UDK 2(05) ISSN 0006 – 5722 Bogoslovni vestnik Theological Quarterly EPHEMERIDES THEOLOGICAE RAZPRAVE Alenka Arko Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Ivan Dodlek et al. Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope Piotr Roszak Who Is to Blame for the Sinking Ship? Matic Kocijancic »Visokoekspertna klerikalnost slovenskega komunizma« Christoper Naseri »You are no Friend of Caesar« Robert Petkovšek Eksodus – matrica razodetja Jan Dominik Bogataj Caro salutis est cardo Gusztáv Kovács After the Catastrophe Emil Salim Church Unity as Political Unity Matteo Campagnaro „Fratelli Tutti“ e sviluppo umano integrale Wojciech Zyzak The Theory of the Spiritual Senses Stanislav Slatinek Vera zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev Sebastijan Valentan Pravne dimenzije verskega pouka v slovenskih šolah ... Wieslaw Przygoda What Parish for the 21st Century? Luis Orozco et al. Sunday Pedagogy Saša Poljak Lukek et al. Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery from Alcoholism Mihaela Kežman idr. Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami Glasilo Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani 2022 • 2 Letnik 82 Bogoslovni vestnik Theological Quarterly EPHEMERIDES THEOLOGICAE 2 Letnik 82 Leto 2022 Glasilo Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Ljubljana 2022 Kazalo KAZALO / TABLE OF CONTENTS RAZPRAVE / ARTICLES 249 Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Kairos of the Synodality in the Church 263 Ivan Dodlek and Nenad Malovic - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope Eksistencialna tesnoba in kršcansko upanje 277 Piotr Roszak -Who Is to Blame for the Sinking Ship? Aquinas on Divine Goodness, Evil and Freedom Koga kriviti za potapljajoco se ladjo? Tomaž Akvinski o božji dobroti, zlu in svobodi 291 Matic Kocijancic - »Visokoekspertna klerikalnost slovenskega komunizma«: preplet antimarksizma in antikršcanstva v misli Tineta Hribarja »The Highly Expert Clericality of Slovene Communism«: The Intertwining Anti-Marxism and Anti-Christianity in the Thought of Tine Hribar 303 Christoper Naseri - »You are no Friend of Caesar«: Threat and Intrigue in the Johannine Account of the Sentencing of Jesus in John 19:12-16a »Ti nisi cesarjev prijatelj«: grožnje in intrige v Janezovem porocilu o Jezusovi obsodbi v Jn 19,12-16a 315 Robert Petkovšek - Eksodus – matrica razodetja Exodus - The Matrix of Revelation 353 Jan Dominik Bogataj – Caro salutis est cardo: Tertulijanova antropologija v razmerju med telesom, odrešenjem in zdravjem Caro salutis est cardo: Tertullian’s Anthropology in the Relationship between Body, Redemption, and Health 365 Gusztáv Kovács - After the Catastrophe: What Can We Learn from Fictional Apocalyptic Scenarios? Po katastrofi: kaj se lahko naucimo iz domišljijskih apokalipticnih scenarijev? 377 Emil Salim - Church Unity as Political Unity: An Eastern Orthodox Perspective Cerkvena edinost kot politicna edinost: pravoslavni pogled 391 Matteo Campagnaro - „Fratelli Tutti“ e sviluppo umano integrale: un lungo cammino da Paolo VI a Francesco „Fratelli Tutti“ and Integral Human Development: A Long Journey from Paul VI to Francis „Vsi bratje“ („Fratelli tutti“) in celovit cloveški razvoj: dolga pot od Pavla VI. do Franciška 405 Wojciech Zyzak - The Theory of the Spiritual Senses Teorija duhovnih cutov 419 Stanislav Slatinek - Vera zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev The Faith of Spouses Who Have Suffered a Divorce 433 Sebastijan Valentan - Pravne dimenzije verskega pouka v slovenskih šolah od knezoškofa Napotnika do danes Legal Dimensions of Religious Education in Slovenian Schools from Prince-Bishop Napotnik to the Present Day 445 Wieslaw Przygoda - What Parish for the 21st Century? Parish Renewal Guidelines in the Context of Current Cultural Changes in Europe Kakšna naj bo župnija v 21. stoletju? Smernice župnijske prenove v kontekstu trenutnih kulturnih sprememb v Evropi 459 Luis Guillermo Orozco Sánchez, Luis Alfredo Molina Guzmán and Martha Cecilia Posada Diez - Sunday Pedagogy: A Commitment to the Renewal of the Church Nedeljska pedagogika: predanost prenovi Cerkve 469 Saša Poljak Lukek and Barbara Simonic - Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery from Alcoholism Duhovni in verski dejavniki okrevanja po alkoholizmu 485 Mihaela Kežman, Jana Goriup in Mitja Gorenak - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami The Importance of Passing on Values between Generations OCENE / REVIEWS 501 Jože Krašovec, God’s Righteousness and Justice in the Old Testament (Roman Globokar) 502 François Moog, Éducation intégrale: Les ressources éducatives du christianisme (Andrej Šegula) 504 Siv Ellen Kraft, Bjřrn Ola Tafjord, Arkotong Longkumer, Gregory D. Alles in Greg Johnson, Indigenous Religion(s): Local Grounds, Global Networks (Liza Primc) POROCILO / REPORT 507 Mednarodna konferenca o katehumenatu, Pariz, Katoliški inštitut, 5.–7. 5. 2022 (Andrej Šegula) SODELAVCI / CONTRIBUTORS Alenka ARKO dogmaticna teologija, dr., prof. Dogmatic Theology, Ph.D., Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana alenka.arko@teof.uni-lj.si Jan Dominik BOGATAJ patristicna teologija, doktorski študent Patristic Theology, Ph.D. Student Patristicni inštitut Augustinianum Institute for Patristic Studies Augustinianum Via degli artisti 41, IT -00187 Rim jan.bogataj@teof.uni-lj.si Matteo CAMPAGNARO pastoralna teologija, dr. Pastoral Theology, Ph.D. Katoliška akademija v Varšavi Catholic Academy in Warsaw Ul. Dewajtis 3, PL -01-815 Varšava matteo@mkw.pl Ivan DODLEK filozofija, dr., doc. Philosophy, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. Univerza v Zagrebu, Katoliška teološka fakulteta University of Zagreb, Faculty of Catholic Theology Vlaška 38, HR – 10000 Zagreb ivan.dodlek@kbf.unizg.hr Roman GLOBOKAR moralna teologija, dr., izr. prof. Moral Theology, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana roman.globokar@teof.uni-lj.si Mitja GORENAK turizem, dr., izr. prof. Tourism, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za turizem University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism Cesta prvih borcev 36, SI -8250 Brežice mitja.gorenak@um.si Jana GORIUP socialna gerontologija, dr., zasl. prof. Social Gerontology, Ph.D., Prof. Emer. Alma Mater Europaea – ECM Alma Mater Europaea – ECM Slovenska ulica 17, SI -2000 Maribor jana.goriup@almamater.si Mihaela KEŽMAN turizem, asist. Tourism, Tch. Asst. Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za turizem University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism Cesta prvih borcev 36, SI -8250 Brežice mihaela.kezman@um.si Matic KOCIJANCIC primerjalna književnost in literarna teorija, dr., asist. Comparative Literature and Literary Theory, Ph.D., Tch. Asst. Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts Aškerceva cesta 2, SI -1000 Ljubljana matic.kocijancic@ff.uni-lj.si Gusztáv KOVÁCS filozofija, dr., prof. Philosophy, Ph.D., Prof. Visoka teološka šola v Pécsu Episcopal Theological College of Pécs Hunyadi János utca 11, HU -7625 Pécs kovacs.gusztav@pphf.hu Nenad MALOVIC filozofija, dr., izr. prof. Philosophy, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. Univerza v Zagrebu, Katoliška teološka fakulteta University of Zagreb, Faculty of Catholic Theology Vlaška 38, HR – 10000 Zagreb nenad.malovic@kbf.unizg.hr Luis Alfredo MOLINA GUZMAN ekonomija, dr., izr. prof. Economy, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. Papeška bolivarijanska univerza Pontifical Bolivarian University Circcular 1ra. Nro. 70-01, Bloque 6, CO -Medellín, Antioquia luis.molina@upb.edu.co Christopher NASERI biblicna teologija, dr., viš. pred. Biblical Theology, Ph.D., Sr. Lect. Univerza v Calabarju, Filozofska fakulteta University of Calabar, Faculty of Arts 1 Bishop Moynagh Avenue, P.M.B. 1124, NG -Calabar, Cross River State paxcasa@yahoo.com Luis Guillermo OROZCO SÁNCHEZ teologija, dr., doc. Theology, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. Papeška bolivarijanska univerza Pontifical Bolivarian University Carrera 40 No.49 D Sur 20, CO -Envigado, Antioquia luis.orozco@upb.edu.co Robert PETKOVŠEK filozofija, dr., prof. Philosophy, Ph.D., Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana robert.petkovsek@teof.uni-lj.si Saša POLJAK LUKEK zakonska in družinska terapija, dr., doc. Marital and Family Therapy, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana sasa.poljaklukek@teof.uni-lj.si Martha Cecilia POSADA DIEZ ekonomija, dr., doc. Economy, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. Papeška bolivarijanska univerza Pontifical Bolivarian University Circcular 1ra. Nro. 70-01, Bloque 6, CO -Medellín, Antioquia martha.posada@upb.edu.co Liza PRIMC dogmaticna teologija, mag. teol., mlada raziskovalka Dogmatic Theology, M.A. in Theology, Jr. Res. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana liza.primc@teof.uni-lj.si Wieslaw PRZYGODA pastoralna teologija, dr., prof. Pastoral Theology, Ph.D., Prof. Katoliška univerza Janeza Pavla II v Lublinu, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Inštitut teoloških znanosti Institute of Theological Sciences Ul. Radziszewskiego 7, PL -20-039 Lublin wieslaw.przygoda@kul.pl Piotr ROSZAK teologija, dr., prof. Theology, Ph.D., Prof. Univerza Nikolaja Kopernika v Torunu Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun Ul. Gagarina 37, PL -87-100 Torun piotrroszak@umk.pl Emil SALIM filozofija, dr., viš. pred. Philosophy, Ph.D., Sr. Lect. Fakulteta za reformirano (kalvinsko) teologijo Sekolah Tinggi Teologi Reformed Indonesia Jl. Kemang Utara IX no. 10, ID -Džakarta 12760 emil.salim@reformedindonesia.ac.id Barbara SIMONIC zakonska in družinska terapija, dr., prof. Marital and Family Therapy, Ph.D., Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana barbara.simonic@teof.uni-lj.si Stanislav SLATINEK kanonsko pravo, dr., izr. prof. Canon Law, Ph.D., Assoc. Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana stanislav.slatinek@teof.uni-lj.si Andrej ŠEGULA pastoralna teologija, dr., doc. Pastoral Theology, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana andrej.segula@teof.uni-lj.si Sebastijan VALENTAN kanonsko pravo, dr., doc. Canon Law, Ph.D., Asst. Prof. Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Theology Poljanska 4, SI – 1000 Ljubljana sebastijan.valentan@teof.uni-lj.si Wojciech ZYZAK duhovna teologija, dr., prof. Spiritual Theology, Ph.D., Prof. Papeška univerza Janeza Pavla II v Krakovu John Paul II Pontifical University in Krakow Beskidzka 26, PL -34-315 Zywiec wzyzak@gmail.com Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 249—261 Besedilo prejeto/Received:01/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:01/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-732.3 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Arko © 2022 Arko, CC BY 4.0 Alenka Arko Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Kairos of the Synodality in the Church Povzetek: Prispevek predstavlja nekatere vidike teologije sinodalnosti na osnovi dokumentov drugega vatikanskega koncila in pokoncilskega uciteljstva Cerkve, posebej papeža Franciška, dokumenta Mednarodne teološke komisije „Sino­dalnost v življenju in poslanstvu Cerkve“ (2018) ter sodobne teološke misli na dano temo. Prispevek se dotakne aktualnosti teme, pa tudi nekaterih kljucnih teoloških vprašanjih, ki so pomembna, da bi Cerkev mogla resnicno živeti sino­dalnost kot poslušanje in zvestobo Bogu ter kot zakrament odrešenja za vse cloveštvo: trinitarni temelj sinodalnosti in duhovnosti obcestva, potujoci znacaj Cerkve kot Božjega ljudstva, sredi katerega prebiva Kristus Pot – in ki hodi po Njegovih stopinjah. Prispevek spregovori tudi o odnosu med karizmaticnimi in hierarhicnimi karizmami, o sinodalnem razlocevanju in posebej o sinodalnosti na ravni krajevne Cerkve. Kljucne besede: ekleziologija, sinodalnost, teologija in duhovnost obcestva, karizme, razlocevanje, posvetovanje v Cerkvi, avtoriteta Abstract: The article presents some aspects of the theology of synodality based on the documents of the Second Vatican Council and the post-conciliar Magi-sterium of the Church, in particular Magisterium of the Pope Francis, as well on the document of the International Theological Commission „Synodality in the life and mission of the Church“ (2018), and contemporary theological re­flection on the topic. It deals with the actuality of the synodality and of some key theological issues which are pertinent and permit the Church to exercise synodality as listening to God and as fidelity to Him and to live as a sacrament of salvation for all humanity. Among these issues are emphasised the Trinita­rian foundation of synodality and the spirituality of communion, the itinerant character of the Church as the people of God, in the midst of whom dwells Christ -the Way, and which follows in His footsteps, the relationship between charismatic and hierarchical charisms, synodal discernment and, in particular, synodality at the level of the local Church. Keywords: ecclesiology, synodality, theology and spirituality of communion, cha­risms, discernment, consultation in the Church, authority Ko govorimo o sinodalnosti v Cerkvi danes, ne moremo mimo besed, ki jih je pa-pež Francišek izrekel v svojem govoru ob praznovanju 50-letnice ustanovitve Ško­fovske sinode 17. oktobra 2015: »Pot sinodalnosti je pot, ki jo Bog pricakuje od Cerkve v tretjem tisocletju.« (2015, 1139) Tema je še posebej aktualna, ker smo sredi sinodalnega procesa – v pripravi na naslednje zasedanje škofovske sinode, posveceno prav sinodalnosti, ki predstavlja morda najbolj pomembno dogajanje v Cerkvi po drugem vatikanskem koncilu. Sam termin ,sinodalnost‘ je nov in smo ga do nedavnega lahko srecali le v teo­loški literaturi, ki je vse bolj obširna, ceprav je jasno, da sinodalni dogodki in pra­ksa Cerkev spremljajo že od samega zacetka. V cem je torej kairos – milostni cas – sinodalnosti danes? Cerkveno pravo je skozi zgodovino opredelilo, v kakšnih okolišcinah in na kakšni ravni se lahko sinode in koncili (gre za sinonima, prvi termin je grški synodos, dru­gi pa njegov prevod v latinšcino concilium)1 obhajajo, kakšna vprašanja in po ka­kšnih postopkih obravnavajo, kdo se jih mora in kdo se jih sme udeležiti, pa tudi kdo sprejema in potrdi odlocitve. Ko se govori o sinodalnosti v Cerkvi danes, na prvem mestu ni kanonski vidik. Teologija ga sicer ne more izkljuciti, kanonistom celo predlaga nekatere izzive, na katere bi bilo treba odgovoriti, da bi Cerkev pre­ko sinodalnosti lahko bolj delovala kot Božje ljudstvo in Kristusovo telo – enovit in usklajen organizem, v katerem imajo vsi udje enako dostojanstvo, svoje poseb-no mesto in vlogo. Skratka, teologija kanonsko pravo spodbuja k iskanju vseh pravnih možnosti za udejanjanje sinodalne Cerkve. Namen teološke refleksije sinodalnosti pa še zdalec ni predvsem spekulativen. Teološki razmislek želi dati temelje za pastoralno-misijonsko udejanjanje sinodal­nosti, posebej za vkljucevanje vseh kršcenih v poslanstvo Cerkve – in da bi se še prepricljiveje napotila k tistim, ki Kristusa in veselega oznanila še ne poznajo, v skrbi, da bi bili deležni odrešenja. S tem namenom želi katoliška teologija vredno­titi svetopisemsko razodetje, ki poudarja obcestveno razsežnost odrešenja, pa tudi dedišcino sinodalne prakse skozi zgodovino in teologijo drugega vatikanskega kon­cila – ki se vraca prav k izrocilu prvega tisocletja kršcanstva, hkrati pa izhajajoc iz evharisticne ekleziologije odpira tudi nove smeri razmišljanja. Z ekleziološke perspektive lahko recemo, da je teologija sinodalnosti zgolj za-crtana. Dokument Mednarodne teološke komisije „Sinodalnost v življenju in po­slanstvu Cerkve“ (2018) vsebuje poglavje, posveceno teološkemu razmisleku o tej temi, z naslovom „Na poti k teologiji sinodalnosti“. Hkrati velja opozoriti tudi, da izraz in koncept ,sinodalnost‘ zaradi vedno pogostejše rabe ni vedno enoumno in pravilno razumljen. Po eni strani je lahko hitro zožen na zbornost škofov, po drugi pa se z njim neredko oznacuje sleherno skupno razmišljanje, razglabljanje in zbi­ranje v Cerkvi. Zato je še toliko pomembneje razumeti, da ima sinodalnost svojo Latinski izraz concilum je izpeljanka iz glagola concalere in je prvotno – v svetni rabi – pomenil ,sklicano zborovanje‘. To je zelo blizu hebrejskemu pojmu qahal – zbor Božjega ljudstva, ki ga je sklical Jahve – in grškemu ekklesia – zbor novega Božjega ljudstva, ki ga je sklical Jezus Kristus –, torej Cerkev. Zato ne preseneca, da so ga že zgodaj zaceli uporabljati tudi za cerkvena zborovanja (Lampe 1968, 1334). Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi strukturo in notranjo dinamiko, ki je lastna Cerkvi – in katere cilj je vedno poslu­šanje Svetega Duha in obcestveno prepoznavanje Božje volje ter poti oznanjevanja evangelija. Sinodalnost je vedno dialoška: v smislu dialoga med Bogom in clove­kom ter med udi Kristusovega Telesa. Dokument MTK zato želi predstaviti sinodal­nost kot modus vivendi et operandi Cerkve – Božjega ljudstva na poti v Ocetovo hišo –, zbrati v eno ,novo in staro‘, posebej pa poudariti, da sinodalnost ni vezana najprej in predvsem na sinodalne dogodke in procese, temvec predstavlja vir in vrhunec življenja Cerkve. Zato ne preseneca, da je najbolj primerna paradigma in izraz sinodalnega življenja prav obhajanje evharistije (C 11; KKC §1324), ki obce­stvo Cerkve udejanja »po Kristusu, s Kristusom in v Kristusu«. Le na podlagi te prvinske, izvorne obcestvenosti je mogoce opredeliti in predpisati sinodalne nor-me, dolocila, postopke, kanone. 1. Sinodalnost – razsežnosti in pomen neologizma Kot že receno, je izraz ,sinodalnost‘ neologizem, ki ga v dokumentih drugega va­tikanskega koncila še ne zasledimo. Izpeljan je iz besede sinoda. Synodos je grška sestavljenka iz predpone syn ,s‘, skupaj‘ in samostalnika hodos ,pot‘. Dobesedno torej pomeni ,pot skupaj‘, ,skupna pot‘. V klasicni gršcini ima hodos še en pomen – hodos ni le pot, ampak tudi hišni prag. Synodos pomeni torej tudi skupaj prestopiti prag hiše, da bi se srecali, prebivali skupaj. Zato cerkveni ocetje izraz uporabljajo v pomenu cerkvenega zbora, zasedanja (Hausman 2010, 197).2 V Svetem pismu izraza sinoda kot samostalnika ne najdemo. V Apd 9,7, ko Luka piše o ljudeh, »ki so potovali s« Pavlom v Damask, uporablja deležnik glagola synodeo – ,hoditi z, spremljati‘. V evangeljskem odlomku o poti svete družine v jeruzalemski tempelj na pashalni praznik pa najdemo samostalnik synodia – ,po-potna drušcina‘ (Lk 2,44). Prve kršcanske skupnosti so z izrazom synodos oznacevale liturgicne zbore, kar pojem vkljucuje v pomensko polje, ki se prekriva z izrazoma Cerkev (ekklesia) in obcestvo (koinonia). Janez Zlatoust celo trdi: »Sinoda je ime Cerkve« (Ekklesia synodou estin onoma)(Exp. in Salmo, 149, 1 [PG 55, 493]). Šele v 4. st. Evzebij Cezarejski pojem synodos uporablja kot tehnicni izraz za zborovanja škofov (synodoi ton episkopon)(Hist. Eccl. 7, 27,2), torej kot sopo­menko izraza ,cerkveni zbor‘ (Seiben 2009, 1186-1187). V takem pomenu bese-do sinoda najdemo še v dokumentih drugega vatikanskega koncila, kjer je upo­rabljena 136-krat – in sicer kot sinonim za izraz koncil, ki je uporabljen 45-krat. Podobno sliko vidimo tudi v obeh zakonikih cerkvenega prava – zahodnem in vzhodnem. G. Lampe navaja, da veliko patristicnih besedil odraža ta dva pomena besede synodos: hoditi skupaj in zbirati se, zasedati (1968, 1334–1335). 2. Trinitarni temelj teologije in duhovnosti obcestva Teologija obcestva je obzorje velikih trditev drugega vatikanskega koncila (Tillard 1989, 5) – utemeljena je na spoznanju, da Cerkev izvira iz življenja, polnosti in ob­cestva v Sveti Trojici. Je namrec plebs adunata de Trinitate (C 2-4; CS 2-4). Cerkev je deležna življenja obcestva Svete Trojice v Kristusu in v moci Svetega Duha – in je poklicana to obcestvo razširiti na vse ljudi. Vir, oblika in namen sinodalnosti je prav v »daru obcestvenosti in v prizadevanju zanjo« (MTK 2018, 43). Glavni spod­bujevalec in ustvarjalec obcestvenosti v Cerkvi je Sveti Duh. Ta je namrec v Trojici vez ljubezni (nexus amoris), ki to ljubezen posreduje tudi Cerkvi. V tem smislu smemo trditi, da sinodalnost Troedinega Boga odraža in k njemu usmerja – s svojim udejanjanjem razodeva notranje bistvo Boga in vodi k njemu. R. Repole (2019, 56) prodorno razmišlja: »Cerkvena oblika je temeljna za posredovanje tega, kakšen je Bog, ki ga oznanja, s svojim življenjem. Sinodalnost izraža v življenju same Cerkve istovetnost Boga, ki jo gradi in ki ga je poklicana oznanjati /.../ sinodalnost je temeljna, bistvena razsežnost Cerkve, ne zgolj in ne toliko iz instrumen­talnih vzrokov (da bi bilo oznanjevanje bolj ucinkovito), ampak zato, ker življenje in pricevanje Cerkve ne moreta ne ustrezati temu, kar Cerkev oznanja.« Avtor upraviceno opozarja, da je prav izražanje obcestvenosti, ki je odsev sku­pnosti v Sveti Trojici, pristna znacilnost in kriterij resnicne sinodalnosti. Zgodovina prica, da je bilo veliko sinod in koncilov, ki so bili vse prej kot izraz obcestvenosti. Podobna nevarnost je prisotna vedno, zato je za sinodalnost bistvenega pomena presegati zgolj formalne vidike – in skrbeti, da bi struktura sinodalnega procesa in dogodkov bila v prvi vrsti sredstvo globokega osebnega poslušanja Svetega Duha in tega, kar udeležencem sinodalnega procesa Duh govori. Za to je smiselno na-crtno gojiti ‚sinodalno kulturo‘, ki vkljucuje vero, da je vsak ud Cerkve poleg istega dostojanstva, prejetega pri krstu, prejel tudi posebno karizmo. Prav posamezne karizme, ki so dar Duha posamezniku za blagor skupnosti, vernike med seboj po­vezujejo v eno Kristusovo Telo (C 4). Že v novozavezni teologiji – predvsem v Pavlovih pismih – je ocitno, da se Kristusovo Telo rojeva iz evharistije, pri kateri so verniki zbrani po »milosti Jezusa Kristusa, ljubezni Boga Oceta in v obcestvu Svetega Duha« (2 Kor 13,13). Zato ne preseneca dejstvo, da je središcni in prvenstveni kraj udejanjanja sinodalnosti sveta maša – ne sama po sebi, ampak preko »polne, zavestne in dejavne udeležbe« sle­hernega pri evharisticni daritvi (MTK 2018, 47). Pri evharistiji je po delovanju Sve­tega Duha v Cerkvi najbolj navzoc vstali Kristus, ki po eni strani omogoca razbiranje nacina in konkretnih korakov za uresnicevanje poslanstva Cerkve – po drugi pa vodi k soglasju, ki je obenem znamenje in sad Duha v Kristusu (Ruggieri 2017, 71–91). Središcnost in prvenstvenost evharisticne daritve za sinodalnost poudarja tudi ter­minologija – sinodo obhajamo, kot obhajamo sveto mašo. Tudi „Ordo ad Synodum“ predpisuje, da je treba sinodalni dogodek zaceti z obhajanjem evharistije in intro­ Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi nizacijo evangelija. Na tak nacin poudarja, da je sinoda cerkveni zbor, ki gradi obce­stvenost preko poslušanja Božje besede in njenega razbiranja, razlikovanja v luci Kristusove velikonocne skrivnosti. Dokument MTK „Sinodalnost v življenju in poslanstvu Cerkve“ predstavlja evha­risticno strukturo sinodalnosti oz. obcestvenosti Cerkve v tocki 109. V njej zavzema prvenstveno mesto prav Sveta Trojica. Obcestvo Cerkve ni rezultat dogovora, naše dobre volje, našega napora, ampak je milosten dar – kot je dar tudi sprava z Bogom in brati, ki je pogoj obcestva. To se udejanja s poslušanjem Božje besede in dele­ženjem Kristusovega telesa. Latinski izraz communio pomeni tako obhajilo kot ob­cestvo – in to razsežnost milosti, kot piše sv. Avguštin, nazorno poudarja: »›Vi ste Kristusovo telo in njegovi udje.‹ (1 Kor 10,17) Ce ste torej udje in Kristusovo telo, je na Gospodovi mizi vaša sveta skrivnost: prejemate to, kar ste. Temu, kar ste, odgovarjate: ›Amen‹ in z vašim odgovorom to podpisu­jete. Namrec, receno ti je: ›Kristusovo telo‹ in ti odgovarjaš: ›Amen‹. Bodi Kristusovo telo, da bo tvoj ›amen‹ resnicen.« (Sermo 272, 1 [PL 38, 1247]) Zgolj takšna zasidranost in odprtost Božji milosti je lahko poroštvo razlocevanja poslanstva v Svetem Duhu. Seveda pa evharisticna razsežnost sinodalnosti še ne pomeni, da je dovolj obhajati sveto mašo pred zacetkom sinodalnega procesa – da je to samo po sebi poroštvo njegove pristnosti. Evharistija, ki je vir in vrhunec kr-šcanskega življenja (C 11) – središce, globina in obseg življenja –, naj bi prežela bi-vanje posameznika in skupnosti, miselnost, odlocitve, ravnanje ter jih naredila ,ob­cestvene‘. 3. Potujoca Cerkev Božje ljudstvo, ki je skupaj na poti, ki živi sinodalno, je usmerjeno h Kristusu, ki je Pot (Jn 14,6). Bog v Kristusu ni ‚nad‘ Božjim ljudstvom, ampak sredi njega (Mt 18,20; 28,20). Sinodalna Cerkev je – ce uporabimo besede Tertulijana – rapre­sentatio Christi (Adv. Marc. I, 14 [CCSL 1, 455]): podoba in zakrament Kristusa in hkrati njegovo ponavzocenje v Svetem Duhu. To rojeva sozvocje in soglasje med posameznimi udi Cerkve – kar ne pomeni sprejetja dolocene formule ali opera-tivne odlocitve, ampak je predvsem concordantia oppositorum, enost svobodnih subjektov glede dolocenega vprašanja (Ruggeri 2017, 73-88). Ta vidik sinodalno­sti bi lahko imenovali centripetalni, saj Cerkev vedno znova usmerja k njenemu središcu – Kristusu. Sinodalnost pa ima tudi centrifugalni vidik: izraža potujoci, romarski znacaj Cer­kve, ki stopa po Kristusovih stopinjah in ga želi oznaniti do konca zemlje – in to de­lati do konca casov, ko bo vse cloveštvo zbrano v Njem. Cerkev je torej sinodalna, ce posnema Kristusa, mu služi in ga oznanja vsem ljudem v spoštovanju njihovih osebnih karizem, in ne v njihovem iznicenju, kot se dogaja v primeru klerikalizacije laikov in sekularizacije duhovšcine, na kar opozarja dokument MTK (2018, 104). Za to pa niso pomembna samo konkretna dejanja, ampak še prej vsestransko osebno dozorevanje, ki predpostavlja proces, razvoj, pot – da bi prišli do istega cutenja in razumevanja v Kristusu (Flp 2,5; Rim 12,2; 1 Kor 2,16) v skladu z osebno karizmo. Sinodalno torej ni zgolj cutenje, niso le želje ,hoditi skupaj‘ – potreben je tudi si­nodalni nacin razmišljanja. Tega lahko oznacimo kot mišljenje, ki je ukoreninjeno v,dogodku Kristus‘ in ki se v zgodovini nadaljuje po delovanju Svetega Duha. Že papež Janez Pavel II. je v apostolskem pismu „Ob zacetku novega tisocletja“ poudaril, da mora biti Cerkev »hiša in šola obcestva« (št. 43). Pristne sinodalnosti torej ni, ce ni iskanja skupnosti, obcestva v ponižnosti in pokoršcini Kristusu in tudi drug drugemu – za kar je potrebno notranje precišcenje. Dokument „Sinodalnost v življenju in poslanstvu Cerkve“ tako prepoznava pristnega duha sinodalnosti v himni iz Pavlo­vega Pisma Filipljanom: »Phronesis (mišljenje) ucencev mora biti tisto, ki ga preje­majo od Oceta zaradi zasidranosti v Kristusu. Kenosis (iznicenje) Kristusa (Flp 2,7-10) je radikalna oblika njegove pokoršcine Ocetu, za ucence pa je poklicanost cutiti, razmišljati in razlocevati v ponižnosti Božjo voljo v hoji za Uciteljem in Gospodom.« (MTK 2018, 112) Papež Francišek to imenuje »odnosni pogled na svet, ki postaja skupno spoznanje, vizija v viziji bližnjega in skupna vizija vseh stvari« (LF 27). V pr-vem primeru ,jaz‘ gleda ,tretjega‘, torej realnost; s pogledom ‚ti‘ v drugem pa dva, ki sta se predhodno ,sporazumela‘, gledata v isto smer (Clemenzia 2019, 114). Papež Francišek (2021) je v svojem razmišljanju pred zacetkom sinodalnega procesa 9. oktobra lani opozoril na tri nevarnosti, ki se jih moramo zavedati – in se jim izogibati –, da bi bila namen sinodalnega procesa in njegovo izvajanje res prava in ucinkovita: formalizem, intelektualizem in imobilnost. V primežu forma­lizma se Cerkev znajde tedaj, ko je sinoda nekakšen izredni izreden, vendar samo na zunaj – ne pa dejanski proces razlocevanja, kako naj Cerkev z Božjim delova­njem v svetu bolj sodeluje. V intelektualizem bi se sinoda izrodila, ce bi sinodalni proces postal zadeva študijske skupine, ki bi o problemih Cerkve in sveta razgla­bljala sicer zelo kompetentno, vendar abstraktno. Tretja nevarnost je vztrajanje pri tradiciji: bolj varno je ostajati pri starem in utecenem, ne spreminjati nicesar. Takšna drža je nevarna zato, ker pomeni ne jemati resno v pretres znamenj casa, v katerem živimo – ker ne dopušca prenove mišljenja, drž, prakse in cerkvenih struktur. 4. Hierarhicni in karizmaticni darovi Danes se v teološki literaturi široko uporablja formula Legranda (2007, 72), da je za sinodalnost bistvena soodvisnost odgovornosti in posredovanja hkrati ,vseh‘ (to je celotnega Božjega ljudstva), ,nekaterih‘ (škofov vesoljne Cerkve ali duhovni– kov v krajevni Cerkvi) udov Božjega ljudstva in pa ,enega‘ (svetega oceta v vesoljni Cerkvi oz. škofa v krajevni). »Sinodalna Cerkev je Cerkev, ki podpira soudeležbo in soodgovornost. V uresnicevanju sinodalnosti je poklicana k temu, da – v moci oblasti, ki jo je Kristus podelil zboru škofov s papežem na celu – najde nacine so-delovanja vseh, v skladu s poklicanostjo posameznika.« (MTK 2018, 67) Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Tema od blizu zadeva hierarhicne in karizmaticne darove kršcenih (Kongrega­cija za nauk vere 2017), o katerih govori že apostol Pavel, in sicer v poglavjih, kjer razvija temo Cerkve kot Kristusovega telesa: 1 Kor 12,12-17; Rim 12,4-5 in Ef 4,4.3 Z njo Pavel izraža tako edinost Cerkve (eno telo) kot razlicnost njenih udov, ki so ukoreninjeni v umrlem in vstalem Kristusu. Formula »en Christo / en Kyrio« – »v Kristusu / v Gospodu« (1 Kor 15,45) – je v Corupus Paulinum pogosta. Vclenitev v Kristusa se zgodi pri krstu (1 Kor 12,13; Gal 3,27) in po evharistiji (1 Kor 10,16-17), torej po Svetem Duhu, po milosti. Od tod sledi, da sta za življenje Cerkve solidar­nost in služenje bistvenega pomena. Vsi udje so namrec potrebni in pomembni, vsi imajo enako dostojanstvo, a tudi odgovornost za skupnost. Barbaglio (2007, 37) govori o dvojni dinamiki sinodalnosti – vertikalni in horizontalni – pri Pavlu: »Ker so po milosti verniki deležni istega izkustva Kristusa, so priobceni drug dru­gemu, z drugimi besedami – obcestvo med njimi je posledica obcestva s Kristusom, ki jim je skupno. Njihova povezanost s Kristusom je temeljni razlog njihove pove­zanosti med seboj.« Izraz karizma (izpeljanka iz grške besede charis – ,milost, zastonjski dar ljube­zni‘) prica, da je sleherni duhovni dar zastonjska pobuda Boga. Še vec – ker gre za nezaslužen dar, se ne more nihce ponašati niti s svojo osebno karizmo niti s tem, da ima vse karizme, kot tudi nihce ne more trditi, da je brez karizme. Nasprotno, vsakomur je dana ena od karizem – ne zanj osebno, ampak najprej za to, da bi z njo služil skupnosti, Cerkvi s ponižnostjo (tapeinophrosyne), krotkostjo (prayte), s potrpežljivostjo in prenašanjem drugih (Ef 4,2-3): tako se posameznik upodablja Kristusu. Duhovni darovi so namrec darovani »po meri Kristusovega daru» (Ef 4,7).4 Pavlov nauk je za sinodalnost bistvenega pomena, saj prica, da se nasprotja in trenja med posameznimi udi Cerkve ne morejo reševati z medsebojnim soocanjem – njegov rezultat je obicajno premoc nekaterih in frustracija drugih –, ampak le na podlagi odnosa s Kristusom (Pitta 2009, 426). Ce Pavlov nauk o karizmah prenesemo na raven sinodalnosti, je treba poudariti dva vidika: soudeleženost vseh udov Cerkve v sinodalnem procesu (tudi soodgo­vornost zanj) in pa vodstveno vlogo pastirjev, tj. škofov, ki ni delegirana, ampak božjepravna – njen namen je ohranjati enotnost v Cerkvi. 3 Apostol uporablja podobo, ki je bila v anticnem svetu znana za izražanje edinosti v socio-politicnem smislu (prim. Platon, Resp. 370 A-B; Aristotel, Politica V, 462d; Tit Livij, Ab Urbe Condita 2, 32,7–12; Seneka, De ira 2, 31,7) in v smislu organskosti vesolja. 4 Zanimivo je, da sta v najdaljšem seznamu (1 Kor 12, 8-10), s katerim hoce apostol predstaviti bogastvo darov, danih skupnosti, na prvem mestu modrost in spoznanje, ki sta vezana na besedo – torej na uciteljsko službo (Collins 1999, 451) oz. na to, kar gradi skupnost Cerkve. V nadaljevanju v vv. 28-30 pa Pavel navaja darove, ki dajejo Cerkvi organsko strukturo. Tudi tukaj so na prvem mestu tisti, ki imajo vodstveno in uciteljsko službo – apostoli, preroki in ucitelji –, ki služijo rasti Besede (Fabris 1999, 169-175). V Rim 12,6b-8 je na prvem mestu preroštvo, sledita mu služenje – pri Pavlu sinonim za pri­diganje (Pitta 2009, 430) – in poucevanje. Podobno podobo vidimo v Ef 4,11, kjer so na prvem mestu zopet apostoli, to je price vstalega Gospoda ali izvorni služabniki, sledijo preroki ali ustanovitelji posa­meznih skupnosti in evangelisti, pastirji in ucitelji (Romanello 2003, 153-154). Kljub temu pa za Pavla apostoli niso vec kot drugi udje Cerkve, temvec služabniki, delavci, pomocniki (Fabris 1999, 169-175). To je najbolj ocitno vidno v temeljnem kriteriju pristnosti sleherne karizme: ljubezni (1 Kor 12,31). »Nikomur ne bodite nic dolžni, razen da se med seboj ljubite. Kdor namrec bližnjega ljubi, je postavo spolnil.« (Rim 13,8) Vidik soudeleženosti in soodgovornosti je tesno povezan tudi z vprašanjem iz­bire udeležencev sinodalnega procesa, ki naj ne bi bili doloceni po cloveških me-rilih – ampak naj bi bili izbrani tisti, ki so sposobni skupaj poslušati, »kaj Duh govori Cerkvi po Božji besedi, ki odmeva v našem casu, in z ocmi vere razlagati znamenja casa« (MTK 2018, 68). Ceprav je treba apostolskost Cerkve vedno zagotoviti, pa so udeleženci sinode oz. sinodalnega procesa lahko izbrani na razlicne nacine in v razlicnem številu – glede na poklicno izobrazbo in izvedenost posameznika za po­samezno temo, o kateri Cerkev v sinodalnem postopku razmišlja na razlicnih rav­neh. Repole (2019, 60) zato piše: »Dejstvo, da obstajajo razlicni sinodalni dogodki, tudi zaradi tematik, ki jih v razlicnih casih obravnavajo, je potrebno posledicno vsakic posebej dolociti, kateri kristjani imajo vecjo avtoriteto zaradi vecje kompetentnosti glede obravnavanih tem. Ocitno je, da kompetentnost ni vezana samo na zakrament svetega reda, ampak tudi na karizmo, ki jo je posameznik prejel in razvil tekom svojega kršcanskega življenja.« Izbira udeležencev je povezana tudi z nujnostjo posvetovanja škofov z udi Cerkve oz. z laiki. Posvetovanje je bistvenega pomena za to, da se sinodalni zbor ne bi razdelil na manjšino in vecino, temvec bi bilo mogoce v rodovitnem dialogu priti do cim vecjega soglasja. To je sad navzocnosti vstalega Gospoda v moci Svetega Duha, ki deluje v vseh – in ne le v nekaterih. Ceprav razlikujemo med zgolj posvetovalnim glasom (votum tantum consultivum), ki pripada laikom, in odlocu­jocim glasom (votum deliberativum), ki ga imajo pastirji, slednji mnenj vernikov ne smejo podcenjevati. Dokument MTK poudarja, da posvetovalnega glasu v Cer­kvi ne gre izenacevati s pomenom, ki ga ima v civilnem pravu. Ne gre preprosto za glasovanje, kjer prevlada vecina, kot v parlamentarizmu, temvec za poslušanje ,željá (vota)‘ Božjega ljudstva (2018, 68) – saj je lahko tudi razumevanje manjšine za posamezne odlocitve odlocujoce. Dokument MTK opozarja tudi na razliko »med postopkom oblikovanja doloce­ne odlocitve (decision-making), ki poteka v skupnem razpoznavanju, posvetovanju in sodelovanju, ter med sprejemanjem pastoralne odlocitve (decision-taking); to pa je v pristojnosti škofa, ki je porok apostolstva in katolištva« (69) – vendar ne izkljucno, saj ZCP predvideva, da smejo pastirji v posebnih primerih ukrepati šele potem, ko so po poti, ki jo doloca kanonsko pravo, pridobili razlicna mnenja.5 Nuj­nost posvetovanja škofov z duhovniki in laiki torej ne izvira iz pomanjkanja kom­petenc, temvec »iz zavedanja, da mora odlocitev izhajati iz poslušanja Božjega ljudstva in mora biti prevedena v dejanje resnicnega ‚soglasja‘ (con-sentire),6 ki izraža ucljivost celotne skupnosti delovanju Svetega Duha« (Giraudo 2019, 62). 5 ZCP doloca naslednje: kadar predstojnik potrebuje privolitev ali nasvet kakega zbora (collegium) ali skupine oseb (coetus), mora sklicati zbor ali skupino ali ju povprašati za mnenje v skladu z zakonom (kan. 127, § 1; kan 166; kan. 166–173). Da so dejanja veljavna, mora pridobiti mnenje vseh (kan. 127, § 2). 6 Glagol con-sentire, ki pomeni ,prepoznati, soglašati z‘ – podobno kot samostalnik consenso (,soglasje‘) –, je sestavljenka iz predpone con-,s‘, skupaj‘ in glagola sentire (,slišati, poslušati‘). Soglasje je torej rezultat skupnega poslušanja. Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Glede vodstvene vloge oz. hierarhicnih karizem pa velja poudariti, da kanonsko pravo še vedno vztraja, da se lahko sinodalni proces uresnicuje le znotraj hierarhicno strukturirane skupnosti vernikov, na celu katere je na krajevni ravni škof, na vesoljni pa sveti oce. Takšna struktura, ce je le pravilno razumljena, ne pomeni razdeljenosti skupnosti7 – pastirji so namrec v imenu edinega Pastirja poklicani delovati v dobro obcestva in za njegovo rast (C 27). V teološki literaturi se vsekakor pojavlja vprašanje, kako globlje razumeti nacelo rimskega prava, ki ga je privzela tudi Cerkev: »Quod omnes tangit, ab ominibus tractari et approbari debet« (Congar 1958, 210-259) – še posebej glede na dejstvo, na katero opozarja že CS 43, da pastirji v vseh stvareh niso in ne morejo biti izvedeni do te mere, da bi imeli izdelane odgovore na vsa vprašanja in probleme, ki se pojavljajo v konkretnem zgodovinskem trenutku. 5. Razlocevanje Za sinodalni proces je zelo pomembno obcestveno razlocevanje. Namen sinodal­nega razlocevanja je poslušanje Božjega glasu in hkrati skupaj z Bogom poslušanje krika Božjega ljudstva – torej kontemplacija Boga in njegovega delovanja v zgodo­vini in kontemplacija Božjega ljudstva (EG 154). V sinodalnem razlocevanju igra poleg upoštevanja drugih objektivnih kriterijev (Božja beseda, živo izrocilo Cerkve, karizme, recta ratio, modrost, ki izvira iz zakla­dnice posameznih kultur, razvoj cerkvene zavesti) odlocilno vlogo cut vere pri ver­nikih (sensus fidei fidelium). Njegov svetopisemski temelj lahko najdemo v 1 Jn 2,27. Gre za maziljenje, ki so ga verujoci prejeli pri krstu. C 12 ga opredeljuje kot intuitivno razumevanje vprašanj, ki zadevajo vero in moralo, kar Božje ljudstvo dela nezmotljivo in credendo. Cut vere je v sinodalnem procesu tako pomemben zato, ker je na njem utemeljena nujnost poslušanja hierarhije Božjega ljudstva in posvetovanja z njim, ko gre za odlocitve v Cerkvi (Francišek 2013, 119). Seveda se v zvezi s tem samo po sebi postavlja vprašanje, kako se danes, v raz­kristjanjenem svetu, sensus fidei fidelium izraža: koga in v kolikšni meri je treba poslušati, še posebej ker je sinodalnost lahko hitro razumljena kot svojevrsten parlamentarizem, kjer lahko sleherni izrazi svoje interese in zahteve, ki niso vedno v skladu s cerkvenim izrocilom ali s kanonskim pravom – ali pa so brez teološke podlage. Ta vprašanja in probleme, ki so povezani z njimi, nazorno predstavlja do-kument MTK „Sensus fidei v življenju Cerkve“ (2014), ki pojasnjuje najpomemb­nejše drže, ki so pogoj za rodovitno in dejavno udeleženost vernika v custvu vere vernih (cl. 88-105). Besedilo poudarja medsebojno prepletenost teh drž in neza­dostnost le ene ali druge. Ker so te drže bistvene tudi za resnicno sinodalnost, jih tukaj povzemamo. Od druge polovice 16. stol. pa do drugega vatikanskega koncila je bila taka locenost pravilo, saj je bila Cerkev opredeljena kot societas perfecta et inaequalium. Zgovorna je npr. trditev dekreta Svetega uficija Lamentabili (1907): »In definiendis veritatibus ita collaborant discens et docens Ecclesia, ut do-centi Ecclesiae nihil supersit, nisi communes discentis opinationes.