Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1, 1–9, Ljubljana 2023
doi:10.14720/aas.2023.119.1.2777 Original research article / izvirni znanstveni članek
Agroecological zones influence maize infestation and damage severity by 
the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda [J. E. Smith, 1797]) in south-
western Nigeria
Olusegun Adebayo OJUMOOLA 1, 2, 3 Adebayo Amos OMOLOYE 2
Received July 21, 2022; accepted February 20, 2023.
Delo je prispelo 21. julija 2022, sprejeto 20. februarja 2023
1 Department of Crop Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
2 Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
3 Corresponding author, e-mail: ojumoolaoluade@gmail.com
Agroecological zones influence maize infestation and damage 
severity by the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda [J. E. 
Smith, 1797]) in southwestern Nigeria
Abstract: The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) is 
an invasive and highly destructive insect pest that has caused 
extensive damage to maize in Africa since its first report on 
the continent in 2016. Information on fall armyworm infesta-
tion and damage within African agroecologies is essential for 
the development of appropriate pest management strategies, 
but these are scant in Nigeria. Consequently, in this study, fall 
armyworm infestation levels and severity of damage to maize 
in the three major maize-growing agro-ecological zones (hu-
mid forest, derived savanna, and southern guinea savanna) 
of southwestern Nigeria was investigated using standard field 
sampling protocols. Results showed that maize infestation and 
damage severity varied across agroecological zones, with the 
humid forest being the most impacted. Information provided 
will enhance decision-making for effective management of the 
fall armyworm in southwestern Nigeria.
Key words: agroecology; foliar damage; larval infestation; 
Spodoptera frugiperda; farm sampling; humid forest; derived 
savanna; guinea savanna
Vpliv agroekoloških območij na okužbo in velikost poškodb 
koruze zaradi ameriške koruzne sovke (Spodoptera frugiperda 
[J. E. Smith, 1797]) v jugozadni Nigeriji
Izvleček: Ameriška koruzna sovka (Spodoptera frugiper-
da) je invazivna in zelo škodljiva žuželka, ki povzroča obsežne 
poškodbe koruze v Afriki od njenega prvega pojava na konti-
nentu leta 2016. Poznavanje okužb in poškodb zaradi te sovke 
v različnih agroekoloških območjih Afrike je bistveno za razvoj 
primernih strategij upravljanja, a to vedenje je zelo nezadostno 
v Nigeriji. V tej raziskavi sta bili s standardnimi metodami 
vzorčenja preučevani raven okužbe in jakost poškodb zaradi 
ameriške koruzne sovke v treh glavnih agroekoloških conah 
jugozahodne Nigerije in sicer v območju vlažnih gozdov, v pre-
hodni savani in južni gvinejski savani. Rezultati so pokazali, da 
sta se raven okužbe in velikost poškodb koruze razlikovali v teh 
agroekoloških območjih s tem, da je bila koruza na območju 
vlažnih gozdov najbolj prizadeta. Pridobljeni podatki bodo po-
spešili sprejemanje odločitev za učinkovito upravljanje z ameri-
ško koruzno sovko v jugozahodni Nigeriji.
Ključne besede: agroekologija; poškodbe listov; okužba z 
ličinkami; Spodoptera frugiperda; vzorčenje na kmetijah; vlažen 
gozd; prehodna savana; gvinejska savana
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1 – 20232
O. A. OJUMOOLA and O. O. OMOLOYE
1 INTRODUCTION
The fall armyworm, (Spodoptera frugiperda [J. E. 
Smith, 1797], Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is an invasive 
moth with its origin in the Americas (Sparks, 1979; Liu 
et al., 2020). It is a highly destructive insect pest of crops 
(Murúa et al., 2009) that was first reported on the African 
continent in 2016 (Goergen et al., 2016). The fall army-
worm is polyphagous and is known to attack more than 
350 plant species spread across 76 plant families (Mon-
tezano et al., 2018). In Africa, however, maize (Zea mays 
L.) is its primary host and the most damaged crop on 
the continent. In addition to causing extensive damage 
to maize leaves and whorls (CABI, 2020), fall armyworm 
larvae may feed on reproductive organs like tassels and 
kernels causing yield losses (Midega et al., 2018; Prasan-
na et al., 2018). According to ICIPE (2020), maize dam-
age by the fall armyworm has caused yield losses of be-
tween 8 – 20 million tonnes in Africa. The fall armyworm 
thus poses an on-going regional threat to the cultivation 
of maize – a major staple food to millions of families in 
sub-Saharan Africa (Prasanna et al., 2018).
