specificities and landscape values. awareness of the potential of programmed conservation practices, of the strategic role The following readings of memory locations have been identified: that continuous control plays for conservative purposes and of the attentions that the • The story of memory. The burial sites. Historical narration of the formation and historical artefact constantly requires. transformation processes that involved the cemetery. • The space of memory. Architectural organization of spaces and their physical It is evident that the information obtained from the conservative process must be separation. managed according to integrated and efficient approaches. The aim is to create a single • The design of memory. Clients, designers and artists. Creators of this city of silence «container» that managers to store a large amount of data concerning surveys, relational that in the tombstones have contributed to exhibit the testimony of stories, different databases, photographs, orthophotos, historical cartography, scientific analysis, ect..., times, social and artistic mutations. on the single burial property, on the cemetery sector and on the entire cemetery. It is • The forms of memory. Types of funerary architecture. They reveal different necessary to arrive to an integrated and contemporary management of all the information architectural styles. obtained both in plan and in altimetry. • Landscapes of memory. Specificity and landscape values. Historical cemeteries have a landscape heritage that it must be considered of equal value with respect to the STRUCTURE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE METHOD architectural and historical-artistic heritage. The method protocol has been structured in the following procedural steps: • The materials of memory. The epidermis of the built. With a view to knowledge of the cemetery, the study of the materials is configured necessary and obligatory passage INSTRUCTORY PHASE. Readings of places of memory aimed to acquiring information related to the historical-artistic and technological The place of memory is a historiographic concept created by Pierre Nora , a French historian values that it contains. who directed and edited the work Les lieux de mémoire, (3 volumes 1984-1992). This • The loss of memory. Amnesia and signs of time. The methodological process can concept has had great success and spread in historical and museum research. A place of only end with the recognition of the forms of deterioration present in the materials, memory is a space that is characterized of material or purely symbolic elements where instability and the main factors that it cause them. a group, a community or an entire society recognizes itself and its history, consolidating its collective memory. Place of memory can be a museum, an archive, a monument, an INSTRUCTORY PHASE. The plan of knowledge. Towards a possible cataloguing of anniversary, certain territories or locations marked by historical events and why not, also, the sepulchral assets a cemetery. The activation of the conservation process presupposes that a congruous course of Cemeteries are not only the permanent conservation sites of human spores; they are knowledge of the cemetery complex as a whole and its parts has been developed. It is an «flexible containers of culture and historical memory». They offer one who crosses essential step in the process of analysis and understanding of the burial asset: building them, an extraordinarily evocative and fascinating archive of art, mentality, custom, an analytical framework of reference, as complete and articulated as possible, it allows us contemplation, through the individual existences and the collective events gathered to equip ourselves with the cognitive instruments necessary to improve the quality and there. In essence, the cemetery becomes a form of language, where the tombs - symbolic quantity of the collected data, then, in inspection. objects, comparable and classifiable - take the place of words . Now, as the cemetery is This phase is aimed to the census of the cemetery heritage and the definition of the identified as a «repertoire of knowledge», it can only be narrated through the «readings summary evaluation of the state of conservation. of the places of memory». Basically, they represent the knowledge plane, a cognitive The main outcomes of this phase can be summarized in: apparatus in progress, always open to the inclusion of new insights innovative and • Catalog card on the cemetery and on the cemetery sector; cultural. • Expeditious card for identification of the burial artifact; 32 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage Before the preliminary phase, in order to facilitate the application of operational On the cemetery compartment, instead, the following cards have been processed in: procedures, the cemetery is subdivision into several areas of investigation or monitoring • Summary card of the state of conservation and intervention on the units of the (cemetery sector). cemetery sector; • Summary card of strategic guidelines. STEP 1A. Inspection activity of the conditions of deterioration and static instability on the sepulchral unit STEP 2. Programming of preventive and monitoring activities on the sepulchral unit Once the preliminary phase has been completed and the cemetery sector has been After completing the operations of filling of the cards in the technical manual, contained chosen, the strategies of planned conservation and forecasting of the interventions in the previous three sub-phases, we proceed with the elaboration of the conservation become necessary on the Sepulchral unit and on the Cemetery sector . This phase must program. The program, constantly updated, consists of a plurality of summary cards prepare an analytical and overall account of the state of health of the burial organism, that describe the necessary controls, define the consistency, the specific operating to be carried out for each identified technological element. The main outcome of this methodologies and the timing. phase can be summarized in the analysis card of the damages in progress, that is, in: On the sepulchral artefact, the results of this phase can be summarized in: • Expedition card for the evaluation of the state of conservation on the burial artifact; • Programming card; • Inspection card. STEP 1B. Definition of conservation indexes, degree of urgency on the burial artifact Referring, instead, to the cemetery sector, a summary card is prepared with the From the elaboration of the precedents phases we reach: programmatic activities on more burial units. It has been set up to facilitate data • to the evaluation of the severity of the conservation status of the burial property, management by the cemetery manager. The outcomes can be summarized in the that it is defined Conservation Index; we are able to assign a synoptic judgment on • Summary card of planning activities on burial units. the state of conservation to the sepulchral asset comparing the conservation index with the scale of values . STEP 3. Good practices of care and conservation of burial artifacts • to the evaluation of the degree of urgency of the intervention on the burial property, For each cemetery we will proceed with the redaction of the Guide for the care, cataloging that it is defined Index of degree of urgency; we are able to assign a synoptic judgment and preservation of burial assets, extended to the entire cemetery complex and for use on the state of urgency of reparative intervention to the sepulchral asset comparing by users/managers, with the aim of providing useful suggestions on the use and to the the index of degree of urgency with the scale of values . conservation of sepulchral assets. STEP 1C. Definition of the categories of intervention on the sepulchral unit STEP 4. Synoptic frameworks and synthetic judgments on the cemetery sector and on On the basis of the values assigned to each index, resulting from the comparison with the cemetery complex scales of values, with reference to the burial artefact, three categories of intervention From the summary data of the conservation status on the compartment cemetery it is were identified, each of which indicating: possible to elaborate synoptic frameworks and synthetic judgments on the sector and on • Category of intervention 3 the cemetery complex, data expressed as a percentage: - Urgent works for evident static risk conditions; • Synoptic framework card of the state of conservation of the cemetery sector; - Urgent works for evident conditions of loss of material; • Synthetic judgment of the state of conservation of the cemetery complex; • Category of intervention 2 • Synoptic framework card of the categories of intervention of the sector. - Works necessary to guarantee usability and security; - Works necessary to guarantee material conservation; • Category of intervention 1 - Areas at risk to be monitored; - Performance realignment works; - Inspection ability. 34 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage CATALOGING SYSTEM 36 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION IN THE CONSERVATIVE PROCESS OF HISTORICAL CEMETERY. THE COMPUTERIZED APPLICATION For the management of cemetery complexes, using a GIS it can guarantee a considerable support for many aspects, among which: to create a platform on which to register, to manage and to compare historical and architectural information; to provide information necessary for carrying out cemetery operations; provide support to decisions on protection or maintenance actions to be undertaken and cemetery planning; finally, to provide support to the communication for the usual visitors and the tourists. The use of specific systems for the computerized management of cemeteries represents, therefore, an effective and integrated instrument, able to provide a dynamic support both to the performance of administrative procedures and to the management of logistical and maintenance aspects . With reference to the cemetery architectural heritage, GIS technology can make a decisive contribution in the transposition of the cataloging and conservation cards on the cemetery in a georeferenced computerized application © graphical interface created by Medico Carlo Rosario 2018 Graphic exemplification of application software for integrated management of information in the conservation process of historical cemeteries APPLICATION OF THE METHOD PROTOCOL. THE PILOT PROJECT The protocol of method for knowledge, programmed conservation, management and valorisation of burial assets, widely illustrated in the previous pages, has been made operational, as a pilot project, to ascertain its reliability and possibility application, to one of the sectors of the most historic part of the municipal cemetery of San Cataldo, in the province of Caltanissetta, in Sicily (Figs. 6-7. Historic cemetery of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta). It was decided to divide the research work into two parts. In the first, we © Medico Carlo Rosario 2018 have dealt with extensively the „readings of the places of memory“: from the historical Software application for integrated management of information in the conservation process of historical narration of the facts to the typological classification of the funerary architecture, to cemeteries. the materials and to the forms of degradation examined in the cemetery. In the second part, conversely, we were collected the schedographic elaborations, necessary for the applicability of the method protocol. First of all, we have drafted the cataloging cards The possibility of preparing a sort of computerized medical record of the burial asset is of the cemetery and the compartments, and then, we have chosen the study sector and open. The hypothesis of the medical record presupposes, in fact, for each artefact the the sepulchral unit of conservative investigation actions after the subdivision in sectors development of a GIS that, through the management and processing of the collected of the funeral complex. In the survey area, we have selected three noble chapels, chosen data, it acts as a suitable instrument to structure a plan of conservation and planning of for their historical-architectural value and for their poor state of conservation. For the future preventive interventions. Chapel used by the «Confraternita di San Giuseppe» (Figs 8-10) we proceeded to develop the scheduling system drawn from the method protocol, while for the other two, the «Baglio Crescimanno family» (Fig. 11) and «Antonino Salomone family» (Fig. 12) noble burials, it was developed the restoration project. 38 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage © Medico Carlo Rosario 2018 © Medico Carlo Rosario 2018 Figs. 6-7 – Historic cemetery of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta. Figs. 8-10 – Chapel for the use of the «Confraternita di San Giuseppe» (1892), Historic cemetery of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta. 40 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES ICONOGRAPHIC REFERENCES AVRAMIDOU N., (a cura di), Mo06. 1st Specialty international conference on Figs.1-2. monumental cemeteries: knowledge, conservation, restyling and innovation Covers of the degree thesis in Architecture discussed by Medico Carlo Rosario (Modena, 3-5 May 2007), Aracne, Roma 2003. and Liborio Torregrossa in Agrigento on March 14, 2018. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario 2018. ASSOCIATION OF SIGNIFICANT CEMETERIES IN EUROPE - ASCE, Atto costitutivo, Bologna 2001. Fig. 3 Cataloging system. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario 2018. BARTOLOMUCCI C., La documentazione su base informatica per la conoscenza e la conservazione programmata del patrimonio culturale, in «Materiali e Fig. 4 Strutture. Problemi di conservazione», n. s. anno I, 2/2003, pp. 163-174. Software application for integrated management of information in the conservation process of historical cemeteries. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario BARTOLOMUCCI C., Una proposta di cartella clinica per la conoscenza e la 2018. conservazione programmata del patrimonio culturale, in «Arkos. Scienza e restauro dell’architettura», 5/2004, pp. 59-65. Fig.5. Graphic exemplification of application software for integrated management BARTOLOMUCCI C., I sistemi informativi per il monitoraggio e la conservazione of information in the conservation process of historical cemeteries. Source: programmata: alcune applicazioni di una ‘cartella clinica’ per i monumenti, in graphical interface created by Medico Carlo Rosario 2018. CROVERI P., CHIANTORE O. (a cura di) «Patrimonio monumentale. Monitoraggio e conservazione programmata», Atti del Workshop, Torino, La Venaria Reale 25 Figs.6-7. novembre 2005, pp. 100-105,Università di Torino, Dip.to di Chimica, Nardini, Historic cemetery of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario Firenze 2005. 2018. CECCHI R., GASPAROLI P., Prevenzione e Manutenzione per i Beni Culturali Figs.8-10. Edificati. Procedimenti Scientifici per lo Sviluppo delle Attività Ispettive. Il Chapel for the use of the «Confraternita di San Giuseppe» (1892), Historic Caso Studio delle Aree Archeologiche di Roma e Ostia Antica, Alinea editrice, cemetery of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario 2018. Firenze 2010. Fig.11. CECCHI R., GASPAROLI P., La Manutenzione programmata dei Beni Culturali Noble chapel for the use of the «Baglio Crescimanno» family (1934), Historic Edificati. Procedimenti scientifici per lo sviluppo di piani e programmi di cemetery of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario 2018. manutenzione. Casi studio su architetture di interesse Archeologico a Roma e © Medico Carlo Rosario 2018 Pompei, Alinea editrice, Firenze 2011. Fig.12. Fig. 11 – Noble chapel for the use of the «Baglio Fig. 12 – Noble chapel for the «Famiglia Antonino CECCHI R., GASPAROLI P., Preventive and Planned Maintenance of Protected Noble chapel for the «Famiglia Antonino Salomone» family, Historic cemetery Buildings. Methodological Tools For the Development of Inspection Activities of San Cataldo - Caltanissetta. Source: Medico Carlo Rosario 2018. Crescimanno» family (1934), Historic cemetery of San Salomone» family, Historic cemetery of San Cataldo and Maintenance Plans, Alinea editrice, Firenze 2012. Cataldo - Caltanissetta. - Caltanissetta. DELLA TORRE S. (a cura di), La conservazione programmata del patrimonio storico architettonico. Linee guida per il piano di manutenzione e consuntivo scientifico, Guerini e Associati, Milano 2003. DELLA TORRE S. (a cura di), 1. La strategia della Conservazione programmata. Dalla progettazione delle attività alla valutazione degli impatti, Nardini Editore, Firenze 2014. FALCIDIENO M. L., MALAGUGINI M., Strutture complesse. Analisi, gestione e comunicazione. Il cimitero monumentale di Staglieno, Genova University Press, Genova 2014. FELICORI M., Gestione e valorizzazione dei cimiteri storici: il caso della Certosa di Bologna, Economia della cultura 2/2006, Il Mulino, Bologna 2006, pp. 237-246. FANZINI D., MOIOLI R. (a cura di), Il Master in conservazione preventiva e programmata per la valorizzazione dei beni culturali del Distretto Le Regge dei Gonzaga, Nardini Editore, Firenze 2014. SALVINI S., Sustainable proposals for an accessible culture, in «Proceedings of 5th International HERITY Conference: Services for Cultures: A visit of Quality», Firenze 4-6 dicembre 2014, pp. 939-945. SALVINI S., ARCOLAO C., Il cimitero monumentale ‘Foce’ di Sanremo, Liguria. Studi e proposte per una conservazione, gestione e valorizzazione sostenibili, in «Atti del XXX convegno Scienza e Beni Culturali», Bressanone 2014, pp. 235-245. ROSSI M., L’archivio della memoria: rappresentazione, storia e memoria nel museo digitale de La Villetta a Parma, in GAMBARDELLA C. (a cura di), «Atti del VII Forum internazionale di studi “Le vie dei mercanti”, Rappresentare la conoscenza», (Capri, 4-6 giugno 2009), La Scuola di Pitagora Editrice, Napoli 2010, pp. 835-838. 42 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage FUNERARY MILITARY MONUMENTS IN KOZALA CEMETERY, RIJEKA (CRO) Daina Glavočić daina.glavocic@gmail.com│KD Kozala, Rijeka, Croatia ABSTRACT During the period between the two world wars (1920-1945) when the Italian administration ruled in Fiume, now Rijeka, the main architect of the City Hall Technical Office engineer Bruno Angheben made some plans and designs for the Kozala cemetery extensions. He then emphasised a few military memorial plots (as the Crypt under the Votive Temple, Altar of Brotherood, Rotonda dei Granatieri and Field of German Soldiers) and close to the cemetery he constructed the Church of All Saints and St. Romuald (1928-1934) – Tempio Votivo. The church was erected for celebrating the 10th anniversary of the annexation of Rijeka to Italy. This sacral building, being a cultural heritage, is at the same time also a funerary monument erected on the military crypt with 458 to 474 soldiers‘ mortal remains that is bearing the inscription “Pro patria mortuis aeternum victoris“. This monument is worth presenting as it is in accordance with the AGM 2018 motto – “The place where the past meets the future“ and goes beyond all ideological limitations of that period’s and later political avant-garde constructions. KEYWORDS military tombs, votive church, military crypt, Bruno Angheben, Kozala, Rijeka INTRODUCTION The port of Rijeka has undergone a very dynamic history owing to its geographical position where the culture of the east meets that of the west, being a melting pot of different languages and traditions. At the beginning of the 19th century, the use of steam-powered machinery as the replacement for human hands, significantly increased the production of labour and products leading to labour migration all over Europe and also in Rijeka. Encouraged by various conveniences, foreign investors came to Rijeka to build their production facilities and residential houses together with family tombs in Kozala Cemetery, as some of them had died in Rijeka. The very intense history of Rijeka was unpleasant to previous city governments of different political beliefs, so that some of the military monuments in Kozala Cemetery xx 45 have remained unexplored places of memory, remaining such even today. The statement SINGLE MILITARY GRAVES that cemeteries, especially so the military ones, are to be treated as true open-air Even though Kozala graveyard was a communal, civilian cemetery of Rijeka, many soldiers museums is not true in the case of Kozala Cemetery, as there are still some graves or found eternal rest there, namely those who had died in Rijeka or its surroundings in events of the 20th century that remain unclear, namely those of the armed conflicts and various war conflicts. On some occasions, the dead Hungarian marines were transported foreign soldiers as military victims. Speaking of foreigners buried in Kozala Cemetery, we to their motherland through Rijeka (as then it was the Hungarian sea port) and returned are talking about local intellectuals, industrialists, scholars and artists but also of foreign home by a direct train to Budapest. Those foreign victims whose corpses were not sent to soldiers. The sculptors invited to build or decorate their graves were also foreigners. their cities were buried in Kozala, which also happened with some of the Rijeka residents doing military service. POLITICAL SITUATION After the First World War and the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the status of Rijeka What needs mentioning is the grave of the noble family de Thierry, namely, patrician becomes a major international problem, the so-called Question of Fiume. The town was Enrico (1886-1916), well-known for his military merit, who had disappeared in the so-placed under the international patronage of the League of Nations, however, this plan called „Straf-expedition” on Pasubia (the Dolomites) and his successor, patrician Carl was not adopted by the Paris Peace Conference. That confusing situation was exploited Laval de Thierry (1907-1938), who was secretary of the Embassy and was awarded for by the Italian poet Gabriele D‘Annunzio who, with about 2000 volunteers, seized the town the military merit. in the September of 1919 and proclaimed the Italian Regency of Carnaro. Soon the Treaty Another old grave from 19th century is that of Cornelius Ritter von Wurmb (1806 -1873), of Rapallo proclaimed the Stato libero di Fiume in the November of 1920, which existed an Austrian K.K. field marshal lieutenant (Feldmarschal). until 27 January 1924, when the Treaty of Rome was signed and Fiume was annexed to Italy. Among the oldest of the individual graves of military personnel is the tomb of Alexander Scott (1793-1870) , a British colonel who married Christine, daughter of the patrician During the period between the two world wars (1920 -1945), Rijeka was under the Andrea Lodovico Adamich, a local well-known, respectable and rich merchant. Italian administration. The main architect of the Technical Office of Fiume, engineer Bruno Angheben, worked for years on the Kozala Cemetery extensions, the need for that The second of the two tombs of British military personnel in ex Fiume belongs to work having arisen owing to war victims and some mass diseases. Besides individual another Englishman, Robert Christopher Morris Douthwaite (1897-1919), who was military graves in Kozala Cemetery, there are some military memorial locations to be born on 12 March 1897 as a son of Robert Edward Douthwaite, a timber merchant pointed out, such as the Altar of Brotherhood, Rotonda dei Granatieri, Field of German living in Nottingham at 139 Musters Road. On 30 April 1909, when he was aged 12, he Soldiers, Partisan Graveyard and the Church of All Saints and St. Romuald (1928 -1934) was admitted to the Nottingham High School, which he attended from 1909 to 1911. – Tempio Votivo. Today, the church is a cultural heritage, but at the same time also a Afterwards, he enlisted and served the York and Lancaster Regiment United Kingdom. funerary monument, erected upon the military crypt with 474 soldiers‘ mortal remains – Soon he was killed in action on 19 June 1919 in Fiume, aged 22, and was buried in nowadays without any ideological limitations of that period. Kozala Cemetery . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission takes care of the grave that is also under the protection of the British-Serbian agreement, today taken over by The military individual or mass graves in Kozala Cemetery were made for Austrian, Italian, Croatian legislation. English and domestic soldiers who were involved in war operations in and around Rijeka during the two world wars. All of those graves, mixed civilian and military, can be found in various parts of Kozala Cemetery, either in official massive tombs or in individual, private graves marked by gravestones specially designed in accordance with different religions (Protestant, Orthodox, Jewish). 46 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage At the beginning of the First World War, The other is a big marble cross with still under Austro-Hungarian Empire, figure of the dead pilot Malusa protected Rijeka was the Hungarian naval port and by winged angel, by sculptor Edoardo industrial city situated in the border area. Trevese, commissioned by Zagabria family Subsequently, there were some war events in 1936. and even deaths among the stationary army. Aircraft pilot Francesco Caparello was wounded above Volosko (near Rijeka) and crashed on 1 August in 1916 in fight with the Austrian aircraft-ace Banffy / Banfield called the „Trieste Eagle“. The similar project for two dead D’Annunzio’s pilots tombstone designed by Gastone Iscra Gambato is preserved in the Rijeka archives documentation, but Caparello’s one had been outlined and computed differently. © Miro Dežulović © Miro Dežulović Gastone Iscra Gambato, Monument of the Granatieri Edoardo. Trevese: pilot Malusa,1936 di Sardinia There was another local military pilot, Garibaldi Followers Ferruccio Mario Vio (1898 - 1917), who Some members of the former Italian graduated from the Maritime Academy in troops who had fought half a century ago 1915. Two years later, in 1917, he became by the side of Garibaldi in the period of an Austro-Hungarian Pilot, however, he the Italian Risorgimento, having become soon died in the aircraft and was hailed attracted by the 20th century propaganda a hero. He was awarded with one Small on the benefits of warfare, arrived to Rijeka Golden and two Big Silver medals, which is as Italian patriots, settled down, married, © Miro Dežulović R. Mihich: pilot Travaglia, 1924 written on his grave. died and were buried, although not born The Rijeka citizen Giovanni Battista Zanella here. © Miro Dežulović (1875 -1919) thought of himself as Italian R. Mihich: pilot Travaglia, 1924 so that after he had deserted the Austrian The graves of five Garibaldi followers, the so-called „Garibaldini”, are near each other in army, he voluntarily joined the army of the Italian Risorgimento. Similarly, Alberto Zenier line, marked with simple head stones. Their names and basic data on the stones are: (1890-1927) born in Rijeka was D’Annunzio’s follower as fervent legionar. Gianbattista Lancetti (?-1910), Federiko Plona (1841-1923), Giuseppe Panciera (1843-There are two tombs of aircraft pilots, namely, one is Travaglia’s portrait in bronze relief on 1917), Aristide Dolenti (1848-1930) and Ubaldo Ballarini (1850-1915). The graves of the niche plate made by R. Mihich 1924. those veterans, fighters for freedom in Italy, are now almost forgotten due to the change 48 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage of city governments, cultures and languages. They seem to be of no interest for today’s There are not many archive documents about this military funerary monument so that public, as if they belonged to a remote, foreign and not a well-known and relevant to nowadays its history, date of setting up, purpose and the author are not clear. From the nowadays city history. proposed Angheben‘s cemetery enlargement sketches, the Round is placed in one corner of the cemetery with the monument in the middle of the circular field, elevated over MASS MILITARY GRAVES some steps. After the end of WW1 and dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, there was an unclear political situation in Rijeka, which was exploited by the Italian poet and warrior When the monument was finished, a Gabriele D‘Annunzio, who triumphantly came into town and together with him also the photo postcard was printed, being today unruly army of Arditi (Italian Army elite storm troops) and grenadiers. Some mass military the only relevant evidence of the original graves were erected for a number of those who had died in Rijeka and surroundings at outlook. At that time there was a big that time. inscription „GRANATIERI DI SARDEGNA“ on the top of the vertical wall and under it two The Round of Grenadiers (1919-1920) plates with lists of soldiers‘ names. These By the Cemetery spatial systematization, Angheben had set points to extract special plates are now missing and nobody knows small spaces for the military content to be emphasised. One of the military plots in when it happened or who had taken them Kozala Cemetery is the so-called The Round of Grenadiers (Granatieri) with the stone away. In the middle, there is a sculpture, by monument erected for nine Grenadiers of Sardinia. Before the very end of the Great Gastone Iscra Gambato , featuring a naked, War, an Italian Grenadier unit took part in the battle of Vittorio Veneto in the summer exhausted and flabby body of a soldier of 1918, wishing to unite Italy. During the conflict, it was the Grenadiers‘ Brigade that with the helmet and a sword. was among those which suffered the heaviest combat losses . Some of them belonged to the group of Italian soldiers who came to Rijeka as D‘Annunzio‘s political supporters. The extremely national idea as a A number of them burst into Rijeka in the August of 1918, when some of them died. background, originally built into this Due to international pressure, it was on 27 August in1919 that the First Regiment of monument, is now (without the written Sardinian Grenadiers had to leave Rijeka. This military unit moved to Ronchi near Trieste parts and some exhumed bodies) partly and subsequently became the nucleus of the troops that two weeks later had entered lost due to the after-war social and and seized Rijeka under D‘Annunzio‘s command. political changes and new dominant © Miro Dežulović memory politics. Thus, the question arises Gastone Iscra Gambato, The dayng soldier as to whether the monument can still be considered as a place of memory. If the public dimension is lacking, then the monument is only a certain mass, possibly good sculpture. The complexity of its history is intriguing “…because of the various historiographical interpretations of the events due to which the monument was raised, as well as the lack of concrete data on the reasons and the date of its construction.“ What can lead to its misunderstanding nowadays is that the signboards have been removed, so there are no original details of the tomb’s purpose. In recent years there has been no willingness in Rijeka to launch a historical and archaeological research into the scientific knowledge of the origins and role of this monument, so that today many citizens of Rijeka know little or nothing about the Monument. © Miro Dežulović © Miro Dežulović Monument of the Granatieri di Sardinia Postard Gastone Iscra Gambato, Monument of the Granatieri di Sardinia 50 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The Altar of Fraternity, 1919 -1920 In 1923, after another after another armed conflicts in Rijeka, the local church expressed The author of this common military grave, the desire to create a necessary memorial space for a bigger number of graves, which an ossuary in fact, is architect Bruno would be the burial place of the bones of all military victims, both of Rijeka and the wider Angheben. He allocated it the very central surroundings following the tragic end of the Great War, the Bloody Christmas and the part of the cemetery, on the occasion of conflict of annexation. the end of the war in 1919. In optimistic During the time between the two world wars with the ruling Italian administration in hopes that the hostilities of war enemies Fiume, engineer Bruno Angheben, the main architect of Technical Office, realized the would vanish, on the top of the monument construction of a new, monumental and modern church of St. Romualdo and All Saints there is a Latin inscription: “HOSTES OLIM, © Daina Glavočić (1928-1934) next to the Kozala Cemetery. This building was politically important NVNC FRATRES“ (“Before enemies, now Bruno Angheben, The Altar of Fraternity for marking the 10th anniversary of the annexation of Rijeka to Italy (1924-1934). brothers“) with the years MCMXIV and Angheben‘s design of the church started in the previous years (1925-1926), varying MCMXVIII. It was Ruggero Rovan who sculpted the big central figural motif of the suffering the original concept and appearance of the future church several times, namely, from Christ, bent under the heavy cross on his back on this memorial, shaped as an elevated a typically neo-Romanesque or the neo-Gothic Basilica over the crypt, inspired by the open air altar. There is the plaque with the inscription of Austrian Black Cross which cares double St. Francis Church of Assisi. about military graves. Under the Altar of Fraternity there is the crypt devoted to mortal remains of 941 soldiers as victims of the First World War . Nowadays Church of All Saints and St. Romuald - Tempio Votivo (1928-1934), by engineer Bruno Angheben is the final In 1923, after another after another building of functionalist, purified forms armed conflicts in Rijeka, the local church with the single-nave hall of Christian expressed the desire to create a necessary church over the military crypt. It can be memorial space for a bigger number of treated in accordance with the ASCE 2018 graves, which would be the burial place Conference motto “The place where the of the bones of all military victims, both past meets the future”, as the proposed of Rijeka and the wider surroundings church, situated within the complex of following the tragic end of the Great War, the main cemetery Kozala of Rijeka. The the Bloody Christmas and the conflict of © Miro Dežulović project of the Votive Temple, having the annexation. Ruggero Rovan, Christ with the cross political background, was shown at the During the time between the two world Exhibition of Revolution in Rome due to wars with the ruling Italian administration in Fiume, engineer Bruno Angheben, the main political reasons. It was there that Duce architect of Technical Office, realized the construction of a new, monumental and modern saw the project with such an important church of St. Romualdo and All Saints (1928-1934) next to the Kozala Cemetery. This meaning, a place of commemoration to building was politically important for marking the 10th anniversary of the annexation all Italian victims of the First World War, of Rijeka to Italy (1924-1934). Angheben‘s design of the church started in the previous so that the project of the new church years (1925-1926), varying the original concept and appearance of the future church in Rijeka got the support of the ruling © Daina Glavočić several times, namely, from a typically neo-Romanesque or the neo-Gothic Basilica over political structures, which accelerated the The church of St Romuald and All Saints the crypt, inspired by the double St. Francis Church of Assisi. start of its construction. The new building 52 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage was erected in two phases, the first in 1928, the building of the lower church (crypt) German Soldiers‘ Field having begun in 1930, while the upper one was completed in 1934 with the personal Even though it was known among financial contribution of Mussolini, supported by important representatives of the local the citizens that Kozala Cemetery was church and politics. overcrowded and that it was difficult to get a new grave plot, just by the entrance there The military crypt in the foundations of was a green lawn with a solitary corner this religious building, a cultural heritage, grave. Older visitors recalled that it was a is at the same time also a funerary tomb of a military priest M. Frankenberger monument, bearing the inscription “Pro who was connected with German soldiers patria mortuis - aeternum victoris”. After and buried in the corner of the plot. In © Miro Dežulović the official annexation of Rijeka to Italy, 2007 after mutual agreement of the states ex German Soldiers Field the city authorities backed the idea of of Germany and Croatia, the remains of the local committee of national honor 396 German soldiers were exhumated and relocated to the Mirogoj cemetery in Zagreb. (Comitato d‘onore nazionale) to collect At the Kozala cemetery centre a memorial cross emerged with the engraved inscription: the remains of Italian soldiers of various In memory of German soldiers killed in WW2 that were buried in this cemetery until combat units, including the grenadier, who November of 2007 . died in the First World War in the narrower region, who would be buried in the same On the occasion of the 70th anniversary of the end of the WW2, the data on the dead place as those who died in the days enemy‘s soldiers buried in various Croatian cemeteries were analysed, namely the „Bloody Christmas“. The mortal remains killed soldiers of the Independent State of Croatia and those of German, Italian or were exhumed from 1930 to 1932 and Hungarian armies, which during the war represented the Forces of Axis, considered as moved from the cemetery to the new enemies. Immediately after the end of World War II, the intent of a complete and radical built crypt. Now its niches lie 497 Italian confrontation of Yugoslav communists with the enemy is visible in the Order of the soldiers gathered from the cemetery of Croatian Ministry of Internal Affairs from May 1945 on the removal of the tombs of the Rijeka but also from various cemeteries of © Daina Glavočić „occupiers“ and „nation enemies“. The Order encompassed cemeteries and tombstones Istria and Slovenia. It is quite obvious that Bruno Angheben, The crypt altar of German, and Hungarian armies, ustashas, chetniks and Slovene domobrans. The Order having gathered such a great number of was addressed to the regional and district National Liberation Committees (NOOs) of tragic memories this monument embraces past with the future.. many areas in Croatia, also to the Croatian Littoral, explaining that „Every trace of the zealous fascist rule has to be wiped out. It is also necessary to align with the earth all the external signs, which would disclose the place where such cemeteries were lifted “ Every year those victims are visited by official Italian and domestic organisations who Partisans‘ Field gather around the memorial plaque with the inscription in three languages: “To the Among various military victims who were buried in Kozala Cemetery, one field was Fiumans of every creed and race / perished in peace and in war / to whom the totalitarian separated for the killed WW2 Yugoslav soldiers. They stood up to defend their homeland violence denied / human justice and Christian burial / you, free from hate, here, for them and their city against the invaders, either Italian or German army. They joined the fighting / pause and pray”. as antifascists and partisans, predominantly in underground, while the Yugoslav army The Park of Remembrance was created In 1936, between the church and the cemetery was not still organized. After the war some of them were proclaimed national heroes, in honour of all the dead and as a landscaping complement to the whole Kozala so that the City of Rijeka and associated organizations have taken care of this special memorial complex. cemetery as an important part of the local cemetery where other soldiers are gathered. 54 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage Near the central cross and the ossuary under it, beside the main cemetery path, there is LITERATURE a rectangular field of so called Partisan Cemetery. Today there are about 70 equal graves Anna Antoniazzo Bocchina,Fiume-Il cimitero di Cosala, Aldo Ausilio ed., Hayden White, 2004. „Historijska pripovjednost i problem istine u of young antifascists, neatly arranged in two rows, opposite one another. In the middle Padova, 1995, pp 121-125. historijskom prikazivanju“, Časopis za suvremenu povijest, vol. 36/2, of the plot a simple rocky monument was raised with an inscription on the events of the Daina Glavočić, Kozala, KD Kozala d.o.o., Rijeka, 2002, pp. 36-44. Zagreb, 621–635. time of resistance to the occupier 1941-1945. On each individual grave there is a vertical Dubravko Matanić, Groblje kao mjesto sjećenja –primjer vojnog spomenika Il simple square stone with the red star and personal data of the killed rebel. There are also monumento ai granatieri di Sardegna na riječkom groblju Kozala, Diploma thesis to obtain the title of ethnologist / several nameless graves. anthropologist, Department of Ethnology and cultural anthropology, Faculty of Philosophy, Zagreb University, Zagreb, 2014, pp.18-28. CONCLUSION Radmila. Matejčić, Kako čitati grad, Adamić, Rijeka, 2007. Being for centuries situated at the crossroads between the east and the west, the land Tea. Mayhew, Krvavi Božić 1920. – Riječka avantura Gabriela D’Annunzija, Pomorski i povijesni muzej Hrvatskog Primorja, Rijeka,2010. and the sea, the historical-political situation of the city of Rijeka often changed in the period from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. Namely, in 1868, the town fell under Goran Moravček, Rijeka između mita i povijesti. Adamić, Rijeka. 2006. the Hungarian rule and remained so until the fall of Austro-Hungary in 1918, between Goran Moravček, Pohod na Rijeku, Sušačka revija vol. 68. Klub Sušačana, Rijeka, 2009. the two world wars it belonged to Italy by the annexation of 1924, after the end of World http://www.klubsusacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num=68&C=4 (posjećeno War II in 1945 Rijeka became part of Yugoslavia, while today it makes part of Croatia. The 3.03.2014). geopolitical changes were often accompanied by armed conflicts resulting with victims Ljubinka Toševa--Karpowicz, D‘Annunzio u Rijeci – mitovi, politika i uloga masonerije. Izdavački centar Rijeka, Rijeka. 2007. who have found their final rest in Kozala Cemetery either as residents or foreigners. Kozala was not a military cemetery, although due to some tragic events in the past we can today detect military graves and some military war memorials belonging to various military formations, states and nations that have been united in death. By setting up a memorial site in the form of military monument, with the rise of the heroes dedicated to them, the states so create and maintain a certain version of history, images of the past, so legitimizing established order of social and political power. 