« (Denzinger, tc. 3406) Najpomembnejša je gotovo aktivna udeleženost v življenju Cerkve: redno mo-litveno življenje vernikov in še posebej udeležba pri evharistiji in zakramentu spra­ve, soglasje z naukom Cerkve glede vprašanj vere in morale, želja izpolnjevati za­povedi, prepoznanje in udejanjanje duhovnih darov in karizem, ki jih je posameznik prejel za dobro skupnosti, ter pogum za bratsko opominjanje in sprejemanje opo­minov (št. 89). Z eno besedo bi to držo lahko povzeli z besedami sentire cum Eccle­sia. Ne gre za abstrakten pojem, ampak za resnicno doživljanje, da smo bratje in sestre v Kristusu – za medsebojno skrb in željo graditi obcestvo Cerkve ter po svo­jih moceh prispevati za skupno dobro tudi izven nje. Tej temeljni drži sledijo še poslušanje in premišljevanje Božje besede, posebej v casu bogoslužja, ter odgovor srca nanjo – vera, ki se v luci razuma vedno znova prenavlja (prim. Rim 12,2); poslušanje in sprejemanje uciteljstva Cerkve; svetost življenja, izražena v ponižnosti, svobodi in veselju, h katerim so poklicani vsi kr-šceni (C 5). Brez teh drž udeleženci sinodalnega procesa težko slišijo to, kar Duh Cerkvi v dolocenem casu resnicno govori (Raz 2,7) – predlogi in rešitve pa so zato lahko zgolj formalni, brez duhovne ustvarjalnosti, ki je lastna Svetemu Duhu in tistim, ki se mu dajo v slehernem casu voditi. 6. Sinodalnost na ravni krajevne Cerkve Ker je sinodalnost vec kot le zbornost škofov, zbranih skupaj s Petrom in pod Pe­trom (cum Petro et sub Petro), preko katere se skrivnostno uresnicuje obcestvo med vsemi Cerkvami, se primarno udejanja v krajevnih Cerkvah (Borras 2014, 647).Škofovska zbornost, ki ne bi bila ukoreninjena v konkretnih Cerkvah in v skupni poti verujocih, ki jih sestavljajo, torej v sinodalnosti na krajevni ravni, bi bila zgolj abstraktna – saj ne bi upoštevala konkretnega življenja Božjega ljudstva. Znotraj krajevnih Cerkva se sinodalnost udejanja na ravni duhovniškega zbora posamezne škofije in pa znotraj sinodalnih struktur, ki vkljucujejo tudi laike. Najbolj slovesen sinodalni dogodek v krajevni Cerkvi je škofijski cerkveni zbor ali sinoda. Gre za nekakšen ,milostni dogodek‘ pod vodstvom škofa, sklican v ime-nu Kristusa, da bi Cerkev skupaj preudarjala, kako odgovarjati na pastoralne izzive in uresnicevati poslanstvo Cerkve. V prvih stoletjih so bile škofijske sinode pogo-ste. Nicejski cerkveni zbor (325) je od škofov zahteval, naj jih sklicujejo dvakrat na leto. Kasneje so postajale vse redkejše – in že v srednjem veku marsikje bolj kot ne izjemni dogodki. Ceprav se skozi zgodovino pojavljajo razlicni poskusi poživlja­nja sinodalne prakse na regionalni in škofijski ravni, kot npr. v stolnih kapitljih in organizaciji življenja uboštvenih redov, pobud posameznih škofov po tridentinskem koncilu (sv. Karel Boromejski in sv. Turibij Mongroveški) – ter od druge polovice 19. st. z ustanavljanjem škofovskih konferenc in po drugem vatikanskem koncilu tudi sklicem škofijskih sinod v nekaterih krajevnih Cerkvah –, pa vse do danes ta praksa ni niti ustaljena niti široko sprejeta. Morda zaradi mocne klerikalizacije Cerkve, morda pa tudi zaradi negativnih izkušenj sinodalnih zborov, ki so posledi-ca pomanjkljive formacije udeležencev. Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Poleg škofijske sinode v krajevnih Cerkvah obstajajo tudi stalni sinodalni organi: škofijska kurija, zbor svetovalcev, kapitelj kanonikov, gospodarski svet, duhovniškisvet in škofijski pastoralni svet (Š 27). Dokument MTK o sinodalnosti prav v slednjem vidi »najustreznejšo stalno strukturo za uresnicevanje sinodalnosti v krajevni Cerkvi« (2018, 81), in sicer zaradi njegove narave oz. sestave (vanj so vkljuceni duhovniki, redovniki in laiki – clani cerkvenih gibanj in strokovnjaki z razlicnih podrocij), pogostosti srecanj, nacina delovanja ter ciljev in vprašanj, ki jih obravnava. To prepricanje je svojevrsten odmev na besede papeža Franciška (2013) ob zacetku papeževanja: »Pastoralni sveti so zelo pomembni! Škof ne more voditi škofije brez škofijskega pastoralnega sveta!« Navodilo Kongregacije za duhovšcino „Pastoralno spreobrnjenje župnijske sku­pnosti v službi misijonskega poslanstva Cerkve“ predvideva poleg župnijskega go-spodarskega sveta tudi obvezen obstoj župnijskega pastoralnega sveta, ki ga ve­ljavni Zakonik cerkvenega prava le priporoca (kan. 536, § 1) – to je možnost za aktivno vkljucevanje laikov v nacrtovanje in izvajanje pastoralne dejavnosti v žu­pniji. Omenjeni dokument vidi teološki temelj pastoralnega sveta v dejstvu, da je Cerkev Kristusovo Telo, iz katerega se rojeva duhovnost obcestva: »V kršcanski skupnosti namrec razlicnost karizem in služb, ki izhaja iz utelešenja v Kristusa in iz daru Svetega Duha, ne more biti nikoli tako enovita, da bi postala ›uniformiranost, obveznost, da bi poceli vse skupaj in enako ter mislili vsi vedno na enak nacin‹.8 Nasprotno, v moci krstnega duhovništva je vsak vernik dolocen za graditelja vsega Telesa, hkrati pa vse Božje ljudstvo v medsebojni soodgovornosti udov deleži pri poslanstvu Cerkve, to se pravi, da razlocuje v zgodovini znamenja Božje navzocnosti in postaja prica njegovega kraljestva.« (109) Župnijski pastoralni svet torej ni zgolj neka formalna struktura, ampak dejavnik razlocevanja – namenjen temu, da bi župnijska skupnost konkretno rasla v duhu Evangelija, predstavlja poseben kraj, kjer lahko verniki izražajo konkretne predloge za blagor celotne skupnosti, torej tako pastirjev kot drugih vernikov (ZCP, kan. 536, § 2). 7. Zakljucek Sinodalni proces je uspešen, ce pripelje do odlocitev. Latinska beseda decidere (od de-caedere – ,odrezati od‘) pomeni dobesedno ,oddeliti‘, izbrati doloceno stvar in se odreci vsem drugim. Sinodalne odlocitve naj bi bile sprejete v moci vstalega Kristusa, ki želi »vse pritegniti k sebi« (Jn 12,32), zbrati razkropljene Božje otroke v eno – z avtoriteto Gospoda, ki je za nas dal svoje življenje, in ne z avtoritarizmom, torej s soglasjem vernih. Razlocevanje, ki ne bi pripeljalo do odlocitve, v kateri se lahko prepozna prav vsak, nima nobenega smisla. Bilo bi Papež Francišek. Homilija pri maši na binkošti (4. junija 2017), v: AAS 109 (2017), 711. kot pot, ki ne pripelje do cilja in na katero se podajo le redki. V zgodovini pozna-mo sinode, katerih odlocitve niso ostale le neuresnicene, ampak tudi nespreje­te – ker niso bile odgovor na znamenja casov. Zato sta sprejem, recepcija nad­vse pomembna – sta kot lakmusov papir pristnosti, aktualnosti in primernosti odlocitev; pomenita preverjanje, verifikacijo (latinsko verum facere). Sinodalni proces je uspešen, ce doseže trojno soglasje: z živim izrocilom Cerkve, z udele­ženci procesa in z Božjim ljudstvom, ki sinodalne sklepe sprejme in uresnicuje. Kratice C – Koncilski odloki 1980 [Dogmaticna konstitucija o Cerkvi (1964)]. CCSL – Corpus Christianorum Series Latina. CS – Koncilski odloki 1980 [Pastoralna konstitucija o Cerkvi v sedanjem svetu (1965)]. EG – Francišek 2014 [Evangelii gaudium]. KKC – Katekizem Katoliške Cerkve 2008. LF – Francišek 2013b [Lumen fidei]. MTK – Mednarodna teološka komisija. PG – Migne 1857–1866 [Patrologia Graeca]. PL – Migne 1844–1864 [Patrologia Latina]. Š – Koncilski odloki 1980 [Odlok o pastirski službi škofov v Cerkvi (1965)]. ZCP – Zakonik Cerkvenega prava 1983. Reference Barbaglio, Giuseppe. 2007. La fede cristiana, sacrata e membri di consigli pastorali in Cattedra- In-Sein mistico e Mit-Sein sociale: la prospetti-le di San Rufino ad Assisi. 4. 10. https://www. va ecclesiologica di Paolo. V: Associazione vatican.va/content/francesco/it/speeches/2013/ teologica italiana, Chiesa e sinodalitŕ: Coscien-october/documents/papa-francesco_20131004_ za, forme, processi, 31–66. Milano: Glossa. clero-assisi.html (pridobljeno 12. 5. 2022). Borras, Alphonse. 2014. Trois expressions de la – – –. 2013b. Luc vere. Cerkveni dokumenti 138. synodalité depuis Vatican II. Ephemerides Ljubljana: Družina. Theologicae Louvanienses 90:643–666. – – –. 2014. Veselje evangelija. Cerkveni dokumen-Clemenzia, Alessandro. 2019. Sinodalitŕ e discer-ti 140. Ljubljana: Družina nimento comunitario. V: Piero Coda in Roberto – – –. 2015. Discorso in occasione della comme- Repole, ur. La sinodalitŕ nella vita e nella mis- morazione del 50° anniversario dell’istituzione sione della Chiesa. Commento a piů voci al del Sinodo dei vescovi. 17. 10. Acta Apostolicae Documento della Commissione teologica inter- Sedis 107:1138–1144. nazionale, 107–115. Bologna: EDB. – – –. 2021. Discorso in occasione del Momento di Collins, Raymond F. 1999. First Corinthians. Colle- Riflessione per l’inizio del Percorso Sinodale. 9. 10. geville, MN: Liturgical Press. https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/ – – –. 2018. Sinodalitŕ nella vita e nella missione bollettino/pubblico/2021/10/09/0648/01384. della Chiesa. Vatikan: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. html (pridobljeno 12. 5. 2022). Congar, Yves. 1958. »Quod omnes tangit, ab omini- Giraudo, Alessandro. 2019. Strutture ed eventi bus tractari et approbari debet«. Revue histo­sinodali: una lettura canonistica. V: Piero Coda rique de droit français et étranger 36:210–259. in Roberto Repole, ur. La sinodalitŕ nella vita e Francišek. 2013a. Discorso del Santo Padre France-nella missione della Chiesa, 61–70. Bologna: sco. Incontro con il clero, persone di vita con-Edizioni Dehoniane Bologna. Alenka Arko - Kairos sinodalnosti v Cerkvi Hausman, Nelle. 2010. Délibérer en synode des évéques? V: Alphonse Borras, ur. Délibérer en Église, 185–197. Bruselj: Lessius. Katekizem Katoliške Cerkve. 2008. Ljubljana: Družina. Koncilski odloki: konstitucije, odloki, izjave, pos­lanice Drugega vatikanskega cerkvenega zbora (1962–1965). 1980. Ljubljana: Nadškofij-ski ordinariat v Ljubljani. Kongregacija za nauk vere. 2017. Cerkev se po­mlaja. Ljubljana: Družina. Lampe, Geoffrey William Hugo. 1968. A Patristic Greek Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Legrand, Herve. 2007. La sinodalitŕ al Vaticano II e dopo il Vaticano II: Un’indagine e una riflessio­ne teologica e istituzionale. V: Associazione teologica italiana. Chiesa e sinodalitŕ: Coscien­za, forme, processi, 67–108. Milano: Glossa. Mednarodna teološka komisija. 2014. Sensus fidei nella vita della Chiesa. Vatikan: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. – – –. 2018. La sinodalitŕ nella vita e nella missione della Chiesa. Vatikan: Libreria Editrice Vatica­ na. Migne, Jacques Paul, ur. 1844–1864. Patrologiae cursus completus: Series Latna. Pariz: Apud Garnier. – – –. 1857–1866. Patrologiae cursus completus: Series Graeca. Pariz: Apud Garnier. Pitta, Antonio. 2009. Per me vivere č Cristo: Itine­rario spirituale con san Paolo. Milano: Edizioni san Paolo. Repole, Roberto. Verso una teologia della sinoda­litŕ: Alcune considerazioni di fondo in relazione al secondo capitolo del Documento. V: Piero Coda in Roberto Repole, ur. La sinodalitŕ nella vita e nella missione della Chiesa, 49–60. Bolo­gna: Edizioni Dehoniane Bologna. Romanello, Stefano. 2003. La lettera agli Efesini: Nuova versione, introduzione e commento, Milano: Edizioni san Paolo. Ruggieri, Giuseppe. 2017. La Chiesa sinodale. Bari: Laterza. Sieben, Hermann Joseph. 2009. Synode: I. Histo­risch-theologisch. V: W. Kasper et alii. Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche. Zv. 9, 1186–1187. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder. Tillard, Jean-Marie. 1989. Chiesa di Chiese: L’eccle­siologia di comunione. Brescia: Querniniana. Zakonik cerkvenega prava. 1983. Ljubljana: Nad­škofijski ordinariat. ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 80 Guy Lafon Abraham ali iznajdba vere O Abrahamovem zgodovinskem obstoju ne vemo nicesar. Toda njegovo duhovno potomstvo je ogromno in tisti, ki so povezani z njegovim imenom, »so tako številni kakor pesek na morskem obrežju«. Judje, kristjani in muslimani se sklicujejo nanj: za monoteiste je »oce vernikov«. Svetopisemske pripovedi, ki govorijo o njem, so med najbolj znanimi: odhod iz Ura na Kaldejskem v deželo, ki jo je obljubil Bog, neverjetno Izakovo rojstvo in njegovo žrtvovanje, prikazanje Boga pri Mamrejevih hrastih, pripoved o Sodomi in Gomori. Guy Lafon poskuša torej pokazati, kako je Abraham resnicno univerzalen lik. »Bralci Svetega pisma si vedno znova prilašcajo zgodbo o Abrahamu in v njeni pripovedi crpajo tisto, kar jim omogoca, da razumejo sami sebe v družbi, sredi sveta.« Prevod Lafonove knjige Abraham ali iznajdba vere na razumljiv ter sodoben nacin slovenskemu bralcu razloži, kaj je Lafonova teologija, kako razume vero in kako so medcloveški odnosi povezani z vero. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta in Celjska Mohorjeva založba, 2022. 124 str. ISBN 978-961-7167­02-3 (TEOF), 978-961-278-574-1 (Moh.), 15€ Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 263—276 Besedilo prejeto/Received:06/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:07/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-423.79:364.624.6 27-423.79:141.32 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Dodlek © 2022 Dodlek et al., CC BY 4.0 Ivan Dodlek and Nenad Malovic Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope Eksistencialna tesnoba in kršcansko upanje Abstract: The main idea behind this paper is that Christian hope can be a path to overcoming existential anxiety. Hope connects the vertical dimension, that is, faith and the meaning of life as a whole, with the horizontal dimension, i.e., love towards others and openness to communion. Both represent a correction of two deviations of modern people, namely the supposed calculability of their own lives and actions as well as social fragmentation and alienation. The two deviations prove to be a suitable ground for the application of the politics of fear, in which media mediation and fear production play rather important roles. That is why the perspective of hope is affirmed as a direct counterbalance to the perspective of fear. Keywords: existential anxiety, the perspective of fear, the perspective of hope, Christian hope Povzetek: Glavna misel tega prispevka je, da je kršcansko upanje lahko pot do pre­magovanja eksistencialne tesnobe. Upanje povezuje vertikalno dimenzijo, torej vero in smisel clovekovega življenja, ter horizontalno dimenzijo, torej ljubezen do drugih in odprtost do skupnosti. Oboje je popravek dveh deviacij sodobne­ga cloveka, in sicer domnevne preracunljivosti lastnega življenja in dejanj ter družbene razdrobljenosti in odtujenosti. Oboje se izkaže za primerno podlago za izvajanje politike strahu, pri cemer imata pomembno vlogo medijsko posre­dovanje in produkcija strahu. Zato se perspektiva upanja potrjuje kot neposre­dna protiutež perspektivi strahu. Kljucne besede: eksistencialna tesnoba, perspektiva strahu, perspektiva upanja, kr-šcansko upanje 1. Introduction Insecurity, risk and fear are inextricably linked to human life. Life itself represents a risk. From its conception to death. Human life is in constant danger, and fear is one of the instruments for dealing with dangers and for survival. People have always been aware of the risks. They have tacitly accepted those everyday risks without taking additional actions as long as it was possible to perform regular life tasks and to meet life needs. In situations and times of heightened danger, especially when it comes to dangers that threaten humanity as such (war, natural disasters, deadly infectious diseases), people take appropriate special communal and individual measures to reduce or eliminate the consequences of the danger. If we observe the world through the perspective of the influence of politics, it can be said that with the end of the Cold War and the fear of nuclear destruction, the threats and fears of humanity seemed to have come to an end, entering a peaceful period. However, very quickly or at the same time, new fears have emerged on a global scale, which was especially due to their intensification through media action. Among the proclaimed and advertised dangers that cause fear, the most significant are climate changes, terrorism, which is turning into bioterrorism, and most recently ‚War in Europe‘, though different versions of their synchronous combinations, are not excluded. Still, the main cause of fear follow­ing the events of 9/11 seems to be its political and media production. The politics of fear is based on fear discourse, and the media play a major role in promoting it. (Altheide 2009, 60-61) Although the topic of fear has been the focus of theoretical scientific confer­ences and publications from the perspective of various humanities and social sci­ences for the last fifteen years, the current global situation requires additional efforts. The way of life and the way of thinking are the background of this paper’s reflection. The following text contains a few interpretations of the phenomenon of fear in today’s society, i.e., the factors influencing the way of life in a state of fear, and it is argued that these factors cumulatively result in a state of existential anxiety. The final part brings a discussion on the characteristics of Christian hope and its potential to lead people out of existential anxiety. 2. From Individualization to Institutionalization Recent decades have witnessed fear becoming a major life topic in the public dis­course. Talking about fear is the result and at the same time cause of the increase in fear as the predominant human emotion. To be more concrete, today one of the keywords is ,safety‘, while the main topic of public discourse is the necessity of protection. »Safety is more highly valued than any other condition in the cul­ture of fear, acquiring the status of a moral good that trumps all others.« (Furedi 2018, 185) The constant emphasis on safety implies that it is constantly growing and endangering, which has changed people’s everyday living environment and way of life. ,Safety‘ has permeated all aspects of life. It is not possible to walk along the streets of the city centre without being followed by security cameras, especially considering the dangers of terrorism or possible terrorism (it seems that the Covid pandemic whipped away that danger), increased in the so-called Ivan Dodlek et al. - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope western society. Every incident with heavily injured or killed people has been used as one more argument to increase the number of security cameras and to take even more rigid measures, like the control of e-mail correspondence and moni­toring the phone conversations, messages and contacts of citizens. Surveillance cameras have become the regular inventory of the means of public transport or workplaces. Paradoxically, their presence has not diminished fear but has created a generation that fears like no other did before (Bauman and Lyon 2013, 91). All these measures remained in force even after the cessation of the acute threat of terrorism. At the time of the pandemic measures, those responsible for the ,safety‘ of citizens also added thermographic cameras for measuring body temperature. The purpose of this short phenomenological recall (meaning the level of social phenomena) of the contemporary everyday way of life is to become aware of the power of the ,safety-thinking‘ that is a consequence of everyday experience. To be more exact, if one seeks to understand the social situation, one has to take into account the everyday experience of people. The narrative of safety and pro­tection implies danger and fear. Fear is the other side of the ,security coin‘. In his analysis of German society, German sociologist Heinz Bude stresses that the con­cept of fear unites everything that people feel, what they find important, what they hope for and what they feel despair about. This is why today we can speak of a ,society of fear‘ (Bude 2014, 10). It goes without saying that not all societies are equal, but Bude’s analysis of German society can be taken as an example of the people’s mentality and the basic level of fear in the everyday life of the so-called developed countries of Western culture, primarily the EU and the USA. Bude’s analysis of the society of fear is specific in that it does not highlight major fears, such as fear of terrorism, war, or health threats. Bude views society in terms of income, i.e., in terms of the economic assumption of life. In the modern West­ern welfare state, a middle class has emerged that resides in a »zone of civilization comfort, social security, and personal development« (61). However, it is precise­ly in this part of society that the fear of loss is constantly smouldering because those who can lose more are then more afraid. It has also been shown that peo­ple who live in poverty but believe that they will be better off in the future are more satisfied than people who have a higher living standard but no positive vi­sion of the future (Svendsen 2010, 164), as it makes them more susceptible to fear, the everyday fear associated with climbing or descending the career ladder, with taxes and interest rates on loans. In short, fear is associated with economic conditions that determine the quality and comfort of everyday life. According to Bude, for the post-war generation of Germans who have experienced security, comfort, the rule of law and respect for human rights, as well as an open field of opportunity to achieve their own ambitions, fear is more connected to the ques­tions of whether pensions will be lowered and whether homosexuals will be hired or denied work, while the war with Russia, for example, they find unfathomable (Bude 2014, 147-148). It seems that the generation which, if we understood Bude well, has the least tolerance for fear now encounters fears that far exceed the capacity of its resilience. Such individual fears spill over into social interactions. The everyday, smouldering fear, as described by Bude, makes a fertile ground for building on fear for political purposes. The greatest danger for social relations is in the combination of the fear of losing one’s own position in the system and the fear of the whole system giving the individual a desirable social position might collapse (101). It should be emphasized here that although Bude speaks of social classes, fear is a matter concerning the individual, not the classes as such. Also, even though the very discussion on social classes may evoke memories of some bygone times, the classes have not disappeared. What has happened is that belonging to a par­ticular social class no longer influences the actions of individuals (Beck 1992, 92). Seen ,from the outside‘, the individual is a member of a social class, but ,from the inside‘, the individual is alone. Ulrich Beck puts fear in the context of individual­ization, and the engine of individualization is the labour market. In Western soci­eties, the process of individualization has resulted in the separation of the indi­vidual from traditional support networks and his or her reliance upon own abili­ties. The focal characteristic and goal of individualization is the control of one’s own life, from managing one’s own body to managing money. Education, mobil­ity and competition play key roles in this. Education that corresponds with the needs of the labour market affects not only the employment opportunities but also the level of income. The demands that the labour market poses in regard to mobility makes it impossible to maintain quality social and family ties. Competi­tion places individuals with similar skills and knowledge in confrontation, turning them into opponents and eventually isolating them. (92-95) Social isolation weak­ens each individual’s critical power as »individuals on their own are far more likely to be overwhelmed by a sense of insecurity than to have the confidence to develop critical thought« (Furedi 2002, 172). The separation of individuals from the community has also weakened their ability to »communicatively act towards the world of life« (Dodlek 2016, 94), and they have less and less things in common that would enable mutual understanding and communication. Individualization, driven by a desire for self-determination, snatched people their root of belonging (Bauman and Leoncini 2018) and alienated them, turning them more vulnerable and susceptible to negative influences. The contemporary individual is not a hunt­er (Bauman 2007a, 100) but has become prey. Independence, which individuals expected to yield more security and control over their own lives resulted in quite the opposite, i.e., it made individuals more dependent and insecure. »Among the negative effects of individualization processes are the separation of the individual from traditional support networks (e.g., fam­ily or neighbourhood), the loss of supplementary sources of income (e.g., part-time farming), and, along with this, the experience of an increased wage and consumption dependency in all spheres of life. To the extent that the main income security of this new condition of life, steady employ­ment, is lost – regardless of the availability of social security – people are suddenly confronting an abyss.« (Beck 1992, 93) Ivan Dodlek et al. - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope Losing a job does not imply only the loss of economic security and indepen­dence; it also has a negative impact on the already weakened social ties. By gain­ing independence and severing ties with historical consciousness, people also lost traditional ways of dealing with anxiety and insecurity and were left to fend for themselves even in that domain (Beck 1992, 153), disembedded (Beck and Willms 2004, 63), aware that all of their choices carry a risk (109). This does not simply mean that the world is a dangerous place to live, but the fact that automation and computerization have caused spikes in unemployment rates in Western Europe cannot be ignored (Mythen 2004, 123; 126). The process of individualization has not turned individuals into independent masters of their own lives (Jamnik 2021, 819); it made them completely depen­dent on conditions they cannot influence, which in addition creates risks individ­uals are powerless against, with nothing left to do but surrender to the system. Thus, individual people have become completely dependent on the system whose protection they can buy only by complete submission to it. Moreover, only by sur­rendering to the system can individuals gain freedom (Bauman 2000, 20). »Indi­vidualization thus means precisely institutionalization, institutional shaping and, hence the ability to structure biographies and life situations politically.« (Beck 1992, 132) The institutionalization of individuals as core primary elements of so­ciety did not strengthen them but in fact, put an unbearable burden on them. Due to this unbearable burden of decision-making, individuals tend to surrender them­selves to control and manipulation by the system (133), as well as blind obedience (Beck and Willms 2004, 67) in anticipation of the system’s support. However, due to the influence of the process of globalization and the consequent weakening of the political power of the state, this system has become non-transparent for in­dividuals, only causing more uncertainty (Bauman 2007a, 2). If individuals who are left to themselves and focused on themselves trying to find a solution to so­cially generated problems, they end up humiliated, with destroyed self-esteem, lost trust and stolen sense of security (2010, 144). They can no longer detect nei­ther the source of danger nor the source of protection, or even discern whether the alleged sources of danger and protection are in fact one and the same. Liquid fear (2006) that cannot be located represents the greatest danger because every­thing can become a cause of fear. Today’s individuals seem to live in a minefield (2017, 37). Bauman highlights five societal changes that have created a new environment of insecurity in which the individual can barely get by (2007a, 1-4). Concerning hope, the fourth one is the most interesting: life is less and less a long-term flow of experiences which can be understood as one whole, but more and more the sum of short-term events which have to be secured. If we connect the basic life uncertainty with a highly fragmented lifestyle, people are forced to seek their life orientation more in the lateral than in the vertical sphere. Such a state directs them primarily to the care and the insurance of short-term life episodes. The ex­tent to which that insurance goes are the possibilities of the precise calculation of chances and dangers in a certain period of life. Long-term planning, which also includes that which cannot be calculated, becomes less and less acceptable. Now, life insurance seems to cover or, at least, reduce the risk of the underlying uncer­tainty. It can be calculated and expressed with numbers and the amount of mon­ey as a kind of certainty. Yet life insurance still does not ,cover‘ life as such. It pre­supposes the fragmented lifestyle and the lateral, non-vertical, orientation. For an individual, it may seem to be a long-term safety, a kind of a ,payable hope‘. It should secure, control, and cover the lateral fragments of life. But it is far from the understanding of life as a whole, the understanding which would bring all the fragments together into a meaningful whole. In the situation of a fragmented and instant life, with the swift exchange of the fragments, it is possible not to pose the question of hope at all. 3. Calculability and Risk: The Loss of Faith in Science The mentality of contemporary people is under the influence of modern natural sciences and technological rationality. The instrumental rationality implies calcu­lability, but it would be wrong to assume that calculability means predictability when it only means probability (Bauman 2006, 10). In this misunderstood and simplified scientific calculability, there is no space, or at least there should not be much space for uncertainty. The scientific mind is based on empirical research. Object-oriented thinking seems to be practical for life. It is therefore not surprising that over the past century the authority of science has replaced the authority of religion. But Beck is aware that there is a problem in applying the scientific way of thinking to the possible risks connected to the technological progress: »Risk determinations are based on mathematical possibilities and social interests, especially, if they are presented with technical certainty. In deal­ing with civilization’s risks, the sciences have always abandoned their foun­dation of experimental logic and made a polygamous marriage with busi­ness, politics and ethics – or more precisely, they live with the latter in a sort of ‚permanent marriage without a license‘.« (Beck 1992, 29) If the constant discourse on security and safety (lifestyle, i.e., the way of living) merges with instrumental rationality and the belief that everything can be pre­dicted and calculated (the way of thinking), it may, as a result, create the convic­tion that the control over life and its security are possible. But the stronger the need to achieve that goal, the more obvious it is how insecure human life basi­cally is. The utopian view that society and the world can be regulated by elimina­ting all danger, among other things, induces a culture of fear (Strahovnik 2013, 97). Its consequence is an »apparently paradoxical rise in insecurity during the phase of unrivalled safety« (Mythen 2004, 137). It is an ambiguous situation: the stronger the belief that everything can be calculated and controlled, the stronger the experience of powerlessness before what eludes human control. And the dangers one tries to protect oneself from are actually the result of what is consi­ Ivan Dodlek et al. - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope dered as progress. That is why Ulrich Beck does not hesitate to assert: »Along with the growing capacity of technical options (Zweckrationalität) grows the incalcu­lability of their consequences.« (1992, 22) The place that was expected to repre­sent security and protection has become the source of insecurity. Instead of the expected certainty and clarity, science offers probability and a vague possibility. There is no doubt that the scientific way of thinking has brought many blessings for humanity and has made life easier in many areas of human life. The instrumental, object and calculable goal-oriented rationality enables plan­ning, planned development, and improvement of the quality of human life and society. Thanks to the scientific achievements based on instrumental rationality, health care and life expectancy have improved. But can life itself, which is basi­cally unpredictable, be calculated, and then, in the further step, totally controlled and secured? Furthermore, more measures undertaken to achieve safety often mean less freedom (Bauman and Leoncini 2018, 77). More freedom means more risk, so it can be said that the fear of risk ultimately turns into the fear of freedom. It is therefore justified to examine whether the feeling of limited safety and secu­rity is worth losing freedom, especially since the restriction of freedom, especial­ly the freedom of speech, is obviously related to the actions of the culture of fear (Furedi 2018, 130). The greatest challenge seems to be finding the right balance between safety and freedom. All the more so because the safety and protection that people seek do not exist and because all the actions they take to ensure and protect themselves also increase their awareness of permanent life insecurity. At the same time, the widespread scientific attitude of naturalistic reductionism also does not contribute to it. In more concrete terms, if people are reduced only to the body, their body and physical health become of utmost importance, i.e., the only thing they have or the only thing they are. In the context of naturalistic re­ductionism, fearing for the body and the need to preserve it become people’s main preoccupations with almost quasi-religious elements (Malovic 2016, 135-148), and striving to ‚save‘ the body makes people ready to compromise on matters that challenge the foundation of their humanity. In addition, naturalistic reductionism raises the question of human freedom and responsibility, but that topic goes beyond the scope and aim of this paper. Considering a promise that cannot be completely fulfilled, science and the related technology, as well as the state (Bauman 2006, 4), confront people with a contradic­tory situation. Individuals need to make a decision about their own lives, relying on the promoted scientific principle of calculability, yet knowing at the same time that it generates new and unpredictable risks. For an individual, every decision is like a ,small death‘ without the possibility of assessing what is on the other side of that decision. If we agree with Beck’s claim (1992, 155) that »Science is one of the causes, the medium of definition and the source of solutions to risks«, then mankind is tra­pped in a closed circle of risk in which each attempt to eliminate risk results in new and potentially greater danger. Perpetuating such a situation over time turns into suspicion, with the perceivable need for »the application of scientific scepticism« (155) to science itself. However, sincere scientific self-criticism only deepens and wi­dens the area of uncertainty, as relativizing science implies losing the final refuge and source of defence against possible threats. The original purpose of the natural scien­ces – mastering nature and improving the quality of human life – has been only par­tly achieved and has created new difficulties and uncertainties. Science is no longer just a source of solutions, but also a source of problems (156), followed by a loss of confidence that people can do some good in terms of global problems (Furedi 2002, 169). In his essay „Wissenschaft und Sicherheit“, Beck (1991, 140-146) focuses on the issue of faith in the image of science that has been established since the Enligh­tenment. Beck views science primarily from an epistemological perspective (Van Loon 2002, 46) and argues that science has lost its cognitive monopoly today, while the scientific belief in progress has been exposed as dogma without evidence. The na­tural sciences have become a kind of ,new metaphysics‘ (Beck 1991, 143); they are no longer based on experience but on calculations, while research and education in the natural sciences have turned into a personnel school on how to close one’s eyes when faced with the dangers they themselves create (144). Yet the political agenda still has high hopes in regard to the development of digital technology, so it should come as no surprise that people, taught by experience, view the promise of a better world with a level of distrust and doubt, regardless of what digital algorithms might suggest. In any case, the belief in the possibility of accurately calculating the con­sequences of human decisions and actions based on the model of scientific instru­mental rationality has proved to be unjustified in recent years. A clear connection between cause and effect is no longer visible, i.e., the consequences are impossible to predict. For alienated individuals, this has created space for additional sources of risk and uncertainty, especially since decisions are made without those individuals, even though they are the ones bearing the consequences of those decisions. Even after the realization of scientific ignorance, when social crises occur, poli­tics still insists on and refers to science as an unquestionable and certain authority, creating confusion and disorientation as well as increasing fear, the source of whi­ch is increasingly difficult to determine. The inability to clearly define risks and sources of danger, accompanied by individual threatening incidents, creates anxi­ety and exacerbates the general atmosphere of ambiguity and uncertainty. »The cloak of anxiety which hangs over the risk society, leaves individuals in a state of permanent watchfulness. In short, our minds become ‚factories of fear‘.« (Mythen 2004, 138) The greatest danger does not come from what fear is directed at, but from what that fear can turn into, including the impression that things are out of control (Altheide 2009, 57). In such a situation, the fear narrative uses the langu­age of invisibility to further increase the severity of the danger and present the lack of evidence of danger as evidence that the danger is greater than it was ori­ginally thought (Furedi 2018, 104; 108). The pressure becomes even stronger when moral panic arises and the question of threat is turned into a moral question. »Though fear appeals draw on the authority of science they are not simply dispassionate statements. Paradoxically, the contestation of moral authority, and the weakening of the moral consensus about what to fear, Ivan Dodlek et al. - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope intensify the tendency to moralize threat. The imperative of moralization plays an important role in the culture of fear. Moralization seeks to interpret problems and threats symbolically, giving a moral quality to problems that may otherwise seem to be relatively trivial technical matters.