Due to their peculiarities, agroecologies in African 
countries are expected to favour the occurrence, prolif-
eration and development of fall armyworms (Day et al., 
2017; Huesing et al., 2018; Chimweta et al., 2019). Con-
sequently, studies that investigate maize infestation and 
damage by the fall armyworm in different African agro-
ecologies must be undertaken if effective management 
strategies will be developed for the pest on the continent. 
The southwestern region of Nigeria, for instance, com-
prise three major maize-growing agroecological zones 
namely – humid forest, derived savanna, and southern 
guinea savanna zones (Onyeka et al., 2008; Olaniyan, 
2015). However, information on the similarities or dif-
ferences in fall armyworm infestations levels and severity 
of damage to maize in these maize-growing agroecologi-
cal zones is scarce and remains unclear. This study was 
therefore carried out to investigate the influence of agro-
cology on maize infestation and damage severity by fall 
armyworm larvae in southwestern Nigeria. The specific 
objective of the study was to compare fall armyworm lar-
val infestation and foliar damage severity on maize plants 
in the humid forest, derived savanna, and southern guin-
ea agroecological zones of southwestern Nigeria. 
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
On-farm assessment of fall armyworm infesta-
tion and severity of damage to maize was conducted in 
the southwestern region of Nigeria which comprise six 
Fig. 1: Map of southwestern Nigeria showing the political states, agroecological zones and sampling location of fall armyworm 
larvae
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1 – 2023 3
Agroecological zones influence maize infestation and damage severity by the fall armyworm ... in southwestern Nigeria
geopolitical states – Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Ekiti, Oyo and 
Osun states (Fig. 1). The humid forest agroecological 
zone in the region spreads across Lagos, Ondo, Ogun, 
and Osun states and is known to experience a relatively 
longer annual rainfall of at least 2000 mm (Oyenuga, 
1967). On the other hand, the southern guinea savanna 
agroecological zone is characterized by an average annual 
rainfall of 1051.7 mm (Oyenuga, 1967), and occurs only 
in the northwestern part of Oyo state. The derived sa-
vanna transitional zone is the largest agroecological zone 
in southwestern Nigeria. It is reported to receive an aver-
age annual rainfall of 1314 mm (Sowunmi & Akintola, 
2010), and can be found in all the states except in Lagos. 
All three agroecological zones experience a bimodal pat-
tern of rainfall that peaks yearly in June and September 
(Aderolu et al., 2013).
2.2 SAMPLING OF MAIZE FARMS 
In each of the three major maize-growing agroeco-
logical zones, 50  % of existing local government areas 
(LGA) was purposively sampled (Table 1). Thereafter, 
two towns were randomly sampled in each LGA. Finally, 
a maize farm was selected for assessment in each town. 
Farms selected for fall armyworm infestation and dam-
age assessment were owned by smallholders and typically 
between 1–5 ha in size; were cultivated solely to maize; 
had only plants between two and four weeks old; and had 
not been sprayed with insecticides. Information on plant 
age and insecticide application was obtained from farm 
owners through resident agricultural extension officers 
working in each LGA. In all, a total of 18 farms (four 
in the humid zone; six in the derived savanna zone and 
eight in the southern guinea savanna zone) were sampled 
in the study area in July 2019 (Table 1). 