56 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF EUROPEAN CEMETERIES AS AN EMERGING TOURISTIC INTEREST THE CASE OF THE GREEK CEMETERIES Harokopio University of Athens, School of Environment, Geography and Applied Economics, Department of Home Economics and Ecology Evangelia Georgitsoyanni egeorg@hua.gr ABSTRACT European cemeteries are considered as open- air museums. Some of them are also equipped with museums. There are organized various cultural events in cemeteries, too. Besides, the Association of Significant Cemeteries of Europe promotes the cultural heritage of cemeteries. Even in countries where cemeteries were not yet considered as places of touristic interest, as in Greece, recently began a growing interest towards that direction. The present paper discusses the existing conditions, focusing on the rich heritage of the various kinds of Greek cemeteries and refers on the perspectives of cemetery tourism. KEYWORDS Cemetery tourism, Cultural Heritage, European cemeteries, Greek cemeteries, War Cemeteries, Jewish cemeteries, Cultural Routes INTRODUCTION The European cemeteries are considered as cultural sites and open- air museums, as they contain interesting monuments, often works of significant artists or belonging to eminent personalities, and as they provide valuable information through their inscriptions. So, cemetery tourism has been emerged and cemeteries, as the Pere Lachaise in Paris, the Monumental Cemetery in Milan, and many others, attract a great number of tourists. Cemetery tourism is usually considered by contemporary tourism literature as a kind of dark tourism or thanatourism . Other researches argue, though, that these studies have underestimated the value of cemeteries as cultural products; according to them, cemetery tourism should be rightfully placed in heritage and cultural tourism, because it makes a fascinating cultural display for tourists, offering both nature-based and cultural activities (Pécsek, 2015: 44-61; Paraskevopoulou, 2018). Researches have found out that some visitors regard cemeteries as complex attractions representing both natural and cultural values, while for others, their main motivation is to learn more about the history of the cemetery and of the country. In general, a cemetery can be interesting for the xx 59 tourist provided it has significant historical, cultural, artistic or natural qualities (Pécsek, Another cemetery museum, the Piety Museum and Collection of Funeral Culture, is 2015: 44-61; Mundt, 2016: 81-82. Tanaś, 2004: 71-87). It has also been observed that, adjacent to the oldest cemetery in Budapest, the Kerepesi Cemetery. The Piety Museum, although cemeteries are usually associated for most people with visitors is increasing founded in 1992, regularly runs contemporary art manifestations and thought-provoking (Sharpley, 2009: 3-22). Even in countries where cemeteries were not yet considered as programs (fiumeiutisirkert.nori.gov.hu/en/piety-museum). places of touristic interest, as in Greece, recently began a growing interest towards that direction and constant steps are being done. The present paper discusses the existing In Amsterdam, there is the Dutch Funeral Museum, founded in 2007, which is located conditions and refers on the perspectives of tourism concerning Greek cemeteries. at the „De Nieuwe Ooster“, - it means “For so far” or „For so long“- cemetery. The Dutch Funeral Museum is also provided with a café. In addition to its collection, the museum THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF EUROPEAN CEMETERIES hosts temporary exhibitions of art and history (https://www.totzover.nl/english). Cemeteries preserve a considerable part of the cultural heritage, as they include sculptural and architectural monuments of artistic and historical value. Cemeteries in European A unique kind of cemetery museum, called the “Funny cemetery without any dead cities are particularly distinguished for their rich cultural heritage. The Association of persons”, is located at Kramsach, in Tyrol. It is an open- air museum that includes witty Significant Cemeteries in Europe (ASCE) is the European network comprising those epigrams and wrought-iron grave crosses from the entire Alpine region, but nobody public and private organizations which care for cemeteries considered to be of historical has been buried on the ground. It was founded by the metalsmith and stone carver or artistic importance. The Association has as objective the promotion of European Hans Guggenberger from Kramsach in 1965/66. Today more than 200,000 people visit cemeteries as a fundamental part of the heritage of the humanity. ASCE also aims to raise the “Funny cemetery” every year. (https://www.tyrol.tl/en/highlights/museums-and-European citizen awareness of the importance of significant cemeteries. The Association exhibitions/cemetery-museum-kramsach) . has put together the European Cemeteries Route, a thematic route that is one of the certified Europe Cultural Routes; it is a touristic route across European cemeteries. Let’ s also mention the so-called Merry Cemetery at Săpânța, in Maramureş, Romania. (https://www.significantcemeteries.org). This cemetery, famous for its colorful tombstones with naïve paintings and funny epigrams referring to the deceased, has became an open-air museum and a national The cemeteries present similarities with the museums, since they both deal with the tourist attraction. The first woodcarver was the local craftsman Ioan Stan Pătraş, who, material presence of absence and they can offer us some sense of continuity when in 1935, started carving these crosses (https://unusualplaces.org/the-merry-cemetery-faced with the temporality of our mortal condition (Meyer & Woodthorpe, 2008). They of-sapanta-another-kind-of-cemetery). also hold significant interpretive and educational value, because they serve communities as outdoor museums (Meyers, 1996: 277-297). In that context, many cemeteries across The above mentioned actions aim to the promotion of the cultural heritage of European Europe are offering museumlike tours and programs to educate and entertain the public. cemeteries and to making people consider them not as places of mourning, but as places There are mentioned as a characteristic example the events offered by the Monumental of historical and artistic value, which merit a visit as museums, as places of experiential Cemetery- Open Air Museum in Milan, namely guided walks, concerts, documentary learning and as proper frameworks of cultural events. films and theatrical plays. (https://www.significantcemeteries.org/2018/07/cemetery-monumentale-open-air-museum.html) Moreover, some European cemeteries are equipped with museums. The Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, is provided with the Glasnevin Cemetery Museum, founded in 2010, which includes a museum- shop and a café. The cemetery museum also runs tours, offers educational programs for all ages and has support for genealogists and those studying family history. Besides, the documentary One Million Dubliners was released in 2014, featuring stories about the history and operation of the cemetery (https://www. glasnevinmuseum.ie). 60 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage THE CASE OF GREEK CEMETERIES The establishment of the First Cemetery of Athens gave the opportunity to many History and kinds of Greek cemeteries sculptors to create splendid funerary Greek cemeteries present an interesting case study, because, although a great number monuments inspired by the ancient of them are of notable artistic and/ or historic value, and therefore they constitute a Greek monuments that surrounded them significant part of the cultural heritage, they were not given the concern that they should. and by European masters. Famous is the The history of Greek cemeteries goes back “Sleeping Maiden” , created by Yannoulis to the 19th century and their construction, Chalepas. (Kardamitsi- Adami & Daniil, according to European models, was one 2017:35-37; Christou & Koumvakali- Yannoulis Chalepas, The Sleeping Maiden, Fist of the first concerns of the modern Greek Anastasiadi, 1982 : 21-22, 27-38, 53-54 ) Cemetery of Athens state, which was created in 1830. The Except of Athens, many sculptors where also installed in other urban centers of Greece, oldest cemetery is the First Cemetery of as in Piraeus, Nauplion, Patras, Syros, Tripolis, Messolonghi, and others. A major part of Athens, established in 1837 (Kardamitsi-their work were the funerary monuments (Markatou, Mavromihali & Pavlopoulos, 2015: Adami & Daniil, 2107: 16) 27-358). Soon, big and smaller cities in the Greek Moreover, a large number of Greek sculptors were installed in neighboring countries, The First Cemetery of Athens mainland and the islands acquired where existed flourishing Greek communities and they were mostly occupied with cemeteries, as those in Piraeus, port of Athens, Nauplion, Patras, Volos, Tripolis, monuments in cemeteries. They were installed in Constaninople (Istanbul), Smyrna Leonidion, Pyrgos, Chalkida, Messolonghi, of the islands of Syros, Skiathos, Kefallonia, (Ismir) in Asia Minor, Alexandreia and Cairo in Egypt, in many cities of Romania and Kerkyra, Zakynthos, Andros, Hydra, Poros and many others. There is, thus, a considerable Bulgaria, as also in South Russia (Florakis, 2008: 94-97; Georgitsoyanni, 2015). So, there number of cemeteries across Greece which are decorated by notable monuments. is also an interesting number of significant cemeteries of the Greek Diaspora, as the Greek Their creation was supported by the rising urban classes during the 19th and the first cemetery of Sisli in Constantinople and the Greek cemeteries of Cairo and Alexandria decades of 20th century, who preferred the erection of artistic funerary monuments (Papazoglou, 2005; Nobilakis, 2009). (Markatou, Mavromihali & Pavlopoulos, 2015: 31, 344-358). Besides, in Greece existed many traditional marble sculptors, who were very quickly Several cemeteries in Greece, except of adapted to European artistic styles. Most of them originated from the Cycladic island their major part which is addressed to of Tinos in the Aegean, where existed a long tradition in the art of marble sculpture. Greeks and to other people of Eastern- A large number of these craftsmen came to Athens, after its nomination as capital in Orthodox rite, they contain sectors for 1834 by the first king of Greece, Otto of Bavaria, in order to work in the erection of the religious minorities and foreigners, as the neoclassical buildings. It has to be mentioned that special courses were given at the First Cemetery of Athens, which contains Polytechnic or the School of Arts (founded in Athens in 1837), which were addressed to an Orthodox, a Catholic, a Protestant and craftsmen who wanted to learn how to apply neoclassicism. European artists were their a Jewish sector (Paraskevopoulou, 2015; first teachers. More particularly, neoclassical funerary sculpture was introduced in Greece Kardamitsi- Adami & Daniil, 2017: 25- The Holocaust Memorial, Jewish sector, Third Cemetery by the Bavarian Cristian Siegel (1808-1883), first professor of sculpture at the School 33); the Third Cemetery of Athens, which of Athens of Arts in Athens. Young boys also, often sons of craftsmen, started studying sculpture includes an Orthodox and a Jewish sector, which is nowadays in use and it also contains in the School of Arts in Athens and several continued their studies in various centres a Holocaust Memorial abroad, mostly in Munich or in Italy. A characteristic case is that of Yannoulis Chalepas (1851-1938), the most important Greek sculptor (Christou & Koumvakali- Anastasiadi, 1982 : 31-32 ). 62 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The Cemetery of Anastasis in Piraeus It has also to be noticed that many cemeteries contain tombs of eminent citizens, either and the Cemetery of Saint George at Greek or foreigners, who played an important role in local societies or even in national Hermoupolis on the island of Syros, both level. Of course, the most renown ones, politicians, artists, scientists, economic agents, with an Orthodox and a Catholic Sector; benefactors, religious rulers, heroes of the Greek War of Independence (1821-1828), are the Old Cemetery of Taxiarchs in Volos, buried in the First Cemetery of Athens. Among them, are some internationally renown Thessaly, with an Orthodox, a Jewish, a personalities, as Heinrich Schliemann, excavator of Troy and Mycenae, the actress Melina British and a Muslim sector; the Cemetery Mercouri and her husband, the film director Jules Dassin, the archaeologist Carl Blegen, of Evangelistria in Thessaloniki, with an and others (Kardamitsi- Adami & Daniil, 2017: 102-121). Besides, the city of Messolonghi Orthodox, an Armenian and a Protestant in Western Greece, notable for a dramatic siege during the Greek War of Independence, Muslim Cemetery, Chios sector, and many others. Moreover, there is connected with the death of the famous romantic poet and philhellene Lord Byron, are also distinctive cemeteries of religious minorities, as the Catholic Cemetery at Old who died there in 1824. He is commemorated by a cenotaph, containing his heart, and a Iracleion in Athens, established by the Bavarians who followed King Otto and were installed statue located in the Garden of Heroes. in Greece; the Jewish Cemetery in Ioannina; the New Jewish Cemetery in Thessaloniki; the Catholic Cemetery in Thessaloniki; the Muslim Cemetery on the island of Chios, Muslim cemeteries in Thrace, and others. It is also worthwhile the multicultural character of several cities, expressed in the co- existence of cemeteries of various rites and religions. All cemeteries are interesting not only for their monuments, but also for providing valuable historical information. An indicative case is that of the Jewish Cemeteries. In many Greek cities and islands exist Jewish cemeteries, either independent or sectors of larger cemeteries, that betray the long and tragic history of the Jews in Greece, who were in large numbers deported by the Nazi during the Second Word War. The most characteristic example is the history of the Old Cemetery of the Jewish Community of Thessaloniki, which was the largest Jewish community in the Balkans. The cemetery was destroyed in 1943 during the Nazi Occupation of the city, few months before the deportation of the Jewish population. The cemetery included very old tombs, dating from 15th century, when a large number of Jews came to Thessaloniki expelled from Spai. (Saltiel, 2014: 1-35). Few tombstones have survived in situ. A memorial was erected on its place in 2014. (https://www.auth.gr/news/articles/17833). Tomb of Heinrich Schliemann, Fist Cemetery of Athens Tomb of Melina Mercouri and Jules Dassin, Fist Cemetery of Athens Tombstone, Old Jewish Cemetery, Thessaloniki Memorial, Old Jewish Cemetery, Thessaloniki 64 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage In Greece there are also many Commonwealth War Cemeteries, as the Phaleron War Cemetery in Athens, which also contains an Indian sector and the Souda Bay Cemetery in Crete; the Mikra Cemetery and the Kirechkoi – Hortakoi Military Cemetery in Thessaloniki; the Monastir Road Indian Cemetery of Thessaloniki; the Doirani and the Sarigol- Kristoni Cemeteries in central Macedonia; the East Mudros and the Portianos Cemeteries, as also a cemetery for the Ottoman opponents, on the island of Limnos in north-east Aegean, related with the murderous Battle of Gallipoli (1915-1916) (https://www.cwgc.org). Tomb of Marcos Botzaris, Garden of Heroes, Messolonghi French sector, Zeitenlik War Cemetery, Thessaloniki There is also the Allied War Cemetery and Statue of Lord Byron, Garden of Heroes, Messolonghi First World War Memorial park of Zeitenlik in Thessaloniki, which is the largest of the Balkans and includes a Serbian, a French, a British, an Italian and a Russian sector, as also graves of Bulgarian prisoners of war (Vlasidis, 2017). Besides, there are two German War Cemeteries, one in Athens (Dionyssos) Indian sector, Phaleron War Cemetery, Athens and another in Crete (Maleme), concerning the Battle of Crete (1941) (https://www.volksbund.de/nl/volksbund.html). All these Phaleron War Cemetery, Athens Memorial of the German philhellenes, Garden of Her- cemeteries have a significant value for the history of the two World Wars concerning all oes, Messolonghi the nations that participated. The Garden of Heroes is a Memorial park with tombs and monuments dedicated to Greek There are also 67 Greek military cemeteries, as the Military Cemetery at Pylaia in fighters and to philhellenes, Europeans and Americans, who fell there. Thessaloniki, the Military Cemetery in Xanthi, the Military Cemetery at Doirani, the military sector at the Third Cemetery of Athens, and many others. They present a great historical Every year are organized memorial celebrations, which attract many Greek and foreign interest, since they concern the military history of Greece (armyold.army.gr/default. visitors (https://www.discovermessolonghi.com/garden-of-heroes). php?pname=cemeteries&la=1). 66 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage Actions for the promotion of Greek cemeteries In addition, the events “The Outdoors Glyptotecs of Memory” were organized on the island According to the above mentioned information, there is a high variety of Greek cemeteries. of Skiathos by the Cultural Association of Skiathos, in the context of the Week of Discovery However, they were not considered as places of touristic interest. Very recently though of European Cemeteries of ASCE (15-22.05.2018) (www.thetoc.gr/politismos/article/ began a growing interest towards the promotion of the cultural heritage of cemeteries to-koimitirio-tis-skiathou-mia-gluptothiki-mnimis). and constant steps are being done towards that direction. So, it has to be noticed Also, the Municipality of Kifissia organized an exhibition of photos of funerary monuments that, although only the First Cemetery of Athens had been a member (in 2004) of the from selected Greek cemeteries at the Cemetery of the town (01.02.2018) and the Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe, in the last three years, other five Greek meeting „Cemetery tourism and its contribution to a broader touristic development. A cemeteries became members of ASCE. They are: the cemetery of Skiathos, island in the first approach” (21.06.2018) Aegean (in 2015), the cemetery at Argostoli, on the island of Kefallonia in the Ionian Sea (in 2016), the cemetery of Kifissia, historical suburb of Athens (in 2017), the cemetery of As about the War Cemeteries, there are Metamorphosis in Tripolis, in central Peloponnesus (in 2017) and that of Saint- George taken place official celebrations and visits at Hermoupolis, on the island of Syros in the Aegean (in 2018), while several others are of foreign associations and personalities, candidate. The above cemeteries are now included in the European Route of Cemeteries as the visits attributed to the Phaleron War (https://www.coe.int/en/web/cultural-routes/the-european-cemeteries-route). Cemetery by the Prince of Wales, Charles, in 2018 and the President of India, Dr. Moreover, the organization of the ASCE Annual General Meeting and Conference in Abdul Kalam, in 2007 (Winter, 2011: Athens by the Harokopio University of Athens entitled “Ancient Greek Art and European 462-479). It is interesting the case of the Funerary Art” (5-7 October 2017), contributed a lot to the promotion of the heritage Zeitenlik War Cemetery in Thessaloniki, Serbian Mausoleum, Zeitenlik War Cemetery, of Greek cemeteries and made them largely known (https://www.significantcemeteries. a significant cemetery concerning the Thessaloniki org/2017/08/agm-2017-program.html) memory of the First Word War in the Oriental front (Vlasidis, 2017). Many people visit the cemetery that includes also chapels and memorials. In particular, the Serbian sector is Besides, recently many actions are taking place in cemeteries that intend to attract an important national site of pilgrimage for the Serbs, since it contains 7.500 soldiers. people. There are organized guided tours in several cemeteries, mostly in the First It also includes a mausoleum, a chapel and a crypt with an ossuary, where are also Cemetery of Athens, but also in Piraeus, in Kifissia, in Patras, in Skiathos, in Chalkida, etc., exposed photos and personal objects of the deceased(https://www.svudapodji.com/en/ under the initiative of Municipalities or cultural societies. thessaloniki-2). Moreover, in 2014, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the In addition, some cultural events have started taking place in cemeteries. The event „The First World War, at the entrance of the French sector, the Museum of the French military City of the Sleeping- Sound Walk and Sound Installation at the First Cemetery, Athens”, was cemetery of Zeitenlick was erected at the initiative of the Consulate General of France in realized by a visual artist and a musician, who set up a sound installation with voices Thessaloniki (www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/fr/le-cimetiere-militaire-francais-de-and phrases of eminent personalities buried in the cemetery and a sound walk among zeitenlick-salonique-thessalonique). Slightly, there have began educational programs, the important artworks. The events, organized by the Onassis Cultural Foundation, were as experiential history learning school courses concerning Second Word War in the in the context of the main exhibition of the “Hypnos Project”, broadening the notion Phaleron War Cemetery. Besides, an educational program for students entitled “Salonica of sleep. People were invited to: “a sound and kinesthetic encounter with this ‘sleeping’” Remembers” was launched by the British Council of Thessaloniki, aiming to mark the (28.05- 19.06.2016) (https://www.sgt.gr/eng/SPG1657/?). centenary of the Salonica Campaign 1915-1918 during the First World War (https:// www.britishcouncil.gr/events/salonika-remembers). All these show an increasing Another one is the event “Funerary Epigrams” that took place at the Old Cemetery of interest concerning Greek cemeteries, expressed not only by locals but also by foreigners. Taxiarchs in Volos (13.06.2018) and included reading-recitation of selected epigrams It is also characteristic that very recently was published a map concerning Historical and on tombstones of ancient Greek, hellenistic, early Byzantine and contemporary period, Military Cemeteries of Thessaloniki, a city extremely rich in cemetery heritage, since it by the Theater Workshop of Volos (https://e-thessalia.gr/proti-ekdilosi-sto-palaio-includes a multicultural heritage of many urban and military cemeteries. koimitirio-tis-neas-ionias-gia-ta-epitymvia-tafika-epigrammata). 