« (115) Moralization, especially when supported by the authority of science, allows pressure to be exerted on those who disagree with the official narrative, turning them into irresponsible enemies of society. Relying on the authority of science and moral language, i.e., the connection with good and evil proves to be particu­larly convenient for scaremongering. The reference to ,the Science‘ is closer to a pre-modern reference to revealed truth than to the standards of scientific meth­odology. »‚The Science‘ serves a moralistic and political project.« (118-121; 129) 4. Politics of Fear and the Role of Media When discussing fear and anxiety as features of contemporary people, the role of the media and politics as well as their contribution to creating an atmosphere of fear cannot be overlooked. Alienated individuals who have no roots and no control over their own lives are a suitable field for sowing the culture of fear, providing the political elites with the opportunity to use fear as a means to strengthen their po­sition of power and control. Since it is clear that creating a zero-risk society is not possible, there is always something to fear. Even completely regular phenomena and life situations turn into a source of fear, the fear of the worst (Furedi 2018, 133; 142). Moreover, fear has become an instrument of social control. Political fear does not arise by chance – it is ,created and maintained‘ with the intention of implementing a particular political practice, though it can also be abused (Sven-dsen 2010, 145; 152). The politics of fear did not begin following the events of 11 September 2001; fear has always been associated with crime (Altheide 2009, 63). It is more about possible threats that can create the impression of real and imminent danger when combined with a weakened individual. The main problem is not in the danger itself, but in the fear of it even when there is no danger. In this perspective, Svendsen analyses the fight against terrorism in the context of ,common‘ dangers in the USA, revealing a certain unconvincing story about the fight against terrorism. The fight against the proclaimed cause of fear actually produces even more fear, and it can be said that a government that exaggerates in it actually terrorizes its citizens and abridges their freedom. Combating possi­ble dangers is not a sufficient reason to neglect human rights. This means that a state that drives citizens to obedience out of fear actually loses its legitimacy as it denies the freedom that is a precondition of democracy. Freedom in political thought must take precedence over fear. (Svendsen 2010, 157-159) The most loyal ally of politics in spreading fear is the media. By emphasizing danger on a daily basis, the propaganda of fear creates a climate that not only justifies but even expects political encroachment on individual freedoms and hu­man rights (Altheide 2009, 64). Fear sells, it is »a commercial capital« (Bauman 2007b, 28) and can be used not only to gain economic, but also political profit. In fact, it is all about the interest network of economy, politics and media: »while the display of threats to personal safety has become a major, perhaps the major asset in the rating war of the mass media, constantly replenishing the capital of fear and adding still more to the success of both its marketing and political uses.« (2007a, 12-13) Bauman seems to have predicted what would happen in the world in 2020 and 2021. He was ,wrong‘ only in that uncertainty is not ,endemic‘ (4), but ,pandemic‘. The media not only transmit information, but »innovate and pop­ularize new terms inviting people to fear.« (Furedi 2018, 22) Every event, even the weather forecast, is presented using dramatic vocabulary and intonation. The media have become an extremely powerful institution that suggests to the gen­eral public how to understand and react to threats, not so much creating as nur­turing and promoting a state of fear. Although research shows that the media are not the main cause of fear and that there are other factors to it, such as personal circumstances and emotional conditioning, they still play a key role in mediating fear as the predominant »cultural script with dramatic content and powerful sym­bols«, popularizing the »rhetoric of fear« (17-21). Media action particularly fa­cilitates maintaining and increasing pre-existing anxiety about personal security, which is the result of the process of individuation (193). Known and unknown, justified and unjustified causes of fear further intensify the already existing existential anxiety »due to the fundamental nothingness of oneself and the world in which one exists« (Tolvajcic 2021, 521). »The quest for personal safety is not simply a response to external threats, but a reaction to the internal turmoil associated with existential insecurity.« (Furedi 2018, 194) Indi­viduals are isolated in a fragmented society of short-term life episodes, weakened social ties, left to political manipulations of fear and the onslaught of media that use fear as the best-selling agent. Fear is also privatized and individualized, and instead of solidarity, it intensifies fragmentation (195). Instead of being a place of security and protection, the community turns into a place of threat. Individuals whose lives take place only within such a milieu ultimately begin to interpret their lives and the whole reality from »the perspective of fear«, which became »a cul­tural outlook for explaining and understanding reality«. (127) When fear becomes the hermeneutical key for the interpretation of reality, then literally everything can turn into a reason for fear. At the level of interpersonal relationships, this means that others always represent a danger and are to be viewed as such, with also their actions interpreted from that perspective. Even when they have no in­tention of endangering us in any way, they can do so unknowingly and uninten­tionally. A special term coined to describe it, ‚micro-aggression‘, serves as proof that this phenomenon does not occur only sporadically. Micro-aggression only shows the fundamental existential insecurity, isolation and anxiety of individuals in a society of fear (195). Ivan Dodlek et al. - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope 5. The Perspective of Hope in Lieu of the Perspective of Fear Given that anxiety affects people at a deeper level of their existence, it can also serve as a stimulus for contemplating one’s own existence, even spurring posi­tive changes. The solution cannot be a convulsive rescue of life fragments, but an attempt to understand the bigger picture, to see the whole of life in terms of meaning and openness to others. To be more concrete, community and under­standing of common history enable people to transcend themselves and become open to the future (Petkovšek 2016, 507) Christian hope is a transcendent category that, as such, demands trust and courage and cannot be calculated and insured by means of scientific tools. Exis­tence in transcendence is possible only as courage (2013, 77). Hope implies a vertical orientation of faith. It is crucial that individuals are able to recognize and understand the whole and the meaning of life. Without the understanding of the sense of the whole, the purpose of its fragments cannot be understood, and the meaning of the fragments can be misunderstood. The objection against Christian hope could be raised in the context of Christian hope being a primarily eschatological category. As a result, it may carry passivity in this life, which is not compatible with the modern lifestyle. Quite the opposite! The very core of hope is the trust that life as a whole is, so to say, ,secured and safe‘. That viewpoint makes living, even those fragments of life, without anxiety and fundamental insecurity or worries possible, and enables community and sol­idarity. Although the epistemological state of hope does not imply rationality in the sense of mathematical certainty and calculability, it offers a profound under­standing of the meaning of life as a whole, avoiding the reduction of life to the mere current fragment dependent on a single success or catastrophe. Precisely that is the point where Christian hope offers a broader view of life, which can cer­tainly help contemporary people not to sink into the endemic uncertainty. In addition to verticality, another important element of hope is the ability for communion, which includes tradition as a transmitter of hope (Pevec Rozman 2013, 162) and openness to others. The purpose of it is common good (Žalec 2021, 832) and that is why community and communion are important. The COVID-19 pandemic and the political management of it put three characteristics to the fore: »disincarnation of love; its reduction to the protection of oneself and others; contagion as a model of all communication.« (Hadjadj 2021, 74). ,Inverted quar­antine‘ was also promoted (Furedi 2018, 203), which, instead of the standard pro­cedure of isolating disease, isolated healthy people and fortified the fear of others. On the other hand, communion that includes solidarity breaks the exclusive fixa­tion on one’s own threat (193). Such communion is important because it nullifies the mentality of the fear of others, forming the framework in which a system of meaning is created. In an uncertain world without a system of meaning encom­passing fear, fear turns into a perspective for interpreting the world (101). In lieu of the perspective of fear, the perspective of hope should be assumed. Hope is not an escape from reality, but rather a purifier of the lens revealing what is right, and a cure for existential fear. Hope exceeds all rational forethoughts and contains cer­tain insecurities, therefore requiring courage. Hope is more ,despite of‘ than ,be­cause of‘, and it is connected with the vertical dimension of people, expanding the horizons of human existence. Vertical hope unleashes the potential for horizontal love and kindness. Individuals are not captured by fear – they receive a foundation for solidarity with others. This is possible precisely because life in faith, hope and love opens people to the infinite and shows meaning (Klun 2021, 794). Assuming a vertical perspective in the interpretation of life will not change the circumstances in which people find themselves, but it will change their attitude towards the world and mobilize them to do what they can because that makes sense. That is why hope has not only eschatological but also pre-eschatological existential value, as it does not allow despair, resignation and being blocked by fear, liberating people for action. Hope is at the same time transcendent and tran­scendental (Štivic 2021, 852); it does not nullify fear but frames it, determining its extent and creating space for action. Hope provides the freedom to act because people are not fixated on what is calculable. The freedom that is the possibility of possibility can become a source of fear as it opens up a field of insecurity due to the incomputability. In that perspective, supporting freedom without fear is rather important as one role of faith. Without hope that is vertical and transcendent, stability is difficult to find. Christian hope is not just superficial optimism (Malovic 2016, 160) and cannot be understood without faith in God and the love of neighbour. Moreover, love that includes a readiness to sacrifice »is a necessary condition for overcoming fear« (Žalec 2013, 56; 51). The perspective of the three theological virtues allows for a better understanding of the life situations in which people find themselves. Such hope is firmly grounded and »transcends all nostalgia and all utopia« (Hadjadj 2021, 27). Hadjadj argues that our time marks the end of progressivism and political utopias that fed on the faith in progress and the alternative hopes that progress offered, and that we need to return to the eschatological dimension, i.e., hope (32-34). The meaning of life in hope is not only its preservation, from which the ,therapeutic state‘ sought dis­tancing, which brought humanity back ,below the level of barbarism‘, but life without any hesitation towards the core of metaphysics: »A being is created for action, not just mere existence.« (77) Not only does hope eliminate existential anxiety, but it also gives courage to »expose life for good« (79). That way, escha­tological hope becomes »tangible« (Mijovic 2021, 515), concrete, palpable and active. This, in turn, is love, the third theological virtue that gives meaning to life. 6. Conclusion The extensive analysis of fear and the unmet need for security yielded two key elements of the fear pandemic affecting contemporary people. The first repre­sents the loneliness and powerlessness of a self-centred individual as a result of Ivan Dodlek et al. - Existential Anxiety and Christian Hope the process of individualization. This self-referencing occurs on the basis of a frag­mented life in which the vertical perspective of life, i.e., understanding the whole and the ability to think long-term, got lost. This undermined people’s faith in the calculability of their own decisions and the associated consequences based on the paradigm of scientific consideration. Another important consequence of in­dividualization and fragmentation is the weakening and severance of traditional social ties, whereby individuals have lost their horizontal support. These two weak­nesses make them unprotected from the real and possible threats they perceive as threats to their lives or lifestyles. Such a perception has been reinforced in re­cent years by the exploitation of fear for political purposes promulgated through the media which also see fear as a commercial opportunity. As an antidote to the ,pandemic‘ existential anxiety thus created and supported, Christian hope is of­fered as the direct opposite of anxiety. 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Bogoslovska smotra 91, no. 3:519–533. https://doi.org/10.53745/bs.91.3.3 Van Loon, Joost. 2002. Risk and Technological Culture: Towards a Sociology of Virulence. New York: Routledge. Žalec, Bojan. 2013. Fear and Love as a Basis of Ethical Life: From St. Thomas Aquinas to AlbertSchweitzer. In: Janez Juhant and Bojan Žalec, eds. From Culture of Fear to Society of Trust, 51–61. Münster: LIT Verlag. – – –. 2021. Bivanjsko upanje, smisel in resonanca. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, no. 4:825–834. https:// doi.org/10.34291/bv2021/04/zalec Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 277—290 Besedilo prejeto/Received:08/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:03/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-184:111.84 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Roszak © 2022 Roszak, CC BY 4.0 Piotr Roszak Who Is to Blame for the Sinking Ship? Aquinas on Divine Goodness, Evil and Freedom1 Koga kriviti za potapljajoco se ladjo? Tomaž Akvinski o božji dobroti, zlu in svobodi Abstract: This paper presents the basic features of Aquinas’ theodicy, first indica­ting some difficulties regarding the problem of evil—or even attempts to im­plicate God in evil —that have emerged in the wake of scientific achievements, especially in the field of evolutionary biology. What is needed in response to these challenges is an appropriate view of God’s causality, which is analogous in character and does not constitute one of many causalities in the world. A correct understanding of the relationship between the First Cause and secon­dary causes sheds new light on the debate about the Creator’s responsibility for evil in the world. For Aquinas, God’s action is focused on the good of the whole, which is why the notion of integrity or rectitude, which was already present in Paradise, explains the accidental—not intentional—presence of evil in the world. Against that background, the paper explains God’s manner of re­sponding to evil as interpreted by Thomas Aquinas, which consists in conque­ring evil with the greater good, its paradigm being the Incarnation. For a Chri­stian, this is a model example of how a man can conquer evil by strengthening good and persisting in it through cooperation with grace. Keywords: Theodicy, Original Justice, Biblical Thomism, Secondary Causes Povzetek: Prispevek prikazuje glavne znacilnosti teodiceje Tomaža Akvinskega. Pri tem najprej izpostavlja nekatere težave pri vprašanju o zlu – ali celo poskuse povezovanja Boga z zlom –, ki so se pojavile v luci znanstvenih dosežkov – pred­vsem na podrocju evolucijske biologije. Kar je pri odgovarjanju na takšne izzive potrebno, je ustrezen pogled na božjo vzrocnost, ki je analogicnega znacaja in ne tvori le ene od številnih vzrocnosti v svetu. Ustrezno razumevanje odnosa med Prvim in drugotnimi vzroki razpravo o Stvarnikovi odgovornosti za zlo na svetu osvetljuje na novo. Za Tomaža je božje delovanje osredotoceno na dobro Funding details: This publication was made possible through the support of the grant from the John Templeton Foundation. The opinion expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the view of the John Templeton Foundation. kot celoto. Prav zato pojem integritete ali rectitudo, prisotne že v raju, dobro pojasnjuje prigodno (nakljucno) – in ne namerno – prisotnost zla v svetu. Na tej podlagi prispevek pojasnjuje božji nacin odzivanja na zlo, kot ga interpretira Tomaž, kar pomeni zmago nad zlom z vecjim dobrim; paradigma tega nacina je (Kristusovo) uclovecenje. Za kristjana je to zgled, kako lahko clovek premaga zlo z okrepitvijo dobrega in vztrajanjem v njem ob sodelovanju z milostjo. Kljucne besede: teodiceja, izvirna pravicnost, biblijski tomizem, drugotni vzroki »Many good things would be taken away if God permitted no evil to exist.« Thomas Aquinas, ST I, q. 48, a. 2, ad 3 1. Introduction: The ,Forge‘ of Aquinas From time to time, scholars rediscover some of the forgotten treatises or topics from the Summa Theologiae and publish them in stand-alone form. During the era prior to the printing press, the moral part of the Summa, the passages rela­ted to virtues and vices, were frequently copied from manuscripts. However, a somewhat forgotten treatise on ,divine government‘ in the Summa Theologiae (I, qq. 103-119) still awaits its time of rediscovery (Perrier 2019). Its importance or significance can be considered on both the macro level and the micro level. On the macro level, the treatise outlines the framework of God’s relationship to the world, rejecting deism and pointing to God’s specific way of acting in the world and its history (Torrijos 2020, 158; Oleksowicz 2020). On the micro level, it addresses questions concerning how the human person may imitate God in His action. How should we govern in the face of the evil that appears? Shall we ignore it, turn our eyes away, fight against it, or concentrate only on the good things? But if God governs the world and guides the history of salvation, then why does evil appear in it at all? For many people, the existence of evil is a reason to aban­don faith in a merciful and providential God. Paradoxically, evil provokes the ne­cessity not only of theodicy but also anthropodicy (Sontag 1981; Vodicar 2017 567; Petkovšek 2019), because humans are authors of many evil situations. Aware­ness of this resounds even in popular culture: a well-known Polish singer and songwriter, Czeslaw Niemen, sang in 1972, »Oh, strange is this world, Well, still it seems, There’s so far so much evil. And strange it is that since long ago, Man despises man. /…/ But most people are of good will.« God’s relationship to evil is a singular issue that touches many others. For St. Thomas, however, this is the question that affects not only the genesis of evil but also the order in the world and the way in which God acts in the world that allows evil to happen. It is a matter of understanding both God’s relationship to evil if there is any at all, and how we, called to follow God, are to deal with evil. The popular explanations of evil, which often go as far as to accuse God of it, are for St. Thomas the result of our ignorant and simplistic vision of the world. Using an image from St. Augustine, St. Thomas compares the situation to that of a man seeing a forge who does not know its workings. He sees in it »many appliances of which he does not understand the use, and which, if he is a foolish fellow, he considers unnecessary. Moreover, should he carelessly fall into the fire, or wound himself with a sharp-edged tool, he is under the impression that many of the things there are hurtful; whereas the craftsman, knowing their use, laughs at his folly. And thus some people presume to find fault with many things in this world through not seeing the reasons for their existence. For though not required for the furnishing of our house, these things are necessary for the perfection of the universe.« (ST I, q. 72, a.1, ad 6) On the basis of this extensive quotation from St. Augustine, Aquinas conveys an understanding of original justice in Paradise (Mrozek 2013). There, man would use things in accordance with their destiny, whereas the drama of evil consists in the disruption of this harmony. In Paradise, the snakes would still be poisonous (the serpent’s venom did not emerge as a result of original sin), but they would not harm man (ST I, q. 72, ad 6). What is necessary is to see the whole picture and to pay attention to the ,good of the whole‘. It demands a certain intellectual humility to accept it. Interestingly, Eleonore Stump uses the image of a hospital that, from the perspective of an alien, is incomprehensible: people who walk on their own enter it and leave with crutch­es. From the outside, one cannot see that a person entering the hospital required surgery (Echavarria 2017). In this paper I would like to draw attention to a few basic features of Aquinas’ theodicy, first indicating some difficulties regarding the problem of evil—or even attempts to implicate God for evil—that have emerged in the wake of scientific achievements, especially in the field of evolutionary biology (Hofmann 2020; Or­tiz 2022). These observations will make way for a reflection on fundamental issues, such as the divine causality as the First Cause, that is not as the causality of crea­tures (which often seems to ignore the contemporary debate around divine action making God one of many entities), His responsibility for evil, and finally whether this God’s method of overcoming evil can be imitated by us. 2. Is the First Cause Responsible for Secondary Causes’ Activity? To borrow a phrase from C. S. Lewis, our culture often puts God in the dock. This can be seen in many statements in which God is accused of allowing evil to ha­ppen in human life, from the death of a newborn child to an accident caused by a drunk driver. In one of the articles in the Summa Theologiae, Aquinas analyzes these argu­ments, perhaps making reference to current events of his time, using the example of helpless observers of the sinking ship who ask whether God is guilty of the fact that the ship is sinking or whether it is rather the captain who is to blame. Relying on this metaphor, by analogy, some have suggested that God is primarily respon­sible for it, since even according to Aristotle’s Physics, the one who is the author of the salvation is also the perpetrator of the Fall, because He creates such a pos­sibility at all. Thomas’ answer clarifies the scope of responsibility of the immedi­ate cause and God as the First Cause: »The sinking of a ship is attributed to the sailor as the cause, from the fact that he does not fulfil what the safety of the ship requires; but God does not fail in doing what is necessary for the safety of all. Hence there is no parity.« (ST I, q. 49, a. 2, ad 3) Aquinas observes that in some sense we can always accuse the creator of ev­erything, just as the lumberjack and carpenter who built the ship might be re­sponsible for her sinking. God never does evil because He always acts for the purpose of the good (Dewan 2007). Even if He knows evil, it is through the good (for example, which has not been realized) and not directly (ScG I, cap. 71). How­ever, the achievements of modern science, especially those of evolutionary biol­ogy, pose other questions about the situation before that of original sin and God’s relationship to it (Pardo 2017). If evolution is the means to an end, we can still ask why God has chosen what seems from our perspective to be a cruel manner of creating the world. Generally, the problem of physical evil in Paradise concerns the presence of physical evil before the appearance of man and his sin that dis­turbed the original harmony. The concept of evolution regulated by natural selec­tion seems to necessitate the suffering of animals, which, at first glance, contra­dicts the teaching that God is on the side of the weak and the poor (Mensch 2019). Do dinosaurs which eat each other contradict the goodness of God? And, by con­trast, do a lion and a lamb (or a cat and a mouse) dwelling together represent the vision of Paradise that we often imagine? The question arises whether there was an experience of suffering in the life of the first humans or whether it was an ideal state, not subject to evolution. In the Platonic view, man has fallen from this state and now suffers in the body as he seeks to free himself For Aquinas, the state of innocence (status innocentiae) and the nature of life in Paradise are not a matter of fairy tales. His account remains extremely realistic, even if he would accept a spiritual interpretation of original justice in Paradise (Vijgen 2019). It runs contrary to the view that we have fallen from above and now are only trying to get back there. On the Platonic account, our goal consists in returning to the same place, Paradise. But this is not the vision of Christian Revelation. The saved persons are not returning to Paradise, because they will go to heaven (Doddson 2019). To summarize the considerations contained in Prima Pars, qq. 91 to 102, in which Aquinas asks whether Paradise is a physical place on earth, what the body of the first man was—from all this emerges a certain image of a man who was not created in a ,finished‘ state but rather was subject to development (Haught 2015; Platovnjak and Svetelj 2019). The sin disturbs the original trajectory but does not reverse it. In the state of original innocence, although the order that reigned in the state of innocence has been disrupted, the natural goods that it ordered were not abolished with the fall (Houck 2020, 65-68). The formulation from Genesis that the subsequent days of creation bring everything that was perceived by God as ,very good‘ does not signify perfection (as if it was not necessary to add any­thing to earthly creation). Rather, according to the Hebrew term, to be ,very good‘ means to be filled in a proper measure. For Aquinas, the expression ,very good‘ at the end of creation indicates that not only parts of creation are good but the universe as a whole is good as well. Therefore, in Paradise, although there was inequality between people in a cer­tain respect in some other aspects, they were equal. This indicates that there was also a need for rule among people. This governance in paradise seems to resem­ble advising and persuasion, but it would not negate the necessity of this order of dependency (Arguello 2018, 103). For Aquinas, this fits with the nature of the generatio rerum, in which one goes from an imperfect state to a perfect state: matter is for the sake of (Latin propter) form, and the form for the sake of perfec­tion (ST I, q. 96, a. 1c). Moreover, the same existence of dependence (related to inequality and suffering) originates from the order of providence, which semper inferiora per superiora gubernat (ST I, q. 96, a. 1 c.; De veritate, q. 5, a. 8, ad 12), and what is possessed by participation is subordinated to that which is possessed by the essence (aestimatio in animals, and prudentia in humans). As with the case of passions, the subiectio of animals to man does not imply that man absolutely dominates them. To order them does not signify their suppression but rather the use of their potential for a greater good, in which such potential is harmonized with the main goal of human beings. The idea of order and God’s permitting of some evil it is one of the important arguments in Aquinas’ theodicy (Sanguinetti 1980). Nevertheless, the vision of paradise presented by Aquinas is not, in my opinion, identical to the argument that the creation of the world through evolution (with its consequences in suffering, the disappearance of species, etc.) was the only way in which God could create the world. Aquinas preferred the category of con-venientia in order to explain the details of God’s creative act (Austriaco2019; Ro­szak 2022). 3. God’s Responsibility for Evil: Aquinas’ Understanding of Divine Action The solution to dilemmas regarding evil requires an understanding of God’s way of acting as the First Cause and, at the same time, as the source of all goodness. With this in mind, in the ,forge‘ of Aquinas, one can begin to slowly understand the functioning of the whole: this image refers to the mutual relationship of tools, to the grasp of the ,purpose‘ and the mode of operation. The problem, however, which affects specific solutions, is the language and, above all, the way in which we communicate God’s word in our human language. It is worth developing this point further.2 God’s action in the world is frequently perceived on the same level as natural events, treating Him as if He were one of the causes of this world (Dodds 2012). For many centuries, there has been a discussion between supporters of equivocal, univocal, and analogical predication about God (te Velde 2006, 109–114). Aquinas opted for analogy, in which it can be seen that although we use the same word to describe two different things (e.g. God is, Peter is), the word means neither the exact same thing nor two completely different things. Rather, it means two diffe­rent things that are analogically similar (a similar dissimilarity). In order to grasp the truth about God’s action in this way, we need to detach ourselves from uni-vocal human images that do not take into account the transcendence of God (Horvat and Roszak 2020; Salvador 2021). To judge correctly about God, we need to change our ,taste‘, following Aquinas’ metaphor: »A person with a diseased palate misjudges the taste of foods and some­times recoils from the tasty but approves the disgusting, whereas a person with a healthy palate judges tastes correctly; so a person whose affections are corrupted by conformity to worldly things misjudges the good, whe­reas a person whose affections are upright and sound, his sense having been renewed by grace, judges the good correctly.« (In Rom., cap. XII, lect. 1 [nr. 967]) It is worthwhile to explore three points related to God’s action in the world that play a significant role in explaining the existence of evil: (1) the causality of the First Cause, (2) its action for the good of the whole and the good of the parts and (3) whether the world could have been better created. Irena Avsenik Nabergoj deals with Aquinas’ explication of images from the concrete reality of the world for expressing spiritual meaning in the totality of understanding God’s basic attributes (Avsenik Naber­goj 2018, 143–147). In her article „Foundational Literary Forms in the Bible“, Irena Avsenik Nabergoj explains in more detail the multifarious meanings of biblical texts of various literary genres: »The judg­ing of individual figures on themselves would not have great significance in the study of the message of the Bible. It is not therefore the question of ›literary archeology‹ on the search for fragments but of recognition of material and spiritual sublimity, semantic purity and mystery of intuitions, emotions, thoughts and intentions expressed by multipurpose conventional and original literary components of texts in their harmonious literary structure.« (Avsenik Nabergoj 2019, 856) 3.1 The First Cause and Secondary Causes The understanding of causality in Aquinas’s thinking is shaped by the Liber de ca-usis, and we find one of the key definitions of the First Cause there: causa enim prima dat secundae quod influat super effectum suum (De veritate, q. 6, a. 6c.) And so the role of the First Cause is neither to ,replace‘ natural causes nor, con­trary to occasionalists, to eliminate the causality of creatures making that their causality would be apparent. Rather, thanks to the First Cause, the secondary causes can truly be causes. It reflects, even more, the omnipotence of God if He acts by others, and not only by His own power; on St. Thomas’s account, the hi­gher the cause, the more effects it extends to (ST I, q. 65, a. 3c). He explains this dependence referring to one of the issues of the creation treaty: »For when we have a series of causes depending on one another, it necessarily follows that, while the effect depends first and principally on the First Cause, it also depends in a secondary way on all the middle causes. Therefore the First Cause is the principal cause of the preservation of the effect which is to be referred to the middle causes in a secondary way; and all the more so, as the middle cause is higher and nearer to the First Cause.« (ST I, q. 104, a. 2c.) God’s action does not presuppose the existence of an earlier subject but is al­ways a creative action. Therefore, God should not be perceived through the oppo­sing actions of the creatures; instead, He creates with them a certain harmony, although we are often inclined to see the opposite. As Aquinas affirms finis proxi-mus non excludit finem ultimum (ST I, q. 65, a. 2, ad 2). At the same time, divine action does not eliminate the freedom of secondary causes that do not compete with divine freedom (Keltz 2019). Although no me­taphor can fully reflect this relationship, it can be helpful to use a soccer metaphor. Our attempts to discover the action of the First Cause cannot be a search for God as one of the elements of this world, one of many. Rather, God is like a coach who is present in the match but with a role that differs from that of the players. The coach’s wisdom and tactics are present in the free action and cooperation of the players with each other. Moreover, normally we do not see the coach; he or she is outside of the playing field (i.e., transcendent), but in some concrete way the coach is present in all free activities of the players (Roszak and Huzarek 2019). Will anybody watching the match on television be able to see the trainer’s traps in the system of passes and offside traps if he focuses only on naturalistic explanations? Analogically, each particular science (e.g. physics, chemistry, or biology) is able to say much about the physiology of a soccer player, e.g. his anatomy or manner of breathing, but theology can provide a complete picture of the whole game. So when moral evil appears, can we blame God as the First Cause for it? Aqui­nas, in trying to explain how God is related to evil events and how He is not the cause of human wrongdoing, offers a series of images, such as a servant who de­viates from the will of his Lord, or a lame man. God is not the cause of the lame man’s illness but rather of the fact that even being lame, he is able to walk. Aqui­nas is clear in this aspect: »S]in denotes a being and an action with a defect: and this defect is from the created cause, viz. the free-will, as falling away from the order of the First Agent, viz. God. Consequently this defect is not reduced to God as its cause, but to the free-will: even as the defect of limping is reduced to a crooked leg as its cause, but not to the motive power, which nevertheless causes whatever there is of movement in the limping. Accordingly God is the cause of the act of sin: and yet He is not the cause of sin, because He does not cause the act to have a defect.« (ST I-II, q. 79, a. 2c) Thomas presents an interesting account of the relation of the First Cause to the other causes in the section of his commentary on Romans where he discusses the words from him, through him, and for him in Rom 11:36. He analyzes the three Latin prepositions, namely ex, per, and in. Ex indicates the creative power of God (principium motus), per is about the mode of action (causa operationis), and in manifests the result (habitudo causae). The second of the prepositions corre­sponds to Aquinas’ understanding of instrumental causality that is reflected by two examples (1) a knife, which is an instrument that is caused by a primary cause (the craftsman) who himself uses an instrument (i.e., a secondary cause) to make it (a hammer), and (2) an official acting on behalf of the king; the king himself is the primary cause acting through his official who is the secondary cause (In Rom., cap. XI, lect. 5, nr. 946). 3.2 The Good of the Whole Aquinas’ reasoning about evil must be understood within the context of his basic conviction that the human race’s development carries with it a certain good that would not exist if we had been completely formed from the beginning as confir­med in the good (De Veritate, q. 24, a.7c; Kadykalo 2020; Kwakye 2020). The cul­tivation of man’s freedom to develop his potentiality in cooperation with grace, is also a kind of a good, not a sign of the absence of the Creator, as the represen­tatives of extreme evolutionary theories seem to argue. Aquinas’s view in this re­spect often refers to the ,order‘ (ordo), which denotes a certain relationship and proportion. This point invites one to perceive everything from a macro perspec­tive, which requires a systematic understanding. Such a hermeneutical approach is proper to theology as a divine science that perceives the reality sub ratione Dei and that is why it does not make unnecessary science as such, although theology can introduce a certain global order of affairs. Interestingly, Aquinas talks about this order in the context of Paradise, when he clearly confirms that in spite of the idyllic images that imagination paints of that place, there was inequality there, but these differences (i.e. in the body, as some would be stronger than others) did not result from sin or infirmity. The re­ason for them was rather the order that is established through this inequality and the love that is greater when the father/mother loves children than between equals, hence »the cause of inequality could be on the part of God; not indeed that He would punish some and reward others, but that He would exalt some above others; so that the beauty of order would the more shine forth among men. Inequality might also arise on the part of nature as above described, without any defect of nature.