2.3 ASSESSMENT OF FALL ARMYWORM INFES-
TATION AND DAMAGE TO MAIZE
On each selected maize farm, 20 maize plants were 
randomly selected for assessment using the ‘W’ sampling 
method described by McGrath et al. (2018). The method 
comprise the random sampling of four plants each at five 
different locations on the farm (away from the border) 
while following a ‘W’ pattern of movement. All sampled 
plants were assessed for the presence or absence of fall 
armyworm larval infestation by gently turning the leaves 
and carefully unfurling whorls. Plants with one or more 
Agroecological zone Local Government Area Town Geolocation Information
Humid Forest Sagamu Sagamu 6°51’16’’N 3°40’13’’E
Sagamu 6°51’19’’N 3°40’17’’E
Ikenne Ikenne 6°51’43’’N 3°42’10’’E
Ikenne 6°51’46’’N 3°42’13’’E
Derived Savanna Ilejemeje Ewu Ekiti 7°55’49’’N 5°11’16’’E
Ijesamodu Ekiti 7°57’39’’N 5°12’40’’E
Moba Osun Ekiti 7°58’15’’N 5°05’12’’E
Otun Ekiti 7°58’49’’N 5°07’02’’E
Ido-Osi Aiyetoro Ekiti 7°56’01’’N 5°08’32’’E
Usi Ekiti 7°53’55’’N 5°10’07’’E
Southern Guinea Savanna Saki West Saki 8°44’12’’N 3°24’11’’E
Saki 8°41’19’’N 3°22’11’’E
Saki East Ago-Amodu 8°38’16’’N 3°39’26’’E
Sepeteri 8°37’24’’N 3°36’13’’E
Irepo Igboho 8°50’29’’N 3°46’21’’E
Igboho 8°48’37’’N 3°45’33’’E
Orelope Kisi 9°03’12’’N 3°50’11’’E
Kisi 9°03’12’’N 3°50’03’’E
Table 1: Location of farms in southwestern Nigeria sampled for on-farm assessment of maize infestation and damage by the fall 
armyworm
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1 – 20234
O. A. OJUMOOLA and O. O. OMOLOYE
actively feeding larva were taken as infested, and allocat-
ed a score of one (1). On the other hand, plants without 
larval infestation were scored zero (0). Characteristic lar-
val foliar feeding damage symptoms on plants (whether 
or not infested with larvae) was visually assessed and 
scored based on severity using the five-point rating scale 
described by Dal Pogetto et al. (2012) for fall armyworm 
damage to field maize. Based on the scale, plants without 
damage were scored 0; plants with erasure leaves were 
scored 1; plants with pin holes or shot holes due to larval 
feeding were scored 2; plants with significant number of 
holes and some whorl damage were scored 3; plants with 
the whorl completely eaten off or destroyed were scored 
4; and a score of 5 was awarded to dead plants.
2.4 DATA ANALYSIS
The number of plants infested with fall armyworm 
on each farm was converted to percentages. Percentage 
infestation and damage severity data were then sum-
marized with means in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Of-
fice Excel, 2019). Thereafter, data on percentage fall ar-
myworm infestation and foliar damage severity scores 
recorded in each agroecology and LGA were submitted 
to a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test using a 
Generalized Linear Model. Where necessary, means were 
separated using the Tukey’s Honestly Significant Differ-
ence (HSD) test at 5% level of significance in IBM SPSS 
statistics software (2011). 
3 RESULTS
3.1 FALL ARMYWORM INFESTATION ON MAIZE 
Infestation of fall armyworm larvae on maize was 
highest (86.25 ± 3.88 %) in the humid forest and lowest 
(56.88 ± 3.93 %) in the southern guinea savanna agroeco-
logical zones (Fig. 2). The derived savanna zone, howev-
er, had an intermediate level of infestation (71.67 ± 4.13 
%). Infestation level of fall armyworm larvae in the hu-
mid forest was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in the 
southern guinea savanna. Similarly, infestation was ob-
served, to varying degrees, in all LGA where maize farms 
were sampled and assessed (Fig. 3). The top three LGA 
with high fall armyworm infestation were Ikenne in the 
humid forest zone (92.5 ± 4.22 %), Ido-Osi in the derived 
savanna zone (85.0 ± 5.72 %), and Sagamu in the humid 
forest zone (80.0 ± 6.41 %). In contrast, the lowest infes-
tation levels were recorded in Orelope (47.5 ± 8.00 %); 
Saki West LGA (50.0 ± 8.01 %), and Irepo (55.0 ± 7.97 %) 
all in the southern guinea savanna agroecological zone. 
Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed between 
the LGA with highest and lowest larval infestation levels.
3.2 FALL ARMYWORM DAMAGE SEVERITY ON 
MAIZE 
Foliar damage ratings were higher (2.63 ± 0.14) in 
the humid forest agroecological zone, with most maize 
Figure 2: Fall armyworm infestation on maize in the major maize-growing agroecological zones of southwestern Nigeria. Mean 
values on bars followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p = 0.05
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1 – 2023 5
Agroecological zones influence maize infestation and damage severity by the fall armyworm ... in southwestern Nigeria
plants having larval feeding holes in leaves and whorls 
(Fig. 4). On the other hand, foliar damage ratings of 2.24 
± 0.14 and 1.66 ± 0.12 were respectively recorded in the 
derived savanna and southern guinea savanna zones, in-
dicating the presence of relatively lower fall armyworm 
damage to plants. Foliar damage was significantly more 
severe (p < 0.05) in the humid forest zone than in the de-
rived savanna or southern guinea savanna zones. In con-
trast, no significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed in 
the severity of foliar damage recorded between the de-
rived savanna and southern guinea savanna agroecologi-
cal zones. With respect to foliar damage severity ratings 
in LGA, maize plants were more severely damaged (p < 
0.05) at Ikenne (3.05 ± 0.18) and Ido-Osi (2.78 ± 0.21) 
than in other seven LGA (Fig. 5). 
4 DISCUSSION
Many countries in Africa have agroecological con-
ditions that are expected to favour the occurrence, de-
velopment, and damage severity of fall armyworms (Day 
Figure 3: Fall armyworm infestation on maize at representative local government areas in the major maize-growing agroecologi-
cal zones of southwestern Nigeria. Mean values on bars, in any of the three agroecological zones, followed by the same letter are 
not significantly different at p = 0.05
Figure 4: Fall armyworm foliar damage severity on maize in the major maize-growing agroecological zones of southwestern Nige-
ria. Mean values on bars followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p = 0.05
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1 – 20236
O. A. OJUMOOLA and O. O. OMOLOYE
et al., 2017; Huesing et al., 2018; Chimweta et al., 2019), 
necessitating agroecology-based studies on the conti-
nent. In the present study, fall armyworm larval infesta-
tions increased southwards, that is, from the southern 
guinea savanna to the humid forest agroecological zone 
in southwestern Nigeria. In other words, larval infesta-
tion was generally higher and foliar damage more se-
vere in the humid forest than in the derived or southern 
guinea savanna agroecological zones. This is in line with 
the findings of Odeyemi et al. (2020) who also reported 
higher fall armyworm damage severity in the humid for-
est zone than in the derived savanna zone in southwest-
ern Nigeria. The humid forest zone of southwestern Ni-
geria experiences stable rains as early as March or April, 
enhancing early and higher maize cultivation. Thus, in 
a typical year, the humid forest receives up to 1000 mm 
more rainfall than the southern guinea savanna (Oy-
enuga, 1967). According to Chimweta et al. (2019), agro-
ecological zones with abundant rainfall and high maize 
cultivation support multiple and overlapping cropping 
of maize, which in turn make host plants available all 
season for fall armyworm. De Groote et al. (2020) and 
Mutyambai et al. (2022) also reported that hot and wet 
weather conditions as well as presence of two growing 
seasons in the coastal lowland agroecological zone of 
Kenya enhance fall armyworm infestation and damage 
to on-farm maize compared to the high altitude highland 
zone of the country. Findings in the present study suggest 
that the humid forest agroecological zone in southwest-
ern Nigeria favours more maize infestation and damage 
by the fall armyworm than any of the other two agroeco-
logical zones assessed. Nevertheless, it is apparent that all 
three agroecologies are suitable for fall armyworm repro-
duction and development. 