68 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage CONCLUSIONS https://www.significantcemeteries.org [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] PAPAZOGLOU, 2005 : Georgios Papazoglou, Ταφικά μνημεία της Πόλης. The above mentioned actions may appear few comparing with the events concerning Α. Σισλί-έμποροι και τραπεζίτες [Funerary Monuments of Constantinople. A. https://www.significantcemeteries.org/2017/08/agm-2017-program.html Sisli- Merchants and Bankers], Demokrition University of Thrace, Komotini, [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] cemeteries that take place in Western Europe, but they are a remarkable start for Greece, 2005 a country where visits to cemeteries were till recently connected only with burials and https://www.significantcemeteries.org/2018/07/cemetery-monumentale-PARASKEVOPOULOU, 2018: Ioanna Paraskevopoulou, Cemetery tourism. open-air-museum.html [Date of consultation: 31.08.2018] mourning. They show a dynamic towards the promotion of the rich cultural heritage A self- conscious tourism, in https://cemeteriesroute.eu/news/cemetery-tourism--a-self-conscious-tourism. [Date of consultation: 20:08:2018] www.thetoc.gr/politismos/article/to-koimitirio-tis-skiathou-mia-gluptothiki- of Greek cemeteries. Greece contains, indeed, a considerable number of cemeteries, mnimis [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] PARASKEVOPOULOU, 2015: Ioanna Paraskevopoulou, Religious worthwhile for their monuments, expressions of the artistic trends of European art, and minorities in the First Cemetery of Athens, in A. Popp (ed), Foreigners https://www.totzover.nl/english [Date of consultation: 25, 08,2018] in Significant Cemeteries, ASCE AGM Bucharest, 2015 (www. also notable for their significance concerning the history of local societies, the history of significantcemeteries.org) https://www.tyrol.tl/en/highlights/museums-and-exhibitions/cemetery- museum-kramsach. [Date of consultation: 23.08.2018] foreigners and minorities, the history of Greece, as also the European military history PÉCSEK, 2015: Brigitta Pécsek, City Cemeteries as Cultural Attractions: Towards an Understanding of Foreign Visitors’ Attitude at the National of the 20th century. This sector of tourism, the cemetery tourism, can be developed in https://unusualplaces.org/the-merry-cemetery-of-sapanta-another-kind-of-Graveyard in Budapest, in Deturope (The Central European Journal of cemetery [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] Greece in connection with city- break tourism and with alternative forms of tourisms. Regional Development and Tourism), University of South Bohemia, Czech Republic ; University of Pannonia, Hungary & Regional Science Association Greek cemeteries can refer to visitors as destinations that are little known and authentic. of Subotica, Serbia, 7: 1, 2015, pp. 44-61 IMAGE REFERENCES Fig. 1 – The First Cemetery of Athens Besides, Greek cemeteries included in the European Route of Cemeteries can have a SALTIEL, 2014: Leon Saltiel, Dehumanizing the Dead: The Destruction © https://www.flickr.com/photos/telemax/4601888521/in/photostream/ of Thessaloniki’s Jewish Cemetery in the Light of New Sources, in Yad Fig. 2 – Yannoulis Chalepas, The Sleeping Maiden, Fist Cemetery of Athens special touristic interest. Therefore, there can be proposed several thematic routes, as: Vashem Studies, Yad Vashem The World Holocaust Remembrance Center , © https://www.flickr.com/photos/telemax/4601892845 Jerusalem, 42:1, 2014, pp. 1- 35. Fig. 3 – The Holocaust Memorial, Jewish sector, Third Cemetery of Athens the artistic route, the route of personalities and local history, the route of War Cemeteries © Evangelia Gerogitsoyanni TANAŚ 2004: Sławoj Tanaś, The Cemetery as a part of the Geography and Memorial Parks, the route of the cemeteries of the Greek diaspora, the route of the Fig. 4 – Muslim Cemetery, Chios of Tourism, in Turyzm/ Tourism, University of Lodz, Lodz, 14/2, 2004, pp. © Evangelia Gerogitsoyanni cemeteries of the minorities. In particularly, the Jewish cemeteries in Greece can be 71-87. Fig. 5– Tombstone, Old Jewish Cemetery, Thessaloniki © Angelina Lagou included in the European Route of Jewish Heritage (https://www.coe.int/en/web/cultu-VLASIDIS, 2017: Vlasis Vlasidis, Η μνήμη του Μεγάλου Πολέμου: Fig. 6– Memorial, Old Jewish Cemetery, Thessaloniki Κοιμητήρια του Μακεδονικού Μετώπου στη Θεσσαλονίκη [The Memory © Angelina Lagou ral-routes/the-european-route-of-jewish-heritage). of the Great War: Cemeteries of the Macedonian Front in Thessaloniki], Fig. 7 – Tomb of Heinrich Schliemann, Fist Cemetery of Athens University Studio Press, Thessaloniki, 2017 © https://el.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Αρχείο:Schliemann_grave.jpg Fig. 8 – Tomb of Melina Mercouri and Jules Dassin, Fist Cemetery of Athens WINTER: 2011, Caroline Winter, First World War Cemeteries: Insights © https://www.flickr.com/photos/telemax/4598998133 Moreover, citizens have started to consider cemeteries as places where cultural events from Visitor Books, in Tourism Geographies, Routledge, U.K. 13:3, 2011, Fig. 9 – Statue of Lord Byron, Garden of Heroes, Messolonghi pp. 462-479 can occur; so cemeteries can participate in the cultural life of the cities. Finally, cemeteries © https://www.flickr.com/photos/dandiffendale/8296457207 Fig. 10 – Tomb of Marcos Botzaris, Garden of Heroes, Messolonghi have become parts of educational programs and they can serve as places for experiential WEBSITES © https://el.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Αρχείο:Tomb_Of_Markos_Botsaris.jpg Fig. 11 – Memorial of the German philhellenes, Garden of Heroes, learning concerning art, history and society. Greek cemeteries have a progressive tourism https://www.auth.gr/news/articles/17833 [Date of consultation: 20.08.2018] Messolonghi © https://www.flickr.com/photos/dandiffendale/8297507472/sizes/l potential, majority of which is still unknown to local and foreign visitors, but it has all the https://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/fr/le-cimetiere-militaire-francais-de-Fig. 12 – Phaleron War Cemetery, Athens zeitenlick-salonique-thessalonique [Date of consultation: 20.08.2018] © Evangelia Gerogitsoyanni possibilities to be developed. Fig. 13 – Indian sector, Phaleron War Cemetery, Athens https://www.cwgc.org [Date of consultation: 20.08.2018] © Evangelia Gerogitsoyanni Fig. 14 – French sector, Zeitenlik War Cemetery, Thessaloniki https://www.coe.int/en/web/cultural-routes/the-european-cemeteries-route © https://www.123rf.com/photo_87371713_zeitelnik-wwi-military-cemetery- [Date of consultation: 20.08.2018] thessaloniki-greece.html?fromid=clQ0MUNRSUwySWFCSUF6alpmeTl5dz09 BIBLIOGRAPHY MARKATOU, MAVROMIHALI & PAVLOPOULOS, 2015: Dora Markatou, Fig. 15 – Serbian Mausoleum, Zeitenlik War Cemetery, Thessaloniki Efthymia Mavromihali, & Dimitris Pavlopoulos, Νεοελληνική Ταφική https://www.coe.int/en/web/cultural-routes/the-european-route-of-jewish- © https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Zejtinlik.jpg CHRISTOU & KOUMVAKALI- ANASTASIADI 1982 : Chrysanthos Christou Γλυπτική. Αρχές 19ου αιώνα -1940 [Modern Greek Funerary Sculpture, heritage [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] & Myrto Koumvakali- Anastasiadi, Modern Greek Sculpture.1800-1940, Beginning of 19th century -1940], Panaghiotis and Effie Miheli Foundation, Commercial Bank of Greece, Athens, 1982 Athens, 2015. https://www.discovermessolonghi.com/garden-of-heroes [Date of consultation: 31.08.2018] FLORAKIS, 2008: Alekos Florakis, Η Τηνιακή Μαρμαροτεχνία. Ιστορία και MEYER & WOODTHORPE, 2008: Morgan Meyer & Kate Woodthorpe, Τεχνική [The Tinian Marble Sculpture. History and Technique]. Piraeus Bank The Material Presence of Absence: a dialogue between museums and https://e-thessalia.gr/proti-ekdilosi-sto-palaio-koimitirio-tis-neas-ionias-gia- Group Cultural Foundation, Athens, 2009 cemeteries, in Sociological Research Online, SAGE Publications, U.K., 13: ta-epitymvia-tafika-epigrammata [Date of consultation: 30.08.2018] 5, pp.1-9. FONSECA, SEABRA & SILVA, 2016: Ana Paula Fonseca, Claudia Seabra https://fiumeiutisirkert.nori.gov.hu/en/piety-museum [Date of consultation: & Carla Silva, Dark Tourism: Concepts, Typologies and Sites, in Journal of MEYERS, 1996: Richard E. Meyers, Cemeteries, in J. H. Brunvand (ed.), 25.08.2018] Tourism Research & Hospitality, SciTechnol, London, 2, 2016 : 2-6 American Folklore: An Encyclopedia, Garland Publishing, New York, 1996, pp. 277–297. https://www.glasnevinmuseum.ie [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] GEORGITSOYANNI, 2015: Evangelia Georgitsoyanni, Tombs of Greeks and Tombs created by Greek sculptors in Romanian cemeteries, in A. Popp (ed), MUNDT, 2016: Courtney Ann Mundt, Motivation and Behaviour in Cemetery https://www.kifissia.gr/el/blog/εκδηλώσεις-στο-παρεκκλήσι-του-αγίου- Foreigners in Significant Cemeteries, ASCE AGM Bucharest, 2015 (www. Tourism: A Case Study of Glasnevin Cemetery, Degree thesis to obtain the τρύφωνα-του-δήμου-κηφισιάς [Date of consultation: 20.08.2018] significantcemeteries.org) title of Master of Science, School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland, 2016 https://www.kifissia.gr/el/blog/ο-κοιμητηριακός-τουρισμός-και-η-συμβολή-του-στην- KARDAMITSI- ADAMI & DANIIL, 2017: Maro Kardamitsi- Adami, & Maria ευρύτερη-τουριστική-ανάπτυξη [Date of consultation: 20.08.2018] Daniil, The First Cemetery of Athens. Guide to its Monuments and History, NOBILAKIS, 2009: Nobilakis,Ilias Sculptors from Tinos in Egypt (Cairo- Olkos, Athens, 2017 Alexandria). 19th -20th century, Cultural Foundation of Tinos, Athens, 2009. https://www.sgt.gr/eng/SPG1657/? [Date of consultation: 25.08.2018] 70 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage THE PORTUGUESE HOUSE IN THE CEMETERY TRADITION AND POPULAR CULTURE Gisela Monteiro arlete.g.monteiro@gmail.com ABSTRACT The proposed presentation is a study about the presence, in the Portuguese Cemeteries, of a type of construction, based on the architectural work of the Portuguese architect Raul Lino (Α:1879 - Ω:1974), author of several studies on art and architecture and creator of the Portuguese House – Casa Portuguesa – style. These constructions are based on the design of regular mausoleums but adapted to fit the Portuguese architectural style that was advocated from the 1920’s onward as representative of a “real” Portuguese House. They mimic the civil edifices growing outside the cemeteries: they have doors and windows with lace curtains, tiled roofs in red clay, porches with cylindrical columns and, usually, are decorated with an abundance of Portuguese tiles in white and cobalt blue, depicting saints and religious scenes – these mausoleums also manifest a very interesting connexion between the patron saints painted on the tiles above the entrances and the name of their proprietors. KEYWORDS Funerary; Symbolic; Death; Cemetery; Portuguese architecture; Raul Lino INTRODUCTION In the beginning of the 20th century a new type of mausoleum emerged in the Portuguese cemeteries. Replicating the key characteristics of some of the most fashionable houses of the time, these mausoleums followed the rules applied to the houses built outside the cemeteries and recreated the style known as the Real Portuguese House. Even though this style has been studied by several researchers, being abundantly described in books (including those authored by Raul Lino, the architect that made it famous), the mausoleums of this type have not yet been featured in noteworthy studies. There are several works that mention the existence of this type of mausoleum, naming them as Portuguese House Mausoleums or Raul Lino Style Mausoleums but we could not find any published material regarding this specific subject. xx 73 These mausoleums are present in numerous Portuguese cemeteries but for the purpose resort towns of Estoril and Cascais – deeply influenced by the culture of Portugal’s of this preliminary study on the subject we will consider exclusively the ones existing in southern region of Alentejo and also of foreign Morocco in their regional use of tiles Prazeres Cemetery and Alto de São João Cemetery (both in Lisbon, capital city of Portugal), –, creating singular dynamics between the interior rooms and the outdoor sceneries, totalling 40 mausoleums. bringing forth games of light and shadow and developing the crucial role played by porches and verandas. However, it was a commission dated from 1904 by the minister The mausoleums were identified considering the elementary key characteristics of José Relvas of the fledgling Portuguese Republic, asking Lino to build him a house in the the style and photographed in detail for further study; the cemetery records regarding rural municipality of Alpiarça, that allowed the architect to create one of his most iconic the said mausoleums were analysed to retrieve supplementary information, including works, the Casa dos Patudos: presently it serves as a historic house museum for the Relvas dates, size of plots, and prices, amongst other relevant details. From the comprehensive estate, for which Lino designed the whole furniture, the lamps and other ornamental study of the mausoleums a sum of characteristics was identified and quantified for the pieces. During the following years, Lino would design numerous houses including his own identification of patterns. All this information integrates this initial study. Casa do Cipreste in the old civil parish of São Pedro de Sintra, near Lisbon: by means of the morphology of the place and its unusual assembly of steep rocks and luxuriant trees, All the references, as well as sources, accessed for the writing of this paper are listed in Lino unfurled his house from the central patio, allowing it to whorl on itself like a “kitten detail in bibliography section. sleeping in the sun” (in Lino’s exact words). Thus, the Casa do Cipreste is considered one of the most faultless ventures from Lino and pictures widely as a perfect example of his RAUL LINO: THE CREATOR OF THE work (Ribeiro, 1994: 35-41). PORTUGUESE HOUSE Starting in 1918 with the very popular The Man and His Work book A Nossa Casa: apontamentos sobre Raul Lino (Α: 1879 - Ω:1974) is considered o bom gosto na construção das casas one of the most singular and controversial simples (Our House: notes about good personalities in the field of Architecture in taste in building simple houses), Lino the 20th century (Pereira, 1999: 377). He embarked on a mission to instruct the is considered artistically unique, especially taste of the Portuguese people in regards in the articulation of the Portuguese of architecture and house building. In tradition with the cutting-edge European Raul Lino 1929 he published A Casa Portuguesa artistic tendencies at the beginning of the (The Portuguese House) and in 1933 Casa do Cipreste, or House of the Cypress Tree, by architect Raul Lino 20th century (Fernandes, 2006, 93) Casas Portuguesas: alguns apontamentos One can ascribe this to the fact that he was sent to study at Windsor at a very young sobre o arquitectar das casas simples (Portuguese Houses: some notes about architecting age (he was 10 years old at the time) and stayed there until he was 14, when he was simple houses). Through the years, he wrote further works concerning architecture and sent to Germany, to study architecture. In Hanover he started to work under the tutelage culture, plus newspaper articles, but the said books are the most pertinent for the present of Professor Albrecht Haupt (Α: 1852 - Ω:1932), a German architect specialized in study. Portuguese architecture who was a great influence in the young Raul Lino. Outside Portugal, Lino received a decidedly romantic education (Ribeiro, 1994: 27-28). In 1949 he was nominated Director for the National Monuments; since he was an Returning to Portugal in 1897, he started his first projects without completing his degree unforgiving critic of modern architecture, the architects of his time considered his activity in architecture; in fact, only in 1926 was he given the official tittle of architect, because of as somewhat censorial regarding their own projects. Even though Lino was not directly a new law that forbade all persons from working as architects without a diploma from the responsible for the creation of the Estado Novo style of national architecture, his work national Fine Arts academies. He started to travel, writing and drawing what he saw, first provided some important conceptual foundations in which it was built (Pereira, 1999: in Portugal, but then also in Morocco and other places (Ribeiro, 1994: 27-31). 377). In the beginning of the 20th century, Lino started to design several houses in the coastal 74 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage In 1970, some years before his death, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation made a grand THE PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE FOR THE 20TH CENTURY exhibition of Lino’s architectural labours throughout the years, highlighting some less known aspects of his life’s work (Pereira, 1999: 378). The Portuguese House Style in the Cemetery In his book Casas Portuguesas, Lino defined some of the characteristics that became part He died in Lisbon, in 1974. of the popular Portuguese House style. Almost mockingly, he quotes an anecdote about clients and architects: “I want a pretty little house, with a door-window, with little clay Cemeterial Creations roofs above the windows, and a panel of tiles with a lamp“ (Lino, 1954: 72). Raul Lino did some work for the Prazeres cemetery. Gathering from what is presently Even though this was not his view, these were some of the characteristics that were known, Lino did not design himself any of the Portuguese House style mausoleums – recognized as part of his architecture style and copied in the cemetery, as observed. They even though they unashamedly display his artistic ideas – but was responsible for the comprise: design of one of the most original mausoleums at the Prazeres cemetery: the tomb of the • Door windows Countess of Edla (Α: 1836 - Ω:1929) the second wife of D. Fernando II (Α: 1816 - Ω:1885), • Clay tiled roofs, as well as above the windows king consort of Portugal. • Painted Portuguese tiles, together with decorative panels of saints or other religious Several years after the death of the queen of Portugal D. Maria II (Α: 1819 - Ω:1853), D. motifs Fernando II married Elise Hensler (Countess of Edla), an actress and opera singer from • Lamps Switzerland (Lopes, 2013; 326). D. Fernando and Elise lived in a beautiful chalet in the • Porches: plain or with columns Sintra Mountains. At the time, D. Fernando oversaw the construction of his dreamlike • Flower beds Pena Palace and also the profuse planting of several new species of trees all over Sintra The author defended that the (Lopes, 2013; 190-195). Lino refashioned Sintra in the funerary monument for the Portuguese House style should be based Countess, mirroring the mountain’s capricious landscape and topping it with a replica on character and that enhancements of of the Cruz Alta. that ilk should only be used to heighten Another funerary piece by Lino in the Prazeres cemetery is a monument celebrating the the already present character. (Lino, 1954: valorous dead of the political movement of the Ressurgimento Nacional. 73) In his books about architecture , written for the public, he explains how to fashion internal harmonies within the different rooms of the houses, were to better place the bathrooms and the stairs, the importance of designing a house adapted to the local weather and winds. (Lino, 2015: 21-27) But since the constructions we are examining are mausoleums erected inside cemeteries, many feature supplementary trappings unusual in common housing designs. They are • Crosses on top of the roof Example of a Portuguese House Mausoleum at Prazeres Cemetery • Presence of bells Mausoleum of the Countess of Edla by Raul Lino at Monument for valorous dead of the political the Prazeres Cemetery movement of the Ressurgimento Nacional by Raul Lino at the Prazeres Cemetery 76 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The Portuguese House in the Prazeres and Alto de São João Cemeteries That decade embodied the more popular time for the style; it is important to recall that The incidence of mausoleums mimicking the Portuguese style houses seen outside ce-the publishing of the most representative books about this style by Raul Lino are from meteries is predominant in several national cemeteries, but for this preliminary study 1918 and 1922. The year of 1933 signals the date of the last mausoleum of this style on the subject we will focus on the ones existing in the Prazeres cemetery and the Alto erected in the Prazeres cemetery but in the Alto de São João cemetery the style prospered de São João cemetery, in Lisbon. These cemeteries were created in 1835 , the same year until 1942. that Rodrigo da Fonseca Magalhães (Α: 1787 - Ω:1858), Ministry for the Business of the Kingdom, created the first Portuguese law regulating cemeteries. During the 1923-1933 period some of the monuments had a very visible reference The Alto de São João cemetery was dedicated to the population in the Oriental side of the to the builder, highlighting the location of the workshop responsible for the piece, and city and the Prazeres cemetery, was for the population of the Occidental side of the city. usually there are in close proximity some clusters of this kind of monuments by the same The aristocracy and the wealthy had their mausoleums built in the Prazeres cemetery, builder. since in the Occidental side lived the more affluent social groups (Ferreira, 2009: 1045). In fact, considering the main characteristics listed in the chapter II. 1., one can identify 40 Portuguese House mausoleums in these two cemeteries: 18 in Prazeres cemetery and 22 in Alto de São João Cemetery. However, even though there are more of this type of mausoleums in Alto de São João, the official dates show that Prazeres was the first to feature this kind of buildings, beginning in 1913, and the first ones in Alto de São João only date from 1923. “Constructor Guilherme Saraiva in front of this cemetery” announcement recorded on stone Number of Portuguese House Mausoleums per Year of the First Relocation of Remains Considering the information available from cemetery records, it is hard to pinpoint the date of construction of the mausoleums: the registered official dates are related to the acquisition of the cemetery plot – its size, price and ownership. However, there is a tradition of reallocation of old family remains in new mausoleums as soon as possible; sometimes several years before the first burial takes place. These reallocations are all inscribed in the cemetery records; thus, for this study we are considering the year of the first reallocation of remains as the year of conclusion of the mausoleum. Bearing in mind the year of construction as described above, one can detect that from 1923 to 1933 there were 33 mausoleums of Portuguese House style built in the two cemeteries, representing 82,50% of all the Portuguese House monuments built there. Small cluster of Portuguese Houses in Alto de São João 78 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage In both cemeteries the first monuments of this style are more inventive in form, although existence of a porch. Raul Lino considers that, in view of the Portuguese weather, it is the core characteristics of the style persist in those that came after. Even though, there essential to have a good, solid porch; especially if the house does not have a garden (Lino, are some features more frequent than others. 