« (ST I, q. 96 a. 3) As Agustin Echavarria points out, this does not indicate that Thomas’s system is a ,theodicy‘ in a Leibnizian understanding, or that evil plays a positive role (Echavarria 2013). Rather, it indicates that evil is associated with the good without which there would be no perfection of the universe. Hence, strength does not lie on the side of evil, because it is per accidens and not per se that it contributes to the perfection of the universe (Brock 2018). Evil is not a cause of good, but an opportunity to reveal the good. This good would be revealed in the patience of the martyrs even if evil did not manifest itself. The key point of Aquinas’s reasoning is the notion of ordo: »God and nature and any other agent make what is best in the whole, but not what is best in every single part, except in order to the whole, as was said above. And the whole itself, which is the universe of creatures, is all the better and more perfect if some things in it can fail in goodness, and do sometimes fail, God not preventing this. This happens, firstly, because ›it belongs to Providence not to destroy, but to save nature,‹ as Dionysius says (De Divinis Nominibus IV); but it belongs to nature that what may fail should sometimes fail; secondly, because, as Augustine says (Enchiridion 11), ›God is so powerful that He can even make good out of evil‹. Hence many good things would be taken away if God permitted no evil to exist; for fire would not be generated if air was not corrupted, nor would the life of a lion be preserved unless the ass were killed. Neither would avenging justice nor the patience of a sufferer be praised if there were no injustice.« (ST I, q. 48, a. 2, ad 3.) This does not imply the necessity of evil but rather the power of God who per­mits evil for the greater good. Thinking ,according to the principle of the whole‘ is characteristic of the work of the architect, which St. Thomas refers to as theo­logians. Aquinas is convinced that the diversity of creatures is because creation is intended to reflect the Creator, but no single creature can of itself reflect every attribute of the Creator. In this way, God Himself, from the beginning, has wanted to introduce perfection into the universe and established creatures that, although imperfect, contribute to its perfection (ST I, q. 65 a. 2 ad 3). 3.3 Can God do Something ,Better‘? From the perspective of the order of the universe, Aquinas directly addresses the perfection of God’s action (Woolard 2020; Pabjan 2018). He specifies in question 25 of the Prima Pars that we cannot claim that God can improve His action as if He could act with greater wisdom or goodness. However, as to the result, God’s perfection is not exhausted in created beings, because by their very nature, the beings can always be better (,improvement‘ is something good for a human being). Certain unimportant features could exist in the subject in a ,better way‘. Hence, according to Thomas, if ,better‘ is interpreted in a noun meaning, then God can create certain things better in a certain way, while in the adverbial sense it is not possible. It is important in this context to distinguish between two types of goo­dness that can be affected by the action of God: »The goodness of anything is twofold; one, which is of the essence of it— thus, for instance, to be rational pertains to the essence of man. As regards this good, God cannot make a thing better than it is itself; although He can make another thing better than it; even as He cannot make the number four greater than it is; because if it were greater it would no longer be four, but another number. /…/ Another kind of goodness is that which is over and above the essence; thus, the good of a man is to be virtuous or wise. As regards this kind of goodness, God can make better the things He has made. Absolutely speaking, however, God can make something else better than each thing made by Him.« (ST I, q.25, a.6) We cannot say that there exists the best world out of many possible worlds because there are many ways in which divine wisdom can be expressed; none of the effects of God’s activity can be taken as an absolute measure of God’s actions (Paluch 2003). The aim of the divine action—the glory of God—will be achieved in any case, whether with certain creatures or others, with their behaviour or that of others, and it will be done in a perfect and infallible manner (Echavarria 2012, 530). It is probably similar to a game of chess in which it is known in advance that God will win although the game may take any one of a number of different cours­es. This particular ,course‘ and the amount of evil present in the world is present­ed as a counterargument in many theodicies, noting that God’s victory takes place only when we prove that there is more good than bad. From Thomas’ perspective, however, there seems to be another dominating aspect: the value of the free choice of good. This free choice retains its value even if it involves the risk that many will not choose the good or even that no one will choose it. The image that Aquinas chooses to explain the good of the universe and the meaning of individual things, diverse in their goodness, is that of a zither, the mu­sic of which would be disturbed even if »one string were stretched more than it should be« (ST I, q. 25, a. 6, ad 3). This results from the belief that the good of the world consists in harmony and order, not in equality. Such a system of the world guarantees greater goodness, and God acts because of it, propter decentissimum ordinem. Aquinas compares this action of God with art when talking about the artistry of God, who aims at adapting His work to the best solution from the per­spective of His intention, even if it involves agreeing to a lack, just as a saw is made of iron and not of glass, although the latter material is more beautiful (Storck 2010; Roszak and Berry 2021). Achieving this aim is of prime importance and God does not allow a desire for cosmetic or superficial beauty to impede his aim: »Therefore God gave to each natural being the best disposition; not absolutely so, but in the view of its proper end. This is what the Philosopher says (Phys. II, 7): ›And because it is better so, not absolutely, but for each one’s substance.‹« (ST I, q. 91, a. 3c) 4. How to Fight Evil? There are several practical consequences for the Christian approach to the evil that can arise from the imitation of God’s actions (Shanley 2008; Zagzebsky 2010; Petkovšek 2020). 4.1 Fighting Evil by Increasing Good St. Thomas’s solution to the question of evil is based on the metaphysics of good. From the perspective of his reflections on the motives of the Incarnation of the Son of God, Aquinas outlines two sets of five reasons. It is significant that he first lists the five reasons of ex convenientia concerning the good as the goal of Christ coming into the world, and then he introduces the reasons based on the evil situation that should be repaired. It means that the characteristic manner of God’s action is that of increasing the ,dose‘ of good in the world, as opposed to confronting evil directly and focusing upon it. In this way, the Christian attitude must be that of strengthening and promoting the good life which corresponds to promotio hominis in bono (ST III, q.1, a.2c). When we look at the second set of five reasons for the Incarnation as ,the re­moval of evil‘, we find some obstacles for the good. Therefore, in order to remove those obstacles, God gives His grace in the world (ST III, q.1, a.2, ad 2). Neverthe­less, in all these cases, God is still acting for the purpose of good. Aquinas de­scribes this divine action, focused on good, through an analogy to the motion of material things, which bear within themselves a dynamic force impelling them to move, promotio vel motus suscipientis in accepting the impressio agentis. This perspective also informs Aquinas’ account of the power of the sacraments and their relation to the sanctification of man. 4.2 Restoring Order in Nature through Cooperation with Grace Aquinas draws attention to the ordo as one of the explanations of God’s action. The grace granted to man leads to regaining the web of relationship, enabling man to make an effort beyond the limit of his nature, to achieve the good of this order (Colberg 2019). When Aquinas wonders in Summa Theologiae q. 109 of the Prima Secundae whether man can avoid sin without the help of grace, he ends his explanation with a reference to the order that is violated by sin (Vijgen 2018). Based on the distinc­tion between two human states (naturae integrae and corruptae status), Aquinas realistically observes that the will of the human person who is turned away from God can be controlled by reason, but since it is very difficult for the reason to ma­intain such attention, it happens that the person falls into venial sins. Salvation in this situation consists in the will’s being supported by grace, which »immediately restores it to proper order« (ST I-II, q.109, a.8c). As Matthew Lamb states: »One of the great joys of the beatific vision will be finally to understand the beauty and wisdom of each and every thing that has occurred in one's life, in the lives of loved ones, and indeed in the whole of human history. The blessed will understand why God allowed evil and sin with all the histories of human suffering, and how God’s wisdom and Christ’s redemptive mission transforms that evil and suffering into the glory of eternal bliss. This understanding will be such that even the most insignificant event will be finally intelligible within the beauty of the whole of creation.« (Lamb 2007, 266) 4.3 Perseverance in Good Given the foregoing outline of how God strengthens the order of good, man’s atti­tude may be perseverance, which expresses his support for the good, allowing it to work and to change him. Man’s perseverance is his means of accepting that in the divine dispensation he is to grow over time and that this is how he shall bear fruit (Stegu 2020). That is why in the Psalms man’s salvation is synonymous with trust in the goodness of God, and for Aquinas blasphemy is precisely the denial or the contradiction of this goodness. Blasphemy is also reductionism, which re­sults in the fact that we no longer see the cause in the effect. Christianity proposes that the believer widen his or her perspective to see the whole, namely, all the manifestations of good (Platovnjak and Svetelj 2018; Žalec 2020, 274; 2021, 141). 5. Conclusion God’s action for the purpose of good testifies to His omnipotence, which is as­sociated with His mercy. The divine motive for action is not evil but »admitting people to participate in the infinite good, and this is the final result of the power of God /.../ in this, above all manifests the omnipotence of God, that it belongs to his first bringing and giving all good« (ST I, 25, a.3, ad 3). It is impossible to un­derstand Aquinas’ proposal without an important distinction between two kinds of causality: primary and secondary (proper to creatures), which makes it pos­sible to address the question of responsibility for evil properly. The key to under­standing Aquinas’ theodicy seems to be the perspective of goodness, through which it is possible to understand the proper response of man in imitation of Christ, who acts by enhancing the good in the world. Pointing to the good of the whole, rather than seeing it through the prism of the particular good, is Aquinas’ response, which always sees the rationale for God’s action in goodness (Lazaro 2014; Petkovšek 2018). References Argüello Montenegro, Santiago. 2018. La autori-dad política y su exigencia de racionalidad metafísica en Tomás de Aquino. In: Rubén Pereda Sancho, Enrique Alarcón Moreno, Agustín Echavarría Anavitarte and Miguel García-Valdecasas Merino, eds. Opere et veri­tate: Homemaje al professor Angel Luis Gon­zález, 101–112. Pamplona: Eunsa. Avsenik Nabergoj, Irena. 2018. Podobe resnicno­sti, resnice in ljubezni v Svetem pismu in litera­turi [Images of Reality, Truth and Love in the Bible and Literature]. 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Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 291—301 Besedilo prejeto/Received:10/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:01/2022 UDK/UDC:141.82Hribar T.:27 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Kocijancic © 2022 Kocijancic, CC BY 4.0 Matic Kocijancic »Visokoekspertna klerikalnost slovenskega komunizma«: preplet antimarksizma in antikršcanstva v misli Tineta Hribarja »The Highly Expert Clericality of Slovene Communism«: The Intertwining Anti-Marxism and Anti-Christianity in the Thought of Tine Hribar Povzetek: Tine Hribar je v osemdesetih letih zasnoval edinstven filozofski projekt, ki se v marsicem opira na njegovo odmevno interpretacijo mita o Antigoni. Ta projekt se na številnih kljucnih mestih artikulira kot antiteza marksisticni ideologiji na eni in hkrati kršcanski tradiciji na drugi strani. Clanek želi pokazati, da ti dve kriticni drži pri Hribarju nista v ravnovesju – Hribarjev obracun s kršcanstvom, ki sega že v njegova študentska leta na zacetku šestdesetih, je namrec središcen; njegov antimarksizem, ki se razvije na prelomu sedemdesetih in osemdesetih, je v strukturo tega obracuna le vpet. To razmerje pa še dodatno zapletadejstvo,da jeHribarjevaantikršcanskadržasvojeznacilnepotezedobilaprav v casu njegovega mladostnega marksizma. Kljucne besede: Tine Hribar, mit o Antigoni, kritika marksizma, kritika kršcanstva, sloven-sko heideggerjanstvo, Tribuna, Nova revija Abstract: In the 1980s, Tine Hribar devised a unique philosophical project that in many regards relies on his influential interpretation of the Antigone myth. In a number of key places, this project is articulated as an antithesis to Marxist ideology on the one hand, and to Christian tradition on the other. The present paper demonstrates that these two critical stances of Hribar’s are not in equilibrium; rather, Hribar’s confrontation with Christianity, which goes back to his student days in the early 1960s, is central, whereas his anti-Marxism, which de­veloped at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, is embedded in the structure of that confrontation. This relationship is further complicated by the fact that Hribar’s anti-Christian stance took its characteristic form precisely in his youthful Marxist period. Keywords: Tine Hribar, Antigone myth, critique of Marxism, critique of Christianity, Slovenian Heideggerianism, Tribuna, Nova revija 1. Uvod Raznorodne primere Hribarjeve družbenopoliticne aktualizacije mita o Antigo­ni v osemdesetih lahko v grobem razdelimo na dve kategoriji: prva je vprašanje upora civilne javnosti proti represivnemu totalitarnemu režimu (povezano s širšo jugoslovansko situacijo in prevedeno v Antigonino upiranje Kreontu), druga je vprašanje povojnih pobojev (prevedeno v Antigonino prizadevanje za pokop Po-linejka). V obeh vidikih je Hribar – kot je tudi sam stalno opozarjal – eden najvi­dnejših intelektualnih dedicev Smoletove Antigone in njene recepcije, brez katere si teh razsežnosti Hribarjevega projekta ne bi mogli zamisliti. Tu je torej Hribar v filozofskem in politicnem horizontu zastopal nabor idej, ki je bil prej domišljen in podan v literaturi. Njegova zasluga v povezavi z vpetjem mita o Antigoni v pro-ces slovenske demokratizacije je predvsem v tem, da je (s Spomenko Hribar) na to povezavo opozarjal drzneje in odlocneje od drugih slovenskih intelektualcev, in v tem, da ji je s svojim eruditskim pristopom izboril prepricljivo – prevodno in interpretativno – teoretsko zaledje v slovenskem prostoru. Najbolj prepoznavne poteze Hribarjeve tematizacije mita o Antigoni zato niso med najbolj izvirnimi po­tezami tega projekta, ceprav so pomembne tako za slovensko recepcijo antigon­skega mita od osemdesetih do danes kot za Hribarjevo filozofsko in aktivisticno formacijo. To, kar je v Smoletovi Antigoni ždelo kot simbolni politicni naboj in kar se je o njej šepetalo v šestdesetih in sedemdesetih, je jasno in glasno povezal z zlocinom, ki je s Kocbekovim pricevanjem leta 1975 dobil svoje prve javne obrise. Toda ta neposredna – in najbolj prepoznavna – razsežnost Hribarjevega projek­ta zanj niti ni najpomembnejša. Tematizacija usode slovenskih nepokopanih in upora proti jugoslovanskemu politicnemu sistemu je le prva plast njegove filozof­ske posvojitve mita o Antigoni, ki mu v nadaljnjem razvoju predstavlja bistveno vec – na platformi tega mita razvija svojevrsten preplet svojih osrednjih filozofskih podjetij. Gre za polemicno soocenje z marksizmom, kršcanstvom in zahodno me­tafizicno tradicijo ter obenem zasnutje eticnega sistema, utemeljenega v izvirnem pojmovanju svetosti. 2. Hribar in marksizem Prvi dosežek, ki ga družno povzemajo biografski orisi Hribarjeve intelektualne poti, sega v leto 1965, ko prevzame mesto odgovornega urednika legendarne študent­ske revije Tribuna, v kateri se je sicer že v prejšnjih treh letnikih uveljavil kot eden izmed glavnih rednih piscev. Tu v casu študija filozofije in sociologije na ljubljanski Filozofski fakulteti objavi nekatere svoje zgodnje teoretske clanke, nekaj satiricnih zapisov, pa tudi žgoce družbenopoliticne polemike. S clankom „Jugoslovanski NEP in kultura“, v katerem je v luci 8. kongresa Zveze komunistov Jugoslavije kritiziral »prepocasno reformiranje [univerze] in /…/ pocasno reformiranje odnosa družbe do nje«, opozoril na »problem /…/ stabilnosti virov tako za znanstveno razisko­valno delo kot za kulturo vobce« ter pozival k »spodbujanju demokraticne borbe mnenj /…/ na univerzi« (Hribar 1965, 1), je npr. sprožil oster odziv poznejšega ljubljanskega obcinskega funkcionarja Iva Krca, ki je bil objavljen v zadnji številki Tribune – tedaj je bil Hribar še njen urednik (Krc 1965, 3). Eden izmed najbolj prepoznavnih tematskih lokov Hribarjevega teoretskega dela, ki je obenem v najocitnejši sinergiji z njegovim družbenopoliticnim aktiviz-mom osemdesetih, je sistematicna in vse ostrejša kritika marksizma – v kontekstu socialisticne Jugoslavije seveda uradne politicne in filozofske paradigme, sumni-cave in agresivne do vseh potencialnih alternativ. Pri tem velja še posebej izpo­staviti Hribarjevo trilogijo iz prve polovice osemdesetih: Metodo Marxovega ka­pitala, Kopernikanski obrat in Moc znanosti. Nobenega dvoma ni, da je Hribar svojo pot zacel kot precej ortodoksen marksisticni filozof – v revijalnih objavah iz šestdesetih ponekod celo militantnega kova. Trpka izkušnja sedemdesetih (zaradi vse bolj ,sumljivih‘ intelektualnih teženj doživi vrsto ideološko motiviranih one­mogocenj, od publicisticnih do akademskih) pa v njem do teoretskega izvora ko­munisticnih režimov poglablja odpor, ki ga skozi osemdeseta jasno artikulira in trdno zasidra v širši projekt svojega intelektualnega kroga. O razliki med desetle­tjema je v intervjuju za Dnevnik leta 2016 dejal: »Najhuje je, dokler te hocejo za­dušiti pod mizo, kar se je dogajalo v svincenih sedemdesetih. /…/ Brž ko prideš do besede, ne glede na to, kakšne so reakcije nasprotnikov, si napol že na konju.«(Lesjak 2016) Že v 1. številki Nove revije pravi: »Zvijacnost Partije je v tem, da si v imenu diktature proletariata /…/ vse znanosti in vešcosti podredi kot sredstvo za povecevanje lastne moci.« (Hribar 1982, 108) Leta 1985 marksizmu suvereno za­nika status filozofije: »Marksizem na Slovenskem – enako kakor drugod – ima svoj praizvir v Marxovi filozofiji, toda niti on niti dialekticni materializem nista, nista bila in nikoli ne bosta prava filozofija.« (1985, 234) Ob tem tudi strogo zavraca razmejevanje na slabša (stalinisticna) in boljša (nestalinisticna) zgodovinska zasle­dovanja ,dialekticnega materializma‘: »Morda bo kdaj prišlo do družbenopoliticne prakse, ki bo na podlagi dialekticnega materializma oziroma diamata bistveno drugacna ali celo nasprotna od stalinizma, toda doslej se to še ni zgodilo. V vseh deželah realnega socializma je ne glede na stopnjo destalinizacije družbenopoliticna praksa po bistvu (diktatura proletariata, vodilna in usmerjajoca vloga komu­nistov, marksizem kot institucionalizirana ideologija itn.) ostala ista.« (235) Pozneje še ostreje kritizira popularno tezo, da je izvorna Marxova zamisel o ko­munizmu plemenitejša od dosedanjih poskusov njegove realizacije: »Življenje v komunizmu bi bilo, udejanjeno dosledno po Marxovi zamisli, obupno. /…/ Komunizem kot dejanska družbena ureditev ne more biti nic drugega kot koncentracijsko taborišce: združba sužnjev, ne pa združenje svobodnih ljudi. To ni nakljucna, marvec nujna posledica Marxovega komunisticnega nacrta, utemeljenega na delovni teoriji vrednosti, kritiki politicne ekonomije in konstrukciji ‚kapitala‘. /…/ Ne gre za to, da bi se vpraševali, ali je to, kar se danes dogaja, še moc gledati in videti skozi Marxova ocala, marvec za to, da je bil Marxov pogled že od vsega zacetka zgrešen. /…/ Karkoli že vemo in si mislimo o Leninu in Stalinu – ce bi se Marxov projekt realiziral v Celoti, bi bila resnicnost realizacije še veliko bolj grozljiva.« (1999a, 41) V delih iz konca osemdesetih marksizem pri Hribarjevem filozofskem interesu sicer ni vec v ospredju – tu ga že obravnava kot opešanega nasprotnika –, je pa v vsaki navezavi nanj še toliko bolj jasno, da so vsakršne mladostne simpatije do te teoretske in politicne tradicije prerasle v neusmiljen prezir. Slovenskega filozofskega prostora Hribar ni bogatil le v negativnem smislu – to je s krhanjem hegemonije oblastniško diktiranega diskurza –, temvec (in morda še bolj odlocilno) tudi v pozitivnem, s pospešeno širitvijo njegovih idejnih mej. Že v svoji drugi knjigi, Molk besede / Beseda molka, je ustvaril eno do tedaj najbolj poglobljenih slovenskih obravnav Heideggerja. Tega je namrec naš kulturni prostor prej spoznaval predvsem prek privlacnih, a ponekod precej omejenih prikazov Dušana Pirjevca – po Hribarjevem prepricanju sicer kljucne filozofske in zgodovin­ske figure slovenskega 20. stoletja. Heideggerjanstvo se je v povojni slovenski filozofiji – v veliki meri po Pirjevcevi in pozneje Hribarjevi zaslugi – vzpostavilo kot ena prvih in vodilnih alternativ mar-ksizmu (prvi knjižni pregledni izbor Heideggerjevih razprav pri nas izide leta 1967 v prevodu Ivana Urbancica (Heidegger 1967)). Hribar je z delom Molk besede / Beseda molka že na zacetku sedemdesetih pridobil status vodilnega slovenskega poznavalca Heideggerja. To delo je namrec v izkazovanju poznavanja Heidegger-jevega opusa in terminologije bistveno preseglo raven vseh prejšnjih heidegger­janskih razprav pri nas, obenem pa je vsebovalo tudi eno prvih izvirnih slovenskih obravnav Jacquesa Derridaja. Tega je sicer leto prej slovenskemu obcinstvu pred­stavila revija Problemi (Derrida 1969). S to revijo je bil Hribar prav tako tesno povezan že v šestdesetih: v njej je obja­vljal že od njenega prvega letnika 1962/1963, leta 1965 je postal clan uredniškega odbora, odgovorni urednik je bil v letih 1966 in 1967, nato pa ga je v uredništvu zamenjala Spomenka Hribar. Leta 1970 se je vanjo za kratek cas vrnil kot odgovor­ni urednik posebne teoretske številke, zbornika z naslovom Vprašanje naroda na Slovenskem. Odpira ga esej Dušana Pirjevca, sledita pa mu besedili Veljka Rusa in Vladimirja Arzenška, s katerima je Hribar v naslednjih letih delil usodo v t. i. cist­kah na FSPN (Fakulteti za sociologijo, politicne vede in novinarstvo, današnji Fa-kulteti za družbene vede). V njih so bili zaradi politicnih pritiskov izkljuceni iz pe­dagoškega procesa; pri Hribarju je odlocba stopila v veljavo leta 1975 in je študen­te pred njegovim ,kvarnim vplivom‘ varovala skoraj deset let. Na prehodu iz sedemdesetih v osemdeseta leta je prenovljena Tribuna zacela izvajati nekakšen ortomarksisticni revival, ob cemer so njeni pisci s komunisticni-mi bojnimi gesli in žugajocim, hujskaškim diskurzom divje obracunavali z vsemi ,problematicnimi‘ elementi slovenske družbe. Pod najostrejše clanke so se pod-pisovali kot ,uredništvo‘, ki so ga kot prvopodpisani sestavljali Franc Milošic (glav­ ni urednik), Igor Bavcar1 (odgovorni urednik) in Bojan Korsika (urednik za teorijo). O globokem sovraštvu, ki ga je soocen z razmahom heideggerjanstva gojil del slovenskega marksisticnega obcestva – in o bistvenih vzrokih tega sovraštva –, zgovorno prica poseben sklop Tribune iz leta 1980, ki nosi naslov „Proti narodne-mu socializmu“. V njem je uredništvo revije bralce svarilo pred »slovensko heide­ggerjansko kugo, ideologijo tistega dela slovenske intelligencije, ki je proti nada­ljevanju razrednega boja v socializmu, ki je proti nadaljnjemu boju za uveljavljanje in poglabljanje delavskega samoupravljanja« (9). Temeljna nevarnost tega gibanja naj bi se skrivala v tem, da »poskuša mešcanska teorija postati materialna sila ljudskih množic«, pri cemer je »naša naloga /.../, da odbijemo ta napad in tako dokažemo proletarsko bojevitost, moc in dejanskost marksizma« (8). Omenjena ,mešcanska teorija‘ je slovensko heideggerjanstvo, ki ga uredniki Tribune – v na­vezavi na Pirjevcev koncept naroda – oznacujejo za ,narodni socializem‘ (11). S tem seveda namigujejo na ideološko ujemanje z nemškim nacionalsocializmom. Napad Tribune je bil po Hribarjevih besedah eden kljucnih sprožilcev pobude za Novo revijo: »Besedilo izjave sem zacel sestavljati takoj po izidu navedene številke Tri­bune, saj je bilo jasno, da so grožnje, ki jih je vseboval sklop pamfletov s skupnim nadnaslovom „Proti narodnemu socializmu“, le odmev rožljanja v partijskih orožarnah. /…/ tega nihce ni natanko vedel, /…/ lahko pa, ce se ne bi ‚uprli‘, ne bi bila zgolj gesla in bi komunisticna represija z restali­nizacijskimi ucinki dejansko spet zacela narašcati. Treba je bilo ukrepati in izkazalo se je, da so bile daljnorocne posledice veliko vecje, kot je sprva kazalo. Ceprav se izrecno nismo razglašali za antikomuniste, kakor so nas oznacili mladokomunisti, smo s svojo akcijo nadaljnje širjenje in šopirjenje komunizma dejansko zavrli. Koncni ucinek je bila zaustavitev komunisticne levice.« (1999a, 40) 3. Hribar in kršcanstvo Hribarjeva kritika kršcanstva ni le postranski del njegove filozofije, temvec pred­stavlja – poleg kritike marksizma, analize slovenskega nacionalnega vprašanja, in-terpretacije Heideggerja in tematizacije svetega – enega najobsežnejših sklopov njegovega opusa. Tu lahko potegnemo petdesetletni lok od Hribarjevih zgodnjih revijalnih objav in knjižnega prvenca pa vse do najnovejše trilogije Nesmrtnost in neumrljivost, v kateri na vec kot tisoc straneh sistematicno obracunava z vrhunci kršcanske misli. Tu srecamo še eno izvrstno ponazoritev divjih nazorskih preobratov v slovenski tranziciji: Igor Bavcar, ki se na zacetku osemdesetih podpisuje pod nekatere izmed najbolj militantnih marksisticnih publikacij svoje generacije, uperjenih proti glasnikom družbenih sprememb, cez deset let postane ena izmed osrednjih figur demokratizacije in osamosvojitve, zatem viden politik liberalne usmeritve, pozneje pa celo eden zloglasnih kapitalisticnih mogotcev. V bran Hribarjevemu že kar alergicnemu odporu do kršcanstva lahko ugotovi-mo, da je jasno izkazovanje tega odpora – karkoli nam že to pove o slovenski in-telektualni krajini – vsaj v osemdesetih odigralo doloceno pozitivno vlogo. Ob upoštevanju osnovne ideološke dihotomije slovenskega 20. stoletja – v katerem so imele prvih štirideset let glavno besedo katoliške politicne stranke in organiza­cije, drugih štirideset let pa Komunisticna partija – je Hribar s tovrstno držo v letih svoje udarne konfrontacije z marksizmom in jugoslovanskim socializmom izžareval vtis nazorske samoniklosti. Ta je njegovim kritikom vsaj do neke mere onemogo-cala, da bi jo prepricljivo razvrednotili z umestitvijo v klišejske ideološke sheme. Vseeno pa podoba osamljenega jezdeca, ki se v opoldanskem obracunu pogumno zoperstavi tako pokvarjenemu komunisticnemu šerifu kot podtalni klerikalni tolpi, ni povsem ustrezna – Hribarjevi kritiki marksizma in kršcanstva nista nikoli zarespotekali na enakovredni ravni. Že ob kronološkem zasledovanju izvorov obeh kritic­nih podjetij se izkaže, da je drugo predhodnik prvega. Še vec, Hribarjeva kritika kr-šcanstva – sprva se oblikuje predvsem kot kritika katolištva – je izvorno marksisticna. Hribar je svoja prva soocenja s slovenskim katolištvom – v sklopu petih clankov z nadnaslovom „Kler v slovenski družbi“ leta 1963 v Tribuni2 – artikuliral še kot pravoverni marksist z bogatim arzenalom stereotipnih floskul militantnega komu­nisticnega diskurza. Tu mdr. problematizira »zaostalost zavesti /…/ pri dolocenem delu družbene skupnosti«, ki – kljub »procesu nezadržnega in vse mocnejšega prehajanja ideologije dialekticnega materializma v družbeno zavest« – »po zaslu­gi mocnega vpliva Cerkve /…/ nikakor še ni dokoncno izkoreninjena«, ceprav zgo­dovinski klerikalizem, kakršen je »znacilen za epoho kapitalizma«, pri nas »propa­de z zlomom klerofašisticne kontrarevolucije«. Hribar tudi zaskrbljeno ugotavlja, da »slovenska duhovšcina, ki je upoštevala ta dejstva in izrabljala drugo okolišcino, namrec, da religija, ki je osnova njenega obstoja in s pomocjo katere želi domini­rati, zaradi omejenosti clovekovega spoznavanja le pocasi odmira, še zdalec ni pripravljena zapustiti svojih okopov, marvec prav nasprotno: svoje stare pozicije si skuša ohraniti in si celo priboriti nove«. Pri naštevanju del, ki naj nam pomaga­jo pravilno razumeti vlogo Cerkve na Slovenskem, opozarja, da je »zaradi dosledne ‚marksisticne osvetlitve nekaterih momentov iz naše nacionalne zgodovine‘ še najbolj pomembno delo Edvarda Kardelja z naslovom Razvoj slovenskega naro­dnega vprašanja.« V drugem delu svojega spisa Hribar podaja definicijo klera: »Kler je zgodovinsko pogojena, s specificnimi znacilnostmi, hierarhicno urejena ter ne glede na narodno in razredno pripadnost organizirana, te­sno povezana skupina ljudi s hegemonisticnimi težnjami, s pomocjo religi­je ideološko dominirati nad zavestno zaostalimi delovnimi množicami ter z namenom, kovati si kapital z njihovim delom.« V luci te definicije v naslednjih številkah Tribune zacrta strnjen pregled zgodo-vine kršcanstva na Slovenskem, od pokristjanjevanja – ki je izkljucno »akcija na­silnih pokristjanjevalcev«; »akcija Cirila in Metoda za nas ni bistveno važna, ker ni Na tej tocki je bil torej nazorski in revijalni predhodnik svojih najostrejših kritikov iz zacetka osemdesetih. uspela« – do kršcanskega socializma, nastanek katerega enodimenzionalno pripi­suje »zavestnim tendencam katoliške Cerkve, da bi /…/ obdržala svoj vpliv«, ko je »proletariat /…/ zmeraj bolj zapušcal kršcansko ideologijo«. Hribar »mracne sile katolicizma« krivi za veliko vecino tegob slovenskih »zavestno zaostalih delovnih množic« v zadnjem tisocletju. Temu kolažu predsodkov dodaja še zarotniško sen-zibiliteto, ko v govoru Stanka Cajnkarja – takratnega dekana Teološke fakultete v Ljubljani –, v katerem je Cajnkar izrazil šcepec vljudnega negodovanja nad »sve­tovnim nazorom /…/ novega družbenega reda«, prepoznava zlovešc primer »tak­tike klera v novih pogojih«. Hribarjeva serija protikatoliških clankov iz študentskih let torej v sebi skriva kombinacijo grotesknih zgodovinskih poenostavitev in zarotniških teorij, ki v Ka­toliško Cerkev projicira fantazmo temacne, zlohotne združbe v ozadju vseh pogla­vitnih groženj slovenskemu narodu, zahodni civilizaciji, cloveštvu in vesolju. Gre za naracijo, ki še danes – delno tudi po Hribarjevi zaslugi – predstavlja enega pre­poznavnih toposov slovenskega javnega diskurza. Ta diskurz sicer pogosto posku­ša – še posebej intenzivno po osamosvojitvi, ko se s postopno liberalizacijo slo­venskega prostora okrepi ideal sekularne strpnosti – jasno razlocevati med kato­lištvom in drugimi, znosnejšimi religioznimi fenomeni – tudi kršcanskimi. Hribar v osemdesetih ta vzgib do neke mere deli, vsaj na deklarativni ravni. Poudarja, da ,novi etos‘, kakršnega snuje za svetlejšo slovensko prihodnost, »ni uperjen zoper kršcanstvo« in tudi ne zoper religioznost kot tako, »pac pa je zoper novi etos mi-litantni katolicizem« (1989, 98). Podrobno branje Hribarjevih tematizacij religio­znega vendarle razkriva drugacno sliko. Hribarjevo gorece antikršcanstvo, ki ga v prvem desetletju svojega filozofskega ustvarjanja snuje v sozvocju s predpostavkami marksisticne ideologije, v prihodnjih dveh desetletjih – kljub njegovemu postopnemu, a nazadnje odlocnemu razhodu s to ideologijo – ne pojenja; še vec, ob tem razhodu pravzaprav pride do zanimi­vega, ceprav do neke mere psihološko predvidljivega zasuka. Hribar zacne namrec tudi marksizem opredeljevati kot sestavni del kršcanske zablode, kot logicno mo-derno posledico izvornega kršcanskega problema, ki – pod krinko površinskih na­sprotij – z njim deli svoje bistvene znacilnosti.3 Zametke tega zasuka najdemo v Hribarjevi intervenciji na kolokviju Antigona‚ 80 – kjer zacrtava vzporednice med Marxovim in novozaveznim ,revolucionarnim‘ opredeljevanjem »razmerja živih do mrtvih in s tem tudi razmerja do smrti« (35). Celovito razgrnitev pa ta zasuk doživi konec desetletja v delu Slovenska državnost, kje Hribar primerjavi med kršcanstvom in (slovenskim) komunizmom – še podrob­neje med (slovenskim) katolicizmom in marksizmom – namenja celo poglavje. Tematizacije genealoških povezav med judovsko-kršcansko eshatologijo in modernimi revolucionarnimi fenomeni so v slovensko filozofijo vstopile prek mocnega vpliva Ernsta Blocha. Vpliv njegovih tez jekljucen tako za Hribarjev kot Žižkov odnos do kršcanstva. Slovenska filozofa delita vulgarno simplifi­kacijo Blochove temeljne paradigme, pri cemer se razlikujeta le v vrednotenju koncnega rezultata: Žižek svojo obliko marksisticne teorije navdušeno razglaša za ‚kršcanstvo‘, Hribar pa tako moderne oblike kršcanske religioznosti kot tudi sodobne odmeve marksizma hkrati zavraca kot sorodne izrastke iz­vornega problema – kršcanske dedišcine. Hribar tako zgodovinski nastanek komunizma pojasnjuje kot spontano moder-no vracanje h koreninam kršcanstva (1989, 23): »Komunizem je po svojem izviru, od utopicnega komunizma dalje, reakci­ja na kršcanstvo v njegovi institucionalizirani obliki, se pravi, zanika cerkve-no oblast in skuša znova vzpostaviti obcestva po podobi prvotnega kršcan­stva. /…/ V pristajanju na temeljna kršcanska nacela je tudi razlog, da se za zunanjo odbojnostjo skriva notranja privlacnost med kršcanstvom in komunizmom.« Ta shema pri Hribarju obvladuje razumevanje celotne moderne revolucionar­nosti: »temeljne vrednote francoske revolucije /…/ so izvorno ravno tako kršcan­ske.« (23) Tudi »sam marksizem se je razvil iz nemške religiozne komunisticne sekte Zveze pravicnih, kasneje Zveze komunistov« (98). Ta teza se v nekoliko okr­njeni obliki v okviru projekta Slovenska smer ponovno pojavi cez šest let: »Komu­nizem je nastal v bistvu kot zveza pravicnikov, kot ultraradikalno kršcansko gibanje proti obrestim na zacetku XIX. stoletja.« (1996, 41) Razvoj komunizma se od drugih kršcanskih gibanj sicer razlikuje po tem, da »prenese poudarek od Boga na Cloveka«, a vseeno »ohrani temeljna kršcanska nacela, kot napotilo za življenje«, tako da »lahko o njem zato upraviceno govorimo kot o sekulariziranem kršcanstvu« (1989, 23). A ta sekularizacija sama po sebi še ni izvor komunisticnega revolucionarnega nasilja in njegovih totalitarnih teženj. Kljucni problem nastane, ko se zacne ta nova, neinstitucionalna in sekularna obli­ka kršcanske religioznosti reinstitucionalizirati in resakralizirati, in sicer po smer­nicah, prevzetih neposredno od katoliškega modela: »Komunizem v zmagoviti obliki, komunizem, kakršnega poznamo danes, se pravi marksisticno-leninisticni komunizem ali boljševizem zares lahko primerjamo šele s katolicizmom.« (23–24) To Hribarju potrjuje slovenska zgodovina: ceprav se je »komunizem na Sloven-skem /…/ razvijal prek neposredne konfrontacije s katolicizmom«, s konfrontacijo ,vzvratnih ucinkov‘, je kljucno nacelo – na katerem sloni ubijalska militantnost tako ,boljševikov‘ kot ,katolikov‘ – militantnost. To Hribar povezuje z vznikom »drža­vljanske vojne /…/ med okupacijo« (24). Nacelo je pravzaprav ,klerikalno‘: obe strani sta se »držali /…/ klerikalnega nacela: cilj posvecuje sredstva«. Pomembna posebnost tega nacela, ki naj bi jo slovenski komunisti podedovali od katoliških sonarodnjakov, pa je v tem, da je cilj, ki posvecuje sredstva, tudi sam v službi viš­je instance, ki »ostaja prikrita« (24–25): »Za klerikalizem [je] tudi cilj sam le sredstvo, namrec sredstvo volje do moci /.../; razglašani cilj, cetudi ni nekaj cisto navideznega [pa je] v resnici le platforma dejanskega cilja, tj. oblasti. V tem je taktika klerikalizma in te taktike so se zelo kmalu, že v osnovni šoli, zaceli uciti tudi bodoci slovenski komunisti. Brez tega pouka si visokoekspertne klerikalnosti, ki je specifika slovenskega komunizma, ne moremo razložiti.« Hribar sklene, da »katolicizem in komunizem na Slovenskem nista analogna le po strukturi, ampak tudi po metodi, kajti slovenski komunizem je izšel iz cerkvene klerikalne tradicije. Zato bi mogli govoriti tudi o tipicnem klerikalizmu slovenskega komunizma.« (33) Kot lahko vidimo, je Hribarjevo študentsko prepricanje, da je vsega hudega na Slovenskem kriv ,kler‘, petindvajset let po „Kleru v slovenski družbi“ ostalo neo­majno: le pod okrilje njegove opredelitve so vstopili padli junaki Hribarjeve mla­dosti in pa novi nasprotniki Hribarjeve sodobnosti. Marksisticna shema, v kateri se je izoblikovala Hribarjeva definicija Sovražnika, je postala del te definicije; re-volucijo je požrl njen lasten otrok. Ce je Hribar v „Kleru v slovenski družbi“ katolištvo razlagal predvsem kot koristoljubno shemo cinicnih izkorišcevalcev, ga je že šest let pozneje – v svoji prvi knjigi Clovek in vera – opredelil kot brezpogojno nasilno ideologijo z neizbežnimi morilskimi konsekvencami (1969, 102–103): »Clovek je za katoliški svetovni nazor clovek, kolikor je nosilec njegovih vrednot, sicer pa je ne-clovek, nosilec onega živalskega in zlega, torej so-vražnik. Da ima katoliški svetovni nazor sovražnika, torej ni nekaj nakljuc­nega. To izhaja iz njegove metafizicne koncepcije cloveka. Kot enotnost dobrega in zlega clovek mora nositi v sebi nasproti katoliškemu svetovne-mu nazoru tudi sovražnost in zato tudi ni nic cudnega, ce to sovražnost katoliški svetovni nazor nahaja skoncentrirano tudi v posebnih skupinah ljudi. Ce katoliški svetovni nazor ne bi imel sovražnika, bi si ga glede na svojo metafizicno opredelitev cloveka moral izmisliti. Od tod znacilna drža nasproti vsakokratnemu cloveku: V sebi si spoj do-brega in zlega (katoliškemu svetovnemu nazoru nasprotujocega). Kolikor v tebi prevlada zlo, si torej povsem dobronamerno kaznovan. Kaznovan si zato, da bi postal dober (da bi sprejel ‚resnice‘ katoliškega svetovnega na­zora). Cetudi te postavim pred zid, kolikor zlo v tebi le prevec naraste, je moje dejanje še zmeraj povsem dobronamerno, saj s tem ne bom unicil le zla v tebi, ampak bom preprecil tudi pohujšanja. Takšne so konsekvence metafizicno zasnovanega katoliškega svetovnega nazora.