Apart from weather conditions and number of 
maize cropping seasons, fall armyworm infestation and 
severity of damage to on-farm maize in an agroecology 
may be influenced by other factors like plant growth 
stage, cropping system, soil type, maize variety type, 
weeding frequency, and land tillage practice (Koffi et al., 
2020; Mutyambai et al., 2022; Ojumoola et al. 2022).
The considerable level of fall armyworm larval infes-
tation and foliar damage observed in the different agro-
ecologies in the present study may be due to the fact that 
all the maize plants assessed were at the early vegetative 
growth phase and not more than four weeks old. Fall ar-
myworm larvae are capable of inflicting extensive dam-
age to maize reproductive parts including tassels, silks, 
and kernels (Midega et al., 2018; Chimweta et al., 2019; 
Odeyemi et al., 2020). Nevertheless, they are primarily 
known to be defoliators that tatter and fill leaves, whorls 
and stems with holes and wet frass, especially between 
Figure 5: Fall armyworm foliar damage severity on maize at representative local government areas in the major maize-growing 
agroecological zones of southwestern Nigeria. Mean values on bars, in any of the three agroecological zones, followed by the same 
letter are not significantly different at p = 0.05
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 119/1 – 2023 7
Agroecological zones influence maize infestation and damage severity by the fall armyworm ... in southwestern Nigeria
the second and sixth week after planting (Prasanna et al., 
2019; CABI, 2020; Odeyemi et al., 2020). 
Cropping methods such as intercropping that in-
crease the diversity of plant species on farmer’s fields 
have been posited to be effective and sustainable fall ar-
myworm management tactics in maize systems (FAO, 
2018). Intercropping is known to reduce the infestation 
and damage caused by insects pests like thrips (Trdan 
et al., 2006) and stem weevils (Cadoux et al., 2015) by 
disrupting their ability to detect the visual and olfactory 
cues of host plants (Finch and Collier, 2012), or by in-
creasing the diversity and abundance of natural enemies 
(FAO, 2018). In Uganda, Hailu et al. (2018) reported 
significantly lower fall armyworm infestation in maize 
intercropped with common beans, soybeans, or ground-
nuts compared with sole maize, especially in the early 
and late vegetative growth stages. In the present study, 
maize was planted as a sole crop on all the farms assessed. 
This might also explain why considerable infestation and 
damage were observed in all the three maize-growing 
agroecological zones. 
Unlike in more compact soils, loose sandy soils en-
hance successful soil pupation of fall armyworms, and by 
extension, higher infestations and damage of the maize 
crops growing in them (Sims, 2008; Mutyambai et al., 
2022). Furthermore, due to differences in morphology 
and constitutive phytochemical compounds, different 
maize varieties often have different resistance and tol-
erance levels to fall armyworm infestation and damage 
(Morales et al 2021; Ojumoola et al. 2022). In addition, 
frequent weeding using mechanical methods reduce fall 
armyworm infestation and damage by destroying the soil 
dwelling pupa stage and the shelter or food sources pro-
vided by reservoir weed hosts (Hay-Roe et al., 2016; Mo-
raes et al., 2020; Mutyambai et al., 2022). Similarly, land 
tillage practices like conservation tillage or zero tillage, 
which cause little to no disturbance to the soil, promote 
higher populations of generalist predators of the imma-
ture stages of fall armyworm thus reducing seasonal in-
festations and damage of maize (Clark et al., 1993; Landis 
et al., 2000; Rivers et al., 2016; Baudron et al., 2019). 
Nevertheless, the potential of the foregoing agro-
nomic factors in reducing or preventing fall armyworm 
infestation and damage on maize in the humid forest, 
guinea savanna and southern guinea savanna agroecolo-
gies of southwestern Nigeria will require further investi-
gations.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Fall armyworm larval infestation and foliar dam-
age to maize has been shown in this study to be more 
prevalent in the humid forest agroecological zone than in 
the guinea savanna or southern guinea savanna agroeco-
logical zones of southwestern Nigeria. Notwithstanding, 
maize plants in all three major maize-growing agroeco-
logical zones are susceptible to fall armyworm attack and 
damage. The study recommends that further studies be 
conducted to develop suitable agroecology-specific man-
agement strategies for fall armyworm in southwestern 
Nigeria. 
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