2015: 44). In fact, when the size of the plot of the mausoleum is not big enough for the development of a columned porch, the builder creates a small simulated one just above the door. It keeps the essence of a porch when is not feasible to build a real one Portuguese House characteristics by number of occurrences Example of Portuguese House with symbolic porch Example of Portuguese House with real porch Even though the existence of flower beds, windows and crosses on top of the mausoleums are shared equally throughout the mausoleums– and appear in more than half of them – the remarkable presence of panels of painted Portuguese tiles is a very important feature. Usually painted in white and cobalt blue, sometimes with hints of yellow, there compose Example of Portuguese House with white stone roof three main types of panels: i) the large, ornate side panels depicting religious scenes from tiles the Bible, from hagiographies or related to death, ii) the small crest-like front panels with In his book A Nossa Casa: apontamentos a figure of a saint or an angel, usually placed above the door and iii) the thin tile flowery sobre o bom gosto na construção das borders just below the roof. casas simples, Lino affirms the importance of choosing the correct roof for a house; not only from an aesthetic point of view but also from the perspective of functionality, emphasizing the function of protection and shelter it provides (Lino, 2015: 35). The second most common feature in the Example of Portuguese House with red clay roof tiles Portuguese House mausoleums are the 80 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage Example of Portuguese House with side panel and Example of Portuguese House with crest-like panel Side panel from a Portuguese House Mausoleum Front panel to Saint Carlos Borromeu in the crest-like panel and top border representing Saint Anthony with a child mausoleum of Mr. Carlos Diogo Regarding the side panels, these are usually seen in mausoleums built in corner plots, For the frontal crest-like panels in approximately 40% of cases the saint portrayed when at least two sides of monument are clearly visible. Some of the work depict above the door is the patron saint of the mausoleum owner, sharing the same name. Portuguese religious scenes; like the apparition of Our Lady of Nazareth to the Portuguese This happens in mausoleums with tile decorations for Saint Cristina, Saint Susana, Saint medieval knight D. Fuas Roupinho, stopping his horse from chasing the Devil disguised Carlos, Saint António, Saint Leopoldina, Saint Amélia, amongst others. Almost all these as a stag and rescuing him from a dreadful death by plunging into an abyss. Other panels cases are in Alto de São João cemetery: there is only one occurrence in Prazeres cemetery. represent Christ welcoming a soul to Heaven or the lives of the saints. The last significant feature is the presence of a bell, like the ones used in small chapels. An hypothesis for these cases are the need to associate the mausoleums with the churches, related to the fact that Portugal practiced ad sanctos and apud ecclesiam burials until the 20th century (Ferreira, 2009: 1051). This hypothesis can also the used to explain the existence of the crosses on top of the roof. Some of these mausoleums have been donated to the Santa Casa da Misericórdia de Lisboa, a charitable entity created in 1498 by the Portuguese queen D. Leonor, responsible for the maintenance of the mausoleums. In these cases, there are no longer new burials. For the mausoleums that are still private property, most of them are still in use: the most recent burial (at this time) is from 2016, in a mausoleum built in 1923 in the Prazeres cemetery. Unfortunately, and as stated above, the construction of Portuguese House style mausoleums in these cemeteries stopped in 1942. Side panel from a Portuguese House Mausoleum Side panel from a Portuguese House Mausoleum representing the legend of D. Fuas Roupinho representing Christ welcoming a soul to Heaven 82 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage CONCLUSION IMAGE REFERENCES From this preliminary study of the mausoleums identified as Portuguese House in the Fig.1 – Raul Lino (Wikicommons); Fig. 11 - Example of Portuguese House with red clay roof tiles (photo by the author, 2018). Prazeres and Alto de São João cemeteries we can highlight several important conclusions: Fig. 2 – Casa do Cipreste (House of the Cypress Tree) by architect Raul Lino • These types of mausoleums were built during the 1st half of the 20th century; (photo from Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian – Biblioteca de Arte); Fig. 12 – Example of Portuguese House with symbolic porch (photo by the author, 2018). • The height of its popularity occurred between 1923 and 1933; Fig. 3 – Mausoleum of the Countess of Edla by Raul Lino at the Prazeres Cemetery (photo by the author, 2018). Fig. 13 - Example of Portuguese House with real porch (photo by the author, The key characteristics of the style are: 2018). Fig. 4 – Monument for valorous dead of the political movement of the • Tiled roofs, either in red clay or stone (the same material used for the walls of the Ressurgimento Nacional by Raul Lino at the Prazeres Cemetery (photo by the Fig. 14 - Example of Portuguese House with side panel and crest-like panel author, 2018). (photo by the author, 2018). mausoleums) but with the same effect: replicating the old traditional clay roof tiles Fig. 5 – Example of a Portuguese House Mausoleum at Prazeres Cemetery Fig. 15 - Example of Portuguese House with crest-like panel and top border used in the Portuguese Houses; (photo by the author, 2018). (photo by the author, 2018). • Porches, either large, and supported by columns, or small, almost vestigial; Fig. 6 - Number of Portuguese House Mausoleums per Year of the First Fig. 16 – Side panel from a Portuguese House Mausoleum representing the • Door-windows; Relocation of Remains (chart by the author, 2018). legend of D. Fuas Roupinho (photo by the author, 2018). Other important characteristics of the style include the presence of: Fig. 7 – “Constructor Guilherme Saraiva in front of this cemetery” Fig. 17 – Side panel from a Portuguese House Mausoleum representing Christ announcement recorded on stone (photo by the author, 2018). welcoming a soul to Heaven (photo by the author, 2018). • Windows; Fig. 8 – Small cluster of Portuguese Houses in Alto de São João (photo by the Fig. 18 – Side panel from a Portuguese House Mausoleum representing Saint • Flower beds; author, 2018). Anthony with a child (photo by the author, 2018). • Crosses on top of the roof (this is a characteristic specific of mausoleums, not Fig. 9 – Portuguese House characteristics by number of occurrences (chart Fig. 19 – Front panel to Saint Carlos Borromeu in the mausoleum of Mr. present in the houses of the style); by the author, 2018). Carlos Diogo (photo by the author, 2018). • Painted Portuguese tiles representing religious scenes from the Bible, from Fig. 10 – Example of Portuguese House with white stone roof tiles (photo by the author, 2018). hagiographies or related to death; • Lamps; • Bells (this is also a characteristic specific of mausoleums, not present in the houses outside cemeteries); One interesting recurring characteristic was the fact that the owner (or first occupant of the mausoleum) shares the name of the saint depicted on the small crest-like front panels. This did not occur in all the mausoleums with saints. Lino, R., A Nossa Casa: apontamentos sobre o bom gosto na construção das SOURCES casas simples, Colares Editora, Sintra, 2015. Prazeres cemetery official records from 1909 to 1932. Lopes, M. A., D. Fernando II, Círculo de Leitores, s.l., 2013. Alto de São João cemetery official records from 1920 to 1941. Pereira, N. T., “Lino, Raul”, in Barreto, A.; Mónica, M. F., Dicionário de História de Portugal, vol. VIII, Livraria Figueirinhas, Porto, 1999. BIBLIOGRAPHY André, P., “Modos de pensar e construir os cemitérios públicos oitocentistas Ribeiro, I., Raul Lino: Pensador Nacionalista da Arquitectura, Faculdade de em Lisboa: o caso do Cemitério dos Prazeres”, Revista do Instituto de História Arquitectura da Universidade do Porto, Porto, 1994. da Arte (2), 2006. Ariés, P., The Hour of Our Death, Vintage Books, New York, 2008. Fernandes, J. M., Arquitectura Portuguesa: uma síntese, Imprensa Nacional- Casa da Moeda, Lisboa, 2006. Ferreira, J. M., Arquitectura para a Morte - A Questão Cemiterial e os seus reflexos na Teoria da Arquitectura, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 2009. Lino, R., Casas Portuguesas: alguns apontamentos sobre o arquitectar das casas simples, Valentim de Carvalho, Lisboa, 1933. 84 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage “THE VALUE OF TALLINN’S MULTI- CULTURAL CEMETERY HERITAGE IN POST- SOVIET ESTONIAN SOCIETY” Development Specialist of Cemeteries in Environment De- partment of Tallinn Kalmar Ulm, D.Th. kalmar.ulm@tallinnlv.ee ABSTRACT This presentation attempts to asses the multitude of Tallinn‘s historical and multicultural cemeteries and their contemporary value. Burial traditions in old Hanseatic city Reval (Tallinn) substantially changed in 1772, as Catherine the Great’s cemetery reform banned burials in churches and church gardens. In 18th century Tallinn, this resulted in the rapid development of cemeteries located at least half a kilometre from settlements, suburbs and townships. Exceptional cemetery culture evolved in independent Estonia with the National Minorities Act of 1925, which allowed local minorities to establish ethnically and religiously based cemeteries. Catholic, Jewish, Orthodox, Old Believer, Lutheran and Muslim cemeteries were founded, some of which were destroyed in the Soviet era. KEYWORDS Tallinn, cementery culture, multiculturality, Baltic German heritage The commercial relations of Tallinn as an old Hanseatic city Reval allowed the city’s population to gain an air of multiculturality, which was dominated by the wealthy Baltic German nobility and merchants. However, trade routes also enabled the movement of various diseases and in the Middle and Modern ages, Tallinn was repeatedly struck by a number of epidemics, collectively known as Pestilentz in those days. We can say without exaggeration that old Tallinn is built on Medieval and Modern burial grounds as demonstrated by the insides of old churches (wealthy citizens were buried inside churches) as well as the surrounding areas. As such, it is characteristic that the most famous artwork in Tallinn is the Danse Macabre by Bernt Notke, which dates back to the late 15th century and is the only known surviving medieval dance macabre painting in the world, painted on canvas. xx 87 In 1772 Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, issued a decree that substantially The oldest section of the cemetery is the Orthodox Aleksander Nevski Cemetery that was changed burial traditions in Old Tallinn. Her decree prohibited burials in churches and established in 1775. Many well-known Orthodox social and cultural figures were buried church yards within the city for reasons of hygiene and as a result, new cemeteries were here, such as Jaan Poska, the first Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Estonia constructed in the areas surrounding the city. This signifies the initial establishment of and the parents of Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow and all Rus’. burial grounds specific to particular religious associations and ethnic groups that shaped The next cemetery in the timeline was the Muslim cemetery that was built next to the the unique cemetery culture of Tallinn, which gave way to and sometimes combined the original Orthodox cemetery in the 18th century. Starting from the beginning of the 18th various Baltic German, Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran, Jewish and Islamic cemetery and century, Islamic Tatars served in the military of the Russian Empire in Tallinn and stayed funeral customs. This exceptional cemetery culture evolved in independent Estonia with in Tallinn permanently. By the early 20th century, Tallinn was home to about 2.000 Tatars. the National Minorities Act of 1925, which allowed local minorities to establish ethnically One of the wealthiest Muslims in Tallinn at the time, a Tatar businessman called Sigbatulla and religiously based cemeteries. A big break in this diversity came with the Soviet era, Magdejev, had a prominent iron gate with decorative Islamic symbols – crescents – forged which lasted nearly 50 years and during which time many ethnic groups faded away and for the Muslim cemetery. The cemetery was disposed of during the Soviet Era and the their cemeteries were destroyed. For reference: during the pre-war independence years prominent forged gate has been lost. from 1918 to 1940, the Republic of Estonia was home to about 88.1% Estonians, 8.2% The Old Jewish Cemetery Jews, who Russians (92.000), 1.5% Baltic Germans (15.300), 0.7% Swedes (7.600) and less than numbered to about 3,000 people in Tallinn 0.5% Latvians, Jews and Muslims and they each had their own cemeteries. As of 2018, before World War II, had a synagogue in Estonia is home to 1.319.133 people, the largest ethnic group among whom is comprised Tallinn that included the Siselinna Old of 330.206 Russians, whereas the other above-mentioned ethnic groups have mainly Jewish Cemetery, opened in 1790. This disappeared from Estonia after World War II and their burial traditions have faded as well. housed a limestone Historicist guard The latter was actively facilitated by the Soviet authorities, who most likely proceeded house and chapel. The most noteworthy from the fact that the cemeteries of several ethnic groups had been abandoned after structure in the cemetery was the the war. But they also considered it unacceptable for cemeteries to bring together people Levinovitsch mausoleum. The Old Jewish © Internet with a similar heritage and a common identity and for them to maintain shared values. Cemetery was demolished in 1963 when Levinovitsch mausoleum in Old Jewish Cemetery, 1920 a motor depot car park and repair shops were constructed on the plot of the cemetery. In 1840, the Catholic or Polish cemetery was added to the Siselinna Cemetery complex. But has any of this diversity survived The most decorative element in this cemetery was the Bahrynowsky family chapel built in today? Now, let us move on to take a closer 1853 and a cemetery custodian house with a peculiar layout. The Catholic cemetery was look at whether cemeteries in Tallinn destroyed during the Soviet Era, the last chapel ruins were demolished in the beginning today show any signs of the diversity and of the 1950s and a park by the name of Poolamäe was established on the site. plurality of the past. For this purpose, it is The Vana-Kaarli cemetery section of the Siselinna Cemetery was established in 1864. undoubtedly best to introduce the oldest Archive This section was predominantly used for burying Lutherans. The gate structure of the cemetery used in Tallinn – the historic Vana-Kaarli cemetery has been preserved to this day and it is considered the oldest Siselinna Cemetery (Inner-City cemetery) Tallinn City surviving cemetery chapel in Tallinn. that was established in 1775 and is © View of old Tallinn in the 19th-century Even now, after Estonia regained its independence in 1991, this beautiful old cemetery located just a short distance from Tallinn located in the centre of the city is in use and family grave sites are used for burials. Old Town. The border between the Lutheran and Orthodox cemeteries is distinct in the cemetery. This cemetery complex comprises six completely different cemeteries: an Orthodox However, other sections of the cemetery lack clear markings because, for various reasons, cemetery, a Catholic cemetery, a Lutheran cemetery, a Jewish cemetery, an Islamic the religious associations and ethnic groups that once used the cemetery (such as Poles cemetery and a cemetery for soldiers. The picturesque and historic Siselinna Cemetery or Muslims) are no longer present in Tallinn after World War II. But the cemetery still spans 18.3 acres and includes rare cultural monuments under heritage protection and a holds the graves of honourable citizens in relatively good condition in testimony to the number of trees that produce oxygen as a modern-day green belt in the downtown area. 88 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage long and multicultural history of Tallinn, making the Siselinna Cemetery one of the most As can be seen, cemeteries in Tallinn have had different histories. Various ethnic groups remarkable cemeteries in all of Tallinn, right alongside the well-known Metsakalmistu have left and even though other groups may have replaced them under the Soviet Cemetery that was established in 1939 but lacks the accents of ethnic or religious groups occupation, the distinctions between burial areas were less obvious than those witnessed so characteristic of the Siselinna Cemetery. It must be said, however, that the cemetery in the earlier development stages of the city. During the Soviet regime, the destruction of would currently benefit from better marketing among the population of Tallinn as well as cemeteries served the apparent purpose of severing the ties that the citizens of Tallinn people visiting the city. had with their past. Steps are now being taken to restore this connection little by little in During the Soviet Era, four of Tallinn’s cemeteries were destroyed. One of these cemeteries, the form of heritage conservation and assigning newfound value to such heritage. What the historic German Cemetery established in 1778 in Kopli, was destroyed and turned remains is the written heritage of Old Tallinn that needs organisation and uncovering, for into a park in 1951. Another, Kalamaja Cemetery, also established in the 18th century, example, with regard to the grandiose Baltic German nobility funerals in Tallinn where was destroyed in 1964. The latter was redesigned into a memorial park in 2009. The the funeral procession would include the coat of arms epitaph, flags, armour, headgear tombstones from the Kopli cemetery were used to reinforce the coastline of Tallinn. and weapons of the deceased, cannon and gun shots as well as a plentiful funeral feast. Since a new road is currently under construction in the area, Tallinn plans to return the Indications of the funeral culture of the Baltic Germans who dominated in Tallinn, can be tombstones to their original location and thus establish memorial areas of the German found in old churches. As such, 109 coat of arms epitaphs carried in funeral processions and Jewish cemeteries. Some of the tombstones from the historic German cemetery are are on display on the walls of St. Mary‘s Cathedral in Tallinn and the graves of several displayed in the sculpture tunnel of Tallinn City Museum. noblemen have been designated with skilful sculptures that seem to carry a message: regardless of everything changing around us, birth and death will always accompany Another prominent German cemetery, the Mõigu Cemetery, was located five kilometres humankind. outside the city and dates back to the end of the 18th century. This cemetery belonged to the German Dome Church congregation and housed a number of stunning graves, underground tombs known as grotto chapels, family chapels, monuments, sculptures and forged crosses. The cemetery was ransacked in 1940 after Estonia was occupied by Soviet forces because the Baltic Germans left Estonia and resettled between 1939 and 1940. This cemetery was disposed of in 1951 by the Soviet authorities. What remains today is the former cemetery area, overtaken by undergrowth and devoid of grave markers. Coat of arms epitaphs carried in funeral processions are on display on the walls of St. Mary‘s Cathedral in Tallinn To sum up, it can be said that Tallinn wants to work with different cultural and educational facilities and tourism companies to develop the multicultural heritage connected to cemeteries and the tourism service related to it. One of the top cemetery information systems in Europe, “Haudi”, has already been developed for Tallinn’s cemeteries. The on-line database and public website are available at http://www.kalmistud.ee. The site also © Kalmar Ulm contains further information about graves of cultural importance located in Tallinn, and Grotto Chapel in Mõigu Cemetery the site is regularly updated. kaitse aastaraamat, Muinsuskaitseamet, Tallinn 2007 pp 84–92. Mare Kask, Lauri Berg, Siselinna kalmistu: tardunud igavik Tallinna südames, BIBLIOGRAPHY Tallinna Keskkonnaamet, Tallinn 2012. Karl Laane, Tallinna Kalmistud. Maalehe raamat, Tallinn 2002. Tallinna Linnaplaneerimisameti arhiiv, Magasini 27, toimik 344, Politseikaust Krista Kodres, Trööst ja mäle(s)tamine: matuserituaal ja memoriaalkunst nr. 27. varauusaegses Eestis in Rahvusarhiivi toimetised, 1 (32), Eesti Rahvusarhiiv, Igor Kopõtkin,“Lõimumisteemalised teadustööd Eesti ülikoolides“ In https:// Tallinn 2017, pp 437−465. www.err.ee/334402/igor-kopotin-vahemusrahvused-eesti-sojavaes-aasta- © Kalmar Ulm Left: Tombstone detail in Mõigu Cemetery Carl-Dag Lige, Oliver Orro, Igaviku paigad kaasaegses linnaruumis in Muinsus- tel-1918-1940 12.08.2018. 