« Problematicno nasilno jedro, ki ga je Hribar sprva prepoznal in kritiziral (le) v katolištvu, je po njegovi razlagi s konca devetdesetih vendarle »v kršcanstvu nav­zoce, bolj ali manj sonavzoce že vseskozi, od evangelijev naprej« (1999b, 42): »Že evangeliji terjajo ne samo ljubezen, ampak tudi sovraštvo; ne razgla­šajo le miru, ampak grozijo tudi z ognjem in mecem; ne ucijo le o nasta­vljanju drugega lica, ampak govorijo tudi o iztaknitvi ocesa in tako naprej. Da ne govorim o razstavljanju okrvavljenega, prebodenega, ubitega mla­denica na križu, ki na ljudi, zlasti pa na otroke, deluje tako pohujšljivo kot le malokatera televizijska grozljivka.« Kljub spekulacijam o potencialno »cistejšem kršcanstvu« in »lepši podobi kr-šcanstva« je Hribarjevo stališce nazadnje takšno: »Ni mogoce trditi, da kršcanski fundamentalisti odpadajo od kršcanstva.« (42) Skratka, kršcanstvo samo po sebi – tako v svojem evangelijskem sporocilu kot v dedišcini izvorne Cerkve – je zanj temeljni krivec za nekatere najvecje grozote v slovenski zgodovini in za trdovratne probleme naše sodobnosti. Ena najostrejših Hribarjevih opredelitev razmerja med nasiljem in kršcanstvom nastane že sredi devetdesetih, ko povojne poboje razglasi za »zrcalno sliko« in logicno posledico zgodovinskega pokristjanjevanja. Hribar takrat formulira tri te­meljne »nevarnosti, da svoj lastni nacionalni prostor pretvorimo v zapor duha« (Hribar 1996, 85). Povezuje jih s tremi klasicnimi besedili slovenske književnosti: Prešernovim Krstom pri Savici, Cankarjevimi Hlapci in Smoletovo Antigono. Kot ugotavlja, je »z vsemi tremi omenjenimi nevarnostmi pri nas tako ali drugace po­vezano kršcanstvo« (86). Prva nevarnost je ,pokristjanjevanje‘. S tem izrazom Hribar ne oznacuje le zgo­dovinskega pokristjanjevanja, ki ga »imamo v spominu kot nasilnega tako z religi­oznega kot politicnega vidika«, temvec tudi permanentno grožnjo ,duhovnega nasilja‘, ki naj bi z zahtevami »po ponovnem pokristjanjevanju, na primer v obliki nove evangelizacije oziroma rekatolizacije«, ostajala del slovenske sodobnosti. V nasilni reakciji na to nevarnost leži druga nevarnost; v ocrtu njene genealogije Hribar pelje lok od znamenitega citata iz Hlapcev o protireformacijski pretvorbi Slo­vencev v ,smrdljivo drhal‘ prek Kocbekove »zahteve po spremembi slovenskega narodnega znacaja« pa vse do »brezobzirnega obracuna nosilcev narodno-osvobo­dilnega boja in komunisticne revolucije s poraženimi nasprotniki« (86). ,Izvensodni obracun‘, ,zlocinski poboj‘, je v Hribarjevih oceh sicer »vreden vse obsodbe« in zanj ni opravicila – pa vendar »ga v celoti lahko razumemo samo, ce se zavedamo, da je šlo v njem tudi za izbruh /…/ ponižanih in razžaljenih« (86–87), ki jih je porodila zgo­dovinska realizacija prve nevarnosti. Hribar v povojnih pobojih tako vidi ponovitev »prizorov iz Prešernovega Uvoda h Krstu pri Savici«, »le da so bile žrtve na drugi strani« (87). Tudi druga nevarnost s svojim temeljnim dogodkom – svojim najsilovi­tejšim zgodovinskim udejanjenjem – ni bila odpravljena, temvec v (hladnem) mani­hejskem boju s sodobnimi odmevi prve sodeluje pri kontinuiranem netenju »verti­kalne, ideološke bipolarnosti« slovenskega politicnega prostora. V nasprotju s »ho­rizontalno politicno bipolarnostjo« (kjer se »polarizacija razvija in odvija z vrednostno nevtralnim razporejanjem na levico in desnico«, s ,koeksistirajocimi‘ strankami ,le­vosredinskih‘ in ,desnosredinskih‘ usmeritev) se v ,vertikalni bipolarnosti‘ razlika med levico in desnico zaostruje – in to do te mere, da jo konkurencni politicni sili »razumeta kot nasprotje med dobrim in zlim, se hoceta zato povzpeti nad tako ra­zumljenega nasprotnika, ga razvrednotiti in v skrajnem primeru celo odpraviti ozi­roma uniciti – torej zavzeti celoten politicen prostor« (86). Pri tem mehanizmu Hri-bar v srcikah obeh slovenskih politicnih polov prepoznava totalitarni težnji. Tretja nevarnost, »ki izhaja iz moci simbolnega, pa je /…/ najvecja nevarnost« (87): »Gre za posledice nerazumevanja Antigone in njenega spravnega dejanja, torej sprave sploh. Nenehno se namrec pojavlja trditev, da gre pri tem za spravo med domobranci in partizani, med nasprotniki že zdavnaj koncane državljanske vojne. Kakor da bi šlo Antigoni za spravo med Polinejkom in Eteoklom! To je seveda nesmisel, saj sta bila brata, žrtvi drug drugega, vendar že mrtva. Ni ji šlo torej za takšno spravo, temvec ji je šlo za spravo z mrtvim, a nepokopanim bratom, torej za spoštovanje posvecenosti mr­tvih, za ta – heideggrovsko receno – temeljni zakon biti, brez katerega po­nikne v brezno bivajocega tudi svetost življenja.« Rešitev iz primeža kršcansko in marksisticno osnovanih klerikalizmov naj bi se torej skrivala v ustreznem razumevanju dejanj Antigone in (heideggrovsko receno) ,temeljnega zakona biti‘, ki naj bi nam nalagal ,spoštovanje posvecenosti mrtvih‘. V tem smislu je prav razumevanje Hribarjevega vecplastnega in vecstopenjskega odnosa do marksizma in kršcanstva kljucno za ustrezno interpretacijo njegovega temeljnega filozofskega in aktivisticnega projekta, ki je utemeljen v prepoznavni posvojitvi mita o Antigoni. Reference Derrida, Jacques. 1969. Semiologija in gramatolo-– – –. 1999a. Revizija: Slovenska politicna zgodovi­gija. Problemi 7, št. 78/79:502–510. na zadnjih dvajsetih let, 1. del. Mladina, 12. 7., 37–44. Heidegger, Martin. 1967. Izbrane razprave. Preve­del Ivan Urbancic. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založ-– – –. 1999b. Revizija: Slovenska politicna zgodovi­ba. na zadnjih dvajsetih let, 3. del. Mladina, 26. 7., 37–46. Hribar, Tine. 1963. Kler v slovenski družbi. Tribuna 13, št. 1:6. Koren, Evald, ur. 1981. Antigona ‚80: Dvajset let Smoletove drame. Primerjalna književnost 4, – – –. 1965. Jugoslovanski NEP in kultura. Tribuna št. 1. 15, št. 6:1. Krc, Ivo. 1965. Nevzdržne analogije. Tribuna 15, št. – – –. 1969. Clovek in vera. Ljubljana: Komunist. 9:3. – – –. 1982. Presežnost poezije. Nova revija 1:108. Lesjak, Miran. 2016. Tine Hribar: Naši politiki, vsi, – – –. 1985. Slovenski kulturni razvoj 1945–1984 se še dandanes vedejo hlapcevsko. Dnevnik. (Analiza Kosovih pripomb). Sodobnost 33, št. 26. 7. https://www.dnevnik.si/1042741514/ 2:234. slovenija/tine-hribar-nasi-politiki-vsi-se-se-– – –. 1989. Slovenska državnost. Ljubljana: Can--dandanes-vedejo-hlapcevsko (pridobljeno 14. karjeva založba. 10. 2021). – – –. 1996. Slovenska samozavest. V: Marko Proti narodnemu socializmu. 1980. Tribuna 29, št. Crnkovic, ur. Slovenska smer, 83–94. Ljubljana: 16:8–11. Cankarjeva založba. ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 80A Mari Jože Osredkar Guy Lafon – Mislec odnosa Guy Lafon (1930–2020) je francoski teolog, ki v svoji relacijski teoriji pokaže, da niso osebki tisti, ki vzpostavljajo odnose med seboj, temvec odnos rodi osebke. Kakor se clovek brez lastnih zaslug (z)najde v življenju, tako se oseba (z)najde v odnosu, torej tudi v veri. Lafon preseže nasprotje med objektivnostjo in subjektiv­nostjo ter izpostavi odnos kot tisto najpomembnejše za razumevanje stvarnosti, in sicer v treh stopnjah: na spoznavoslovni ravni v Esquisses pour un christianisme [Orisi nekega kršcanstva], v filozofskem smislu v Le Dieu commun [Skupni Bog], na teološki ravni pa v L’autre-roi [Drugi je kralj] in v Abraham ou l’invention de la foi [Abraham ali iznajdba vere]. Guy Lafon izpeljuje svojo teologijo iz antropologije, kjer ne govori le o fizicnem tr-pljenju in smrti, temvec o vseh stiskah, v katerih se znajde moderni clovek. Hkratiz opisovanjem življenja govori o odrešenju. Še vec, njegovo razmišljanje o doga­janju med ljudmi je v bistvu razmišljanje o Bogu med nami. Njegovi spisi so izraz vernika, ki prepoznava Božjo podobo in njegovo delovanje med nami. Študija ob Lafonovi knjigi Abraham ali iznajdba vere želi na razumljiv ter sodoben nacin slovenskemu bralcu razložiti, kaj je Lafonova teologija, kako razume vero in kako so medcloveški odnosi povezani z vero. Vsekakor ima osrednje mesto v Lafonovi teologiji odnos. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta in Celjska Mohorjeva založba, 2022. 108 str. ISBN 978-961­7167-01-6 (TEOF), 978-961-278-575-8 (Moh.), 15€ Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 303—314 Besedilo prejeto/Received:09/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:11/2021 UDK/UDC: 27-277-247.8 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Naseri © 2022 Naseri, CC BY 4.0 Christoper Naseri »You are no Friend of Caesar«: Threat and Intrigue in the Johannine Account of the Sentencing of Je­sus in John 19:12-16a »Ti nisi cesarjev prijatelj«: grožnje in intrige v Jane-zovem porocilu o Jezusovi obsodbi v Jn 19,12-16a Abstract: The handing over of Jesus by the Johannine Pilate for crucifixion in John 19:12-16a may be closely linked to the implications of the phrase, »you are no friend of Caesar« in v 12b. This phrase harbours an element of threat and intrigue that may be political and economical. The aim of this work, therefore, is to iden­tify the threat content of the phrase ‚Friend of Caesar‘ by undertaking a historical-critical analysis of v. 12b in its immediate narrative context of John 19:12-16a. The study reveals that the expression ‚Friend of Caesar‘ was used to observe, recognize and monitor loyalty in the Roman Empire especially in the satellite territories su­perintended by the emperor’s appointees. To fail to be a friend of Caesar therefore meant disloyalty and risking one’s political and economic position and life. The conclusion is that the Jewish party intriguingly employed the statement as a threat to destabilize Pilate and constrain him to hand Jesus over for crucifixion. Keywords: Friend of Caesar, Gospel of John, Kingship, Lese Majesty, Loyalty, Passi­on Narrative Povzetek: Pilatova izrocitev Jezusa v smrt s križanjem, kakor jo prikazuje Janezov evangelij (19,12-16a), je lahko tesno povezana z implikacijami izjave »Ti nisi cesarjev prijatelj« v vrstici 12b. Ta poved namrec vsebuje prvino grožnje in in-trige, ki je lahko politicnega ali ekonomskega znacaja. Cilj tega prispevka je pre­poznati vsebino grožnje v besedni zvezi ‚cesarjev prijatelj‘ s pomocjo zgodovin­skokriticne analize vrstice 12b v neposrednem pripovednem kontekstu Jn 19,12­16a. Študija razkriva, da je bila zveza ‚cesarjev prijatelj‘ v uporabi za opazovanje, prepoznavanje in nadzorovanje zvestobe rimskemu cesarju zlasti na pridruženih ozemljih pod nadzorom cesarjevih visokih uradnikov. Ne biti cesarjev prijatelj je tako pomenilo nezvestobo – in tveganje za lasten politicni in ekonomski po­ložaj ter življenje. Sklepamo, da je judovska stran ta izraz uporabila kot intrigo in grožnjo, da bi Pilata omajala in ga prisilila k izrocitvi Jezusa v smrt s križanjem. Kljucne besede: cesarjev prijatelj, Janezov evangelij, kraljevanje, žalitev velicanstva, zvestoba, pasijon, pripoved 1. Introduction After having confessed to the innocence of Jesus on three occasions (18:38; 19:4,6) and after having twice sought to release Jesus (18:39; 19:12a) the Johan-nine Pilate latterly chooses to hand Jesus over for crucifixion in 19:16a. Is Pilate’s decision influenced by the suggestion by the Jews in v. 12b: »if you release this man you are not a ‚friend of Caesar‘?« And is the statement presented as a form of threat to force Pilate’s hand? Authors are divided in their responses to some of these questions. S. Lim identifies in the phrase an attempt by the Jews to scape­goat Jesus in the tension between Jewish and Roman authorities. This situation he holds causes Pilate’s anxiety as a judge (2016, 214). C. Keener suggests that Pilate’s decision to hand Jesus over was informed by his preference for friendship with Caesar (2012, 1129). L. Richey examines the meaning of the phrase ,friend of Caesar‘ with a view to illuminating the anti-Roman polemic in the Johannine passion narrative (2007, 167). He suggests that the response of the Jews in 19:12 is a demand for Pilate to choose between loyalty to Caesar and his supposition of the innocence of Jesus in 19:6 (2007, 170). R. Brown discusses the possibility of the expression being used as an honorific title during the time of Pilate or the possibility of its being used in a general sense to signify loyalty to the emperor (1970, 63). He concludes that being of the equestrian order Pilate would have been eligible for the honour (64). Most of the works above are however com­mentaries on the Gospel of John, they do not pay specific attention to particular verses. Available articles are rather on the entire trial of Jesus in John 18-19 and on the Roman imperial authority motif in John. It has therefore become necessary to study the phrase ,friend of Caesar‘ in the narrative context of John’s Gospel to determine the threat element that would possibly have influenced the decision of Pilate to accept to deliver Jesus to the Jews for crucifixion. The aim of this study is therefore to establish the correlation that may exist in the Johannine narrative between the phrase ,friend of Caesar‘ and Pilate’s deci­sion to crucify Jesus. In other words, to identify the extent to which the ,No friend of Caesar‘ phrase in v. 12b constitutes blackmail used by the Jewish party to influ­ence Pilate’s decision to hand Jesus over for crucifixion. The synchronic approach of exegesis is employed in this work; the approach studies a biblical text in its present and final form, and wholeness. This method permits an assessment of the historical, religious and social imports of the phrase ,friend of Caesar‘ in the narrative context of the Gospel of John with a view to possibly identifying the harboured meaning supposedly intended by the author. The work begins by situating v. 12b in the organizational framework of John 19:12­16a. It acknowledges the central role of v. 12 as the verse that necessitated the narrated actions within the pericope. The study is then restricted to a brief anal­ysis of v. 12 under two headings: the attempt by Pilate to release Jesus (12a), and the resistance from the Jews (12bc). Within this study, an attempt is made to identify the relationship between Pilate, Emperor Tiberius and his vicegerent Lu­cius A. Sejanus. This is undertaken to establish the possible impact of the disgrace­ful dismissal of Sejanus by Tiberius on Pilate. These summary analysis leads up to a historical study of the phrase ,friend of Caesar‘, and the crime of lese majesty. The analysis reveals that the phrase ,friend of Caesar‘ is synonymous with the Asia Minor political privilege expression ,friend of the king‘. It owes its origin to the Hellenistic times and from there it was ad­opted and adapted by the Roman Empire. It was then used by the Roman Empire to suit its special needs for unwavering loyalty and unity towards the emperor in its crave to keep in check the vast territory and diversified provinces under the influence and unified authority of Rome. The use of the phrase in v. 12b is there­fore a figurative way of denoting loyalty to the emperor. 2. John 19:12b within the Context of John 19:12-16a John 19:12b belongs to the pericope of John 19:12-16a which constitutes the fi­nal phase of the larger pericope on the trial before Pilate in 18:28-19:16a. John 19:12-16a is organized in a chiastic pattern ABA1 thus: A 12abc 12 a From then on Pilate sought to release him, b but the Jews cried out, »If you release this man, you are not Caesar’s friend. c Everyone who makes himself a king opposes Caesar.« B 13-14ab 13 a So when Pilate heard these words, b he brought Jesus out and sat down on the judgment seat at a place called the Stone Pavement, and in Aramaic Gabbatha. 14 a Now it was the day of Preparation of the Passover. b It was about the sixth hour. A114c-16 14 c He said to the Jews, »Behold your King!« 15 a They cried out, »Away with him, away with him, crucify him!« b Pilate said to them, »Shall I crucify your King?« c The chief priests answered, »We have no king but Caesar.« 16a So he delivered him over to them to be crucified.« Within this chiastic structure, the exercise of the office of the prefect from his ß.µa in ‚B‘ (vv. 13-14b) is sandwiched by Pilate’s quest to release Jesus in ‚A‘ (v. 12), and his decision to hand Jesus in for crucifixion in ‚A1‘ (v. 16a). Thematically the headings are thus: A – Pilate’s Attempt to Release Jesus and the Jewish Party’s Resistance (v. 12abc), B – The Judgement Seat (vv. 13-14b), and A1 – The Decision to Crucify Jesus (vv. 14c-16a). V 12b is the object of interest for this study. It forms part of the unit on Pilate’s attempt to Release Jesus and the Jewish Party’s Resis­tance. Vv. 12-16a is the conclusion of the trial narrative in John. But while all of v. 12a connects vv. 12-16a to the preceding trial narratives, v. 12bc stands as a ca­talyst for the activities narrated within vv. 12-16a, it is presented as the turning point for the conclusion of the trial and the premise for Pilate’s arrival at a verdict. 3. Pilate’s Attempt to Release Jesus (v.12a) .. t..t.. . ....t.. ...te. .p...sa. a.t.. – from then Pilate sought to relea­ se him The phrase .. t..t.. serves as a link between v. 12 and v. 11 of the previous pericope. Pontius Pilate was the Roman procurator of Judaea from AD 25-27 to AD 35 (McKenzie 1965, 677). Emperor Tiberius or Lucius Aelius Sejanus appoint­ed him to his position. Sejanus was the emperor’s influential vicegerent who be­tween 26 and 27 AD to 31 AD was responsible for the administrative details in Rome (Brown 1994, 693). As prefect Pilate had the authority to sentence people to death. The Jews could judge someone guilty of an offence against their laws but would have to hand such person to the prefect for conviction. Pilate seeks for the second time in the trial to set Jesus free from the accusations brought against him by the Jews. The first attempt is in 18:39. His decision is founded on his con­viction of Jesus’ innocence in 18:38 and 19:4, 6. This second attempt is based es­pecially on Pilate’s conversation with Jesus in vv. 8-11 to which the temporal se­quence phrase .. t..t.. refers. The infinitive verb .p...sa. denotes to grant acquittal, to set free, while the imperfect ...te. denotes ‚to find a way or attempt‘. Placed together the two verbs underscore the sensitivity and weight of the trial for Pilate. The life or death of Jesus at this moment is in the hands of Pilate and therefore the need to be scru­pulous (Gers-Uphaus 2020, 22). The seriousness of this is reflected in the seeming flip-flopping by Pilate who seeks to placate the Jews (18:39) and at the same time offers Jesus the opportunity to defend himself and provide him with evidence to insist on his innocence (19:10). 4. Resistance from the Jews (v. 12bc) .. d. ...da... ...a..asa. .....te.: ... t..t.. .p...s.., ... e. f.... t.. .a.sa...: p.. . ßas....a .a.t.. p.... ..t....e. t. .a.sa... But the Jews cried out saying: »If you release this man, you are not a friend of Caesar; everyone who makes himself a king is against Caesar.« The attempt by Pilate to release Jesus is met with stiff opposition from the Jews who politically spin the case by apparently putting Pilate instead on trial. »If you release this man, you are no Friend of Caesar.« 12b While the case against Jesus by the Jews was initially a religious one about Judaism and Jesus’ claim to divinity, the perception by them of Pilate’s sympathetic stance on Jesus forces them to spin it into a political one around the sovereignty of the emperor. Jesus is accused in v. 7 of claiming to be Son of God; Caesar as emperor is considered and revered as the divine son of god (Cuss 1974, 31). By claiming to be the Son of God Jesus has placed himself at the same level with Caesar as king and divine. His charges of claim to kingship are already implied in the question by Pilate »are you the king of the Jews?« (18:33). Thus in v. 12c Jesus is depicted by his Jewish brothers as king standing against the emperor ..t....e. t. .a.sa.. the only recognized king in the empire and under whose reign all must submit. 4.1 The Crime of Lese Majesty and the Friend of Caesar The verb ..t..... denotes »speaking against, to contradict, or oppose« (Bauer, Danker and Arndt 2000, 89). It is used here in terms of opposition (Isaiah 65:2). As throne claimant Jesus is opposing Caesar and acting against him. Those who pres­ent themselves as king against the emperor and those who tolerate them are en­emies of the emperor and guilty of the crime of lese majesty. Lčse-Majesté is from the Latin laesa majestas, which literally means ,injured majesty‘. It is the crime of affront against a sovereign power, acting against the dignity or sovereignty of a reigning monarch or a state. By declaring himself king and being treated as one, Jesus is thus considered guilty of this crime (12c) and Pilate is equally accused of the same crime for attempting to release Jesus (12b). The title .a.sa..., ,Caesar‘ was originally a proper name of the Julian family, notably of Julius Caesar, and of Augustus (Lk 2:1). It later developed into a title referring to ,the Emperor‘; it is often used in the New Testament to underscore the legitimate and sovereign power of political authority (Dunn 1975, 269). Jesus’ claim as king arrogates to him an authority that pitches him against the sover­eignty of Caesar. The Jewish counsel now politically presents Jesus before Pilate as persona non grata, a threat to the emperor and the emperor’s authority over the Jews (Acts 17:7). If Pilate is loyal to Caesar he should therefore consider Jesus’ action treasonable and convict and crucify him otherwise he would be petitioned to the emperor as not being ,the friend of Caesar‘. 4.1.1 The Friend of Caesar and its Hellenistic Origin The phrase f.... t.. .a.sa... is traced to the Idumaean king Herod the Great. During the decades of material prosperity of his reign and imperial favour from the emperor Octavian Herod chose to style himself as ,Friend of Rome‘ and ,Fri­end of Caesar‘ to underscore his loyalty as a client king to his Roman overlords (Smallwood 1976, 71). In the context of Palestine during the time of Jesus, the use of the phrase in Judaea under the Roman rule was therefore often for the expression of allegiance to the emperor and the empire of Rome. In relation to the Fourth Gospel, the phrase is Roman. There are, however, some OT similariti­es in the LXX: »the king’s friend« (1 Chr 22:33), »the friend of the king« (1 Macc 15:32), »the friend of Hezekiah« (Prov 25:1), »the king’s friends« (Dan 3:27). 1 Macc 14:40 uses the expression with specific reference to the Roman republic when it alludes to ,friends and allies and brothers‘ of the Romans. This usage has some similarities with the intended sense in John 19:12 though without refer­ring specifically to Augustus and his empire (Richey 2007, 167). In Matthew 7:3// Luke 7:34 Jesus is addressed as »a friend of tax collectors and sinners« merely in a descriptive sense to underscore his association with tax collectors and sinners. Abraham is given the name f.... .e.. ,friend of God‘ in James 2:23. The same James uses the phrase a ‚friend of the world‘ as synonym for an ‚enemy of God‘ in 4:4. The typical Johannine usage of f.... t.. .a.sa... has no scriptural parallel and can be traced instead to the Hellenistic and later Roman period. 4.1.1.1 The Hellenistic Origin The title .. ßas..... f.... was commonly and strategically used for politically privileged positions in Asia Minor before the Roman conquest (Richey 2007, 167). It was predominantly used with various shades of meaning during the Hellenistic period under the Seleucids and Lagids (Spicq 1959, 239-45). To be the ,king’s fri­end‘ attracted great privilege that subsequently developed into a complex system of title conferment to reflect the degree of intimacy with the king (Cuss 1974, 45). While the king used the system to win loyalty, the beneficiaries saw it as an opportunity for power, prestige, and political and economic gains that arose from associating with the kings. It gave the beneficiaries easy access to the kings even in the earliest hours of the day. It is reported that Hermeias the chief minister of king Antiochus III was murdered while Antiochus III was taking his medically re­commended morning walk accompanied by »those of the king’s friends who were privy to the plot« (Polybius, Histories V. 56, 10). The king’s friends accompanied the king during his journeys and shared his stress and misfortunes. And Seneca is noted to have remarked cynically that the king had different grades of friends; the first class friends and the friends of the second class, they were never true friends, but only collaborators who had a number for paying homage to the king (Seneca, De Beneficiis VI. 34, 1). The king received some of these friends private­ly, some in small groups, while others en masse. From this Hellenistic usage, the title was adopted and adapted as amicus Augusti by the Romans under Augustus for the special needs and political machinations of the empire. 4.1.2 The Friend of Caesar in the Roman Empire The Roman adoption of this Hellenistic political system introduced various changes to the title. These included the reception of official and semi-official functions that were originally not part of the Hellenistic practice. The Latin form amicus Augusti or amicus Caesaris was extended to include members of the imperial family. It was effectively used by the Romans and became very popular during the first century as an honorific title of privilege given to the friends of the emperors who »were admitted into this group of the emperor’s ‚friends‘ as a mark of gratitude for their loyalty and support towards their sovereign« (Cuss 1974, 48). To be a friend of the emperor therefore attracted enviable political and religious privileges greatly coveted at the time. It was this group of friends around the emperor who taking advantage of their unfettered access to the emperor Domitian orchestrated a plot and killed him in AD 96 (Cuss 1974, 49). The emperor conferred this title also on some of his closest friends who were equally given provinces to supervise. Thus Pomponius Flaccus and L. Pison described by the emperor as the closest friends were given the province of Syria and the Prefecture of the town respectively (Su­etonius, Tiberius. 42, 3). Pilate is thus likely to have been given the province of Judaea as the friend of Tiberius or of Sejanus in recompense for his amiable ser­vice and pronounced loyalty to the imperial cause (Cuss 1974, 48). It was therefore a title conferred in the Roman Empire as a mark of imperial gra­titude on persons for their faithful and loyal services and dispositions towards the emperor. To be the emperor’s friend thus meant to serve him and to enjoy his favo­ur (Zumstein 2016, 710). The Roman Empire saw the title as an instrument at the service of imperial propaganda in the exercise of soft power, attracting, cultivating, and managing loyalty, and exercising authority within its conquered territories. This was used in tandem with the imperial religious cult of worshipping the emperor as divine son of god »to unite the vast Roman empire by a common bond of loyalty towards the person of the emperor, linked with the personification of the power of Rome« (Cuss 1974, 32). This cult of the Divi and the genius of the living emperor were made most popular especially during the time of Augustus, as a concession for the tradition of the Hellenized East. It became a unifying force that permitted the Romans to identify the friends and enemies of their emperor among the varied nationalities within its frontiers. It was thus one of the necessary instruments in the hands of the Roman Empire to enlist its adherents in the management and conso­lidation of the enormous power it wielded over its vast territories (Syme 1954, 264). It is within this context of the Roman Empire’s quest for loyalty from its conque­red territories in the use of this title that the Herodian connection with the title in relation to Rome is to be established. Herod the Great publicly laid claims to this title and used it as an expression of his unfettered loyalty to the emperor in return for establishing and preserving his authority and dynasty in Judaea. Sub­sequent Herodian successors maintained this tradition of loyalty to the emperor. Agrippa for example was in return for loyalty honoured by Gaius Caligula and sub­sequently Claudius with a kingdom larger than his grandfather’s. He ruled the kingdom in submission to Rome as »Great king, Friend of Caesar and Friend of Rome« (Smallwood 1976, 192; Richey 2007, 169). 4.1.3 Pilate and Sejanus, and the Threat of Lese Majesty Pilate’s position as the procurator of Judaea is linked to his relationship with Lu­cius Sejanus (Richey 2007, 169). Sejanus was a dynamic young man who gained the admiration of emperor Tiberius. He was a Roman noble and had access to power at an early age when he took charge of the day-to-day administration of the empire while Tiberius retired to the peninsular of the isle of Capri. His posi­tion as almost the co-emperor to Tiberius gained him the privilege of appointing prefects to the numerous provinces under the empire; one of these prefects was that of Alexandria (Brown 1994, 693-695; Richey 2007, 169). Pilate is likely to have been another of Sejanus’ appointed prefects and a client of Sejanus (Spicq 1959, 239-245; Schnackenburg 1982, 262). As a client of Sejanus, Pilate may probably have been numbered among ‘the friends of Caesar’ (Tacitus, Annals 6.8). Brown, however, cautions against the hypothetical nature of this connection between Sejanus and Pilate (1994, 844). It became evident that Sejanus was plotting against the imperial family and on the grounds of treasonable ambitions he lost the confidence of Tiberius and was killed on 18 October, 31 for lese-majesty (Brown 1994, 693). His death put at risk all his appointees who were considered his loyalists. Most of these loyalists were already stripped of their responsibilities, and the onus was therefore on the re­maining ones to prove by their activities that they were loyal to Tiberius. Given that, based on the dating above, Pilate is likely to have been a loyalist or ‚friend of Sejanus‘ and mindful of what had befallen his patron, he had the weight of working the tight rope of not betraying any lack of loyalty to the emperor Tiberi­us (Richey 169). Keener (2012, 1128) suggests that provincial governorship positions were al­ways for men of senatorial ranks who always aspired to higher offices. This aspi­ration was often thwarted by unfavourable reports to the emperor against them. Pilate on his part was more vulnerable because he was of a lower rank by birth but rose to the position by grace from Sejanus (1128). Like all governors, any abu­se of office could be considered a treasonable offence and releasing one accused of contesting Caesar’s position was more treasonable. Philo notes that Herod Agrippa presented Pilate as an inflexible, corrupt and cruel leader who had much to hide from his Roman superiors (Embassy 38, 301). Pilate had once backed down at the threats of denunciation from the Jewish aristocrats when he planned to tinker with Herod’s palace in Jerusalem (38, 301-302). According to Philo’s Agri­ppa, this threat of sending an embassy to the emperor exasperated Pilate, made him very fearful that his venality, his violence, robberies, assaults, abusive beha­viour, frequent executions of untried persons and his endless savage ferocity were going to be exposed (38, 302). On the basis of an appeal to Tiberius by the Jews, Pilate was once humiliated by the emperor for the very fact that he attempted to fiddle with the traditions of the people (38, 304-305). From these descriptions by Philo, it is evident that the Jewish leaders repeate­dly confronted Pilate with threats of denunciation to the emperor. Smallwood notes that from Josephus’ account of the squabble between the Jews and Pilate about the ‚standards and the medallion busts of the emperor‘ (AJ 28, 55-59) the Jews were equally aware that though brutal and stubborn Pilate was vulnerable when matched with equal stubbornness and threat (1976, 161-162). Pilate on his part was therefore always anxious about his wrongdoings being exposed by any embassy to his unpredictable emperor and made efforts to prevent such denun­ciations. Thus even if there were no connection between Pilate and Sejanus, Pi­late already understood from these previous experiences of humiliation, the po­litical, economic and existential implications of his being denounced by Tiberius. 5. The Threat Element of the Phrase ,Friend of Caesar‘ on Pilate The statement »you are no friend of Caesar« used of Pilate by the Jews in v. 12b for seeking to release Jesus denotes disloyalty. It implies that if Pilate releases Jesus who is presented as the enemy of Caesar, he is equally against Caesar and does not protect the interest of the emperor (Gers-Uphaus 2020, 22). The Johannine Jewish authorities were conscious of the subtlety surrounding the relationship be­tween the Roman emperor or his representatives and the traditions of the Jews. Meier notes that the High Priests were often burdened with the responsibility of maintaining this balance between the exercise of the powers of the emperor and the preservation of the traditions of the Jews (2001, 296). They were often expecting from the emperors minimum of concession and respect for their tradi­tions. This qualifies for what Matjaž Muršic Klenar describes as the necessity of cohabitation (2020, 575). The Johannine Jewish authorities were therefore aware of the need for an emperor to be sympathetic towards the preservation of their traditions (Philo, Embassy 38:301). They were conscious of Roman emperors’ in­tolerance of disloyalty from subordinates and collaborators, like Sejanus. They were conversant with Pilate’s wrongdoings and abuse of authority and of Pilate’s fear for his wrongdoings, especially of these being exposed (38, 302). They were conscious of the fact that Pilate would do much to make sure he was not peti­tioned to the emperor Tiberius especially about his abusive behaviours. They were equally aware that their resistances have often broken Pilate’s stubbornness and resolve even at the cost of lives (Smallwood 1976, 161-162). Armed with these vulnerabilities of Pilate, and aware that Pilate was tilting towards releasing Jesus, the Jews used the »you are no friend of Caesar« figure as a veiled threat to force Pilate’s hand and get crucifixion for Jesus. Thus aware of what had become of Sejanus, and mindful of previous humilia­tions suffered, Pilate preferred to preserve his position and life and bow to pres­sure from the Jews by handing Jesus over for crucifixion. Pilate, therefore, under­stood from his previous experiences the implications of the reference to Caesar in John 19:12b as a threat to his life and political ambition. The threat, therefore, helps Pilate to play along with the Jews and protect the interest of the emperor and preserve his life and office (Gers-Uphaus 2020, 23). The threat was therefore of a particular significance for Pilate in relation to his intimacy with the emperor. This intimacy was for Pilate more valuable than the Jewish squabble about a cer­tain kingship pretender (Jossa 2002, 119). If Pilate, therefore, had the title of ,friend of Caesar‘ conferred on him, he would by virtue of the threat be consid­ered unfaithful and stripped of the title and the office. If it was not conferred on him, the threat was then used to express the fact that he would be guilty of dis­loyalty as Caesar’s representative for favouring a person who was against Caesar. The threat element of the phrase consists especially in the fact that if Pilate fails to concede to the demand to crucify Jesus the Jewish authority will bring his ex­cesses to the attention of the emperor and convince the emperor to strip him of his office and even risk his life. Thus when confronted with the veiled threat (accusation) by the Jews of dis­loyalty to Caesar Pilate quickly capitulated and handed Jesus over to be crucified. Pilate gave in for fear of having his inadequacies exposed and consequently losing his intimacy with the emperor (Dodd 1963, 120). The threat from the Jewish lead­ership of not being a ‚friend of Caesar‘ implied disloyalty and was therefore an unconcealed psychological pressure on Pilate’s fear of losing his very enviable status as ,amicus Augusti‘. It was a political blackmail used as a trump card to twist his arms (Zumstein 2016, 710) and break his resistance to the crowd’s insistence on handing over Jesus for crucifixion. 6. Conclusion The phrase ,friend of Caesar‘ in John 19:12 plays an important role in the Johan-nine narrative on the handing over of Jesus by Pilate to the Jews for crucifixion in John 19:12-16a. A historical analysis of the phrase reveals that it can be traced to the Hellenistic expression .. ßas..... f.... used in Asia Minor to denote the politically privileged positions of a select few who enjoyed the favour of the king. It was used as a complex system of title conferment to win loyalty for the king; while the beneficiaries saw it as an opportunity for political and economic gains. This system was adopted by the Romans from the time of Augustus and used as amicus Augusti or amicus Caesaris for the same garnering of loyalty. The Johan-nine usage reflects this same sense of loyalty incumbent on those who were at the service of the emperor. It however has some remote similarities with a few expressions in the LXX; the closest being the ,friends and allies and brothers‘ of the Romans in 1 Macc 15:32. To cease to be the ,friend of Caesar‘ therefore im­plied not being loyal to the emperor, renuntiatio amicitiae. Such show of disloyal­ty implied losing one’s political office and even risking one’s own life, as was the case with Pilate’s mentor Sejanus. The use of the phrase by the Jews was there­fore meant to be a reminder to Pilate that if they denounced him to the emperor of favouring the enemy of the emperor his office as prefect and life would be at risk. He was therefore to choose between being a friend of the enemy of Caesar or the friend of Caesar by protecting the interest of Caesar. It was a threat and a bait; a political blackmail to force Pilates hand. Ruffled by this threat from the Jewish counsel, Pilate bowed to political pres­sure from the Jews by handing in Jesus for crucifixion. He thus considered a Jewi­sh dissident king-pretender, and the squabble around Jewish national religion unworthy of his loss of the confidence of Caesar and consequently his life and position as prefect. Pilate’s surrendering of Jesus for crucifixion was therefore in­fluenced by the linking of the trial to the authority of the emperor and consequen­tly the loyalty of the governor to the emperor. This was because »to shut his eyes to the fact that Jesus did have a following and had made certain definite, though somewhat vague references to his kingdom would show a lack of interest in the concerns of Caesar« (Cuss 1974, 44). The use of the phrase by the Jews highlighted the ingenuity of the Jewish co­uncil who feeding on the vulnerable side of Pilate took advantage of the entire legal and political situations and turned them maximally in their favour (Bammel 419) by extorting a sentence of the crucifixion from Pilate. The use of the phrase betrays an element of intrigue because having exhausted their list of accusations and getting a reply of innocence from Pilate, the Jewish party decided to play the political card by tapping on the fears and vulnerability of Pilate to force his hand. A threat because if he failed to concede to the demand to crucify Jesus they would convince the emperor to strip him of his office and consequently even condemn him to death. References Bammel, Ernst. 