90 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage MANAGEMENT AND HERITAGE PRESERVATION: THE TWO SIDES OF THE SAME COIN Arnaldina Riesenberger arnaldinariesenberger@cm-porto.pt ABSTRACT With this communication, we intend to bring to acquaintance the management model that has been applied in the Municipal Cemeteries of Porto (Portugal), from the conservation of cultural goods to the administrative management, from the cemetery daily activity to the abandoned burial graves, demonstrating how conservation of the heritage is not dissociated from the management and this in turn, is deeply linked to cultural tourism in cemeteries. The pros and cons of disclosure of the historical-patrimonial as well as the socio-cultural value of the municipal cemeteries of Porto. INTRODUCTION The objective of this communication is to show the type of management carried out in the municipal cemeteries of Porto and to demonstrate that the management of this equipment is unquestionably linked to the administration of the „Open Air Museums“, which are the municipal cemeteries of Porto. The society that generates experiences in a community, proceeds through its own organs, to the legislation with the purpose of protecting these elements, which it considers relevant for its existence and identity physical, aesthetic and intellectual. A walk through the cemeteries of Porto shows us the existence of innumerable works of art and heritage, material goods of great value, representing the position of society before death and patrimonial assets. xx 93 CEMETERY MANAGEMENT The management of the Municipal Cemeteries of Porto is part of the Municipal Directorate This Rule denotes a concern in safeguarding the Cemiterial Heritage, unprecedented for of Environment, whose activity is regulated by the Cemeteries General Regulation, now the time, which proved to be successful, first of all because it pointed out clear guidelines, inserted in the Code of the Municipality of Porto, an aggregating document of the entire in the way to follow, but also because it marked the beginning of a dynamic cultural legislation of the Municipality. activity, taking a closer look at the works of art and the cemetery as cultural heritage of the city and country. On the occasion of the same commemoration, a photographic The Regulation provides that the President of the Municipality may grant graves or land exhibition entitled „Art and Silence“ was held, the first of its kind in Portugal, gathering for its construction, through public auction or during a year after the public act, by direct around 80 photographs. administration, whose grant has not been fulfilled. In both cases, the works must be carried out within one year, after the grant. Case 1 In 2012, the grave 1935 / 37th Section (Agramonte Cemetery), was considered abandoned The prohibition of „... damaging graves, burial mounds and any other objects“, as well as because its owners did not make use of their rights and did not present themselves to „... the removal of objects of ornamentation or worship, without authorization ...“ from the claim them, prescribing their concession in favor of the City Council. The grave was again cemetery administrator. The request for the realization of works, is subject to the opinion, granted by public auction, with specific conditions of „preserving integrally“, indicating supervision and guidance of the technicians, which becomes essential for the stability of the impossibility of any alteration. The works to be carried out were subject to a project the patrimonial set of the cemetery. presentation and a direct contact with the new owners, being object of inspection by the municipal technicians. In this particular case, one of the main concerns was the According to the same Regulation, it establishes that „abandoned burial ...“ are those correction of the stability problem, which was manifested in the coverage. whose concessionaires do not know or do not exercise their rights, nor do they appear to claim the grave. On the other hand, even deposits that are not in the possession of the Three years later on the declaration of abandonment, the grave gained „life“ through the Autarchy and its poor state of conservation and / or state of ruin, are the subject of an restoration, a new concessionaire that will give it usefulness, the cemetery has one more unfavorable technical opinion, by the Autarchy, may be subject to a subpoena for works grave conserved and restored, contributing to the improvement of the appearance of the conservation and restoration, or even the performance of the necessary works at the cemetery and in economic terms the city council raised income. concessionaire‘s expense, if the notification is not fulfilled. In 1989, on the 150th anniversary of the Prado do Repouso Cemetery, a visionary city councilor, Eng. Luís de Oliveira Dias, determined through the Rule number 2/89 of June 1st that „The Porto cemeteries are also places of culture where thousands of sculptures are concentrated, highlighting a very high level of works of inestimable value „and so that it is not possible“ ... to lose or even destroy works of art that, even when integrating private spaces, will have to be recognized as constituting cultural heritage of the city and the country.“ He stated that, together with public or private entities, the classification of works of historical and patrimonial interest located in the municipal cemeteries, as well as in other cemeteries of the city, was started, but in these cases only by recommendation. The classification would start in the graves with a prescription procedure in progress, this is declared in a situation of abandonment and whose ownership was in the process of returning to the possession of the City Council. On the other hand, the works to be carried out should be object of an analysis, not only structurally but also artistic. Grave1935/37ª Section - Agramonte (2012) Grave1935/37ª Section - Agramonte (2015) 94 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage Case 2 Case 4 The grave 1715 / 38ª Section in the same cemetery was considered abandoned, reversing As we said earlier, not all deposits considered abandoned give rise to a new concession, its concession in favor of the City Council. The grave was again granted by public auction, since as we have been reaffirming the management of space and conservation of property, with specific conditions of „preserving integrally“, implying the impossibility of any are interconnected, the deposits of notable people, are not again granted, although they alteration. The works to be carried out were subject to a project presentation and a direct can be declared abandoned and reverse in favor of the City Council, we believe that the contact with the new owner, being object of inspection by the municipal technicians. In individual must maintain his place of burial and the conservation of the grave should be this particular case, of a construction built in the 1930, example of “Casa Portuguesa” of the City Council itself, mainly because we are caring for our history and heritage. It’s not (Portuguese House) stands out the work of conservation and restoration of the romantic an obligation is our duty. panels of tiles, as well as the reconstruction of the roof in Portuguese tile. Grave197/16ª Section - Prado do Repouso (2010) General Sebastião Drago de Brito Cabreira Grave 1715/38ª Section - Agramonte (2012) Grave 1715/38ª Section - Agramonte (2012) In this grave is buried since 1833, the In the same way, we also pass in this case from an abandoned deposit to a „family liberal General Sebastião Drago de Brito house“. The cemetery has one more grave conserved and restored, contributing to the Cabreira, born in the Algarve and deceased improvement of the appearance of the cemetery and in economic terms the City council during the Cerco do Porto (Siege of Porto) - has raised funds. 1832/1833. Case 3 Not all of the graves considered abandoned result in a new concession, since the listing of the graves in these conditions is published in newspapers of great circulation, after Grave197/16ª Section - Prado do Repouso (2017) which the heirs can claim their right through the presentation of legal documents to authorize heirs. On average this type of situation occurs in 1% of the published graves list. However, this type of situation and the low average, are not without interest, because the fact is once again to raise funds for the City Council, in the awareness of the owners and use of their duties, to keep the grave construction in good conditions. 96 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage HERITAGE PRESERVATION If it is true that an inventory in this type of space is never completed, it is also true that Renowned academics have been devoting their attention to the study of cemeteries, thanks to the work done for the New Guide that will be edited this year, the inventory in 1994 the first thesis of „Porto Cemeteries: History and Art“ by Gonçalo Vasconcelos e of marble workshops and artists who worked for municipal cemeteries, at the turn of Sousa arises, focusing for the first time on the relevance of the Cemetery as an important the 19th century to the 20th, is a finished work. The dictionary of symbols will bring source for the study of the History and History of the Art of an era. numerous possibilities of cultural activities. The interest in the subject grows in academic circles, with the defense of theses and the presentation of seminars. The multidisciplinary articles are multiplying, since the study of CONCLUSION the romantic cemetery has several perspectives, historical, conservation and restoration, It is the duty of all of us citizens to protect and value the testimonies of society and culture, urbanism, genealogical and biographical, sociological, heraldic, artistic and iconographic. whether directly through cultural activities or through other ways, such as operational management, the most important thing is to safeguard our heritage, whatever path we In 2000, it was edited the Guide to Porto Cemeteries, now sold out, but unpublished at choose to get there. that time in Portugal. Since 2003 CMP has been carrying out various cultural activities, inserted in the Cultural Cycles of the Cemeteries of Porto, including not only the Municipal Cemeteries, but Private Cemeteries as well, like the British Cemetery and the Lapa Cemetery, this only until 2015, consisting of the various programs, concerts, exhibitions, day and night guided tours, photographic raids, informal meetings and hosting of international events like OPEN HOUSE PORTO (2017 and 2018) and the International Urban Sketchers Symposium (2018). The visits cover topics such as photographers, architects, musicians, where they are interpreted pieces of the composers; the poets and the writers, theatrical visits with the presence of relatives or scholars, who give testimony. All activities are free, but it is our mission to welcome visitors and interested in this trip to the Cemetery-Museum, in the best way, to welcome them in our house, implies an endless work of constant improvement. We have been preparing to restore abandoned pieces, such as vases and arms stones, to be included in the interpretive center and museum nucleus. Some of these pieces were part of the „Art in the Cemeteries“ Exhibition held in 2007. In 2010, a network of informative signage was created, which intends to mark remarkable deposits, works of art, characters linked to the history of the city and evocative monuments, counting on about 120 plaques in each cemetery. A leaflet was issued with information from both cemeteries. Later this year a new Roadmap will be printed, more directed to the visit, with itinerary proposals (Notables and Works of Art) and a small dictionary of symbols. In September, another open-air exhibition of photographs by the participants will be inaugurated. Two fund projects are being awarded, a 25-minute documentary for each cemetery and the publication of a book are being edited. 98 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage NOT AT HOME? THE MARBLE AND BRONZE CENOTAPH OF EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN I IN INNSBRUCK Renata Santoro so4oosterwijk@gmail.com ABSTRACT In the past people often chose their own burial site and monument. Sometimes such a sepulchre became a cenotaph when the destined occupier was buried elsewhere. Yet the case of Emperor Maximilian I (d. 1519) is exceptional. He planned his grand tomb to be the culmination of a series of Burgundian monuments in bronze, e.g. that of his wife Mary (d. 1482) in Bruges, but it took 80 years to finish. It was ultimately erected as a cenotaph in Innsbruck while his body remained in Wiener Neustadt. Although ancestral bronze figures surround his tomb and effigy, the emperor himself is not at home. It is not unusual for people to choose their last resting place within their lifetime, or to commission a monument. It is less usual for such a monument to end up as a cenotaph because the destined occupier was buried elsewhere. We may find examples of a change of plan on tomb stones in churches and cemeteries, sometimes due to a surviving spouse not joining their predeceased partner: this may be evident in the fact that the second name and/or date of death was never added. Yet the case of the monument to Emperor Maximilian I (d. 1519) is exceptional. It was intended to be the culmination of a series of Burgundian tomb monuments in bronze, including that of Maximilian‘s wife Mary (d. 1482) in Bruges. However, not only did his own grand monument take 80 years to construct, thereby becoming the responsibility of his descendants, but his body was left lying far away in Wiener Neustadt while his tomb in Innsbruck became a cenotaph - grand, but empty: although it is surrounded by life-sized statues of his ancestors, the emperor himself is not at home. xx 101 VULNERABILITY AND SUSTAINING OF A HISTORIC CEMETERY Katerina Tsatoucha tsatoucha@ath.forthnet.gr Cemeteries are considered among the most important historical sources. Particularly, the relationship between Cemetery and City is archetypal, deep and unchanged; therefore, the Cemetery is important for contributing to the identity of the city (Stefanou.I, (2001β), pp.46-52).Additionally, over the years the cemetery since the 19th century and for two centuries was formed as a unique area with monumental elements. Last years, social approaches to death have led to a decline in the state of the cemetery. Especially, the cemeteries of the 19th century through the years, they are often threatened to distort its morphology and to harm significant historical data. In this paper, we focus on the First cemetery of Athens, the largest and most remarkable cemetery in Greece, as a case study, examining the threats that are caused and the problems that emerged from its management and the need for sustaining, while the cemetery has been in a continuous operation for almost 180 years. View of First Cemetery of Athens During the years, from around 1840 to the present day a large number of elaborate monuments and notable various types have been created in the cemetery. Management and monuments Today, regarding to the vulnerability of the Athens cemetery we could observe factors that pose a threat to the morphology of the Cemetery as follows. 103 1. The descending course of the appearance of notable types, leads the First Cemetery In the case of First Cemetery of Athens, the to the alteration of its character. These are remarkable architectural and sculptural significant elements that characterize the types that have defined the classical and romantic style of the Cemetery and have types and the general texture of romantic prevailed until the middle of the 20th century. In the present situation, in the cemetery disappear and are replaced by First Cemetery of Athens, the modification of funerary formations occurred up new ones, creating gradually a completely in the interwar period and followed the appearance of new types without special different modern cemetery, with no special morphological elements. identity. The grave reuse it seems more to 2. Secondly, the interventions of old and new owners, also, contribute to the destruction be as a kind of reproduction of the grave. of important historical and aesthetic elements. Moreover, the elimination, in simple However, replacing an original monument tombs, of the secondary classical elements alter the style of the Cemetery. with a reproduction always involves loss of 3. In addition, damages from natural factors, such as plants and birds, cause alterations information. to burial monuments. First of all, the tombstones are changed 4. Another factor of the neglect of tombs is due to the lack of descendants or the entirely, destructing a lot of information graves given to honor. of the graves, containing inscriptions and names of the previous family. Apart from the names, the overall shape of the grave is undergoing possible harms. Destroyed Monument after reusing of grave All the functional elements of the tomb are destroyed, such as the old marble crosses with large dimensions, as they used to be made in the past, usually width of 9-11 cm. or the marble burial slabs, with particular dimensions and decorations. Damages from natural conditions Damages from human interventions In these circumstances, we need to examine the interventions due to the new owners, particularly, of the reuse of old graves that entails a serious problem that contributes in small proportion but continually to the alteration of feature of the First Cemetery of Athens. Marble elements of old graves Tombstone of the 19th century 104 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage It is argued, that often underestimated So far the most important, positive effort to control the new structures in Cemetery, in feature of cemetery is the grave enclosures. particular the reusing of graves, it was, the Athenian Monuments Committee, however, the These usually consist of marble or iron ongoing control protocols do not cease to doubt whether the overall shape of the grave fencing of some kind. On individual graves should be maintained unaltered. the surrounds are obviously part of the original design, as much as the small marble In conclusion, in the First Cemetery of Athens, significant damages of the monuments columns that contribute to the character of are occurred due to continuous operation of the site. In this case, it is required to be a grave, and therefore to the period of his supported maybe policy formulation for revised practices or even the prohibition of the construction but in the modern type of Cemetery as burial site. graves they have no place anymore. In addition, the dimensions of the graves Marble elements of old graves Reusing of graves as practice without real planning and management consideration are exposed to serious alterations; the new become a major destructive force of the site, as a result in a wide scale the morphology constructions intend to be created higher than the low-underground level of the past of cemetery is undergoing radical changes by this way, contributing it in its vulnerability. graves. Therefore, it is noted mainly that the protection and preservation of the significance of the Cemetery is that will ensure its sustainability (Cleere,H. (2006),pp.85-87). Apart from Except from all these essential elements of the grave, one might take into account the aesthetic significance of the remarkable monuments of the site always add to whatever quality of the marble in this cemetery. Since the foundation of First Cemetery in 1840 else is considered heritage. until recently, there was in use the kind of marble from Mount Penteli, the known white marble that used even for the Parthenon, in ancient Athens. Today, this kind of marble is considered a very valuable material that disappears while it is no longer mined. It is obvious, that all these harms stem from the management of purchase of graves because an acute shortage of burial space has developed and it is a pragmatic situation and almost necessity for the economic situation of the Cemetery. On the other hand, there are also excellent examples of good practice of reusing of graves. Apart from the above, another serious problem that arises is the problem of assessing the details of each tomb and to which extent it is necessary to preserve them. There are disagreements and discontinuities in the appreciation and preservation of the monumental values that govern the Cemetery. Good practice of reusing of grave 106 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage THE „NON-CATHOLIC“ CEMETERY IN TURIN WITNESSING THE WALDENSIAN PRESENCE IN 19TH CENTURY PIEDMONTESE SOCIETY Renata Santoro Federica Tammarazio renata.santoro@cimiteritorino.it│ ftammarazio@gmail.com ABSTRACT The purpose of this paper is to describe and analize the preliminary results of a project dedicated to the mapping and filing of the 19th century tombs in the „non Catholic“ cemetery in Turin. After receiving civil and political rights by king Charles Albert of Sardinia in 1848, Waldensian families were granted access to this burial site which nowadays is still bearing witness to their rich history and heritage. Those families were part of the most ancient Protestant denomination in Italy and they played an important and active role in shaping Turin‘s business community during 19th century. Thanks to the analysis of archival materials, it was possible to rediscover the histories of several families such as the Caffarel family - founder of the eponymous chocolate factory - the De Fernex family - bankers - and the Peyrot family, engaged in cotton production. This project, endorsed by the Waldensian Historical Archives of Torre Pellice in collaboration with AFC Cimiteri Torino, is part of a larger ongoing project dedicated to inventory, catalog, communicate and give value on-line to the Waldensian cultural heritage. KEYWORDS Protestant cemetery; Waldensians; Waldensian Historical Archives of Torre Pellice; Turin 109 THE „NON-CATHOLIC“ CEMETERY IN TURIN THE FAMILIES AND THE GRAVES WITNESSING THE WALDENSIAN PRESENCE IN 19TH CENTURY The need to bury the Waldensias deads in PIEDMONTESE SOCIETY Turin also witnessed the growth in the city of the Protestant population, which was further Federica Tammarazio increased in 1848, after the issuance of the King Carlo Alberto‘s Lettere Patenti, the laws THE CEMETERY that granted the Waldensians the civil and The Cimitero Monumentale of Turin was built and open in 1828 in the ancient Par- political rights. co delle mezze Lune, outside the city walls, as ordered by Napoleon in 1804 with the Tammarazio Décret Impérial sur les Sépultures (the Edict of Saint-Cloud, subject