1984. The Trial before Pilate. In: Ernst Bammel and C.F.D Moule, eds. Jesus and the Politics of His Day, 415–451. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Barrett, C. K. 1978. The Gospel According to St. John. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Bauer, Walter. 2000. A Greek English Lexicon of the New Testament and Early Christian Litera­ture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Bernard, J. H. 1999. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel of John. Vol. 3. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Brandenburger, Egon. 1975. Stauros. In: Colin Brown, ed. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Vol. 1, 391–430. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Brown, Raymond E. 1970. The Gospel according to John XIII-XXI. New York: Doubleday. – – –. 1994. The Death of the Messiah. Vol. 1. London: Cassell. Bruce, F. F. 1984. Render to Caesar. In: Ernst Bam­mel and C.F.D. Moule, eds. Jesus and the Politi­cs of His Day, 249–263. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Culpepper, R. Alan. 1983. Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel: A Study in Literary Design. Philadelphia : Fortress Press. Cuss, Dominique. 1974. Imperial Cults and Hono­rary Terms in the New Testament. Firbourg: Firbourg University Press. Dodd, Charles Harold. 1963. The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dunn, James. 1975. Kaisar. In: Colin Brown, ed. The New International Dcitionary of New Testmant Theology. Vol. 1, 269–270. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Gers-Uphaus, Christian. 2020. The Figure of Pon­tus Pilate in Josephus Compared with Philo and the Gospel of John. Religions 11, no. 65:1–24. Jossa, Giorgio. 2002. Il processo di Gesů. Brescia: Paideia. Keener, Craig. 2012. The Gospel of John. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Lagrange, Marie-Joseph. 1936. Evangile selon saint Jean. Paris: Lecoffre & J. Gabalda et Cie. Lim, Sung. 2016. Biopolitics in the Trial of Jesus (John 18:28-19:16a). Expository Times 127, no. 5:209–216. Louw, Johannes, and Eugene Nida.1989. Greek-Engli­sh Lexicon of the New Testament based on Seman­tic Domains. 2nd ed.NewYork:UnitedBibleSociety. McComiskey, Thomas. 1976. Bema. In: Colin Brown, ed. The New International Dictionary of New Testament Thology. Vol. 2, 369–370. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. McKenzie, John L. 1965. Dictionary of the Bible. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company. McLaren, James. 1991. Power and Politics in Palestine: The Jews and the Governing of thier Land 100 BC–AD 70. Sheffield: Sheffield Acade­mic Press. Meier, John. 2001. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. Vol. 3. New York: Doubleday. Moloney, Francis. 1990. Johannine Theology. In: Raymond Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy, eds. The New Jerome Bibli­cal Commentary, 1417–1426. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Morris, Leon. 1995. The Gospel According to John. Grand Rapids: Wm Eerdmans. Muršic Klenar, Matjaž. 2020. Possibilities of Dialo­gue in the Modern Secular Society. Bogoslovni vestnik 80, no. 3:575–584. https://doi. org/10.34291/bv2020/03/mursic Panimolle, Salvatore. 1984. Lettura pastorale del vangello di Giovanni. Bologna: Edizione Deho­niane. Philo, 1962. On the Embassy to Gaius: General Index. Translated by F. X. Colson. Loeb Classical Library 379. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universi­ty Press. Polybius. 1922. Histories V. 56. 10. Translated by W. R. Paton. Loeb Classical Library 3. Cambrid­ge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rad, Gerhard von. 1964. ‚Melek‘ and ‚malkűt‘ in the OT. In: Gerhard Kittel, ed. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. 1, 565– 571. Grand Rapids: Wm Eerdmans. Rensberger, David. 1984. The Politics of John: The Trial of Jesus in the Fourth Gospel. Journal of Biblical Literature 103, no. 3:395–411. https:// doi.org/10.2307/3260780 Richey, Lance. 2007. Roman Imperial Ideology and the Gospel of John. Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America. Schmidt, Karl. 1964. The Word Group ‚basileus‘ in the NT. In: Gerhard Kittel, ed. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. 1, 576– 593. Grand Rapids: Wm Eerdmans. Schnackenburg, Rudolf. 1982. The Gospel accor­ding to John. Vol. 3. London: Burns & Oates. Seneca. 1935. Moral Essays. Vol. 3, De Beneficiis. Translated by J. W. Basore. Loeb Classical Library 310. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universi­ty Press. Smallwood, E. Mary. 1976. The Jews under Roman Rule: From Pompey to Diocletian. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Smith, D. Moody. 1995. The Theoogy of the Go­spel of John. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Spicq, P. Claude. 1959. Agapč dans le Nouveau Testament. Vol. 3. Paris: Gabalda. Suetonius. 1914. Lives of the Caesars. Vol. 1, Julius Augustus; Tiberius; Gaius; Caligula. Translated by J. C. Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library 31. Cam­bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Sweet, J. P. M. 1984. The Zealots and Jesus. In: Ernst Bammel and C.F.D Moule, eds. Jesus and the Politics of His Day, 1–9. Cambridge: Cam­bridge University Press. Syme, Ronald. 1956. Some Friends of Caesar. The American Journal of Philology 77, no. 3:264– 273. https://doi.org/10.2307/292290 Tacitus. 1937. The Annals: Books 4–6; 11-12. Tran­slated by J. Jackson. Loeb Classical Library 312. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zerwick, Max, and Mary Grosvenor. 1993. A Grammatical Analysis of the Greek New Testa­ment. Roma: Pontificio Istituto Biblico. Zumstein, Jean. 2016. Das Johannesevangelium: Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar über das Neue Testament 2. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Pregledni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 315—352 Besedilo prejeto/Received:08/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:08/2022 UDK/UDC: 1Assmann J.:27-242.6 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Petkovsek © 2022 Petkovšek, CC BY 4.0 Robert Petkovšek Eksodus – matrica razodetja Exodus - The Matrix of Revelation Povzetek: Prispevek1 analizira in sintetizira delo Jana Assmanna Eksodus: revolucija starega sveta (2015), ki velja za eno temeljnih sodobnih raziskav o vplivu Ekso­dusa (2 Mz) na moderno kulturo. To delo Eksodusa ne obravnava z zgodovinske­ga vidika, temvec z vidika njegovega semanticnega potenciala in zgodovine ucin­kovanja na naše izrocilo. Njegova teza je, da Eksodus predstavlja ,prapok mo-dernosti‘ in da sodobna kultura na pragu digitalne ere še vedno stoji na ,mojze­sovskih temeljih‘. V Eksodusu se namrec vzpostavi nova oblika religije, religija razodetja, ki temelji na zavezi. Ta ima za posledico nov odnos med Bogom in clovekom, ki ga predstavlja potujoci shodni šotor: v njem se Bog naseli sredi svojega potujocega ljudstva. Druga pomembna novost Eksodusa pa je teologi­zacija prava, ki je imela za posledico propad stare bližnjevzhodne sakralne drža­ve in je pripravila pot modernizaciji, katere temeljna vrednota je svoboda. Kljucne besede: Jan Assmann, eksodus, razodetje, Mojzes, zgodovina ucinkovanja, monoteizem Abstract: This paper analyses and synthesises Jan Assmann’s Exodus: Die Revolution der Alten Welt (2015; transl. The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus (2018)), which is considered to be one of the momentous contem­porary studies on the impact of Exodus on modernity. He does not approach the Exodus from a historical perspective, but rather from the perspective of its seman­tic potential and the history of its impact on our tradition. His thesis is that the Exodus represents ,a big bang of modernization‘ and that modern culture, on the threshold of the digital age, still stands on ,Mosaic foundations‘. In the Exodus a new form of religion was established, a religion of revelation based on the cove­nant. This results in a new relationship between God and man, represented by the travelling Tabernacle: in it God takes up residence in the midst of his travelling people. The second major innovation of the Exodus is the theologisation of law, which resulted in the dissolution of the old Middle Eastern sacral state and paved the way for modernisation, the fundamental value of which is freedom. Prispevek je nastal v okviru raziskovalnega programa „Religija, etika, edukacija in izzivi sodobne družbe“ (P6-0269), ki ga sofinancira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije (ARRS). Keywords: Jan Assmann, exodus, revelation, Moses, Wirkungsgeschichte, mono­ theism 1. Uvod Eksodus: revolucija starega sveta – delo, ki ga je leta 2015 izdal Jan Assmann – smemo imeti za eno pomembnejših del sodobne filozofije kulture in religiologije. Delo namrec izhaja iz predpostavke, da moderni svet svoj nastanek in razvoj dol­guje svetopisemskemu monoteizmu. Eksodus2 je ime za 2. Mojzesovo knjigo, ki govori o izhodu Izraelcev iz egiptovske sužnosti, Assmann pa ga razlaga širše – kot simbol clovekovega izhoda iz razlicnih oblik clovekove zasužnjenosti v svobodo, ki je osrednja vrednota modernega sveta (Kasper 1988, 1). Odnos med izhodom Izraelcev iz Egipta in modernim svetom Assmann opisuje z besedami soproge Aleide (2013, 94, v: Assmann 2016, 23): »Z izhodom iz Egipta se je zgodil prapok modernizacije.« V prispevku bomo predstavili Assmannovo tezo o eksodusu kot pripovedi, na kateri naš moderni svet še vedno temelji in iz katere crpa svoje temeljne vizije. Pripoved lahko razumemo na razlicne nacine: kot zgodovinsko porocilo, kot razo­detje ali kot mit. Bolj kot zgodovinska resnica, ki se skriva za pripovedjo, Assman­na zanima pomenski ucinek, ki ga je pripoved imela na kulturni, civilizacijski in verski razvoj sveta, v katerem živimo. Assmanna zanima geneza tega pomenskega potenciala, ki je dobil dokoncno, kanonicno obliko in veljavo v Svetem pismu – v 2. Mojzesovi knjigi, imenovani Eksodus. Pripovedi o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta je mogoce slediti dalec nazaj v cas, še preden je dobila kanonicno obliko v Tori – to-rej v peteroknjižju, ki obsega pet Mojzesovih knjig, kakršne v judovskem in kršcan­skem izrocilu poznamo danes. Na posamezne dogodke, o katerih govori Eksodus, se sklicujejo tudi druge svetopisemske knjige, starejše od Tore. To kaže, da je pri­poved o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta krožila naokoli že pred njeno redakcijo v Tori. Po drugi strani pa so 2. Mojzesovo knjigo v poznejših obdobjih vedno znova pri­povedovali, jo razlagali in komentirali ter iz nje crpali razvojne spodbude in vizije. Assmanna ne zanimajo posamezne vsebine 2. Mojzesove knjige, temvec struktu-re in forme, ki jih je exodus kot pripoved ali kot knjiga vzpostavil. Te strukture ali forme, ki po Assmannu tvorijo hrbtenico modernega sveta, so naredile naš mo-derni svet dovzeten za revolucionarne novosti, po katerih se je radikalno locil od drugih tako predmodernih kot nemodernih kultur. To njegovo izvirnost in drugac­nost bomo poskušali z Assmannom prikazati. Kot eden najvecjih sodobnih egip­tologov je Assmann to biblicno novost primerjal predvsem s kulturo faraonskega Egipta in z drugimi bližnjevzhodnimi kulturami, v casu ali bližini katerih se je he-brejsko Sveto pismo oblikovalo kot nekaj novega in drugacnega. Po Assmannu Eksodus prinaša semantiko preloma (nem. Bruch) – »najbolj ra- Beseda „Eksodus“, pisana z veliko zacetnico, oznacuje Drugo Mojzesovo knjigo, pisana z malo zacetnico („eksodus“) pa pomeni pripoved o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta ali pa sam dogodek izhoda. dikalen skok, ki ga je kultura kadar koli naredila; tu gre za preobrat od politeizma k monoteizmu in k temu, kar danes razumemo kot ‚religijo‘« (Assmann 2016, 23). Tudi ce je v Egiptu monoteizem v casu svojega vladanja uvedel že Ehnaton, to je faraon Amenhotep IV. (vladal ok. 1353–1336 ali 1351–1334 pr. Kr.), se je religija v današnjem pomenu besede oblikovala šele v biblicnem monoteizmu – in ne v monoteizmu Ehnatona. Biblicni monoteizem nosi v sebi dve temeljni razsežnosti: monoteizem resnice in monoteizem zvestobe (Assmann 2016, 29–45; Petkovšek 2017, 620–626). Mo-noteizem resnice trdi, da je resnicni Bog le en in je zato resnicna le ena vera, dru­gi bogovi in vere pa so lažni. Vprašanje o tem, katera vera je resnicna, katera pa neresnicna, je med vprašanji o veri dolgo veljalo za najpomembnejše. In odgovor nanj je bil, da je prehod od lažne vere k resnicni treba iskati prav v eksodusu. Egipt, o katerem govori eksodus, simbolizira laž – Izrael pa resnico. Ob tem se sicer za­stavlja tudi vprašanje, ali je Mojzes monoteizem prevzel od Ehnatona ali pa je stvaritelj svetopisemskega monoteizma on sam. Tu gre za vprašanje kontinuitete in diskontinuitete med Egiptom in Izraelom – za vprašanje torej, ali v zgodovini verstev biblicni monoteizem predstavlja nekaj povsem novega ali pa je le nadalje­vanje monoteizma iz casa Ehnatona. Ker se zdi, da se je vprašanje o (ne)resnicno­sti boga in vere oblikovalo v petih Mojzesovih knjigah, katerih avtorstvo je izroci-lo pripisovalo Mojzesu, je Assmann to razlikovanje poimenoval ,mojzesovsko raz­likovanje‘ (mosaische Unterscheidung; mosaic distinction) (Petkovšek 2018, 246; 252–253; 256; 2019, 27–36; 2020, 26–32). V nasprotju s prepricanjem, da je svetopisemski monoteizem v svojem jedru monoteizem resnice, katerega izvor je v svojem delu Moses der Ägypter (1998) Assmann prav tako iskal pri Ehnatonu, v Exodusu (2015) poudarja, da je ta teza anahronisticna. Po Assmannu so se Izraelci monoteizma resnice oprijeli veliko po­zneje – v casu babilonskega izgnanstva (597–539 pr. Kr.) in po njem, ko so se sre-cali z monoteizmom Babiloncev in Perzijcev. Kakor egipcanski je bil tudi ta mono-teizem kozmogonicen in povezljiv s politeizmom – v skladu z njim imajo svet in bogovi v njem izvor v enem samem bogu. To vero v enega samega boga, ki je izvir sveta in bogov v svetu, pa so Izraelci spremenili v absolutni monoteizem – spre­jeli so enega resnicnega Boga, stvarnika sveta, in druge zavrnili kot lažne. Po As-smannu izvorno jedro svetopisemskega monoteizma torej ni monoteizem resnice, ampak monoteizem zvestobe. Ta monoteizem se je oblikoval že v casu pred iz­gnanstvom in je tudi v poznejšem svetopisemskem izrocilu prevladal nad mono-teizmom resnice. Generator svetopisemskega monoteizma je monoteizem zvestobe. Tu ni bistve-no razlikovanje med resnicnim in lažnim, znacilno za ‚mojzesovsko razlikovanje‘, ampak razlikovanje med zvestobo in izdajo. To v središce vere ne postavlja resni­ce, ampak zavezo. Bog, ki je Izraelce rešil iz egiptovske sužnosti, je z njimi sklenil zavezo in jih izvolil za svoje ljudstvo. Vera (heb. aemunah) v svoji revolucionarni moci, kakor jo razumemo danes, pomeni zvestobo zavezi in zaupanje v Božje oblju-be – v prisego, dano ocetom, v spravno in opravicujoco moc postave. Vera tu dobi povsem novo vlogo; njena naloga ni osvetljevanje in razkrivanje tega, kar je, to je bivajocega, temvec tega, kar je uresniciti in živeti šele treba (Assmann 2015, 11– 12). Vera torej razkriva eksistenco, ki jo je treba uresnicevati in živeti; ne govori o tem, kar je, ampak o tem, kako je treba živeti. Resnice vere se zato ne kažejo v besedah in teorijah, pac pa v dejanjih in življenju, kot pravi Lessing v razlagi sta­rodavne prispodobe o izgubljenem prstanu (Assmann 2016, 162–163; Petkovšek 2017, 629–630). Revolucionarni naboj je svetopisemski veri dal monoteizem zve­stobe, katerega izvor ni pri Ehnatonu, temvec v izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta. V tem odrešenjskem dogodku Izraelci vidijo temelj svojega obstoja, za katerega morajo biti svojemu Bogu – enemu in edinemu odrešeniku – vecno hvaležni in zvesti. V tem je izvor monoteizma zvestobe. »‚Monoteizem zvestobe‘ je svet spreminjajo-ca novost, ki je prišel na svet s svetopisemskim monoteizmom.« (Assmann 2015, 12) In je tudi v jedru treh abrahamskih religij. Monoteizem, ki cloveka odvrne od politeizma, prinaša v religijo vprašanje o tem, kateri bog je resnicen in katera vera je resnicna. To vprašanje pri Ehnatonu najdemo in je pomembno tudi za biblicni monoteizem, a izvirnost Svetega pisma je drugje – v zavezi in v zvestobi zavezi. Zaveza predstavlja višek pripovedi o izho­du. »Da bi vstopili v zavezo, je bilo treba zapustiti Egipt.« (12) Zaveza naredi iz Izraelcev novo ljudstvo, nekaj povsem novega. O tem govori eksodus. Egipt in Izrael sta imela veliko skupnega – podobnosti je mogoce najti med egiptovskimi himnami in svetopisemskimi psalmi, med egiptovskimi ljubezenskimi pesmimi in visoko pesmijo, pa tudi na podrocju darovanja, tabujev in predpisov glede cistosti. Toda Assmanna zanima predvsem drugacnost Izraela, novost, ki jo je prinesel in iz nje naredil temelj novega sveta, v katerem danes živimo. Assmann v Exodusu proucuje Egipt in Izrael kot simbola dveh nasprotnih svetov; zanima ga »diskonti­nuiran, antagonisticen, revolucionaren vidik staroizraelske in zlasti zgodnje judo-vske religije in s tem simbolni pomen izhoda iz Egipta« (15). Pripoved o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta Assmanna zanima predvsem v simbolnem smislu – te pripovedi ne proucuje niti z zgodovinskega niti s filološkega niti s teo­loškega vidika, ampak kulturološko (kulturwissenschaftlich) – z vidika ‚zgodovine smisla‘ (Sinngeschichte). Pripovedi opisujejo, razlagajo in osvetljujejo resnicnost; cloveku s tem odpirajo dolocen nacin dojemanja sveta in samega sebe. Te pripo­vedi imajo tudi svojo zgodovino – z njimi in v njih se razvija smisel, ki prejemniku resnicnost odpre na dolocen nacin in prikaže v doloceni luci. Resnicnost v luci raz­licnih smislov dojemamo razlicno. Svetopisemske pripovedi – med njimi pripoved o eksodusu – imajo svojo zgodovino: oblikovale so se postopoma in se v koncni redakciji zlile v kanon svetopisemskih besedil – najprej judovski, nato še kršcanski. Smisel, ki ima svojo predzgodovino in je v svetopisemskem korpusu dobil kano-nicno veljavo, pa je v svoji narativni in normativni obliki vplival tudi na genezo naše zgodovine. To dvojno fazo razvoja smisla Assmann razume pod izrazom ‚zgodovi­na smisla‘ – zgodovina, v kateri se je smisel najprej oblikoval v kanonicno obliko, in zgodovina, ki se je potem pod njegovim vplivom razvila. Po Assmannu je ekso­dus v obeh smereh izjemen primer; pripoved se je v nekaj stoletjih razvila v osre­dnjo semanticno paradigmo v zgodnjem judovstvu, nato pa je imela enkratno zgodovino ucinkovanja (Wirkungsgeschichte) – zlasti v kršcanstvu in v islamu, ki sta se iz nje razvila (Krajnc 2021). Predmet Assmannovih analiz v Exodusu je torej zgodovina smisla, ki ga je ta pripoved nosila v sebi od zacetkov do danes. V tem pristopu sta pomembna oba mejnika: 1) na eni strani avtor to vprašanje obravna­va z vidika izrocila, v katerem stoji, to je z vidika protestantskega kršcanstva, ki je tudi sámo rezultat te ucinkujoce zgodovine smisla; 2) na drugi strani je faraonski Egipt, dominantna kultura casa, v katerem je pripoved o izhodu nastala in na pod-lagi katere Izrael v vsej svoji novosti izstopa. Ta lok med skrajnostma – med fara­onskim Egiptom in sodobnim protestantskim kršcanstvom, v katerega je avtor usidran – ni indiferenten prostor, v katerem bi stare pripovedi le ponavljali ali jih stihijsko komentirali, temvec prostor, v katerem starodavno sporocilo potuje, naš cas pa ga sprejema, odzvanja in prevaja. To sodobno recepcijo preteklosti Assmann imenuje ‚resonancna lektira‘ (resonante Lektüre) (Assmann 2015, 15). Naš cas do starodavnega sporocila ni indiferenten – sprejema ga in odzvanja, ne da bi se od­rekel samemu sebi. V odzvenu je preteklost danes tu, a na svojski nacin, kakor je bila tu vceraj ali bo tu jutri – vsakokrat na svojski, casu in prostoru primeren nacin. Kaj torej Assmann odkriva v 2. Mojzesovi knjigi? Zanjo pravi: »Knjiga Eksodus vsebuje morda najvelicastnejšo in ucinkovno najbogatejšo pripoved, ki so si jo ljudje kdajkoli pripovedovali.« (19) Eksodus nosi v sebi neizcrpno sporocilo, ki v novih casih in okolišcinah ostaja živo in ljudi ne neha nagovarjati. Pripoved nago­varja vsak novi cas. »Njeno ucinkovanje je brezmejno; njeno sevanje neizmerno.« (20) Semantika pripovedi je pri tem semantika preloma: prelamlja s starim in ustvarja novo. Zgodovina cloveštva je doživela nekaj temeljnih prelomnih spre­memb, kot npr. odkritje pisave ali ustanovitev države. In mednje sodi tudi preobrat od politeizma k monoteizmu, o katerem govori Eksodus; preobrat ni bil posledica evolucije, ampak revolucije. Ta preobrat se je v polnosti uresnicil šele v kršcanstvu in islamu (Krajnc 2021). Pripoved, ki ima bolj funkcijo mita kot zgodovinskega po-rocila, ni le temeljni mit, v katerem Izrael vidi svoj izvor, pac pa tudi temeljni mit »monoteizma in s tem enega osrednjih elementov modernega sveta« (Assmann 2015, 19). Pripoved je torej vpletena v jedro našega modernega sveta. Assmann pripoved o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta brez oklevanja oznaci kot mit. S tem resnicnosti zgodovinskega jedra te pripovedi ne zanika, vsekakor pa je bila po njegovem prepricanju njena vloga bolj konstruktivna kot deskriptivna – bolj pro-jektivna kot retrospektivna. Pravi namen, ki je privedel k nastanku pripovedi v današnji obliki, ni bil porocati o preteklem dogodku, tudi ce je ta bil nadvse po­memben, temvec ustvariti ‚rešilni coln‘, ki bi sredi najhujših stisk zatiranemu ljud­stvu omogocil preživetje in prihodnost – Assmann besedo ‚mit‘ uporablja v tem smislu. Pripoved o izhodu vsebuje nekakšno miticno jedro, ki teži k temu, da se pripoved pripoveduje vedno znova in vsakokrat na drug nacin – ta pa ima moc, da življenje utemeljuje in ga odpira, življenjske situacije in izkušnje osvetljuje, jih usmerja in napolnjuje s smislom. Poleg tega miti tako skupinam kot posamezni­kom pomagajo graditi istovetnost, premagovati krize in stiske ter spoznavati, kdo so in kam spadajo. Tako so Egipcani ob pomoci mita o Ozirisu na kulturni ravni predelovali smrt, Freud pa je ob pomoci mita o Ojdipu obravnaval nevroze paci­entov. V tej miticni funkciji eksodus odgovarja na dve vprašanji: 1) o Božji bližini; 2) o tem, kdo smo (20). Kot egiptolog Assmann poudarja, da Egipcani sebe nikoli niso razumeli na po­doben nacin. Nic drugacne od drugih bitij so sebe videli v perspektivi sveta, ki je izšel iz boga in s katerim bog ni imel posebnih nacrtov. Bog je svet le vzdrževal, ljudje pa so mu pri tem z obredi pomagali. Zgodovina zato zanje ni bila projekt, ki naj bi ga clovek na podlagi obljub šele uresnicil, temvec življenje v skladu z mitic­nimi pravzorci; njegov namen je bil ohranjanje preteklega, izvornega. Eksodus pa Izrael prikaže v povsem drugi luci – Bog Izraelce reši iz egiptovske sužnosti in jih izvoli, da bi uresnicili pravicno družbo. Ce egiptovski miti govorijo o svetu, ki se ne spreminja, pa svetopisemski mit o eksodusu govori o stvarjenju necesa povsem novega znotraj že davno danega, ustvarjenega sveta. Namen svetopisemskega mita o izhodu ni ohranjati in obnavljati stari svet, pac pa ustvariti in utemeljiti nov svet. Pripoved nosi v sebi ‚svet spreminjajoce novo‘. Ta novi svet ustvarja s pre­ vratom – z revolucijo in z razodetjem. Da bi osvobodil Izraelce, je Bog razbil egip­tovsko suženjstvo in jim dal spoznati svojo voljo. 2. Eksodus – kot pripoved in kot knjiga Ko govorimo o eksodusu, je treba razlikovati med Eksodusom kot knjigo (2. Moj­zesova knjiga kot del peteroknjižja in vkljucena v svetopisemski kanon) in ekso­dusom kot izvorno pripovedjo (ta je med Izraelci nastala in krožila pred dokoncno redakcijo peteroknjižja). Eksodus kot izvorna pripoved ima po Assmannu tri miticna jedra: izhod, zaveza in obljubljena dežela. Pripoved o izhodu – to se zdi samoumevno – so pripovedo­vali z vidika prišlekov v obljubljeno deželo: pripovedovali so jo torej kot osvajalci, ne poraženci; namen pripovedovanja pa je bil utrjevati novo, in ne zgolj govoriti o emancipaciji od starega. Tri miticna jedra – izhod, zaveza in obljubljena dežela – so bila v izvorni pripovedi povezana. Eksodus kot knjiga – to je 2. Mojzesova knjiga – pa govori le o izhodu in zavezi; o vstopu v obljubljeno deželo namrec govori šele Jozuetova knjiga. V peteroknjiž­ju (Tora) je pred Eksodus postavljeno porocilo o stvarjenju in o ocakih, ostale štiri knjige (2–5 Mz) pa se omejujejo na porocilo o izhodu in sklenitvi zaveze – torej na Mojzesovo biografijo. Namesto z vstopom Izraelcev v obljubljeno deželo se pete­roknjižje konca s porocilom o vstopu Boga v bivanjsko skupnost s svojim ljudstvom: o sklenitvi zaveze in postavitvi shodnega šotora. 2. Mojzesova knjiga se deli v tri dele: poglavja 1–15 govorijo o odrešenju iz egiptovske sužnosti; poglavja 16–24 govorijo o zavezi, ki jo Bog sklene s svojim ljudstvom in s katero je clovek rešen služenja cloveku (= tlaka), da bi služil Bogu (= svoboda) – splošna tema knjige je razodetje, ki povezuje prvi in zadnji del knjige; poglavja 25–40 opisujejo postavitev in ureditev shodnega šotora (= duhovništvo in obredje) in s tem institucionaliza­cijo zaveze v obliki nove religije – ta del, ki govori o naselitvi Boga med ljudstvom, nadomešca porocilo o vstopu Izraelcev v obljubljeno deželo. Ta tretji del je doda­ tek k duhovniškemu spisu (Priesterschrift), ki je v 6. stol. poenotil Genezo in Ekso­dus v obsežno zgodovinsko delo. Pripoved o eksodusu pa najdemo tudi izven 2. Mojzesove knjige – v drugih knji­gah Svetega pisma, kakor so preroki in Psalmi. Omenjanje eksodusa v Psalmih kaže, da je pripoved v casu po izgnanstvu dobila bogoslužno vlogo v obredju dru­gega templja. V tem se kaže, da je bilo vkljucevanje eksodusa predvsem dejanje spominjanja na nekaj, kar za prihodnje rodove ne sme iti v pozabo. Trem miticnim jedrom pa so Psalmi dodali še cetrtega – grehe ocetov. Zgodovina odrešenja in zgodovina padcev sodita skupaj: odrešenjskih dogodkov se spominjamo v okviru objokovanja zgodovine padcev (Ps 105–107). Najhujši med grehi v obljubljeni de­želi je bilo sprejetje kanaanskih obicajev (Ps 106). (Assmann 2015, 22–23) 3. Vloga eksodusa Bolj kot zgodovinsko porocilo je namen eksodusa ustvarjanje ‚novega Izraela‘. V pripovedi najdemo trojni odmik: 1) od Egipta, ki simbolizira stari svet; 2) od Ka­naancev, ki predstavljajo staro ‚hudodelsko‘ religijo; 3) od ocakov, torej od lastne grešne preteklosti. Na pripoved o izhodu so v 8. stol. pr. Kr. – še pred nastankom Tore – namigova­li preroki Ozej, Amos in Mihej. Vendar pa je pripoved literarno obliko in bogoslu­žno vlogo, kakor ju poznamo danes, dobila šele v casu babilonskega izgnanstva v 6. stol. pr. Kr. V tem casu in okolišcinah je moral Izrael po padcu obeh kraljestev – severnega in južnega – iznajti novo etnicno in versko identiteto in ji dati nove politicne, družbene in obredne temelje. Zmožnost, da postane izvir te nove iden­titete, so prepoznali v eksodusu; s tem so mu dodelili vlogo medija, ki je skupno­sti omogocil normativno kolektivno samoopredelitev. To vlogo je pripoved opra­vljala v narativni obliki kot pripoved in v normativni obliki kot postava. Po drugi strani pa so eksodus opredelili kot razodetje, v katerem Bog izstopa iz svoje skri­tosti in nedoumljivosti, da bi svojemu ljudstvu razodel svojo voljo. Razodetje po­stane temelj novega odnosa Izraelcev do Boga, do sveta in do cloveka. »Knjiga Eksodus kodificira eno, vse spreminjajoce, epoho ustvarjajoce razodetje.« (As-smann 2015, 25) V tej narativni in normativni vlogi ter v obliki spomina na kljucni odrešenjski dogodek iz zgodovine izraelskega ljudstva je Eksodus postal model vseh poznejših razodetij. Ce Michael Walzer vidi v njem matrix vseh revolucij, ki prelamljajo s starim, da bi ustvarile novo, Assmann v Eksodusu vidi matrix vseh razodetij. Ekso­dus, ki v sebi povezuje razodetje in zavezo, uvaja novo obliko religije – ‚religijo razodetja‘, ki se razlikuje od ‚naravnih religij‘, ki niso nikoli nastajale na podlagi utemeljitvenih dogodkov. Kot zgodovinska pripoved eksodus govori o cudežnem izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta, simbolno pa o izhodu Izraelcev iz stare, predbiblicne kulture, ki jo simbolizira Egipt s svojo tlako, v svobodo Božjih otrok. Ti so poklicani, da se locijo tudi od starih ka­naanskih verovanj in grehov, v katere so zapadali njihovi ocetje. Poznejše razlage vidijo v Eksodusu globljo duhovno simboliko, ki govori o duhovnem izhodu cloveka iz civitas terrena v civitas Dei – iz zemeljskih stvarnosti v Božje kraljestvo. Eksodus pa Assmann umešca tudi v okvir Jaspersove ideje ‚osne dobe‘, po ka­teri je v približno istem casu (500–300 pr. Kr.) v razlicnih kulturah in verstvih (za­ratustrovstvo, Kitajska, Grcija idr.) zacelo prihajati do revolucionarnih sprememb. Idejo o osni dobi so privzeli mnogi drugi – cas, ki ga zajema, pa opredeljevali raz-licno. V osno dobo tako Jaspers uvršca tudi svetopisemski obrat k monoteizmu, ki se je zacel s preroki v 8. stol. pr. Kr. in se dovršil z redakcijo Tore v 4.–3. stol. pr. Kr. Za osno dobo je znacilno predvsem odkritje transcendence, ki je cloveka odprlo za presežne resnice. Tako je clovek postal kriticen do tradicionalnih ustanov in idej, postal je zmožen razlikovanja med tostranskim in onstranskim, med prigodnim in nujnim, relativnim in absolutnim. Po Assmannu v okvir vrenja, znacilnega za osno dobo, sodi tudi eksodus. Pripoved o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta so zaceli v tem casu razlagati v duhovnem smislu kot izhod duše iz tostranskega v onstransko – in za­vezo z Bogom kot Božjo državo. Pogled s transcendentne perspektive relativizira tostransko. Assmann meni, da eksodus ideji osne dobe ustreza, a hkrati poudarja, da ‚monoteizem zvestobe‘ le ostaja pojav sui generis, ki ga ne smemo enostavno podrediti ideji osnega casa kot posledici globalnega razvoja. Predvsem poudarja, da znacilnosti, ki jih v osni dobi prepoznava Jaspers, niso le ‚proizvod‘ dolocenega casa, temvec ‚proizvod‘ sredstev ali medijev, ki jih je ta cas prinesel – in so odkri­tje transcendence omogocili. Gre za odkritje in uporabo pisave, kanonizacijo ali komentiranje kot skrb za smisel. Ti mediji so ustvarili okolišcine, ki so cloveka od­prle transcendentnemu. V tem smislu je po Assmannu treba idejo osnega casa razumeti ne kot cas, ki bi cloveka odprl transcendentnemu kot takšen, ampak kot oznako za okolišcine (pisava, kanonizacija tekstov ipd.), ki so cloveku omogocile, da se je je locil od neposrednih danosti, se dvignil nad imanenten vsakdan in se odprl transcendentnemu, ki ni podrejeno casu in prostoru – in omogoca univer­zalna spoznanja. Assmann opozarja, da razlagalne moci, ki jo ideja osne dobe ima, ne smemo spremeniti v mit o nekakšnem carobnem casu, ki je cloveka odprl pre­sežnemu istocasno v razlicnih kulturah. 4. Eksodus kot knjiga in stopnjevito razodetje Assmanna exodus zanima kot pripoved in knjiga, ki je na podrocju religije sproži-la revolucijo: naravno religijo je zamenjala z novim tipom religije – z religijo raz­odetja – in politeizem z monoteizmom. Razodetje in monoteizem sta moderno kulturo oblikovala najgloblje, zato te ni mogoce razumeti, ne da bi poznali njun izvor, ki ga je po Assmannu treba videti v eksodusu. Revolucionarne spremembe v razumevanju sveta, Boga in cloveka je vsebovala že pripoved o izhodu, ki pa je svojo dokoncno, kanonicno obliko dobila v 2. Mojzesovi knjigi, v Eksodusu. V svo­ji analizi Assmann pokaže, kako se je ideja razodetja v knjigi postopoma razvijala znotraj treh pripovednih sklopov. Eksodus delimo v tri pripovedne, narativne sklope: 1) izhod (pogl. 1–15); 2) Si-najska perikopa (izvolitev, zaveza in postava) (pogl. 15–25); 3) Božja bližina (= ure­ditev svetišca) (pogl. 25–40). Znotraj treh pripovednih sklopov se postopoma raz­vija ideja razodetja. Uvodnemu delu, ki vsebuje ekspozicijo in porocilo o Mojze­sovemu rojstvu (pogl. 1–2), sledi ‚veliko razodetje‘ (pogl. 3–40), ki sestoji iz šestih stopenj: razodetje imena (pogl. 3-6); razodetje moci (pogl. 7–15); razodetje zave­ze (pogl. 19–24); razodetje shodnega šotora (pogl. 25–31); razodetje Božjega bistva (pogl. 33–34); institucionalizacija Božje bližine (pogl. 35–40). Eksodus je torej z vidika narativnih sklopov in z vidika razvojnih stopenj razo­detja mogoce analizirati takole: –40) Narativni sklopi Stopnje razodetja 1. sklop (pogl. 1–15): Izhod uvodni del (pogl. 1–2) pogl. 1: ekspozicija (trpljenje Izraelcev v Egiptu) pogl. 2: Mojzesovo rojstvo tje pogl. 3-6 (razodetje imena) pogl. 7–15 (razodetje moci) 2. sklop (pogl. 15–25): Sinaj (izvolitev, zaveza in postava) razode pogl. 19–24 (razodetje v sklenitvi zaveze) 3. sklop (pogl. 25–40): Ureditev svetišca (Božja bližina) veliko (pogl. 3 pogl. 25–31 (razodetje shodnega šotora) pogl. 33–34 (razodetje Božjega bistva) pogl. 35–40 (institucionalizacija Božje bližine) V nadaljevanju bomo sledili Assmannovi analizi razodetja v njegovih razvojnih stopnjah in v kontekstu narativnih sklopov (Assmann 2015, 29–52). 4.1 Prvi pripovedni sklop (pogl. 1–15): izhod Izraelcev iz Egipta 1. pripovedni sklop (pogl. 1–15) se zacenja z uvodom (pogl. 1–2), ki najprej opisuje trpljenje Izraelcev v Egiptu (ekspozicija), nato pa Mojzesovo rojstvo in odrašcanje. Ta uvodni del je imel pomembno zgodovino ucinkovanja in recepcije (npr. primer-java trpljenja Izraelcev v Egiptu s trpljenjem Judov v 20. stol.). Rdeca nit preosta­lega dela knjige (pogl. 3–40) je razodetje, ki je vélika tema Eksodusa. V pred-ali nesvetopisemskih religijah so bogovi svojo voljo razodevali v znamenjih, sanjah ali orakljih. Da bi to pravilno razumeli, so ljudje razvili ustrezne tehnike pozornosti in opazovanja. Nobeno od teh razodetij pa ni veljalo za enkratno, neponovljivo in vselej obvezujoce. Drugace kakor ‚naravna razodetja‘, ki veljajo kot nekaj v svetu normalnega, je biblicno razodetje nekaj, kar ni del sveta – je enkratno, nepono­vljivo in za vse obvezujoce. Dogodki, v katerih se svetopisemski Bog razodeva, od Izraelcev zahtevajo, da se jih spominjajo in jih ne prepustijo pozabi. Da ti dogodki ne bi bili nikoli pozabljeni, se o njih pripoveduje; o njih se posluša, da bi poslušalca zajeli kot ‚veselo oznanilo‘, kakor se to uresnicuje v »Novi zavezi, ki stoji povsem na poti zgodovine ucinkovanja in recepcije Eksodusa in ki predstavlja eno odlocilnih razvojnih stopenj njene ‚življenjske zgodbe‘« (Assmann 2015, 31). Že 1. pripovedni sklop govori o dveh stopnjah razodetja, ki ju Assmann poimenuje ‚razodetje imena‘ in ‚razodetje moci‘. Razodetje imena (pogl. 3–6) govori o Mojzesovi izkušnji pred gorecim grmom, nato pa o njegovem poskusu, da bi o razodetju spregovoril faraonu in rojakom. Božje razodetje ima tu osebno razsežnost: naslovnik je Mojzes. Bog se Mojzesu predstavi z besedami: »Jaz sem Bog tvojega oceta, Bog Abrahamov, Bog Izakov in Bog Jakobov.« Na vprašanje po imenu Bog odgovori: »Jaz sem, ki sem.« (2 Mz 3,14) Tu Bog razodene nacrt rešitve Izraela iz egiptovskega suženjstva, da bi ga odvedel »v deželo, v kateri se cedita mleko in med« (3,8). Bog je vnaprej vedel, da bo fara-on nacrt zavrnil – in da bo moral zato osvoboditev Izraelcev izsiliti z velikimi cude­žnimi deli. Ker Mojzes o svoji verodostojnosti dvomi, ga Bog s tremi cudeži (spre­menitev palice v kaco, vode v kri in kože iz zdrave v kužno) utrdi in mu dá Arona za glasnika (2 Mz 4). Bog spomni na zavezo, ki jo je že sklenil z oceti; Mojzesu obljubi, da bo ostal tudi z njim (3,12) in Izraela razglasi za svojega prvorojenca (4,22). V sti-ski, v kateri so Izraelci živeli, se odloci, da jih odreši in naredi za svoje ljudstvo, sam pa postane njihov Bog. Motivi zaveze in obljube tu postanejo izraziti – vedno bolj izrazit postaja tudi motiv ‚veselega oznanila‘. (Assmann 2015, 32–35) Razodetje Božje moci (pogl. 7–15) predstavlja še velicastnejši korak. Bog se raz­odene v svojih odrešenjskih dejanjih (magnalia Dei). Drugo dejanje sestavljajo tri pomembnejša porocila: o egiptovskih nadlogah, velikonocnem izhodu in prehodu cez morje. Tu ima razodetje kozmicno razsežnost: naslovnik je faraon, Egipcani in Izraelci pa so price – ti so videli »mogocno roko, ki jo je Gospod izkazal nad Egip-cani« (14,31). Pripoved govori o nadlogah; teh je deset, da bi se Božja moc razo­dela cim mocneje. Za Egipcane so bile kazen, za Izraelce pa »znamenja in cudeži«.Bog faraonu sporoca: »Že zdaj bi lahko iztegnil roko in udaril tebe in tvoje ljudstvo s kugo, da bi te iztrebil z zemlje. Toda ohranil sem te pri življenju, da ti pokažem svojo moc in da se moje ime razglasi po vsej zemlji.« (2 Mz 9,15-16) Izmed nadlog je najpomembnejša deseta, ki napoveduje smrt prvorojencev. Bog naroca: »Ta dan naj vam bo v spomin in praznujte ga kot Gospodov praznik; iz roda v rod ga praznujte kot vecni zakon!« (2 Mz 12,14) Razodetje je tu povezano s spominom; dogodka se morajo Izraelci spominjati kot Gospodovega praznika. Noc izhoda iz Egipta je podlaga za judovsko in kršcansko veliko noc. Osrednji del razodetja Bož­je moci je rešitev Izraelcev prek morja – nanjo so se odzvali z zahvalno pesmijo in plesom (2 Mz 15). Zahvalna pesem sodi med najstarejše dele hebrejskega pesni­štva – in je najstarejši dokaz, da je pripoved o izhodu med ljudstvom krožila že v 10. ali 9. stol. pr. Kr., še v casu pred prerokoma Ozejem in Amosom. (Assmann 2015, 35–39) 4.2 Drugi pripovedni sklop (pogl. 15–25): sinajska perikopa (izvolitev, zaveza in postava) 2. in 3. pripovedni sklop govorita o vstopu v nekaj novega. To novo še ni obljubljena dežela – izpolnitev obljube, dane Abrahamu, Izaku in Mojzesu –, temvec sklenitev zaveze, utemeljene na postavi, in obredna institucionalizacija Božje navzocnosti. Tu gre za simbiozo z Bogom, ki svoje bivališce izbere »sredi svojega ljudstva«. »Spoznali bodo, da sem jaz Gospod, njihov Bog, ki sem jih izpeljal iz egiptovske dežele, da bi prebival v njihovi sredi; jaz sem Gospod, njihov Bog.