of inspiration for Many Waldensian families belonged to the © Federica Ugo Foscolo’s poem Dei Sepolcri), with a law remained in force under the monarchy of Piedmontese upper bourgeoisie: they had Detail of the family grave Bass Kuster Savoy. become important traders in the textile and chocolatier branch, metallurgical industrialists, bankers, publishers. Since the Waldensians had no right to bury their dead in the catholic cemetery , the bodies had to be transported to the valleys of Luserna, in the countries of the so-called Among the families who decided to have their loved ones buried in the non-Catholic “Alpine ghetto”, or they were buried in a field intended for “non-Catholics, not baptized cemetery in Turin, there were the Peyrot, the Biolley, the De Fernex, the Bass Kuster, the infants, the impenitent and the suicides”. Mestrezat, the Caffarel, the Leumann. A burial place for the Protestants became necessary in the city in the early Forties of The celebration of the families with the the Nineteenth century, when the chaplain of the Camposanto reported that the area construction of a monumental graves previously used was no longer avalaible. testifies the influence of the trends adopted by the catholic Turinese upper class: free to At the same time, Waldensian Pastor Amedeo Bert asked an exclusive area to bury profess their faith, the Waldensians affirmed deads of the Waldensian community, not shared with the burials of unbaptized infants their success even in the commission of the and suicides. family graves. The choices reflected the taste of the time: In response to this request, the Municipality of Turin entrusted the architect Carlo according to the style of the Gothic revival Sada (author of the first expansion of the Camposanto) with the project of the area: it the graves showed decorations with floral included two twin buildings for functional use (not for the worship) at either side of the motifs and spiral columns, inspired by the Tammarazio entrance of the Non-catholic cemetery. triptychs of the late Middle Age. The project was carried out in 1844 and completed by 1845. An important example is the family grave of © Federica According to the maps, the cemetery consisted of a quadrangular area, divided into four Detail of the amily grave Peyrot Arnaud Michel Peyrot and Caroline Arnaud major sections on the ground (fields 88, 89, 90 and 91 divided into rows and pits) and eighty-seven spaces for family graves. Michel Peyrot was a textile merchant and manufacturer; in 1836 he married Caroline Arnaud, descendant of the pastor Henri Arnaud (1641-1721), protagonist of the Glorious Repatriation in 1689. They had eleven children. In 1849 Michel Peyrot was elected in the first Consistory of the Waldensian Church of Turin, with Giuseppe Malan, Enrico Geymet, Alexis Biolley, Giacomo Bosio and Eugenio Vertù; the pastor was Amedeo Bert. 110 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The Peyrot Arnaud family grave, marked by the number 31, was purchased on August 2, 1869 for 650 lire by the widow Caroline Arnaud and her sons Ottavia, Enrico, Giulio, Jenny, Nancy, Arturo, Giuseppina, Noemi, Melania and Alberto. The grave was purchased for the death of Michel, who was the first to be buried there. The next year, when Caroline died, the sons commissioned the diptych decorated with floral motifs and the parents’ marble busts. In the central area the sons dictated the inscription: ALLA CARA E VENERATA MEMORIA DI MICHELE PEYROT / MARITO E PADRE AMOROSISSIMO / NELLA MERCATURA INTEGERRIMO / NATO A TORRE PELLICE LI 6 FEBBRAIO 1806/ MORTO A TORINO LI 28 GIUGNO 1869 / LA VEDOVA ED I FIGLI DOLENTISSIMI PER TANTA PERDITA Tammarazio IDDIO NON CI HA POSTI AD IRA MA AD ACQUISTO / DI SALUTE PER GESÙ CRISTO IL QUALE È © Federica MORTO / PER NOI, ACCIOCCHÈ, O CHE VEGLIAMO, O CHE / DORMIAMO, VIVIAMO INSIEME CON Detail of the family grave Pellegrin LUI / PAOLO EP. TESS 1 9-10 THE NON CATHOLIC CEMETERY IN TURIN TODAY QUIVI / ACCANTO AL MARITO A CUI PER 34 ANNI / ESSA FU COMPAGNA OLTRE OGNI DIRE AFFEZIONATA / E PIETOSA / GIACE LA SPOGLIA MORTALE / DI / CAROLINA PEYROT ARNAUD What we have, what is lost: the actual situation of the waldensias heritage in the non- / DI TORRE PELLICE / RAPITA IL DÌ 22 MAGGIO 1870 / ALL’AFFETTO DELLA SUA NUMEROSA catholic cemetery. FAMIGLIA / NEL LVI ANNO DELLA SUA ETÀ The families living during the XIXth century are extinct or very fragmented, with heirs IDDIO HA TANTO AMATO IL MONDO CHE EGLI HA / DATO IL SUO UNIGENITO FIGLIOLO scattered around the world. The graves of the Protestants passing through Turin (which ACCIOCCHÉ / CHIUNQUE EREDE IN LUI NON PERISCA MA ABBIA / VITA ETERNA. / GIOV III 16 at the time was the capital of the Savoy kingdom and then of the Kingdom of Italy) do not have heirs who take care of their maintenance; many agreements have expired, so the Over the years, other descendants have been buried in the tomb, which is one of the ancient burials have been dismantled and replaced by new ones. most fascinating in the non-catholic cemetery. Now in the cemetery there is a small nucleus of original family graves (except in a few The Mylius Pellegrin family grave is much more austere. cases they are all leaning against the perimeter wall) and individual burials on the ground. The burial was purchased on December 14, 1849 for 250 lire by cousins Enrico Pellegrin The oldest burials are realized in the Forties of the Nineteenth century, while the majority and Davide Pellegrin. of the still existing tombs were built between third part of the Nineteenth century and the first decade of the Twentieth century. Here lies the young Jules Michel Pellegrin : born in 1825, he was wounded in the battle of Novara on March 21, 1849, during the First Italian War of Independence . The papers of his family is kept in the Archive of the Society of Waldensian Studies. Actually the tomb has a sarcophagus on the ground surmounted by two bronze rings and three tombstones on the wall, including that one of the young man, on which it is written: ING. MICHELE PELLEGRIN / CADUTO PER LA PATRIA A NOVARA / 1824 - 1849 112 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The condition of conservation is variable catalog of the deads and the families, an analysis of the agreements, the requests for between good and poor: there are placement of gravestones and artworks. sculptures eroded by atmospheric agents, What remains is to be protected through the awareness of the heirs and the cooperation collapsed tombstones, damaged and of local authorities (the City of Turin, AFC Torino S.p.A. manager of the cemeteries of illegible inscriptions, along with well-Turin and the Archive of the Waldensian Table); also for these tombs the cataloging is preserved bas-reliefs and plaques. in progress, in order to have all the historical tools to make a good maintenance of the The individual burials on the ground have memory and of the existent. had a shorter existence, since they are bound by usually thirty-year agreements. Currently there are some examples that COOPERATION BETWEEN AFC AND ARCHIVIO DELLA TAVOLA demonstrate the influence from models of international Protestant cemeteries. VALDESE In this regard it is also useful to point out A PROJECT OF PRESERVATION AND PROMOTION how the non-catholic cemetery in Turin is OF THE “NON-CATHOLIC” CEMETERY IN TURIN. a polyglot land: the gravestones are usually Renata Santoro written in French and Italian, but there are examples in English, Hungarian and As already noted, the well-kept tombs inside the non-Catholic cemetery of Turin are few, Swedish. while the majority are in a poor state of repair. As a rule, it is families who have to take This multilingualism depends on the care of the decoration and maintenance of the greenery on the burial of their loved one, fact that Turin was indeed capital of the Tammarazio while the municipality only provides for the maintenance of the common parts. (photo kingdom and therefore there were different evangelical field) The abandonment of the tombs also causes the poor sealing of the embassies. © Federica Detail of the amily grave Peyrot Arnaud boundary wall which is affected by some weeds that break even the stone. Finally, there are the cases of famous travelers who disappeared in Turin, as happened to the Swedish actress Emilie Högqvist Precisely because of a problem with one of these plants we started this path of (1812-1846). understanding with the Waldensian community. In fact, on the tomb of the Malan family the plant of „ailanto“ had taken root inside the wall where there were the plaques that BETWEEN PRESERVATION AND LOSS: HOW TO SURVIVE TO THE EXTINCTION reminded the famous character making them fall to the ground inexorably. (photo) (OF THE FAMILIES) Unfortunately, however, it was not possible to find alive heirs and before activating the This research about the history of the Waldensian cemetery is part of the project of administrative procedure that makes the Municipality of the untreated tomb become inventory, catalog, communicate and give value on-line to the Waldensian cultural owner, we tried to interest the local Waldensian community. From there the cooperation heritage. was born for the arrangement of that first grave. Later we found several other common The mapping of the tombs will become part of the portal http://patrimonioculturalevaldese. interests aimed at the historical-cultural enhancement and it was useful to share with org/it the Waldensian Historical Archives of Torre Pellice, also the ten-year cooperation with the The condition of the non-catholic cemetery reflects the situation of the catholic Penthesilea cultural association with which AFC had already started a project of mapping Camposanto plagued by historical distance and by the lack of living heirs who could take the burials of that field. And „networking“ brought us here to Innsbruck together. care of the burial sites. Facing this situation, we must ask ourselves what the feasible solutions can be for the maintenance and conservation of the existing and historical memory of the site. What is lost can be reconstructed with an archival and historical research, through a 114 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The AFC Torino SpA manager of the cemeteries of Turin, to highlight the stories of these ancient Waldensian families and attract the attention of the common people visiting the cemetery, already started to arrange the first information tables in front of the graves of high interest that refer to an in-depth page on the website of the cemetery. (examples) Soon following the itinerary of the visit with the Waldensian Historical Archives and Pentesilea, AFC will set up new information tables and then add multimedia tools to make the visit in the non-catholic cemetery of Turin more formative and attractive. BIBLIOGRAPHY ECHO, 1849 CANELLA 2005 Les derniers événements, in «L‘Echo des Vallées», n. 11, 3 maggio 1849 Maria Canella, Riti funebri e sepolture nella comunità valdese di Torino, in Valdesi e protestanti a Torino (XVIII-XX secolo). Convegno per i 150 anni del JALLA 1954 Tempio valdese (1853-2003), a cura di P. Cozzo, F. De Pieri, A. Merlotti, Torino, Attilio Jalla, I Valdesi a Torino cento anni fa, Società di Studi Valdesi 1954 Silvio Zamorani, 2005, pp. 211-230 HUGON 1963 CANELLA 2010 Antoine Armand Hugon, Vicende italiane ed europee di una famiglia valdese: Maria Canella, Paesaggi della morte: riti, sepolture e luoghi funerari tra i Pellegrin, in «Bollettino della Società di Studi valdesi», n. 113, giugno 1963, Settecento e Novecento, Roma, Carocci, 2010 pp. 65-93 BALLESIO s.d. CARELLA 1987 (a cura di) Gabrella Ballesio, Michele di Michel Pellegrin, in Dizionario Antonio Carella, Il camposanto generale di Torino, in Il Parco delle mezze lune, biografico dei protestati in Italia, Società di Studi Valdesi, Assessorato ai servizi demografici della città di Torino, Torino, 1987, pp. 51-95 http://www.studivaldesi.org/dizionario/evan_det.php?evan_id=387 (last visit 29/08/2018) PLATONE, TACCIA 2003 G. Platone, A Taccia, I valdesi a Torino. Nascita e storia di una comunità protestante, Claudiana, Torino, 2003 116 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage WARIORS‘ SECTION OF VARAŽDIN CITY CEMETERY ON THE OCCASION OF THE CENTENARY OF THE END OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR Vladimir Huzjan, Ph.D. vhuzjan@hazu.hr ABSTRACT In this paper the author addresses the process of creation, landscaping as well as the present state of the Warriors‘ section of Varaždin City Cemetery. As the 100th anniversary of the end of the Great War is to be marked, the author gives basic information on the total number of buried soldiers, special attention being paid to the soldiers of Austrian nationality. KEYWORDS Varaždin; cemetery; First World War; Herman Haller INTRODUCTION States, whose soldiers participated in battles of the Great War, are to mark the 100th anniversary of the end of the First World War in December 2018. Until then, that was a war conflict with the largest number of killed soldiers and victims are counted in millions. A part of them was buried in Varaždin. According to currently available information from the Directory of Foreign Warriors Buried at City Cemetery in Varaždin, there were 204 foreign soldiers from Austria, Italy, Hungary, Germany, Poland and Russia, their personal information such as name, surname, place of birth and burial date being known as well. Furthermore, the Knjige mrtvacah (Eng. Books of the Dead) also provide personal information about the 214 buried soldiers – victims of the Great War born in the area of today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia. Thus, at Varaždin cemetery 418 soldiers – victims of the Great War were buried; however, this is not a definite number as further research is to be continued. 119 Except the analysis on the victims of the war, this paper comprises the landscape design In relation to the soldiers buried at Varaždin cemetery one should point out that nearly all blueprint of the Warriors’ Section of Varaždin Cemetery during the 1930‘s and explains of them died in the city hospital or buildings temporarily adapted for the purpose. Only a the manner in which it was carried out in reality. Today‘s state of the site is presented at few soldiers were buried in the hinterland of the battlefields, being exhumated and buried the end. in Varaždin at a later time. By nationality, domestic soldiers, as they are referred to in the sources, make up 52 percent of the buried, while the rest are Hungarians, (15 percent), Poles (10 percent), Czechs (9 percent), Russians (5 percent), and Austrians and Italians (3 CREATION OF THE WARRIORS‘ SECTION OF VARAŽDIN CITY CEMETERY percent). Istrian Croats make up 1 percent, being referred to as Italians afore Istrians in the document due to the fact that at the time Istria was occupied by the fascist Italy (see Not long after the Great War began, on 29 August 1914, Varaždin Municipal Government Graph 1.). In relation to the buried domestic soldiers, they can be divided according to notified the then director of the cemetery, Herman Haller, (Varaždin, 1875 - Varaždin, 19 today‘s borders of the states of birth into: Croatia (83 percent), Serbia (5 percent), Bosnia February 1953) that all dead soldiers are to be buried for free in the II field. Throughout and Herzegovina (3 percent), Slovenia (2 percent) and Austria (1 percent). For 6 percent the years, the number of buried soldiers was increasing and in May 1917 a proposition of the buried soldiers there was no information on the place of birth (see Graph 2.). to erect a monument to them after the war was accepted. That part of the cemetery was being maintained during the war but after the war one ceased to take care of it. Namely, in the new Yugoslav state there were the winners and losers of the Great War, and thus the Karađorđević Dynasty was not interested in maintaining the cemetery of the yesterday‘s enemy. Varaždin Municipal Government concluded already on 12 April 1929 that the Warriors‘ Section was neglected and should definitely be taken care of. There was a suggestion to level the entire surface out, plant shrubs and erect concrete slabs with numbers (as markings of cemetery cadastre), another suggestion was to put an obelisk in the middle of the field and a plaque made of artificial stone on each grave. The activities began and by September 1929 the Warrior‘s Section of the cemetery was arranged: the terrain was levelled out and circular flower beds and paths covered with small white stones were built. In the coming months, in the middle of the cemetery field a birch tree was planted, an obelisk and a prayer kneeler were added, whereas Karl Steinkust‘s company from Graz made iron and brass holders for numerical grave markings. After the Warrior‘s Section had been redone, director H. Haller asserted that the cemetery now was harmonious in appearance: „ (…) as a flower garden, offering much solace for the grieving and the unfortunate (…) The warrior‘s cemetery represents a segment of the front after the combat. The peace. Under a large birch tree, which is a symbol of Slavic love, rest warriors of all nations joined in death.“ However, the peace did not last long. Soon, the Second World War began and there were new victims: “Immediately after the Second World War the authorities in Varaždin had the cemetery of their war enemies ploughed and the memorial insignia (obelisk made of stone from Vinica) removed from Varaždin cemetery of the First World War warriors, discarding it on a waste ground in the nearby Motičnjak.“ 120 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage PERTINENT INFORMATION ON AUSTRIAN SOLDIERS program is going to be organized in order to pay due respect to all the victims of the Great War. In the Warriors‘ Section of Varaždin City Cemetery there are 13 buried Austrian soldiers altogether. Their names, surnames, places of birth, the burial date and the exact place of the burial are entered in the table below. SUMMARY At the end of 2018, the centenary of the end of the Great War will be marked through various events, including those being held in the Warriors’ Section of Varaždin City Cemetery due to the fact that a part of the war victims is buried there. According to preserved information, 418 soldiers – victims of the Great War are buried in Varaždin; however, this is not a final number as the research is to be continued. Those soldiers were born on the territory of today’s 10 European countries, mostly members of the European Union. Familiar personal information on the victims comprises: name, surname, place of birth as well as the date and place of interment. The Warriors‘ Section of Varaždin City Cemetery is adequately landscaped today. The terrain is rectangular in shape, bordered by 3-metre-high thuja trees. The Section can be approached from four sides, gravel paths intersecting in the middle of the field where a birch tree is planted. Along the edge of the field red roses are planted. As in 2018 the 100th anniversary of the end of the Great War will be marked, in the Warriors‘ Section of Varaždin City Cemetery a pertinent commemorative military programme will be held in order to pay due respect to all the victims of the Great War. INSTEAD OF CONCLUSION – WARRIORS‘ SECTION TODAY BIBLIOGRAPHY PHOTOGRAPHS The Warriors‘ Section of the Varaždin City Cemetery is adequately landscaped today. At FILIĆ, Krešimir, Historical Inscriptions of Varaždin City, Croatian Academy Varaždin City Museum of Arts and Sciences, Institute for Scientific Work in Varaždin, Varaždin City the entrance to the cemetery there is an information board with the Warriors‘ Section Museum, prepared for publication and edited by Vladimir Huzjan, Spomenka Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia, Directorate for the Protection of Težak, Zagreb-Varaždin, 2017, p. 218. Cultural Heritage, Conservation Department in Varaždin marking, but if a visitor misses to notice the board, nothing at the site indicates that soldiers – victims of the Great War are buried there. FIŠER, Ernest, ‚‘According to European Standards‘‘, Varaždin News, 22 January Beauty of Transitoriness. Varaždin Cemetery., Editor: Mirjana Dučakijević, TIVA, 1992, p. 8. Varaždin, 2007 The terrain is rectangular in shape, bordered by 3-metre-high thuja trees. The Section Beauty of Transitoriness. Varaždin Cemetery., Editor: Mirjana Dučakijević, TIVA, Josip Novak‘s private collection can be approached from four sides, gravel paths intersecting in the middle of the field Varaždin, 2007, p. 42. Vladimir Huzjan where the birch tree is planted. Along the edge of the field red roses are planted. The only HUZJAN, Vladimir, ‚‘On the Wounded and Imprisoned in Varaždin in 1914 and 1915 Including the Invalids and War Cemetery after the Great War‘‘, SOURCES thing indicating that this part of the cemetery was once carefully landscaped is a single Varaždin and Northwest Croatia in the Great War 1914-1918, Papers from the scientific international gathering held in Varaždin on 3 and 4 July 2014, remaining plaque with number 23 which is thrust into the ground. Chief Editor: Stjepan Damjanović, Editor: Vladimir Huzjan, Croatian Academy State Archives in Varaždin (DAVŽ), Regular Documents of Varaždin Municipal As in 2018 the aforementioned anniversary of the end of the Great War is to be marked, of Arts and Sciences, Institute for Scientific Work in Varaždin, Zagreb-Varaždin, Government RS (GPV), 1931 2014, 161-188. in the Warriors‘ Section of Varaždin City Cemetery a pertinent commemorative military DAVŽ, RS GPV, Directory of Foreign Warriors Buried at City Cemetery in Varaždin, 1929 122 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage araždin, Photograph . Editor: Mirjana Dučakijević, araždin Cemetery The Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia, © Directorate for the Protection of Cultural Heritage, Conservation Department in V Collection P/729. Warriors‘ Section of Varaždin cemetery Transitoriness. V araždin, 2007, p. 42. A, V © Beauty of TIV Obelisk and the birch tree in the Warriors’ section of Varaždin Cemetery araždin City Museum 70050-1© V © Josip Novak‘s private collection Ernest Schmidt’s grave before the landscaping of the Johann Steinparzer‘s death certificate Warriors‘ Section August 2018, Vladimir Huzjan Taken on 21 © Ibid. © Last remaining plaque with ordinal number 23 Present state VŽ, RS GPV 1931, 4382/ 1931 © DA Blueprint preview of the city cemetery for the Fallen Heroes 124 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage HARIŠ CHAPEL IN ZEMUN IN THE LIGHTS OF INTERACTION AND INTELLECTUAL EXCHANGE IN THE HABSBURG EMPIRE Tijana Boric tijanaboric@hotmail.com ABSTRACT Theophil von Hansen was one of the most important and influential architects of the 19th century Viennese architecture. In our comparative study we will observe how this architect’s deep understanding of the Antique heritage as well as medieval and classical inspiration opened space of a tremendous impact when it comes to transferring his teaching in Serbia. We will observe the Hariš Chapel in Zemun, Serbia a piece of Hansen’s devoted student Svetozar Ivackovic to understand resonance and impact of the Historicist Viennese style in the second half of the 19th century in the field of funerary architecture. KEYWORDS Hansen, Hansenatics, Ivackovic, Historicism, Serbia, Hariš Chapel SOCIAL AND CULTURAL – HISTORICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR RAISING THE HARIŠ CHAPEL IN ZEMUN The chapel of St. Demetrius the Great Martyr, better known as the Hariš Chapel is an important 19th century cultural and memorial monument located at the Orthodox cemetery within the Zemun cemetery at Gardoš Hill (Dabižić, 2015: 12 – 16). Today, Zemun is a municipality of the City of Belgrade, but in the beginning it was a separate town on the river Danube (Detelić, 2007: 478). Due to its strategic location near the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, speaking in terms of the Tijana Boric late modern period, Zemun was set in continued © The Hariš Chapel at the Zemun Cemetery border conflicts between the Habsburg and the xx 127 Ottoman Empires. Since the 18th century, from 1717, Zemun fell to the rule of the Jovanović, 1987: 67 – 81). The reawakened identity, both religious and national, needed Habsburgs and it stayed integrated into the Monarchy for the following two centuries to be confirmed through architecture as well. However, the process of visual (re)affirming (Škalamera, 1966: 5). Having in mind the problems Austrians faced in conquering of the national identity faced a dichotomy. The self difference within a community Belgrade, Zemun became the most protruding imperial city facing the Ottomans. needed to be visualized in an authentic architectural style, but at the same time there Furthermore, after signing the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 which finally set the border was a persistent attempt to be acknowledged as a member of the modern European between the two empires, the Military Frontier was organized and the town of Zemun was family. Ethnic uniqueness sought its contextualization within the national modernity. granted the rights of a military commune in 1749 (Najhold, 1993: 9). Artists and architects played a key role in this course. Thus, according to the current All of the above affected the urban development of the city. The prominent geopolitical ideas of the Historicist movement in Europe, Serbian artists started searching for their role made the city an important military and commercial seat wherein sanitary cordon, distinctive national traits in medieval experiences and that was imposed in particular headquarters of the military command and customs were located (Škalamera, 1966: 8). within religious architecture (Makuljević, 2007: 219 – 224). Additionally, having gained such a crucial importance, Zemun experienced a period of Serbian inhabitants in Zemun looked closely at the events in the neighboring Belgrade economic expansion and population growth. Therefore, it developed into a multiethnic, wherein newly established Ministry of Construction enacted a decree by which Serbian multi – confessional and multicultural space. Regardless of migrations, the Orthodox Orthodox churches had to be built in Byzantine – like style (Ibid: 220). However, this community (mostly Serbs, and few Greeks and Aromanians) has almost continuously process faced many technical, objective and ideological difficulties and it developed represented the majority of Zemun’s population while the rest were Catholics (mostly rather gradually (Kadijević, 1997: 11 – 14). Researches needed to be conducted, architects Germans), Protestants and Jewish (Ibid: 9 – 18). Zemun remained one of the most needed to be trained, formulation of the desired style needed to be precisely put together. important seats of Serbs within the Habsburg Empire (Najhold, 1993: 18 – 25). In such A serious influx of understanding what should be regarded as Byzantine architecture came a complex ethnic and confessional society, the act of raising religious buildings and through the filter of European Historicism, from teachings of Viennese intellectuals. This cemeteries held a profound role of self manifestation and affirmation. On the other orientation was additionally supported by the state as the Serbian king Milan Obrenović hand, although the court in Vienna advocated promotion of religious tolerance, the (1868 – 1889) acted under Austrian influence. Many talented Serbian students were Magistrate carefully monitored and took care of the „proper“ distribution of permits for sent for their education and training in Vienna. The most prolific and the most influential raising religious edifices. This specific close scrutiny of the state authorities in particularly state architects of the Kingdom of Serbia who were appointed during the last quarter of with reference to the construction activities of church buildings caused the prevalence of the 19th century at the Department of Architecture of the Ministry of Construction were single – nave churches with one or two western towers shaped in classicistic architecture students of Professor Theophil Hansen: Svetozar Ivaćković, Jovan Ilkić, Dušan Živanović and (Jovanović, 1987: 15, 46). Thus, in the 18th and the first half of the 19th century, the Vladimir Nikolić. Due to their special praise and implementation of Hansen’s teachings Serbian Orthodox churches didn’t differ from churches of other confessions relating to and stands, the entire opus of his Serbian students is named Hanzenatika (Hansenatic their architecture, keeping them integrated into the greater community of the Habsburg style) (Jovanović, 1985: 235 – 236). All of them were born in what is today Vojvodina, at Empire. the territory of Habsburg Empire. The invention of neo – Byzantine style in architecture An important change occurred in the middle of the 19th century. Zemun had a key role of Professor Hansen as well as his broad eclectic approach that enabled creation of a during the Serbian Revolution and 1848 – 49 Serbian revolts in Vojvodina (Gavrilović, suitable “national” style certainly attracted these students from multi confessional and 1981: 15 – 22, 45 – 54). The outcome of the revolutions in the southern parts of the multinational outskirts of the empire. Byzantium tradition was regarded as a keeper of Habsburg Empire was the abolishment of feudalism, creation of the Austro-Hungarian Orthodoxy and imperial past, and that is why the neo – Byzantine style was so appealing Dual Monarchy, cancellation of the Military Frontier and the Magistrate as well, and Zemun for Serbian architects and important factor of their quest for national identity in was also granted a free royal city status in 1871 (Škalamera, 1966: 22). Additionally, architecture at the time. after signing the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement in 1868, many Hungarians and Croatians inhabited Zemun so the society became even more complex and multilayered (Milovanović, 2017: 186 – 188). Therefore, the overall climate conditioned a rising national awareness and brought a shift in style toward Romanticism and a specific reviving of the past (Kadijević, 1997: 11 – 14; 128 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage SVETOZAR IVAčKOVIć - THE MOST INFLUENTIAL DISSEMINATOR OF HANSEN‘S The widespread adoption of the domed form of the funerary family chapels in European IDEAS funeral culture coincided with important discoveries of funerary monuments of both European and non – European civilizations (Damjanović, 2016: 38 – 39). Also with With around 40 church projects he designed, and influential positions he held within the dome being such a powerful and durable symbol ever since the Antique and the Ministry of Construction, wherein he had prospered to the position of the head of Early Christian tradition (in particularly referring to its symbolic reference to the idea the Department of Architecture, Svetozar Ivačković was without a doubt the dominant of Resurrection), it isn’t coming as a surprise that the domed design dominated in the architect in the field of religious architecture in Serbia of the last quarter of the 19th European architecture of the family mausoleums in the late 19th century (Ibid: 39). century (Nikić, 1978: 273 – 283; Maskareli, 2003: 416 – 419). Svetozar Ivačković (1844 – At the time when Grigorije Hariš decided to fulfill his wife Marija’s testamentary will 1924) (Nestorović, 1937: 78) was the first Serbian student who studied under Professor to raise a family chapel, he lived in Budapest (Najhold, 1993: 73). Therefore, he was Hansen just a year after he had initiated a course named Byzantine Architecture at acquainted with significant contemporary ideas in the field of funerary architecture. It the Vienna Academy. Ivačković entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna in 1869 is unknown how he became in touch with Svetozar Ivačković, but it isn’t hard to guess (Nestorović, 1937: 78) when this imperial city experienced ongoing transformations and that as a member of a notable wealthy family (Dabižić, 2009: 80) he wanted to employ experiments with styles from the past and their modern reinterpretation (Šorske, 1998: the best artists, and Ivaćković was already a well known architect having won important 24 – 43). His talent was recognized in the early stages of his studies. It was already in architectural competitions, such as the funerary chapel and ossuary in Unterfrauenheid 1870 when Ivačković received a prize for his design of a library and in the following year (1872), and the Church of the Transfiguration in Panćevo (1873) (Stanić, 2010: 139). It he was rewarded for his design of „a Serbian church in Byzantine style“ (Stanić, 2010: 138 was probably due to the architect’s engagement in construction of the church in Panćevo – 139). The latter prize encompassed a study tour in Italy with Professor Hansen. This that he did not finish detailed plans, nor able to supervise the construction process of was certainly a great opportunity for the young Serbian architect to be familiarized with the Hariš Chapel, and so it was executed by Joseph Marx, a builder from Zemun (Anonim, his professor’s ideas, and also a unique chance to get an immediate and direct insight 1881: 174). into classic resources (Kadijević, 1997: 38). He graduated in July 1874 with excellent grades and official recognition for his work (Nestorović, 1937: 78). It was in April 1874 FORMAL FEATURES AND SYMBOLIC CAPITAL OF THE HARIŠ CHAPEL (Škalamera, 1969: 200), hence prior to Ivačković graduation, when he finished a plan for a family chapel of Grigorije Hariš, a notable trader in Zemun and Novi Sad (Najhold, 1993: The construction of the Hariš Chapel dedicated to the family patron St. Demetrius the 73). Great Martyr in Zemun started in 1874 and it lasted until 1876 (Dabižić, 2015: 11). With the above-mentioned political and social changes in Zemun, this funerary chapel Corresponding to the increased level of individualization and self – identification within inaugurated an influential model, Byzantine yet modernized, that would prove suitable the 19th century European society (Thomas, 1980: 20 – 22), privately commissioned and applicable for Serbian Orthodox churches both at the territory of Austria – Hungary family funerary chapels and mausoleums at the territory of the Austro – Hungarian and Kingdom of Serbia. The Hariš Chapel demonstrates a series of references to the Monarchy, represented important features of remembrance culture peaking in popularity Hansen’s solutions he had used on the similar type of objects such as the chapel in the in the second half of the century after revolutionary events in 1848 (Damjanović, 2016: park of the House of Invalids in Lviv (1855) and the cemetery chapel at the Matzleinsdorf 35, 38 – 41). The enduring custom of burying the deceased as close as possible to the Cemetery in Vienna (1857) (Jovanović, 1985: 245 – 246). cemetery church that was grounded in medieval practice (Dabižić, 2015: 11) was now shifted toward growing popularity of raising the monumental family funerary chapels. The Hariš Chapel is a cross-in-square church with a single dome rising at the crossing on a What was once in recent past an exclusive privilege of rulers and nobility of the highest tall drum. Its cruciform floor plan is logically and effectively reflected in the elevation. This rank, now became a desirable priority of wealthy patrons coming from both nobility and specific gradual cascading growth of roof masses develops into an attractive silhouette prosperous citizens. Besides their private (mourning and memorial) function, family focusing at the dome and creating a visually prominent building. Ivačković paid special chapels were commissioned as public visual references of the newly acquired status and attention to this feature and even invented the term gamma – shaped churches for aesthetic preferences of the middle class. those whose corners in exterior and interior projected as if they were creating the shape of the Greek letter “γ” or the Cyrilic “г”. (Ivačković, 1893: 109) 130 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage The façades are simplified, decorated only secco. The eye is enclosed within a triangle representing the Holy Trinity, surrounded by with shallow horizontal grooves. Reducing the rays of light and angels. Four blind calottes are decorated with individual images of the façade decorations to a minimum, the architect four Evangelists and their associated symbol. The semi-calotte of the apse has a much highlighted the structural aspects of the building, damaged image of the Pentecost. These monumental images, as well as all other images its blocky symmetry and solemn simplicity in the interior of the Hariš Chapel, are works of Pavle Simić (Šelmić, 2013: 131 – 218), (Kadijević, 1997: 42). Echoing the Hansen’s concept a notable painter from Novi Sad and one of the most significant representatives of the used at the chapel in Lviv, Ivačković emphasized Nazarene painting which he had adopted during his studies at the Vienna Academy of the entrance façade with the flanking staircase Fine Arts. ramps. Additionally its vertical contour is stressed The founder’s inscription plaque is located on the west wall of naos, on the right side with a bell – gable, a feature that Hansen used at from the entrance. This pink stone plaque testifies that the chapel of St. Demetrius the chapel at the Matzleinsdorf Cemetery. Since the Great Martir is raised to honor the Petrović family (father of Hariš’s wife Marija was spikes, pointed arches and towers that Hansen Dimitrije Petrović owing to whom Grigorije prospered), but also to be a place of worship frequently used when designing family chapels for the faithful (Dabižić, 2015: 43). On the left side, there is a stone plaque containing the were associated with Gothic, thus western tradition, names of the members of families Petrović and Hariš buried in the crypt. The Episcopal Tijana Boric Ivačković omitted them here using exclusively © and Virgin’s thrones are decorated with Pavle Simić’s icons of St. Gregory the Theologian The Hariš Chapel, view of the entrance round semicircular windows and distributing them and St. Demetrius, the patron saints of Grigorije Hariš and Dimitrije Petrović. Iconostasis functionally to contribute ritual needs in interior. Their symmetrical layout disciplined the made by Jovan Kistner, a woodcarver and Samuel Kolmajer, a goldsmith, encompasses 17 rhythm of the façades creating well-balanced and harmonious impression. The church is Simić‘s pictures made in technique oil on canvas glued to board (Ibid: 60 – 63). crowned with a tall eight-sided drum so the dome receives the full attention of a viewer. The family crypt is located beneath the sacred space occupying the same area as the This feature Hansen didn’t use that often, but we find the polygonal drums in his designs ground floor. The floor is covered with mosaic decorations. There are two semicircular for the Greek Orthodox Church in Fleischmarkt, Vienna (1858) and the Filișanu Chapel images in fresco secco above the central burial places. Due to the high humidity that in Filasi. was present over the long period of time they are extremely damaged. Considering some Taking into account the function of the building remnants, we can conclude that on the north wall there is a scene of the Lamentation of and its liturgical requirements, as Hansen Christ. On the opposite wall is probably depitced Noli me tangere. Such vis-à-vis positioned advocated, Ivačković here created a well-organized, images in the crypt offered thematic and symbolic links with this architectural setting for rationally-unified and highly acoustic interior. private mourning and provided a relief to the suffering via the idea resurrection. Next to Organic flow of masses expanding from the dome, the chapel, a house for the priest was built. The overall cost for raising the Hariš Chapel drum and pendentives to the barrel vaults, blind was around 36.000 forints (Najhold, 1993: 73) which was a considerable amount of calottes, and four massive round columns with money for that type of object (Damjanović, 2006: 168). The use of luxury materials in the simple cubic capitals adds to harmonious spatial interior, undoubtedly contributed to the high expenses. distribution. This impression is further highlighted Besides the memorial function, the chapel of St Demetrius the Great Martyr was turned with alternation of dark and light revetments. The into a public church and important topos of Serbian community. There is a visitor’s architect intentionally let the space breathing book preserved from 1875 (Najhold, 1993: 73) witnessing on visits of many renowned allowing good visibility and readability of iconostasis Serbs, members of the intellectual elite and ardent advocates for the Serbian national from various standing points within the church cause such as: Ilarion Ruvarac, a historian and archimandrite of Grgeteg monastery, Jovan and creating vast spaces for visual images within Subotić, a lawyer, playwright and member of the Serbian Learned Society, then Milorad Tijana Boric the interior. The central dome holds an image of © Popović Šapčanin, a dramatist, educational reformer and also member of the Serbian View of the Interior of the Hariš Chapel the Eye of Providence in the technique of fresco- Learned Society, Steva Todorović, a notable painter and Petar Ubavkić, a sculptor who created many public Serbian monuments at the time. Those visitations continued in 132 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage the following years, and soon the entire area around the Hariš Chapel and the priest’s appropriate architectural appearance used to express a distinctive local style for so many house was encircled with a decorative iron fence and arranged with grass planted areas different nations across the Central Europe, with slight changes as shown on our example, intersected with brick paved paths. There is a record witnessing that the Hariš Chapel was the Hariš Chapels. The Hariš chapel is a product of a characteristic cultural climate of the a popular venue for a field trips or just a walk (Dabižić, 2015: 21). second half of the 19th century. Being an impressive reminder of the local elite families, The position of the church was carefully chosen and its pedestal purposefully elevated this mausoleum demonstrate how it had a capacity to be turned into important ideology so it showed up clearly in panoramic view of Zemun. By mapping the area of historically topos showcasing its carefully chosen position vital for the local community. It was a important and culturally multi – layered Gardoš Hill (next to remnants of the medieval powerful emblem, visually compliant, yet distinctive in its immediate surroundings. The fortress) with such a representative and dominant church that stood out among applied visual uniformity and diversity demonstrate how architecture took an active part uniformly modeled churches of other confessions, the Hariš Chapel also implied the in shaping national identities, and how Orthodox community recognized a (re)invented intact power and prosperity of the Orthodox community in Zemun. This obvious Byzantine tradition as key strategy in this process. affirmation of national and political identity in the area that Hungarians considered as their-first class political landscape didn’t stay unnoticed. In this regard, when about two decades later, Kálmán Thaly, a Hungarian poet and politician, visited Belgrade Fortress Milovanović, Jovana (2017). Milenijumska proslava 1896. godine i to check the Millennium Tower in Zemun, he wrote down an important remark that the BIBLIOGRAPHY spomenička kultura: Milenijumska kula na Gardošu u Zemunu in: Saopštenja, Svetlana Pejić (ed.) 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Beograd: Filozofski fakultet u Beogradu, Katedra za istoriju umetnosti novog veka. considered this to be a genuine national style. For him, choosing a style was a matter Marković, Petar (1896). Zemun od najstariji vremena do danas. Zemun. of function, so the style chosen for each building was the one that was held to best Maskareli, Draginja (2003). Neovizantijski tipski projekti za crkvene express its purpose. And yet this eclectic supra-national vocabulary was recognized as an građevine u Srbiji. in: Niš i Vizantija br. 2, Miša Rakocija (ed.). Niš: G.O. Pantelej, 415 – 422. 134 European Cemeteries in the European year of Cultural Heritage xx Western cemetery