« (2 Mz 29,46) Uvod (pogl. 15–19) poroca o dogodkih s poti proti Sinaju: žeji, lakoti, boju Izra­ela z Amalekom v Refidimu in srecanju Mojzesa s tastom Jitrom. Ljudstvo se je pritoževalo zaradi pomanjkanja in je sanjalo o egiptovskih loncih mesa. Jitro pa že priznava Božjo moc: »Blagoslovljen bodi Gospod, ki vas je rešil iz rok Egipcanov in iz faraonovih rok! Zdaj vem, da je Gospod vecji kakor vsi bogovi, ker je rešil ljud­stvo izpod oblasti Egipcanov…« (2 Mz, 18,10-11) Tudi pripoved o tej poti je pripo­ved o postopnem razodevanju Boga Izraelu, ki se je zacelo z razodetjem imena in višek doseglo s sklenitvijo zaveze na Sinaju. (Assmann 2015, 39–41) Razodetje v sklenitvi zaveze (pogl. 19–24) govori o postanku pod goro Sinaj3, kjer je Izrael prejel postavo. Ta poglavja so vrh razodetvenega dogodka. Tu se jezik iz narativnega spremeni v normativnega (pogl. 20–23); besedilo vec ne pripove­duje in ne opisuje, ampak zapoveduje, opozarja, grozi, obljublja. Govorna dejanja niso deskriptivna, ampak performativna: resnicnosti ne opisujejo, ampak jo ustvar­jajo, projektirajo; ne nanašajo se na resnicnost, ki izven govornih dejanj že obsta­ja, temvec z oznanjevanjem in predpisovanjem ustvarjajo novo resnicnost, ki je postala možna šele znotraj sklenjene zaveze. Performativni jezik ustvarja odnose, ki postanejo za govorca in druge, ko jih sprejmejo, obvezujoci: na primer s svojim ‚da‘ ali ‚amen‘ v Cerkvi, s priznanjem sodb na sodišcih, pri odvezi v spovednici ali z obljubami pred pricami – prav na performativnem jeziku temeljijo naši medse­bojni odnosi. Isti jezik pripiše svetopisemski avtor Bogu – resnicnost, ki jo Bog tako ustvarja, pa je neskoncno drugacna od te, ki jo ustvarja clovek. Kot stvarnik je Bog s svojo besedo ustvarjal svet, v Eksodusu pa je spregovoril kot osvoboditelj iz egip­tovske sužnosti, ki je z osvobojenci sklenil zavezo. To, da je Izraelce izpeljal iz Egip­ta, daje njegovi normativni besedi moc, ki je bila odlocilna za zgodovino ucinko­vanja Eksodusa: tej knjigi, Eksodusu – pa tudi Svetemu pismu kot celoti – je njeno zavezujoco moc dala zaveza. Prav o nastanku zaveze, ki Sveto pismo dela zavezu­joce, govori 2. Mojzesova knjiga. Assmann še posebej poudarja za Eksodus znacilno povezavo med zavezo in knjigo. Rezultat te povezave je ‚religija razodetja‘ (Offenbarungsreligion). Na sve­tih spisih sicer temeljijo tudi nekatere druge religije; te religije obenem tvorijo okvir, znotraj katerega nauk svetih spisov živi in se širi. Zgodovina ucinkovanja svetih spisov se razlikuje od zgodovine ucinkovanja profanih del, ki veljajo za kla­sicna (homerski epi, Shakespearove drame in drugi) – ta dela veljajo za klasicna, ker so oblikovana v skladu z umetnostnimi normami. Sveto pismo pa tem kriteri­jem ne zadošca in ne velja za literarno mojstrovino; svojo življenjsko moc kaže v okviru religijskih zakonitosti – v tem je bistvo ucinkovanja svetih spisov, ki jih naj-demo tudi v drugih religijah. Za religije razodetja je posebej znacilno, da v njih performativni jezik utemeljuje skupnost in življenjski red. Eksodus je prvi primer takšnega vseobsegajocega temelja, ki si ga ni mogoce predstavljati brez porocila o stvarjenju sveta v Genezi. Stvarjenje novega ljudstva v zavezi je mogoce le zno­traj že ustvarjenega sveta. V širšem smislu o postanku Izraelcev na Sinaju govori 2 Mz 19 – 4 Mz 10. Posebno enost znotraj tega dela peteroknjižja tvori 2 Mz 25–40, ki ga je ‚izvorni pripovedi o eksodusu‘ – to oznacujemo z zvezdico: *eksodus (rekonstruirano izvorno pripoved oznacuje zvezdica) – dodal poznejši duhovniški vir. Zaveza je bila sklenjena po tem, ko je Bog dal Mojzesu postavo in zapovedi na dveh kamnitih plošcah in ko je Mojzes v knjigo zaveze zapisal vse Gospodove be-sede (2 Mz 24). Mojzes je tedaj izvedel slovesno žrtvovanje in poškropil ljudstvo s polovico žrtvene krvi: »Glejte, to je kri zaveze, ki jo je Gospod po vseh teh bese­dah sklenil z vami.« (v. 8) Prav te besede je uporabil Jezus pri postavitvi zadnje vecerje. Mojzes in od Jahveja izbrani predstavniki so odšli na goro »in videli so Izraelovega Boga«. S tem je Bog z zavezo soglašal – slovesnost razglasitve zaveze je bila tako koncana. Mojzes se je moral na goro vrniti še enkrat, da je prevzel plo-šci postave. Na gori je ostal štirideset dni in štirideset noci (vv. 15-18). (Assmann 2015, 41–44) 4.3 Tretji pripovedni sklop (pogl. 25–40): milost in bližina Boga Ta sklop je najobsežnejši in se po vsebini razlikuje od predhodnih dveh. Izhaja iz Božjega narocila Mojzesu: »Postavijo naj mi svetišce, da bom prebival med njimi.« (2 Mz 25,8) Sklop v obliki kataloga, vrinjenega v dramaticno pripoved o izhodu, opisuje postavitev in opremo svetišca – s tem institucionalizira okvir in obliko, zno­traj katerih bo Bog sredi svojega ljudstva prebival. Pogl. 25–31 opisujejo izdelavo štirih najsvetejših predmetov (skrinja, spravni pokrov kaporet, miza in svecnik), druge elemente svetišcnega šotora in dolocajo voditelja projekta. Pogl. 32–34, ki jih Assmann imenuje »razodetje Božjega bistva«, govorijo o prelomu in spravi, pogl. 35–39 pa o gradnji shodnega šotora. Razodetje Božjega bistva (pogl. 32–34) – odlomek govori o ljudstvu, ki je obu­palo, ker se Mojzes iz ognjenega oblaka ni vrnil štirideset dni. Arona so prosili: »Vstani, naredi nam bogove (Elohim), ki bodo hodili pred nami!« (32,1) Aron je iz zlata ulil zlato tele, ki mu je ljudstvo darovalo žgalne daritve in ga v plesu castilo: »To so tvoji bogovi, Izrael, ki so te izpeljali iz egiptovske dežele!« (vv. 2-4) S tem so se resnicnemu Bogu izneverili. Ko se je Mojzes vrnil, je v jezi zbral okoli sebe Levi-jeve sinove in jim narocil, »naj vsak ubije svojega brata, prijatelja in soseda!« Tisti dan je bilo ubitih približno tri tisoc mož (vv. 27-28). Ta odlomek je osrednji del raz­odetja. Cešcenje zlatega teleta je bilo hud prekršek. Bog je Mojzesu ukazal, naj ljudstvo odpelje v obljubljeno deželo, sam pa ljudstva ne bo spremljal, ker je trdo­vratno. Zato je Mojzes shodni šotor prestavil iz taborišca stran od ljudstva, obenem pa je Boga prosil, naj se ljudstva usmili. Bog je Mojzesu obljubil usmiljenje (2 Mz 33,19) – obljubo je izpolnil, ko se je Mojzes vrnil na Sinajsko goro: »Gospod je šel mimo njega in klical: ›Gospod, Gospod, usmiljen in milostljiv Bog, pocasen v jezi in velik v dobroti in zvestobi, ki ohranja dobroto tisocem, odpušca krivdo, hudodel­stvo in greh, …« (34,6-7) Ta odlomek, ki ga Assmann oznacuje kot ‚formulo milosti‘, ker se Bog v svojem bistvu pokaže kot »milostljivi in usmiljeni Bog« (v. 6), je vrhunec biblicne teologije (Assmann 2015, 47). Mojzes prosi Gospoda: »Naj hodi, prosim, Gospod sredi med nami.« (34,9) Bog je tedaj zavezo sklenil znova in Mojzesu dal dvanajst zapovedi (vv. 14-26). Ta velicastni prizor Mojzesovega videnja Boga, po­doben razodetju pred gorecim grmom, ima osebni, intimni znacaj. To videnje je videz Mojzesa spremenilo: koža njegovega obraza je žarela – odslej je imel Mojzes obraz zagrnjen v tancico, ki jo je odgrnil le pred Gospodom. Vstop Božjega velicastva v svetišce opiše 40. pogl po Mojzesovih navodilih o gradnji shodnega šotora (pogl. 35–39). »Shodni šotor je tedaj pokril oblak in Go-spodovo velicastvo je napolnilo prebivališce.« (2 Mz 40,34) Iskana in želena Božja bližina je sedaj dosežena. Vidna navzocnost oblaka in nevidna navzocnost Božje slave oziroma Božjega velicastva tvorita eno cudežno znamenje. Tu se Bog ne raz­odeva v izrednih teofanicnih dogodkih kakor v Egiptu, ampak v vsakdanjem do-godku – v oblaku nad šotorom. V tem okviru 3. in 4. Mojzesova knjiga dajeta še druge Božje predpise, zakone in zapovedi. S tem se tema Eksodusa dopolni: Egipt predstavlja Božjo oddaljenost, shodni šotor Božjo bližino v obliki bivanjske sku­pnosti z Bogom. 2. Mojzesova knjiga gradi na simetriji. 16 poglavij (1–16) pripoveduje o izhodu, 16 poglavij (25–40) o ureditvi shodnega šotora; 8Ľ poglavij (16–24) govori o skle­nitvi zaveze. Razmerje med tremi deli je 2 : 1 : 2. Prvi sklop je zelo vpliven, zadnji veliko manj, z izjemo pogl. 32–34 o zlatem teletu. Cešcenje zlatega teleta namrec poruši zavezo (19–24), v kateri se je Bog spravil s clovekom po prvem padcu v raju. Cešcenje zlatega teleta predstavlja drugi padec. Odlomek o Božji bližini v shodnem šotoru je odgovor na ta drugi padec. To pojasnjuje velik obseg, ki ga ima v Eksodu­su oziroma v duhovniškem spisu odlomek o postavitvi shodnega šotora. Ta kom­pozicija je rezultat ‚duhovniškega vira‘, ki je ‚duhovniški spis‘ ustvaril. ‚Duhovniški spis‘ povezuje Genezo in Eksodus v enotno zgodovinsko delo, ki sega od stvarjenja pa do razodetja na Sinaju. Tretji sklop Eksodusa (25–40) zato ni zakljucek zgolj Ek­sodusa, temvec celotne duhovniškospisne (priesterschriftlich) zgodovinske kompo­zicije. Zadnji del te kompozicije je osredotocen na svetišce, na obred – tvori cilj celotne pripovedi, ki se zacne s stvarjenjem sveta in zakljuci s stvarjenjem religije v obliki bivanjske skupnosti Boga in ljudstva v svetišcu. To vzporejanje stvarjenja sveta in svetišca sledi egiptovskim in babilonskim predstavam. Drugace od teh predstav pa svetišce ne nastane v dejanju stvarjenja, ampak v teku zgodovine v dejanju razodetja po tisocletjih najrazlicnejših dogodkov. (Assmann 2015, 50) Eksodusa torej ni mogoce razumeti brez Geneze – obe knjigi tvorita eno celoto, v katero ju je povezal ‚duhovniški spis‘. Med njima so razlike: pripoved v Genezi je raz­porejena casovno (od Adama do Noeta, od Noeta do babilonskega stolpa; cikli o ocakih in pripoved o egiptovskem Jožefu), pripoved v eksodusu je razporejena pro-storsko (Egipt, Midian, Egipt, pušcava, Sinaj, shodni šotor). Geneza je poenotena manj kot Eksodus. Z vidika duhovniškega spisa pa je cilj dosežen: Geneza s stvarjenjem, s prazgodovino in zgodovino ocakov je le predzgodovina – cilj pa je stvarjenje nove religije, ki jo utemeljuje zaveza, sklenjena med Bogom in clovekom na Sinaju. (52) 5. Eksodus: zgodovinski dogodek, izrocilo, pripoved Eksodus poznamo kot 2. Mojzesovo knjigo, ki je v današnji kanonicni obliki nastala v 6. stol. pr. Kr. kot rezultat duhovniškega vira – pripoveduje pa o šest, sedem sto­letij starejših dogodkih. Tako se odpirajo trije vidiki: zgodovinski dogodek; pripove­dno izrocilo o dogodku; kanonicna redakcija pripovedi. Povezavo med kanonicno redakcijo in zgodovinskim dogodkom Assmann obravnava v poglavju z naslovom „Zgodovinsko ozadje – dogodek in spominjanje“ (56–78). Eksodus, 2. Mojzesova knjiga nikakor ni natancen ‚posnetek‘ zgodovinskih do-godkov izpred stoletij. Dopušcamo, da za Eksodusom stojijo resnicni véliki dogod­ki iz preteklosti (nasilje faraonov nad ljudstvom, beg ljudstva, naravne katastrofe, mocna razodetja itd.). Takšni dogodki so ustvarili spomin ter zgodovino ucinkova­nja in prevzemanja – oblikovali so zavest poznejših rodov, spomin pa je ta tudi preoblikovala. Proucevanje zgodovine ucinkovanja omogoca bolje spoznati zgo­dovinsko ozadje. V veliko pomoc sta egiptologija in arheologija Palestine – z njima je mogoce preveriti, ali obstajajo pisni in arheološki sledovi o Izraelcih v Egiptu, o izhodu, o tem, ali je bil Mojzes egipcanskega ali kakšnega drugega porekla ali pa se za njim skriva kakšna druga zgodovinska oseba, o sledovih izraelske zasedbe Kanaana. Vendar pa Assmann poudarja, da teh sledov ni veliko in da obstajajo o dolocenih dogodkih le svetopisemska porocila – vcasih tudi protislovna. Assmann tako sklene: »Vprašanja o zgodovinski resnicnosti vodijo v prazno. Svetopisemske pripovedi so v sebi protislovne in izvensvetopisemski viri in sledi so se komaj našli. ‚Zgodovinski‘ Mojzes se je razletel v nic in dogodka izhoda ni mogoce rekonstrui­rati iz pripovedi.« (Assmann 2015, 54) Zato v zvezi z Eksodusom po Assmannu pravo vprašanje ni zgodovinsko – kaj se je v resnici zgodilo –; bistveno je, zakaj se ta pripoved pripoveduje, kaj pove in kakšno vrednost ima. Zanima ga pomen izro-cila. S tega vidika vprašanje o Mojzesovem zgodovinskem obstoju zaobidemo in pripoved obravnavamo, »kakor ce Mojzes ne bi nikoli obstajal« (etsi Moses non daretur). V tej luci se lahko sprašujemo, kaj pripoved nam in vsem, ki so jo poslu­šali in brali, pove o naši preteklosti in prihodnosti, o našem odnosu do sveta in do Boga. To so vprašanja, ki zanimajo Eksodus, ki sodi med najbolj ‚žive‘ svetopisem­ske knjige. (54–55) Po Assmannu je v ozadju pripovedi gotovo dogodek, ki so ga Izraelci doživeli kot odrešenje; ta dogodek je postal kristalizacijska tocka pripove­di – vsekakor pa ta dogodek ni bil vsedolocujoc, kakor ga Eksodus predstavlja. Poleg zgodovinskega ozadja sta na kanonicno redakcijo vplivala tudi mit in literar­na predelava izrocila. Assmann obravnava Eksodus tako, da uporablja metodo zgodovine spomina (Methode der Gedächtnisgeschichte). Ne sprašuje se, ali se je dolocen dogodek resnicno zgodil, ampak kako se ga spominjamo – torej: kdaj, zakaj, za koga, po kom, v kakšnih oblikah je ta preteklost postala pomembna. Ta vprašanja zgodo­vinske razsežnosti pripovedi ne zanikajo. Prek njihove analize je mogoce prodira-ti k zgodovinskim resnicam – in obratno: iz zgodovinskih izhodišc, ki jih spoznamo, je mogoce slediti poznejšemu razvoju pripovedi v razlicnih okolišcinah. Assmann v poglavju o zgodovinskem ozadju analizira nekaj povezav, ki bi v egiptovski kul­turi lahko bile spomin na Izraelce ali v Svetem pismu spomin na faraonski Egipt (npr. Hiksi, Amarna, selitve ljudstev, ljudstva z morja, ‘Apiru ali Habiru, ideja božje države). Prav tako je preprican, da svetopisemska pripoved temelji na dolocenih izkušnjah, ki klicejo po preteklosti – cudežna rešitev iz hude nevarnosti kot krista­lizacijska tocka, po kateri klicejo poznejši dogodki, kot so osvoboditev severnih plemen Izraela (931 pr. Kr.), obnova templja, bogoslužja in ‚judovstva‘ v 6. in 5. stol. pr. Kr. Take izjemne izkušnje potrebujejo preteklost – zato jo priklicejo v spo- min. »Klic, na katerega odgovarja spomin, izhaja iz sedanjosti.« (Bergson 1963, 293; prim. Assmann 2015, 73; 76; 100; 118) Po Assmannu pripoved o izhodu odgovar­ja na potrebe, ki so jih Izraelci imeli ob ustvarjanju etnicne, politicne in verske identitete – prvic v 10. in drugic v 6. stol. pr. Kr. (Assmann 2015, 73). Assmann pri tem ugotavlja naslednje vzporednice (77): Klic Zgodovinski kontekst redakcije eksodusa: Spomin Dogodki, ki se jih eksodus spominja: -asirsko in pozneje babilonsko zatiranje -787: padec Jeruzalema, razrušenje templja, deportacija elite -egiptovska tlaka -osvoboditev iz egiptovske sužnosti -izhod Izraelovih otrok -50–70 let babilonskega izgnanstva, zbiranje pravnega in kulturnega izrocila -razodetje postave na Sinaju in sklenitev zaveze -postavitev shodnega šotora -ok. 520 z nastopom perzijske oblasti vrnitev Judov v domovino, empaticna odvrnitev od ‚grehov ocetov‘ -upor tistih, ki so ostali v deželi, proti verskim in drugim zahtevam vrnjencev -upor tistih, ki so se v Babilonu uspešno vkljucili v babi­lonsko družbo, proti vabilom, naj se vrnejo domov v razrušeni Jeruzalem -potovanje po pušcavi; godrnjanje ljudstva (‚grehi ocetov‘) in kaznovanje grešnega rodu (štirideset let v pušcavi) -520–450: obnova templja, obnova zaveze in nova vzpostavitev Izraela kot judovstva -zavzetje obljubljene dežele 6. Eksodus – zgodovina besedila in zgodovina smisla Eksodus Assmanna zanima kot ‚dogodek spomina‘. Ne da bi zanikal zgodovinsko ozadje, poudarja, da je pripoved o izhodu treba razumeti predvsem kot delo spo­mina, ki je odgovor na doloceno sedanjost. Pripoved o izhodu, kot jo poznamo iz svetopisemske 2. Mojzesove knjige, se je oblikovala v 5. stol. pr. Kr., nastajala pa je postopoma skozi stoletja in je po svoji redakciji tudi ucinkovala skozi stoletja. V casu redakcije je obstajala v dveh pomembnejših oblikah: v devteronomisticnem in v duhovniškem izrocilu. V nadaljevanju bomo predstavili Assmannovo razlago nastajanja besedila in smisla pripovedi o izhodu (Assmann 2015, 79–119). Assmann nastajanje Eksodusa deli v tri kompozicijske faze. Najprej si oglejmo dejavnike, ki so na oblikovanje besedila in njegovega smisla skozi stoletja pomemb-no vplivali. 6.1 Rast besedila – delo negovanja smisla Svetopisemsko besedilo je vecplastno in vecglasno; zanj so znacilna nasprotja, podvojitve, vrinki, opustitve in glose. V nekaterih knjigah (npr. 1. in 2. Mojzesova knjiga ali preroki) je teh vec, v drugih manj. To kaže na postopen zgodovinski ra­zvoj besedila. Drugace od drugih kultur, kjer so se poleg svetih besedilih ohranila tudi posvetna (npr. v anticni Grciji imamo poleg homerskih epov še druge epe), imamo za Izrael iz casa med 10. in 4. stol. pr. Kr. ohranjena le besedila, vkljucena v Sveto pismo. Sveto pismo je kanonicno primerna besedila vkljucilo, neprimer­na pa – verjetno – ‚spregledalo‘ ali ‚potlacilo‘. Ohranjena besedila iz tistega casa predstavljajo le 5 % zapisanih besedil – to velja za Izrael, Egipt (3000–300 pr. Kr.)in za druge takratne kulture. Šele v senci postopoma nastajajocega kanona so v Izraelu zacela nastajati izvensvetopisemska – devterokanonicna – besedila v he-brejskem, aramejskem in grškem jeziku. Assmanna Eksodus zanima z vidika ‚zgodovine ucinkovanja‘ (Wirkungsgeschi­chte). Sodobna svetopisemska eksegeza Eksodus že obravnava z vidika ‚diahrone tekstne analize‘ – raziskuje predvsem teološki in filološki vidik besedila v njegovem zgodovinskem razvoju. Zgodovino ucinkovanja zanima tekst v dokoncni obliki; ta je tista, ki ucinkuje naprej – na zgodovino je vplival Faust in ne Prafaust, predsto­pnja Fausta. Vseeno pa se Assmann zgodovini nastajanja Eksodusa posveca: pred­stopnjam Eksodusa, ki naj pomagajo razumeti, kako so njegovi motivi prišli tudi v druga svetopisemska dela, npr. v psalme in preroke. Sinhrono analizo Eksodusa Assmann torej dopolnjuje z diahrono. Diahrona analiza kaže na štiri razvojne stopnje: 1) ustno izrocilo mita o izhodu; 2) knjiga *Eksodus4 pred vkljucitvijo v duhovniški spis, torej *Eksodus kot izvorno, neodvisno literarno delo (kompozicija) poleg drugih spisov, kakor so *Devterono­mij, *cikli zgodb o ocakih in *Jožefova zgodba; 3) *duhovniški spis, ki je pripovedi o izhodu in o stvarjenju sicer že povezal v celovito zgodovinsko delo, a se je po­zneje vendarle še spreminjal; 4) poduhovniškospisna (priesterschriftlich) pot sko­zi razlicne kompozicijske stopnje vse do kanona biblicnih knjig, v katerega je Ek­sodus vkljucen kot druga knjiga Tore – Tora pa kot prvi del hebrejskega Svetega pisma, imenovanega TaNaK.5 Assmann privzema sprejeto tezo, da je na redakcijo peteroknjižja bistveno vpli-val duhovniški spis, ki sovpada z nastankom zgodnjega judovstva v casu drugega templja (Assmann 2015, 88). Temeljna plast duhovniškega spisa je verjetno na­stala že v 6. stol. v babilonskem izgnanstvu v krogih nekdanjega jeruzalemskega duhovništva; spis so po izgnanstvu dopolnili. Redakcijo peteroknjižja pa so z vklju-citvijo še drugih virov izdelali ‚redaktorji peteroknjižja‘ v 5. stol. pr. Kr. Kanon he-brejskega Svetega pisma se je tako oblikoval med 2. stol. pr. Kr. in 2. stol. Avtorje duhovniškega spisa je izkušnja padca Judovega kraljestva, ko je leta 587 pr. Kr. 4 Z zvezdico (asteriskom) pred imenom dolocenega dela oznacujemo njegovo rekonstruirano prvotno obliko. 5 Za TaNaK gl. Sveto pismo: Stara zaveza. Jeruzalemska izdaja (Ljubljana: Slovenska škofovska konferenca in UL TEOF, 2018), 13. Postava (hebr. Tora, gr. Pentatevh, tj. Peteroknjižje) = Prva Mojzesova knjiga (po prvih besedah besedila imenovana »V zacetku«); Druga Mojzesova knjiga (»Imena«); Tretja Mojzesova knjiga (»In [Gospod] je poklical«); Cetrta Mojzesova knjiga (»V pušcavi«); Peta Mojzesova knjiga (»Besede«). Preroki (hebr. Nebiim) = zgodnji preroki: Jozue, Sodniki, Samuel (1 Sam in 2 Sam združeni v eno), Kralji (1 Kr in 2 Kr združeni v eno); poznejši preroki: Izaija, Jeremija, Ezekiel; dvanajst prerokov po vrstnem redu, ki je prevzet iz Vulgate: Ozej, Joel, Amos, Abdija, Jona, Mihej, Nahum, Habakuk, Sofonija, Agej, Zaharija, Malahija. Spisi(hebr. Ketubim, gr. Hagiografi) = Psalmi (ali »Hvalnice«), Job, Pregovori, Ruta, Visoka pesem, Pridi- gar (hebr. Kohelet), Žalostinke, Estera, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemija, Kronike (1 Krn in 2 Krn združeni v eno). babilonski kralj Nebukadnesar II. Jeruzalem in tempelj porušil ter judovsko elito odvedel v izgnanstvo, prisilila k novi predstavitvi zgodovine Izraela – od stvarjenja do potovanja Izraelcev skozi pušcavo in Mojzesove smrti. Duhovniški spis (6.–5. stol) ni nov vir – starejšim, ‚neduhovniškim‘ virom jahvistu (ok. 950 pr. Kr.), elohi­stu (ok. 800 pr. Kr.) in devteronomistu (7. stol.) dodan pozneje –, temvec redakci­ja, ki je iz starih virov ustvarila temeljno plast peteroknjižja. Peteroknjižje je torej v svoji zasnovi rezultat duhovniškospisne redakcije. V združitvi izrocil o stvarjenju sveta, prastarših/ocakih, Jožefovi zgodbi z izrocili o izhodu iz Egipta v en vseobse­gajoc zgodovinski lok, ki se zacne s stvarjenjem sveta in se konca s stvarjenjem shodnega šotora (= pratempelj), je duhovniški spis – po Assmannu – za takratni svet pomenil odlocilno, neprimerljivo veliko dejanje. Duhovniški spis torej ni eden od virov, ampak je redakcija, ki svojega vzorca ni našla v preteklosti, temvec ga je ustvarila sama kot odgovor na klic – in na potrebe casa. To je bil cas gradnje dru­gega templja, obnove Jeruzalema in vzpostavljanja ‚Izraela‘ kot religijske, etnicne in politicne identitete – duhovniški spis je bil odgovor Izraelcev na cas izgnanstva in obnove po izgnanstvu. (Assmann 2015, 81–82) Genezo peteroknjižja oziroma Eksodusa je mogoce analizirati tako z vidika kom­pozicije kot z vidika eksegeze. Cilj kompozicije je bil povezati razlicne vire v pripo­vedne sklope, v celovito zgodovinsko delo, v historiografijo – to je bilo bolj znacil-no za Genezo (1 Mz); ta je locene pripovedi povezovala v cikle o ocakih in pa z zgodbo o Jožefu. Nasprotno eksegeza teži k ‚negovanju pomena‘ (Sinnpflege); zanjo so znacilni komentarji, reinterpretacije ali osvetlitve – ti prevladujejo v Ek­sodusu. (Assmann 2015, 83) Tako kompozicijsko kot eksegetsko delo najdemo v obeh strateških prikazih zgo­dovine Izraela, v devteronomisticni in duhovniškospisni redakciji, nastalih v za Izraelce težkih casih – v 7. oziroma 6. stol. pr. Kr. Kaj je za ta dva prikaza znacilno? Devteronomijski prikaz zgodovine se zacenja z izhodom iz Egipta in koncuje s po­rušenjem Jeruzalema; poudarja zlasti moralni vidik – zgodovina je odvisna od zvestobe zavezi. Duhovniški spis se zacne s stvarjenjem sveta in je usmerjen k stvarjenju pratemplja, to je shodnega šotora, ki je prebivališce Boga med ljud­stvom; poudarja teološki vidik zgodovine, razodetje – kolikor bolj se Izrael obliku­je v Božje ljudstvo, da lahko tako postane kraj Božje naselitve v svetu, toliko bolj Bog stopa iz skritosti. Idejo, naj zgodovino predstavijo od zacetka stvarjenja sveta, so Izraelci našli v sumersko-babilonsko-egiptovskih listah kraljev – ki pa so bile zgolj liste brez intrepretativno-vrednotenjske sestavine, zaradi cesar jih ni mogo-ce imeti za historiografijo. Genezo besedil je usmerjala dvojna skrb: negovanje besedila in negovanje po­mena. Negovanje besedila je skrb za táko obliko besedila, ki podpira spomin ali ustvarja dober ucinek, pomemben v magicnih in obrednih besedilih – temeljecih na dikciji in prozodiji. Tudi v Devteronomiju najdemo „kanonicno formulo“, ki iz­raža skrb za obliko besedila: »Nicesar ne dodajajte besedi, ki vam jo zapovedujem, in nicesar ji ne odvzemajte…!« (5 Mz 4,2) Besedilo v Devteronomiju se je vseeno spreminjalo, ker je sledilo bolj negovanju pomena kakor besedila. Besedilo se je ustalilo šele s kanonizacijo, ko je postalo sveto in je prevzelo znacilnosti magicno­-obrednega besedila. Negovanje pomena je bilo še posebej pomembno pri vzgo­ji bodocih rodov. Tu gre za ‚kulturna besedila‘, ki na mlajše rodove prenašajo vre­dnote in usmeritve. Mladi so se jih ucili na pamet, nato so jih po spominu zapiso­vali. Tako so ucenci pridobivali kulturno identiteto in se seznanjali z literaturo, gospodarskimi tehnikami ali z upravljanjem. Slabši kot je bil jezikovni sistem, po­membnejše je bilo besedilo. Ce je bil pri obrednih besedilih poudarek na dikciji in prozodiji, je bil pri kulturnih besedilih poudarek na negovanju pomena. Teh teks­tov se niso ucili le na pamet, ampak iz srca – s ciljem prenesti jih v življenjsko pra­kso. V skladu s konkretnimi potrebami so jih tudi aktualizirali, komentirali, dopol­njevali ali jim kaj odvzemali. Tako se je besedilo spreminjalo in raslo; oddaljevalo se je od starega besedila in omogocalo razumevanje v drugacnih okolišcinah. Bolj kot je bilo besedilo kulturno pomembno, vecja je bila skrb za negovanje pomena. Tako je mogoce razložiti tekstovno obliko peteroknjižja in Eksodusa z mnogimi nasprotji, dopolnitvami, glosami, dodanimi detajli, okrepitvami ali reinterpretaci­jami – cilj teh sprememb je bil boljši izraz smisla. Drugace od hipoteze, ki išce pr-votne dokumente – to je vire – in izhaja iz arhitektonskega vprašanja o sestavlje­nosti, je pri Assmannu v ospredju vprašanje o razvoju pomena besedila, ki je omogocal njegovo razumevanje v vedno novih okolišcinah. (Assmann 2015, 84–85) ‚Kulturna besedila‘, kakor Assmann razume besedila, vkljucena v Eksodus in peteroknjižje, živijo sredi ljudstva v spominu in praksi (kot so prazniki, šola ali bra-nje v javnosti). Osrednje svetopisemsko mesto, ki o tem govori, je odlomek o Ezri iz Nehemija (8,2-8): »Duhovnik Ezra je dal prinesti postavo pred zbor, pred može in žene, in pred vse tiste, ki so ji mogli z razumevanjem prisluhniti… Na trgu pred Vodnimi vrati je bral iz nje, od trenutka, ko se je zdanilo, do popoldneva, pred možmi in ženami in pred tistimi, ki so mogli umeti. Ušesa vsega ljudstva so bila obrnjena proti knjigi postave… Ko je Ezra, ki je stal višje od ljudstva, odprl knjigo pred ocmi vsega ljudstva, je vse ljudstvo vstalo. Ezra je hvalil Gospoda, velikega Boga, vse ljudstvo pa je s povzdignjenimi rokami odgovarjalo: ›Amen! Amen!‹… Nato so Ješúa […] in leviti ljudstvu razlagali postavo. Ljudstvo pa je ostalo na svojih mestih. In brali so iz knjige Božje postave po odstavkih, razlagali pomen, da so mogli razumeti, kar so brali.« (Neh 8, 2–8) Po Assmannu to mesto govori o trenutku, ko je neko sveto besedilo prvic v zgo­dovini prenehalo biti ekskluzivna last duhovnikov in postalo skupna posest ljud­stva. Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi celo pravi, da je bila to »rojstna ura Svetega pisma (Schrift) in istocasno rojstna ura eksegeze«, Othmar Keel pa meni, da je »tu opi­sano prvo bogoslužje, oblika, ki je odpravila skupen starovzhodnjaški (in anticni) obred žrtvovanja in je pozneje postala v sinagogah, cerkvah in mošejah prevladu­joca oblika bogoslužja« (v: Assmann 2015, 87). To je zbližalo tempelj in šolo; bo­goslužje tu postane oblika pouka in vzgoje. Besedilo je živelo med ljudstvom – ljudstvo ga je recitiralo, komentiralo in spreminjalo; ko pa je pridobilo sluh sveto­sti, se spreminjati ni vec smelo – in komentarje so sedaj postavljali ob sveta bese­dila. Tako se je ob kanonizirani Tori razvila ustna tora, ki so jo pozneje v diaspori zapisali kot Mišno in Talmud. Ob formativni vlogi kulturnih besedil Assmann poudarja še razlikovanje med hodegetiko in hermenevtiko, ki ga je uvedla njegova žena Aleida Assmann. V ho-degetiki ucitelj komentira in ucenca v iskanju smisla, ko postane nejasen, vodi – hermenevtika pa zahteva upoštevanje pravil, ki so, ko gre za razlago kanonicnih besedil, veliko strožja. (Assmann 2015, 88) 6.2 Kompozicijske plasti v Eksodusu Tu bomo sledili Assmannovi analizi treh zgodovinskih plasti, ki jih Eksodus vse­buje kot del duhovniškega spisa (Assmann 2015, 88–100). V katerih stoletjih in kje se pripoved o izhodu iz Egipta pojavi? Na kakšen nacin se pojavi in kakšno je njeno sporocilo? Prva kompozicijska plast (730–710 pr. Kr.) Prva plast pripovedi ali mita je tista, ki jo srecamo pri zgodnjih prerokih Ozeju in Amosu v letih 730–710 – v casu, ko so Asirci leta 722 unicili severno kraljestvo (Izrael). Vsebina pripovedi je legenda o utemeljitvi. Ustvarilo jo je lahko že sepa­ratisticno gibanje v 10. stol. pr. Kr., ko so se severna plemena locila od Salomono­vega kraljestva; lahko pa sega še dlje nazaj v cas, ko so se prvotni prebivalci pred prodirajocimi Filistejci umaknili v gore. Ta jedrni mit obsega pogl. 1–15: suženjstvo, rešitev, znamenja in cudeži. Tega dela ne moremo razumeti, ne da bi v ozadju vi-deli nakazano celoto v vseh treh korakih: zacetek-osvoboditev, sredina-zaveza in zakljucek-vstop v obljubljeno deželo. Ta jedrni mit je osnova nekaterih psalmov in drugih svetopisemskih mest, ki se na mit o eksodusu sklicujejo. Mit je torej sta­rejši, cas prerokov Ozeja in Amosa pa je cas stiske, ko so Asirci severno kraljestvo (Izrael) unicili in ljudstvo odpeljali v izgnanstvo. V tem casu unicene etnicne in verske identitete so preroki identiteto ustvarjali na novo. Ozej je misel o dejstvu izvoljenosti poudarjal z metaforama zarocenstva in sinovstva. Izrael obtožuje ‚pro-stituiranja‘ s tujimi bogovi – cemur pripisuje unicenje kraljestva. Po drugi strani spominja na Jahvejevo rešitev Izraelcev iz Egipta in prav na tem gradi upanje na nadaljnji obstoj zaveze in prihajajoce rešitve. »Ko je bil Izrael mlad, sem ga ljubil, iz Egipta sem poklical svojega sina.« (Oz 11,1) Podoba sinovstva igra pomembno vlogo že v Eksodusu (2 Mz 4,22-23). Podobo zarocenstva pa sta sto petdeset let pozneje prevzela preroka Jeremija in Ezekiel; unicenje Juda (južnega kraljestva) sta tako razlagala kot kazen jeznega ljubimca – iz nje pa crpata tudi upanje. Drugace kakor Ozej, ki nezvestobo Bogu interpretira afektivno kot nezvestobo med zarocenci, Amos Izraela obtožuje nepravicnosti in zatiranja ter ga spominja na Božja odrešitvena dela, da bi se spreobrnil (Am 2,10; 3,1; 4,10). Prelom zaveze so torej za Amosa nepravicnost, krivica in zatiranje, za Ozeja pa cešcenje tujih bo-gov – preroka zahtevata absolutno zvestobo Jahveju, odrešeniku (Avsenik Naber­goj 2021). Zvestobo razume Ozej kultno-teološko, Amos socialno-eticno. Izaija, veliki prerok južnega kraljestva, sodobnik Amosa in Ozeja, medtem mita o Mojze­sovem eksodusu sploh ne omenja. Lahko torej domnevamo, da je bilo izrocilo o eksodusu doma v severnem kraljestvu, prenašali pa so ga krogi levitov. Ti so bili brez zemlje, živeli so od drobnice – delovali so kot potujoci sveceniki, ki so po de­želi opravljali žrtvene daritve, ko kult še ni bil ustaljen v Jeruzalemu. Bili so najpo­membnejši prenašalci religijskega izrocila. Med njimi najdemo imena egiptovske­ga porekla: Mojzes, Pinhas in Putiel; morda je bil v tem plemenu bolj živ tudi spo-min na njihov postanek v Egiptu in na izhod iz Egipta. (Assmann 2015, 88–91) Druga kompozicijska plast (720–520 pr. Kr.) Druga kompozicijska plast se je oblikovala v casu med propadom severnega kraljestva in vrnitvijo iz babilonskega izgnanstva, to je 720–520 pr. Kr. Propad juž­nega kraljestva (Juda), unicenje Jeruzalema in templja ter deportacija judovske elite v Babilon leta 587/6 pr. Kr. to obdobje deli na dva dela: na cas pred izgnan­stvom in cas izgnanstva. Obe katastrofi – propad severnega in južnega kraljestva – imata za posledico celovito predelavo do takrat nepovezanih izrocil. Podobno je npr. v Egiptu propad starega kraljestva konec 3. tisocletja povzrocil literarni raz­cvet. Za ta cas reprezentativno delo je Devteronomij. *Devteronomij je bil samo­stojno delo, verjetno nastalo v poznokraljevskem casu ali v casu zgodnjega izgnan­stva, še pred vkljucitvijo v Toro. Po poznejši legendi so knjigo, ki so jo pripisali Mojzesu, odkrili leta 622 pr. Kr. med obnovitvenimi deli v templju. V resnici pa je knjiga verjetno delo nasprotnikov tedanje dvorne politike, ki se je udinjala asirski nadvladi – in omogocala vdor asirskih verskih navad. Nastop kralja Jošija je opo­ziciji omogocil, da se upre in uveljavi strogo spoštovanje postave. Knjiga je morda nastala pozneje, a s tem svoje utemeljitvene vloge ne izgubi. Kodificirala je nor-mativna izrocila – in tudi ce njen avtor ni Mojzes, je sestavljena v njegovem duhu. Verjetno je *Eksodus nastal v istem casu. Ni gotovo, katera od obeh knjig je sta­rejša, obe pa uporabljata Ozejevo metaforo o zarocenstvu med Bogom in Izraelom, ki ga razumeta kot ‚sveto poroko‘ – sklenjeno v obliki politicne pogodbe o zave­zništvu po asirskem vzoru. Pri tem so Devteronomij redaktorji peteroknjižja sesta­vili kot parenteticni, razlagalni povzetek eksodusnega dogajanja – in ga kot peti del dodali eksodusni kompoziciji. To pa pomeni, da je *Eksodus do nas prišel v veckrat predelani obliki. (Assmann 2015,91–93). Tretja kompozicijska plast (520–450 pr. Kr.) Z vidika današnje sestave peteroknjižja je bila po Assmannu odlocilna tretja kompozicijska faza. Njen nastanek se umešca v leta 520–450 pr. Kr., cas po vrnitvi iz babilonskega izgnanstva. V tem casu nastane temeljno delo zgodnjega judovstva, *duhovniški spis, ki dve izvorno loceni izraelski utemeljitveni legendi – pripoved o ocakih (Abraham, Izak in Jakob) ter pripoved o Mojzesu in izhodu Izraelcev iz Egipta – poveže z miti o stvarjenju in vesoljnem potopu v celovito zgodovinsko delo po vzorcu babilonskih in egiptovskih kraljevih list, ki se zacenjajo z nastankom sveta in tako združijo kozmologijo s kronologijo in genealogijo. V casu izgnanstva in po njem je pod vplivom babilonskih mitov in perzijskih predstav o bogu nasta-la *Geneza, ki Boga v univerzalisticni perspektivi predstavlja kot stvarnika neba in zemlje – v nasprotju s cloveštvom ter posamezniki in njihovimi potomci (Adam in potomstvo; Noe in potomstvo; Abraham in potomstvo). Kot vezni clen med *Ge­nezo in *Eksodusom je *duhovniški spis uporabil zgodbo o Jožefu, ki je že obsta­jala kot samostojna literarna pripoved. Kljub temu, da ju *duhovniški spis pove­zuje, pa se *Eksodus in *Geneza zelo razlikujeta. *Eksodus predstavlja Egipt kot hišo sužnosti, kot utelešenje despotske samovolje, morilskega zatiranja in brez­božne hybris, kot deželo, ki jo je treba zapustiti, da bi stopili v novi svet svobode – *Geneza pa ga prikazuje kot rajsko deželo, v kateri je Jožef uspel in je Jožefove brate sprejela. Knjigi omenjata ista ljudstva Kanaana: *Geneza konfliktov med pri­šleki, kakor je bil Abraham, in staroselci ne omenja, *Eksodus pa Izraelce prikazu­je kot do ljudstev Kanaana sovražne – in miroljubne v razmerju do ljudstev izven Kanaana. *Eksodus je torej usmerjen k izkljucevanju, antagonizmu in nasilju, *Ge-neza k vkljucevanju. Raziskovalci si ob tem zastavljajo vprašanje, ali sta bila v Izra­elu izvorna mita dva – eden o stvarjenju in ocakih, drugi o izhodu Izraelcev iz Egip­ta. Assmann se nagiba k mnenju, da je pripoved o stvarjenju v Sveto pismo prišla pod babilonskim in perzijskim vplivom; k temu ga vodi ugotovitev, da je duhovni­ški spis pripovedi oblikoval v skladu s kronološko-genealoškimi shemami, znacil­nimi za liste kraljev, ki so jih uporabljali v Egiptu in Babilonu. (Assmann 2015, 98) Kakor *Eksodus je bil tudi *Devteronomij izkljucujoc. Drugace od *Eksodusa, ki zajema cas od izhoda pa do postavitve shodnega šotora, je *Devteronomij s svojim izrocilom zajel cas od izhoda do unicenja Jeruzalema. *Duhovniški spis, ki je povezal *Genezo in *Eksodus, torej pokriva cas od stvarjenja sveta do stvarjenja pratemplja (postavitev shodnega šotora), bivališca Boga sredi njegovega ljudstva – s tem Bog obnovi zavezo, ki jo je ljudstvo s cešcenjem zlatega teleta unicilo. V 6./5. stol. pr. Kr. so *duhovniški spis razširili z Levitikom (3 Mz) in z deli knjige Nu-meri (4 Mz), *Devteronomij pa z devteronomijskim zgodovinskim delom – to je z Jozuetom, s Sodniki ter po dvema knjigama Samuela in Knjige kraljev. Duhovniški spis in devteronomijsko izrocilo sta skupaj obsegala devet zvezkov (= enneatevh, deveteroknjižje) – te so koncno razdelili v Toro in zgodnje preroke. Obe izrocili veljata za utemeljitveni izrocili zgodnjega judovstva, ki pa se v teoloških usmeri­tvah razlikujeta. Duhovniški spis je poudarjal teologijo stvarjenja in obreda – univerzalizem stvar­jenja, po katerem je resnicen samo en Bog, ki je Bog vseh ljudstev, je povezal s partikularizmom svetosti, po katerem je Bog za svoje bivališce na Zemlji izvolil Izraela. Izrael je zato poklican, da postane sveto ljudstvo – temu služi institucio­nalizacija Božje bližine v obredu. Devteronomij pa Božjo bližino razume kot osvo­boditev in obenem zavezo; med mnogimi bogovi je le en, ki je Izraelov osvobodi­telj iz egiptovske sužnosti – zato mu Izrael služi in sprejema njegovo postavo, Bog pa ga odrešuje. Zaveza z Bogom, ki vkljucuje ideje o izvoljenem ljudstvu, postavi in o obljubljeni deželi, ima zato politicno razsežnost – Božja bližina tu ni stvar kul­ta in duhovništva, ampak zaveze, ki uveljavlja pravicnost in zakon. Duhovniški spis sledi idealu svetosti, Devteronomij idealu družbene pravicnosti. Te razlike med izrociloma je preiskovala Mary Douglas, ki med drugim razlikuje med hierarhicnim in enklavisticnim miselnim slogom (thought styles) (v Assmann 2015, 99). Duhov­niški spis je pripisala hierarhicnemu slogu: navznoter hierarhicno organizirana skupnost je navzven odprta in vkljucujoca. Devteronomijsko izrocilo je medtem pripisala enklavisticnemu slogu: navznoter demokraticno, egalitarno organizirana skupnost je navzven izkljucevalna. Assmann poudarja, da je bilo nosilec duhovni­škega spisa jeruzalemsko duhovništvo, nosilec Devteronomija pa krog laiških te­ologov in državnih elit. To nasprotje med vkljucujoco in izkljucujoco držo se je po Assmannu ohranjalo skozi vso zgodovino zahodnih verstev – saduceji : farizeji, duhovniki : laiki, katolištvo : protestantizem, v protestantizmu pravovernost : pi-etizem, v anglikanstvu pa med visoko Cerkvijo in pietizmom, metodizmom in dru­gimi protiklerikalnimi gibanji. Po Assmannu se živost jedrnih svetopisemskih pri­povedi kaže tudi v teh nasprotjih. (Assmann 2015, 100) V tretji, za nastanek peteroknjižja odlocilni kompozicijski fazi prevladuje *du-hovniški spis, katerega zacetke postavljajo v cas videnj prerokov Ageja in Zaharije ter zacetkov vladanja vélikega perzijskega kralja Dareja I (520–518 pr. Kr.). Te oko­lišcine so bile klic, na katerega je *duhovniški spis odgovoril kot spomin (Bergson). Besedila tu še niso bila kanonicno zrela; spis v središce postavlja postavitev sho­dnega šotora – stvarjenje pratemplja. Spis, ki nosi sledove mnogih posegov, je redakcijsko delo, ki je priklicalo v spomin stare vire (elohista in jahvista), jih na novo oblikovalo in jim dalo moc osmišljanja. Pripovedi, tu združene v eno celoto, so oživele – nove izraze so nato našle v vedno novih pripovedovanjih (hagada) znotraj ali izven Tore in tudi v brezštevilnih umetniških poustvaritvah. Njihova nor-mativna ost (halaka) pa je spodbujala refleksijo o zavezi in izvoljenosti, o moralnih in pravnih zakonih, o grehu in spravi, iz cesar so se navdihovale družbene revolu­cije in osvobodilna gibanja. (Assmann 2015, 93–100). 7. Pripoved o Mojzesu med mitom in kanonom Assmannm poudarja: duhovniški spis je delo spomina. V novo celoto je povezal *Genezo in *Eksodus in tako združil dve pripovedni, miticni izrocili – izraelsko in babilonsko. Temu spisu, ki velja za utemeljitveno delo zgodnjega judovstva, so sledile še druge redakcije vse do ustalitve hebrejskega in kršcanskega svetopisem­skega kanona. Na naše izrocilo je seveda vplivalo Sveto pismo s svojo kanonicno vrednostjo, to je kot življenjsko merilo. Kanonicno vrednost so v judovstvu pripi­sovali zlasti moralnim naukom Svetega pisma (halaka, halakoth), v kršcanstvu pa uciteljsko priznanim resnicam (dogma). Kanon je izbor spisov, ki so še posebej zavezujoci, zato besedil kanonu niso vec dodajali ali jih odvzemali, dolocen pa je ostal tudi njihov osnovni pomen. Izbrana kanonska besedila tvorijo ‚jedrno knjižni-co‘, ki po judovskem štetju vsebuje 24, po protestantskem 39 in po katoliškem 46 knjig; v faraonskem Egiptu je jedrna knjižnica obsegala 42 najpomembnejših knjig, njihova razclenitev pa je odsevala tudi v razlicnih redih duhovništva. Ker kriterij za izbor kanona ni bil enotnost, ampak zavezujocnost, so se lahko v svetopisemsko besedilo vtihotapila mnoga nasprotja – to Assmann oznacuje kot svetopisemsko polifonijo. Svetopisemski kanon je tako dolocil pomen temeljnih naukov, ni pa s tem zaustavil poustvarjanja svetopisemskih pripovedi (hagadoth). Pripovedi, vklju-cene v kanon, so delovale naprej. Kanoniziran verski in moralni nauk se je ohra­njal, pripovedi pa so v najrazlicnejših casih in okolišcinah ponavljali, komentirali in poustvarjali. Tako je Sveto pismo tudi v novih kulturah ostajalo živo. Ta pojav Assmann opisuje z razlikovanjem med „genotekstom“ in „fenotekstom“ – pripo­ved v osnovi ostaja ista („genotekst“), toda vsakokrat govori v casu in prostoru razumljivi govorici („fenotekst“). Že v samem zacetku je tako poleg zapisane tore nastajala tudi ustna tora. To živost svetopisemskih pripovedi Assmann oznacuje z besedo ‚mit‘, ne da bi jih s tem hotel razvrednotiti v ‚prazne bajke‘ – s to oznako pripovedi priznava moc, zaradi katere se vedno znova in na novo pripoveduje. Po dolgem razvoju je sveto­pisemski kanon rast besedila in smisla zamejil ter podobo izhoda in Mojzesa, ki tvorita jedro Eksodusa, fiksiral – ni pa s tem zaustavil njene pripovedne moci. Mit o Mojzesu in izhodu je moc izžareval še naprej – ter tako spodbujal komentarje in umetniške poustvaritve. Po Assmannu sodijo pripovedi, miti v red spomina. Spomin ni trpen posnetek, ampak dejaven privzem preteklega dogodka; ni reprodukcija preteklega dogodka, od katerega bi bil bolj ali manj odmaknjen, ampak delo v službi sedanjosti – spo-min odgovarja na klic sedanjosti. Spomin ureja spominjanje in pozabljanje: eno izbere, drugo potlaci. »Smo to, cesar se spominjamo.« (Assmann 2015, 101) Iden­titeta spomin uokvirja, ga neguje in omejuje – obenem spomin nosi identiteto. Kolektivno identiteto – ‚mi‘ – nosijo pripovedi; te oblikujejo naš skupni spomin in našo skupno identiteto. Za pripovedi ni pomembno, ali so resnicne ali ne, ampak le to, ali imajo svoje mesto v redu spomina, ki jih vedno znova pripoveduje, ozi­roma v redu samopodobe, ki se z obnavljanjem spominov vzpostavlja in ohranja. ‚Mi‘ pomeni celoto vseh, ki jim isti spomin nekaj pomeni. Pripovedi in miti – torej skupni spomin – ‚mi‘ nosijo in ga povezujejo v eno kulturno identiteto; ‚mi‘ pa te pripovedi in mite obnavlja. Tudi kulturna identiteta je vecplastna, polna protislo­vij in tako heterogena. Naš kulturni prostor, ki ga imenujemo Zahod, crpa svojo identiteto iz istega pripovedno-miticnega izrocila, ki je lahko zelo heterogeno. Prav pripoved o izhodu in Mojzesu, ki je eden od temeljev Zahoda, izkazuje takšno he-terogenost. To se kaže v Schönbergovi operi „Mojzes in Aron“, v kateri se preple­tajo tri izrocila: judovsko, protestantsko in filozofsko. (102) Reci, da je pripoved o Mojzesu mit, ne pomeni zanikati zgodovinskega izvora pri­povedi, ki ji ga pripisuje peteroknjižje. Priznavanje zgodovinskega izvora svetopisem­skih pripovedi je del svetopisemskega kanona – reci, da je peteroknjižje izmišljeno, ne bi bilo v skladu s kanonom. Sprejemanje zgodovinskega ozadja pa ne izkljucuje kriticnega branja. Vsekakor Assmanna ne zanima zgodovinsko ozadje pripovedi, tem­vec njihova miticna pripovedna moc – in njihova funkcija razodevanja Boga. Te pri­povedi so se pripovedovale že davno nazaj, pripovedujejo in poustvarjajo se tudi po kanonizaciji, vedno pa je v njih clovek sreceval in spoznaval Boga. Mit in kanon po Assmannu nista v nasprotju. Kanonizacija Svetega pisma ni za­ustavila miticne moci pripovedi, ki težijo k temu, da se pripovedujejo nenehno, na novo – in tudi drugace. Na vprašanje »Kaj Mojzes pomeni?« so odgovarjali mnogi: Filon, Schiller, Heine, Schönberg, Freud, Buber ali Mann – njihovi odgovo­ri niso bili razlage in v njih je bila pripoved »mišljena dalje« (weitergedacht). Tho­mas Mann je razvil hagado o egiptovskem Jožefu v štirih zvezkih, a te ni vec mo­goce vkljuciti v svetopisemski kanon ali je dodati kot komentar. Mit po takšnih poustvaritvah klice: Hans Blumenberg (1979) to imenuje ‚delo na mitu‘. »Ko sla­vimo ameriške predsednike Georgea Washingtona, Thomasa Jeffersona in Abra-hama Lincolna kot ‚drugega Mojzesa‘ in sedaj umrlega Nelsona Mandelo kot ‚cr­nega Mojzesa‘, gre tu za Mojzesov mit, in ne za biblicno knjigo Eksodus. Pripovedi o Mojzesu ne dojemamo kot enkraten zgodovinski dogodek, ampak kot spominsko figuro (Erinnerungsfigur), katere resnica se potrjuje v dejanju spominjanja in v vsaki spominjajoci se sedanjosti.« (Assmann 2015, 105) Mandela ni posnemal Mojzesa, da bi bil ‚crni Mojzes‘ – deloval je povsem samostojno –, in vendar je opravljal isto delo kot Mojzes. To hoce Assmann z izrazom ‚delo na mitu‘ poveda-ti. Z drugimi besedami, mit o Mojzesu, ki govori v Eksodusu in v drugih svetopi­semskih besedilih, še ni povedal vsega. Spregovoril je v Mandeli, Washingtonu, Jeffersonu in Lincoln, in še bo govoril v drugih, ki Mojzesa morda ne bodo niti po­znali. Mnogi – Schönberg, Freud ali Mann, Judje v casu nacizma – pa so se k Moj­zesu tudi obrnili, ker so v njem iskali odrešenje in sodbo za svoj cas. Nove in nove razlicice mita kažejo, da kanon mitov ni zadušil – še vec, v sebi nosijo naprej ka­nonicno vrednost svetopisemskih pripovedi. Mit in kanon služita drug drugemu. Kakšna je torej kanonicna razsežnost mita o Mojzesu? Mojzes simbolizira mo-noteizem. Z njegovim imenom je povezano normativno oznanjevanje enega Boga – to je izkljucujoce in narekuje strogo razlikovanje med enim resnicnim Bogom in mnogimi lažnimi bogovi, ki jih je ustvaril clovek. To razlikovanje je navzoce v mno­gih zapovedih in prepovedih: klice torej k ustreznim odlocitvam in ravnanju. »Spo­minjati se na Mojzesa pomeni spominjati na to razlikovanje, kakor to narekuje trenutna potreba: med zvestobo in izdajo, svobodo in suženjstvom, pravico in krivico, cistim in necistim, redom in brezpravjem, civilizacijo in barbarstvom, cu­tnostjo in duhovnostjo ali resnico in neresnico.« (106) 8. „Mojzesovska distinkcija“ in „monoteizem zvestobe“ Pripoved o Mojzesu, kakor jo podaja peteroknjižje, je prvotno spominska figura, ki bralca ali poslušalca oblikuje, spreminja, usmerja, spodbuja, opozarja in osmišlja – njen prvotni namen ni prikazovati zgodovinsko resnico, ampak utrditi duha Izra­elcev v casih, ko so jim katastrofe unicile temelje – politicne, verske in kulturne. Ta svetopisemska pripoved je po svoji funkciji torej najprej spominska figura, ki jo je ustvaril spomin kot odgovor na klic casa, da bi duha ljudstva dvignila, oblikovala, usmerila in celo na novo utemeljila. To funkcijo Mojzesa kot spominske figure želi Assmann izlušciti in artikulirati, ne da bi ji pri tem odrekel zgodovinsko funkcijo. Zanjo je znacilno, da ucinkuje – da zgodovino ustvarja. Ko Sveto pismo govori o Mojzesu, ne govori o ‚zgolj‘ zgodovinskem Mojzesu – pomembnem posamezni­ku iz izraelske preteklosti –, ampak pripoved uporablja kot spomin z namenom ustvariti nov duhovni, kulturni okvir oziroma milje. Mojzes je kot spominska figura naše izrocilo oblikoval najgloblje; po Assmannu naš zahodni svet še vedno stoji na mojzesovskih temeljih (2016, 76). Izrocilu, v katerem živimo, je svetopisemska pripoved o Mojzesu dala temeljne usmeritve in okvire. Dva temeljna dosežka Mojzesove svetopisemske figure, ki sta oblikovala naše izrocilo, Assmann imenuje „monoteizem resnice“ in „monoteizem zvestobe“ (Petkovšek 2017, 620–623; 2018, 241–243). Izraza se vežeta na Mojze­sa; Assmann ju je uvedel že v svojih delih Mojzes Egipcan (Moses der Ägypter, 1997/98) in Mojzesovsko razlikovanje (Die Mosaische Unterscheidung, 2003). Mo-noteizem zvestobe zahteva zvestobo Izraelcev enemu Bogu – odrešeniku; obstoj vec bogov dopušca, a v nasprotju s politeizmom ne dopušca menjavanja bogov. Monoteizem resnice pa priznava samo enega resnicnega Boga – drugi so lažni. Razlikovanje med resnicnim in lažnim bogom je Assmann v delu Mojzes Egipcan in Mojzesovo razlikovanje oznacil tudi kot „mojzesovsko razlikovanje“. Vera v ene­ga Boga je obstajala že pred svetopisemskim monoteizmom – šele Sveto pismo pa je na podrocju religije uveljavilo razlikovanje med resnicnim in lažnim bogom. »Pri tej tezi bi vztrajal prej in pozneje,« pravi, a dodaja: »V izrocilu o eksodusu razlikovanje med resnicnim in lažnim ne igra nobene vloge.« (Assmann 2015, 106) V svojem Eksodusu se torej Assmann odreka splošnemu prepricanju, ki ga je pred tem zastopal tudi sam, da je monoteizem resnice izvorna sestavina pripove­di o Mojzesu. Ta izvorno govori o zvestobi in izdaji, in ne o resnicnem in lažnem Bogu – tega razlikovanja zato niti ne bi smeli imenovati „mojzesovsko razlikovanje“, kakor je v preteklosti delal Assmann sam. Razlikovanje med resnicnim Bogom in lažnimi bogovi je v peteroknjižje prišlo pozneje pod babilonskim in perzijskim vpli­vom. Vendarle se zdi, da Assmann pojem „mojzesovsko razlikovanje“ v svojem Eksodusu uporablja tudi za oznacitev monoteizma zvestobe. (Assmann 2015, 106) Monoteizem zvestobe ima tri teološke funkcije: rešiteljsko, zavezno in obredno; bistveno zanje je razlikovanje med zvestobo in izdajstvom (Treue und Verrat). Zno­traj te temeljne paradigme zvestoba – izdajstvo se oblikujejo tri dihotomije: 1) Egipt : Izrael; 2) Izrael : druga ljudstva; 3) prijatelj : sovražnik oziroma zvestoba : izdajstvo. Prav te tri dihotomije so substrat Eksodusa. (106–107) 8.1 Egipt – Izrael Razlikovanje med Egiptom in Izraelom je razlikovanje med služenjem cloveku, kar pomeni suženjstvo, in služenjem Bogu, ki je svoboda. Služba Bogu namrec osvo­baja; Jahve je Izraela osvobodil, da bi mu ta stregel. Tu smo na simbolni ravni, ki govori o spopadu med novim in starim: ‚Egipt‘ simbolizira staro, ki ga morajo Izra­elci zapustiti, da bi vstopili v novo; ‚izhod‘ je simbol kolektivnega spreobrnjenja. Ta osvobajajoci teološki impulz je imel v vsej poznejši zgodovini ucinkovanja osrednjo vlogo. (Assmann 2015, 107–108) 8.2 Izrael – druga ljudstva Sklenitev zaveze na Sinaju uvaja razlikovanje na notranje in zunanje, endo-in ek­sosfero, med pripadnostjo in nepripadnostjo zavezi. Zavezo je Bog sklenil z otroki Izraela – ne s cloveštvom; izvolil jih je za svoje ljudstvo. Zaveza loci svet na Izrael in druga ljudstva. Ta locitev nima nic skupnega z nasiljem: Bog skrbi tudi za dru­ga ljudstva, do Izraela, ki ga iz kroga ljudstev izloci, pa ima poseben odnos. Temu služi postava, ki Izraela posvecuje. Bogu pripadajo vsa ljudstva, Izrael pa je njegov biser. Izvoljenost Izraela zato ni mizantropija, kakor so jo razlagali v antiki. Z no-tranje perspektive to pomeni: Izraelci živijo strogo po postavi, dani od Boga, da bi postali vzor drugim. Duhovniški spis poudarja vidik svetosti, Devteronomij pa vidik modrosti, vzgoje in pravicnosti (5 Mz 4,5-8). Izrael torej samega sebe locuje od drugih ljudstev, živi drugace – drugim pa pravice živeti po lastnih zakonih in castiti lastne bogove ne jemlje (3 Mz 20,24.26; Est 3,8). Svojo drugacnost Izraelci dodatno poudarjajo z opisom sebe z vidika drugih narodov: »Glej, ljudstvo, ki biva posebej, se ne prišteva med narode.« (4 Mz 23,9) Ideja o locenosti je Makabejce spodbudila k uporu proti asimilaciji s tujci. Rabinska modrost pa je razvila nace-lo ‚tora in pot‘, ‚kultura in postava‘ – istocasno usmerjenost k zvestobi postavi in spoštovanju do tujcev. Idejo izlocitve, to je posvetitve, najdemo tudi v izrocilu o ocakih, ki poudarja motiv alohtonije, priseljevanja od drugod. To omogoca, da nastanek Izraela kot Božjega ljudstva v smislu religijske in politicne identitete razumemo kot stvaritev iz nica (creatio ex nihilo): otroci Izraela so bili ‚nic‘ – brezpravni, nevredni in ne­mocni, dokler jih Jahve ni izvolil in pripeljal v Kanaan od cisto drugod. Motiv aloh­tonije namiguje tudi, da Izraelci s staroselci nimajo nic skupnega. Da jih ti ne bi zapeljali v malikovanje, z njimi izvoljeno ljudstvo ne sme imeti nic, zato jih mora izkoreniniti. Izrael ne sme imeti nic ne s tujimi ljudstvi ne s tujimi bogovi – prepo­ved asimilacije ustreza prepovedi cešcenja tujih bogov. V pripovedi torej ne gre zlasti za to, da je Mojzes prišel iz Egipta ali Abraham iz Mezopotamije, ampak za to, da sta oba prišla od drugod – gre torej za motiv alohtonije. (Assmann 2015, 108–110) 8.3 Prijatelj – sovražnik Tudi tretja delitev odpira temeljna vprašanja peteroknjižja oziroma Svetega pisma. Delitev nastane v endosferi, ki je prostor Božje zaveze z izvoljenim ljudstvom. Za­veza prepoveduje cešcenje tujih bogov: »Ne priklanjaj se jim in jim ne služi, kajti jaz, Gospod, tvoj Bog, sem ljubosumen Bog…« (5 Mz 5,9) Tisti, ki jih zacne castiti, unici zavezo in se postavi na stran sovražnikov. Zaveza zavezuje; kdor vanjo vstopi, iz nje ne more izstopiti, ne da bi izzval Bož­jo jezo. Ta odnos oblikuje posebno semantiko – pojme ljubosumja, nasilja in gre-ha. Ljubosumje, s katerim se Jahve in njegovi partnerji za zavezo zavzemajo, pov­zroca nasilje: ob cešcenju zlatega teleta pobijejo tri tisoc ljudi. V okviru zavezno--teološke semantike je malikovanje oziroma idolatrija najtežji greh – uperjen je proti prvi Božji zapovedi in zavezo unici. Zaveza ima za posledico razlikovanje med prijateljem in sovražnikom: prijatelji zavezo spoštujejo, sovražniki unicijo; s spo­štovanjem ali zavracanjem ljudje sami delamo iz sebe prijatelje ali sovražnike. Tu gre torej izvorno za zvestobo ali odpad – in ne za vprašanje resnicnega ali lažnega boga. Stopnjevanje odnosa in semantike deli ljudi v prijatelje in sovražnike. * * * Pred ocmi imamo torej pripoved o Mojzesu, ki jo obicajno povezujemo z mo-noteizmom zvestobe in monoteizmom resnice, vendar pa je povezovati Mojzesa z monoteizmom resnice napacno. Monoteizem resnice je v nastajajoci svetopi­semski korpus vstopil pod vplivom zaratustrovstva pozno, v casu ahemenidskega Perzijskega cesarstva (550–330 pr. Kr., prostor Velikega Irana), oziroma v casu pre­rokov Drugega Izaija in Danijela. Monoteizem resnice casti enega boga, stvarnika neba in zemlje – drugi bogovi ob njem so neresnicni, lažni, maliki. Monoteizem zvestobe pa obstoj drugih bogov dopušca, a služiti je treba le enemu, Osvobodi­telju. Tu torej ne gre za monoteizem v strogem pomenu besede, ampak za mono-latrijo, to je za služenje enemu Bogu. Izvorno je z Mojzesom povezan ta monote­izem zvestobe. Povezanost obeh monoteizmov v peteroknjižju daje vtis, da je monoteizem zvestobe splošen religijski pojav, a to ne drži. »Prav nasprotno,« poudarja Assmann (2015, 112), »je teologija zaveze nekaj enkratnega in revolucionarnega, kar je mo­goce najti le v Svetem pismu«. Ce gledamo na Sveto pismo z vidika njegove celo­te, tvorita monoteizma nelocljivo celoto, zlasti v mlajših spisih Stare zaveze, Nove zaveze in Korana. Napacno pa bi bilo misliti, da se je biblicni monoteizem iz par-tikularne monolatrije razvil v univerzalni monoteizem. Drži pa nasprotno: izvorna svetopisemska ideja Božje zaveze in zvestobe enemu Bogu je bila tako mocna, da je ideja o resnicnosti le enega Boga, ki so jo Izraelci sprejeli v izgnanstvu, ni mogla preseci in izpodriniti; usidrala – tudi v rabinskem judovstvu, kršcanstvu in koranu – se je kot custvena vsebina svetopisemske vere, ki jo tvorijo zaveza, zvestoba, odrešenje in obljube. »Partikularni monoteizem zvestobe in univerzalni monote­izem resnice obstajata v kompleksnem, vecglasnem kanonu svetopisemskih be-sedil eden ob drugem, pri cemer je monoteizem zvestobe cantus firmus.« (112– 113) Monoteizem priznava le enega Boga: monoteizem zvestobe pa zahteva, da med mnogimi bogovi služimo le enemu, osvoboditelju; monoteizem resnice trdi, da je le en resnicen med mnogimi lažnimi. Idejo o enem bogu, izvoru sveta, ki jo imenujemo kozmogonicni monoteizem, najdemo tudi v drugih religijah tistega starozaveznega casa. Svetopisemski nauk prerokov iz casa poznega izgnanstva, da je v skladu s spoznanjem resnicen le en bog – vsi drugi so lažni –, pa Assmann imenuje cisti monoteizem, ki je znacilen tudi za starogrškega filozofa Ksenofana. Od kozmogonicnega do cistega monoteizma pot ni dolga. Monoteizem v pomenski paradigmi eksodusa torej ne pomeni spoznanja, uvi­da, ampak odnos – ljubezen, absolutno zvestobo odrešeniku in njegovi postavi, ki ni resnicna ali lažna, ampak zavezujoca. Nezvestoba je vracanje v egiptovsko su­ženjstvo, k drugim bogovom. Eksodus ne govori o stvarniku neba in zemlje, ampak o Bogu, ki prijateljem namenja milost, sovražnikom pa jezo. Jeza Boga in strah sta del zaveze – a Božja ljubezen njegovo jezo stokrat presega. »Misel o zavezi in zve­stobi je posebnost biblicnega monoteizma. S tem je bila odkrita povsem nova oblika religije – oblika povezanosti in pripadnosti. V mitu o eksodusu je ta novareligija, ki temelji na pojmu zvestobe, dobila svoj zavezujoc izraz.« (113–114) Že Devteronomij (redakcija ok. 620 pr. Kr.) je idejo zaveze oblikoval po asirskem vzor­cu trojne prisege zvestobe, ki ga je kralj Asarhadon († 669 pr. Kr.) dal v prisego svojim vazalom. To nacelo politicne lojalnosti je Devteronomij prenesel na odnos med Bogom in ljudstvom, a s tremi odlocilnimi spremembami: 1) zavezujoc znacaj izhaja iz spomina na Božjo osvoboditev ljudstva iz egiptovske sužnosti; 2) zaveza z Bogom ni vsiljena, ampak svobodna izbira ljudstva, ki jo tudi svobodno obnavlja; 3) v Božji zavezi igrajo vidiki milosti, dobrote in potrpežljivosti povsem drugacno vlogo kot v politicni prisegi. V zavezi imata svoj izvor razlikovanje prijatelj : sovra­žnik ter problem nestrpnosti in nasilja. Srd, jeza in ljubosumje sodijo v semantiko zaveze, kakor se kaže v odlomku o zlatem teletu. Tudi Laktancij (250–340), ki pra-vi, da »ni religije tam, kjer ni strahu« (De ira Dei, 11.15), Božjega srda ne pripisuje bistvu Boga, ampak zavezi. Kakor v cesarstvu, ki temelji na prisegi-lojalnosti, tako tudi v zavezi z Bogom noben greh ne ostane brez posledic. »GOSPOD, GOSPOD, … odpušca krivdo, upornost in greh, toda nikakor ne oprosti krivde, ampak obi-skuje krivdo ocetov na sinovih in na sinov sinovih, na tretjih in na cetrtih.« (2 Mz 34,6-7) Vloga Boga ni, da bi kakor mnogi drugi bogovi bdel nad izvajanjem pogodb in zakonov, ampak on sam pogodbe in zakone izdaja in doloca. K semantiki prijatelj : sovražnik, ki prevladuje v Eksodusu,6 spada tudi semantika biblicnega antikanaanstva. V odnosu Izrael : druga ljudstva nasilja ni. Medtem pa so Izraelci v odnosu do sedmih ljudstev Kanaana nasilni, kakor to prikazuje Eksodus (pozor: Geneza ta odnos prikazuje kot miroljuben). To sovraštvo poznamo kot an-tikanaanstvo, to je kot sovraštvo do kanaanskih ljudstev, ki predstavljajo pogansko predzgodovino obljubljene dežele. Ta dežela je sedaj »pod ljudstvom zaveze« – an-tikanaanstvo pomeni ocišcevanje ostankov poganske predzgodovine na tem po­drocju, to je v endosferi zaveze, ki je nekaj novega in od Boga danega. Naj pouda­rimo, da arheološki viri svetopisemskih pripovedi o nasilju Izraelcev nad temi ljud­stvi ne potrjujejo. Raziskovalci zato trdijo, da te pripovedi zgodovinsko niso uteme­ljene. So torej simbolne – govorijo o tem, da mora Izrael v sebi uniciti ‚poganski Kanaan‘. Ker gre za vprašanje zaveze, so vojne tu prikazane kot sveta dolžnost; shema prijatelj : sovražnik se prenese na odnos med ljudstvom zaveze in ljudstvi Kanaana – ta odnos pa je le simbolen, ne realen, v pripovedi, in ne zgodovinski. O sveti vojni govori 5 Mz 20, ki pravi, da so vojne z oddaljenimi ljudstvi obicajne, pro-ti ljudstvom Kanaana pa svete. V sveti vojni se ves plen žrtvuje Bogu, na zahtevo katerega se vojna bíje in je pod njegovo varstvo tudi postavljena. (Assmann 2015, 115) Simbolni pomen svetopisemskega antikanaanstva izpostavlja Othmar Keel: »Ni potrebno imeti veliko svetopisemskih znanj, da vidimo, da so bile grozote teh ljudstev, oltarjev in naselbin, ki naj bi jih razrušili, nekoc del religije Izraela, in ne kakšnih nizkotnih ljudstev… ‚Antikanaanstvo‘, ki ga najdemo pri Ozeju, v Devteronomiju in devteronomijskem gibanju, kakor antijudovstvo nove zaveze preganja en del svoje lastne preteklosti in ga poskuša razglasiti kot nekaj tujega in ga zavreci.« (Keel 2007, 1:573) Zelo pomembna je Assmannova opomba (2015, 114), da Geneza ne govori niti o prijateljih ali sovražnikih Boga niti o jezi ali ljubosumju Boga, pa ceprav nasilje velikokrat predstavlja (na primer izgon iz raja, vesoljni potop, unicenje Sodome in Gomore, pomešanost jezikov). Tu se Božji srd nikoli ne vname. Odnos Izraelcev do ljudstev Kanaana prikazuje kot miroljuben. Keel s tem izpostavlja tri pomembne vidike antikanaanstva : 1) izraz, ki je sim-bolen, se nanaša na poganski cas pred sklenitvijo zaveze, na nespreobrnjene v lastnih vrstah, na ‚notranje poganstvo‘, na spreobrnjenje in na nevarnost nezve­stobe zavezi; 2) antikanaanstvo ni znacilnost celotnega Svetega pisma – pojavi se pri Ozeju in zaznamuje devteronomijsko izrocilo; 3) odmev je našlo v novozave­znem protijudovstvu in tudi poznejših kolonialisticnih gibanjih, ki so se v Eksodu­su navdihovala (npr. prihod puritancev v Ameriko ali Burov v Južno Afriko); ti so simbolne antikanaanske motive iz Svetega pisma zlorabili za opravicenje svojega kolonializma. Krivde zato ni mogoce pripisovati svetopisemskim besedilom, a po drugi strani tudi ni mogoce zanikati pomenskega potenciala teh besedil, ki je ta­kšne interpretacije omogocil. Dihotomija prijatelj : sovražnik ima za seboj kontroverzno in strahotno zgodo-vino ucinkovanj. V zavezo je prišla s podrocja politicne oblasti – vsaka oblast te­melji na lojalnosti podrejenih, ki se delijo na zveste in nezveste, na prijatelje in sovražnike. Oblast sestoji iz zakonov in moci, ki izpolnjevanje zakonov zapovedu­je – enako velja za zavezo. Toda zaveza z Bogom ni isto kot politicna oblast in z vidika zaveze je širjenje avtoritete postave na tiste, ki zaveze ne sprejemajo, pro­blematicno. Svete vojne so se sklicevale na nekatera svetopisemska mesta – v njih Keel prepoznava »zakone, ki niso bili dobri«, o katerih govori Ezekiel: »Zato sem jim tudi jaz dal zakone, ki niso bili dobri, in odloke, po katerih niso mogli živeti.« (Ezk 20,25) Božja beseda torej govori o tem, da je Bog predvidel, da se slabim za­konom v cloveški zgodovini ni mogoce izogniti. (Assmann 2015, 115–117) 8.4 „Mojzesovsko razlikovanje“ in spomin v službi zaveze Eksodus, ki je spomin na izhod iz Egipta, je obliko, ki jo poznamo iz peteroknjižja, dobil konec 6. stol. pr. Kr. Assmann je glede datuma klica k spominu natancen: 21. dan 7. meseca (= 17. oktobra) leta 520 pr. Kr. Tistega dne je imel prerok Agej videnje: »Po besedi, ki sem se vam z njo zavezal, ko ste šli iz Egipta, ostaja moj duh v vaši sredi; ne bojte se!« (Ag 2,5) V tem trenutku se je rodil klic k spominu – nanj je odgovoril duhovniški spis, ki je povezal Eksodus in Genezo. Spis velja za temeljno delo zgodnjega judovstva. Spis je delo spomina. Pripoved o izhodu, zapisana v Eksodusu, je spomin, ki narekuje zvestobo. Spo-min in zvestoba sodita skupaj kot resnica in uvid. Zvestoba ohranja spomin na Jahvejeva odrešenjska dejanja in na sinajsko zavezo, ki je ljudstvu dala identiteto. Ta spomin je treba ohranjati živ; treba ga je prebujati in srciti (Beherzigung) – to je naloga Eksodusa. Eksodus tudi že ustvarja kulturne mnemotehnike za ohranitev spomina v obredih in praznikih, na vsakdanji, hišni in javni ravni. Spomin je obe­nem zahvaljevanje Bogu in izpovedovanje grehov ljudstva. Ps 105–107 opevajo cudežna Božja dejanja, naštevajo grehe ocetov in Božjo kazen, za vsem tem pa se razodeva bistvo: Božja bližina. Na to Božjo bližino, na zavezo kot temelj upanja obuja Eksodus spomin. »Zanje se je spomnil svoje zaveze, zaradi svoje velike dobrote si je premislil. Pripravil jim je usmiljenje pred vsemi njihovimi osvajalci. Reši nas, GOSPOD, naš Bog, izberi nas izmed narodov, da se bomo zahvaljevali tvojemu svetemu imenu, da se bomo ponašali s tvojo hvalo.« (Ps 106,45-47) Spomin, ki ga je Izrael zacel graditi kot odgovor na klic casa, so prinesla razlicna izrocila kot »absolutno zavezujoci temelj ljudstva, države in templja, ki jih je bilo treba na novo vzpostaviti« (Assmann 2015, 119). Ta spomin je torej »absolutno zavezujoci temelj«. Spomin, priklican, da na novo vzpostavi ljudstvo, državo in tempelj, odpira dve silni fronti: proti Egiptu in proti Kanaancem. A z vidika dejan­skih okolišcin v tistem casu za to ni bilo nobene potrebe vec: Egipt in Kanaan sta glede Izraela politicno moc in vlogo izgubila. Ti dve fronti je zato treba razumeti v simbolnem smislu: Egipt simbolizira zatiranje, Kanaan pa malikovanje. Ta dva ve­ljata za dve glavni podrocji pregrehe, ki rušita zavezo oziroma njena temelja, pra-vicnost in zvestobo zavezi – nanju se nanašata plošci postave. Prva plošca z Bož­jimi zakoni našteva prepovedane oblike odnosov do Boga – to simbolizira Kanaan; druga plošca se z družbenimi zapovedmi usmerja proti družbeni krivici – to sim-bolizira Egipt. (119) 9. Sklep 9.1 Eksodus z vidika resnice: narativna, zgodovinska in performativna resnica Na Eksodus pogosto gledamo z vidika zgodovinske resnice – a dvom v celostno zgodovinsko resnicnost porocila o Mojzesu in o izhodu je znan in upravicen. As-smann – ne da bi zanikal zgodovinsko ozadje pripovedi – poudarja, da prvi namen redaktorjev Eksodusa ni bil ustvariti zgodovinsko porocilo. Tudi Freudu je bilo ja­sno, da bistvena vloga porocila o Mojzesu ni bila zgodovinska, ampak v utemelje­vanju kulturne identitete judovstva: »Odreci nekemu ljudstvu moža, ki ga sámo slavi za najvecjega med svojimi sinovi, ni nekaj, kar bi clovek rad ali lahko storil.« (Freud 1950, 103) Kakšna je torej prava, izvorna vloga, ki so jo Eksodusu dodelili redaktorji? Na pripoved o izhodu se v svoji zgodovini niso sklicevali samo Judje, ampak tudi dru­gi: Armenci, Etiopijci, Angleži, Nizozemci ali Americani; nanjo so se sklicevali, ko je šlo za clovekove pravice, za latinskoameriško teologijo osvoboditve ali za revo­lucije. (Assmann 2015, 389) Zakaj? Tu se na Eksodus niso sklicevali, ker bi uporab­nike pripovedi zanimala zgodovinska resnica. Pripoved prinaša nekaj drugega. Kaj? Po Assmannu danes v njej vidijo vsebino, ki je fiktivna in literarna. Tudi Mojzesa mnogi obravnavajo kot fiktivno ali literarno figuro – s tem pa ne izkljucujejo mo-žnosti, da se je v 12. ali 13. stol. pr. Kr. skupina ubežnikov v resnici cudežno rešila pred zasledovalci. Takšen je lahko bil dogodek v jedru vsakoletnih spominskih praznovanj. Verjetno pa se sam opis izhoda in Mojzesa v Eksodusu razlikuje od zgodovinskega dogodka in resnicne osebe v ozadju biblicne pripovedi. Pripoved, ki je imela svet spreminjajoce ucinke po zaslugi redakcije pripovedi in njenega ra­zvoja, ima verjetno malo skupnega z zgodovinskim jedrom. Pripoved, kakršno poznamo danes in kakršna je spreminjala svet, bolj kot zgodovinsko resnico vse­buje cloveka ustvarjajoco resnico. Kaj pomeni, da je pripoved fiktivna, literarna, kakor jo danes mnogi dojemajo? Po Assmannu ti oznaki za Eksodus nista ustrezni. Fiktivna pripoved namrec cloveka razvedri, ker ga ne usmerja in mu ne zapovedu­je – Eksodus pa prav nasprotno cloveka usmerja, zavezuje in zadolžuje. Svoboda, v katero Eksodus vodi, obvezuje, cloveku postavlja pogoje, ki jih mora izpolniti. Tudi ce torej nekateri v Eksodusu vidijo fikcijo, je ta vec kot le rezultat literarne domišljije in ustvarjalnosti – to je Eksodus od samega zacetka dokazoval s preu­smerjanjem toka zgodovine, ustvarjanjem novega cloveka. To bistveno lastnost Eksodusa Assmann imenuje ‚performativnost‘: za performativna besedila velja, da pri njih ‚pred-stavljati‘ (vor-stellen) pomeni ‚ustvarjati‘ (her-stellen). Tu resnica ni misel, ki realno stanje, zgodovino posnema, temvec misel, ki realno stanje, zgo­dovino ustvarja. V neteoreticni, performativni perspektivi ima resnica vlogo, ki je z vidika klasicnega, teoreticnega razumevanja resnice težje razumljiva. Tako per-formativno resnico Assmann ponazarja z besedo ‚faraon‘ (fira‘űn). Takole pravi: faraon, kakor ga Eksodus prikazuje v opisu zasledovanja Izraelcev cez Rdece mor­je, ni obstajal – oznaciti arabskega voditelja z besedo ‚fira‘űn‘ pa bi imelo za tega voditelja danes unicujoce posledice. Assmann v tej svetopisemski besedi ne vidi zgodovinske funkcije – torej besede, ki bi zgodovinsk o osebo natancno opisala –, ampak ustvarjalno funkcijo; uporabiti to besedo za kakega arabskega voditelja danes bi pomenilo njegovo unicenje. Tako po Assmannu pripovedi, uporabljene v Eksodusu, ustvarjajo in unicujejo – izvoljeno ljudstvo varujejo pred nacinom ži­vljenja, ki ni resnicen in vodi v pogubo. Izraelci so torej svoj pravi ‚jaz‘ prepozna­vali v pripovedih iz Eksodusa, ki velja za temelj judovstva: v njih so našli svojo is-tovetnost. Ta istovetnost jim je dala moc, da so kot edino anticno ljudstvo preži­veli vsa unicujoca nasprotja. Zato tudi beseda ‚literatura‘, kolikor jo razumemo v smislu lepih umetnosti, za Eksodus ni ustrezen izraz. Seveda imajo lepe umetnosti v Svetem pismu pomembno mesto: v njem najdemo ljubezensko, obredno in mo-litveno liriko, pa moralna, modrostna dela, zgodbe in pripovedi. A to bistva Sve­tega pisma ne izcrpa – to se jasno pokaže pri prerokih. Bistvo Svetega pisma ni v lepih besedah, temvec v tem, da bralec ali poslušalec svetopisemsko besedo sprej-me in se po njej ravna. Prerok Ezekiel (33,32) tarna: »Glej, ti si zanje kakor pevec ljubezni, ki ima prijeten glas in dobro brenka na strune: poslušajo tvoje besede, vendar se ne ravnajo po njih.« Cilj Svetega pisma ni ustvariti estetski užitek, am-pak novo prakso, nov nacin ravnanja – novega cloveka. Bistvo Božje besede je torej razodetje Božje volje Mojzesu in ljudstvu; poznati Božjo besedo in se po njej ravnati je jedro judovstva. Božja beseda svoj namen doseže le, ce je živeta in clo­veka spreminja. Ce v življenje cloveka ni sprejeta in ga ne spreminja, Božja beseda, dabar izgubi smisel – resnicna je le kot uresnicena. Izvorno in pristno se Božja be­ seda ne izraža v teorijah in besedah, ampak v dejanjih; dokazi zanjo niso arheo­loška odkritja, ampak pricevanja, dejanja, življenje, eksistenca posameznika ali ljudstva, katerih temelj Božja beseda je – besedi ‚fikcija‘ ali ‚literatura‘ zato funk-cije biblicne pripovedi oziroma besede ne oznacujeta ustrezno. Prav tako vsebine in resnice takšnih besedil ni mogoce omejiti na zgodovinsko dokazovanje ali do-kazljivost. (Assmann 2015, 391; Osredkar 2021; Pevec Rozman 2021; Klun 2021) 9.2 Razodetje Eno je gotovo: rdeca nit in glavni namen Eksodusa je razodetje (Assmann 2015, 392–395). Eksodus je pripoved o razodetju in svobodi, ki pa zanju, pravi Assmann, nima besed, leksemov – o njima se izraža v obliki pripovedi, diskurza. A Eksodus razodetja – to je razodetje volje boga/bogov cloveku – ne razume vec na nacin, kakor so ga do tedaj razumele druge religije. V arhaicnih religijah je bilo razodetje nekaj obcasnega, posredovanega po razlicnih tehnikah, kot sta vedeževanje ali mantika. V Eksodusu je razodetje enkraten dogodek; Bog v njem enkrat za vselej razodene temeljna pravila in navodila, ki življenje cloveka in družbe zajamejo v celoti. Po Assmannu Eksodus sestoji iz petih stopenj razodetja: 1) razodetje imena; 2) razodetje Božje moci; 3) razodetje postave in sklenitev zaveze; 4) razodetje božan­stva v shodnem šotoru; 5) razodetje bistva. Oblike, ki so podobne 1. in 2. stopnji razodetja, najdemo v tudi v drugih religi­jah: egiptovska božanstva se obracajo na kralje in jim razodevajo svojo voljo; mr­tvi iz onstranstva v vlogi bogov nagovarjajo ljudi; Babilonci in Hetiti v naravnih katastrofah vidijo razodetje božje moci. Biblicno novost predstavlja 3. stopnja, ta postavi temelj novega odnosa do sve­ta: pravni kodeks, po katerem je clovek živel, dobi status razodetja; konstitucija dolocenega ljudstva dobi veljavo absolutne vecne resnice – zgodi se teologizacija prava. Ne prinese clovek svojega prava pred Boga – Bog dá pravo cloveku. V an-ticnem svetu po Assmannu cesa podobnega ne najdemo: Bog cloveku, Mojzesu izroci svoje, Božje pravo v obliki plošc postave, ostalo pa mu narekuje. Dekaloga pa Bog ne oznani samo pred Mojzesom, ampak pred celotnim ljudstvom, ki zave­zo, pisno overovljeno na plošcah, potrdi z aklamacijo – Bog svoje volje ne razode­ne prek kralja ali preroka, ampak neposredno, ‚demokraticno‘. Da bi z vidika ius divinum pridobilo vecjo veljavo, so razodetju pridružili tri druge velike kodekse: knjigo zaveze (2 Mz 21–23), zakon svetosti (3 Mz 17–26) in devteronomicni zakon. Kot deset Božjih zapovedi tudi te tri kodekse utemeljuje teofanija, Božja beseda, po kateri je Bog ustvaril svet in s katero sedaj nagovarja izvoljeno ljudstvo – ta Beseda je v evangeliju Kristus, ki je meso postala. Assmann poudarja ‚vulkanski‘ znacaj teofanije, ki je v središcu sinajske perikope in nima vzporednice niti v Sve­tem pismu niti v drugih religijah. Tu se zgodi korenit pomenski preobrat, ki izvor prava, po katerem so Izraelci živeli, pripiše teofaniji, Božji besedi – ta revolucija v razumevanju prava se zgodi v praznem prostoru, ki je bil posledica izgube države po padcu južnega kraljestva. V casu pred nastankom duhovniškega spisa sinajska perikopa, kot dokazujejo psalmi in preroške knjige, še ni bila del eksodusa. Šele duhovniški spis je ustvaril naravni lok od 1) izhoda in osvoboditve prek 2) izvolitve in zaveze do 3) vstopa v obljublje-no deželo. Duhovniški spis povezuje ta tri narativna jedra v nelocljivo celoto. Si-najsko razodetje zato po Assmannu predpostavlja propad kraljestva – ta je imel za posledico teologizacijo prava, ki je v velikem perzijskem kraljestvu skupnost obvarovala izgube verske in etnicne identitete. Izguba države je torej Jude prisili-la, da so svoje bivanje opredelili na novo – in ta opredelitev je postala temelj ju­dovstva v casu drugega templja. V nastajanju Eksodusa gre tu za kompozicijsko stopnjo iz casa babilonskega izgnanstva. ‚Teologizacija prava‘ je torej v jedru sinajskega razodetja. Proces teologizacije in njegova implementacija sta v casu babilonskega izgnanstva trajala nekaj dese­tletij. Razlikovati moramo dvoje: 1) razliko med kraljevim in božjim zakonom; 2) razliko med pravom (kot zakonom) in moralo (modrostjo). Božjo sodnost, ki se razlikuje od kraljeve, so poznali tudi v Mezopotamiji in Egiptu – povezovali so jo s predstavo o vsevidnem soncu. V Izraelu so medtem Božjo sodnost povezali s pravicnostjo, ki je kraljevi zakon ne more povsem zagotoviti; za Božjo sodnost je znacilno, da izhaja iz Božje vsevednosti, zastopali pa so jo zgodnji preroki Izaija, Amos in Mihej, ki so klicali k odgovornosti, skrbi za šibkejše, solidarnosti ali k zvestobi zavezi. Bolj kot za zakon gre pri Božji sodnosti za moralo, za pravicnost. V casu izgube države – to je v casu izgnanstva – pa so v Božji zakon vkljucili tudi kraljevi zakon in ga povzdignili v ius divinum z Božjo avtoriteto. Ta avtorizacija je bila pomemben del razodetja. Vkljucitev prava v razodetje se kaže v knjigi zaveze – in v njeni literarni obliki: kraljevo pravo je tu uokvirjeno s socialno-eticnimi in kultnimi predpisi Božjega prava, s tem pa je preoblikovano v Božje pravo. Tako je nastala ideja neodvisnega pravnega reda, ki ni odvisen od državnih ustanov in zgodovinskih sprememb. Cilj te transformacije je doseci avtonomijo v okolišcinah babilonskega izgnanstva. Rešitev so redaktorji duhovniškega spisa našli v tem, da so ‚ocetne zakone‘ opredelili kot Božje – in jim tako dali avtoriteto, ki jo ima lex divina. Tu se avtonomija uresnicuje kot teonomija, kot služba Bogu, ki clove­ka osvobaja službe cloveku, to je suženjstva. Izraelci so bili res vazali perzijskega kralja – živeli pa so v svobodi Božjega zakona. (Assmann 2015, 395) 9.3 Egipt Glavna tema Eksodusa je razodetje – izhod iz Egipta je drugotna, podporna tema (Assmann 2015, 395–397). Kakšno vlogo ima torej Egipt v Eksodusu? Pripoved o izhodu iz Egipta nosi v sebi izkušnjo izhoda. Izhod pomeni ‚iti ven‘, ‚izseliti se‘, ‚iz­stopiti‘ – to pa pomeni ‚prestopiti mejo‘; pomeni ‚zapustiti staro‘, ‚doseci novo‘. Eksodus je usmerjen k novemu, ki zapušca staro. Egipt simbolizira staro, ki je ob-mocje tlake, suženjstva – in ga je zato treba zapustiti. Razodetje dvigne Izraela nad staro, ga od njega loci in odreši – odpre ga novemu. Izrael je zato ‚sveto‘, ‚loceno‘ ljudstvo – obljubljena deleža pomeni novo življenje. Izrael pomeni novost na treh ravneh: na politicni, religijski in duhovni ravni. Na politicni ravni pomeni Izrael izstop iz politicnega sistema starovzhodnjaških sakralnih kraljestev. Izvoljeno Božje ljudstvo odpre prostor novih oblik politicne sku­pnosti. Na religijski ravni pomeni Izrael izstop iz kozmoteisticnega sistema starovzhodnja­ških in mediteranskih kultur, ki temelji na zlitju božanskega in cloveškega v svetu, in prehod k cisto novi obliki sobivanja med edinim, svet presegajocim Bogom in izvo­ljenim ljudstvom. Na duhovni ravni pomeni Izrael izstop iz miticnega reda v zgodovinski red. V mi-ticnem redu je clovek usmerjen v preteklost, živi v skladu z brezcasnimi vzorci mita, nad njim vlada historia divina, ki je ‚zgodovina‘ bogov – in ne cloveka. V zgodovinskem redu pa je clovek usmerjen v prihajajoco, obljubljeno prihodnost, k novemu; živi v historia sacra, ki je zgodovina odrešenja, to je odnosov clovek – Bog. Egipt simbolizira staro, ki ga razodetje pušca za seboj. Simbolizira princip sakralne oblasti, to je zlitja boga in države, božanskega v vladarju. Ta princip ni bil nikjer ure­snicen mocneje in dosledneje kakor v Egiptu – trdi Assmann. Simbolizira tudi princip kozmoteizma, to je zlitosti božanskega s svetom, božanskega v kozmosu, v naravi. Tudi za ta princip Assmann trdi, da ga nobena druga religija teološko ni reflektirala v takšni polnosti besedil in podob kot egiptovska – in je ucinkoval še dolgo po pro-padu egiptovskega sveta. Simbolizira tudi princip miticnega casa, ki je dominiral z idejo regeneracije, vecnega vracanja istega: vecnega vracanja k miticnim pravzorom. Assmann zato sklene, da je Egipt najjasnejši izraz sveta, iz katerega se je Izrael izselil, da je stopil v svet svetopisemskega razodetja, ki prihaja z novo predstavo Boga in sveta, cloveka in družbe, casa in zgodovine. V svojem bistvu je izhod, eksodus razodetje, ki je stopnjevano in progresivno: kot temeljna pripoved izraelskega ljud­stva to ljudstvo ustvarja, utemeljuje pa tudi monoteizem zvestobe – vero v enega Boga, ki je Izraela odrešil in izpeljal v svobodo. Koncno bivanje cloveka v svetu pre­usmerja od mita v zgodovino. Razodetje pa je ustvarilo tudi okvire sveta, v katerem živimo – Assmann zato Eksodus oznacuje za »utemeljitveno legendo našega sveta, ki je ostala živa do danes« (397). 9.4 Eksodus – politicni mit Eksodus je ustvarjal tudi politicno zgodovino – zato velja za politicni mit in model etnogeneze. Na politicno zgodovino so vplivale tri temeljne ideje Eksodusa: ideja izselitve je tlakovala pot revolucionarnim izhodom iz vélikih imperialnih, kolonial­nih zvez; v ideji izvolitve so razlicna ljudstva prepoznala svoje posebno poslanstvo med drugimi ljudstvi; ideja obljubljene dežele je mnoge vodila v kolonizacijo. V vseh treh tockah je prav Eksodus temeljni mit Združenih držav Amerike. Eksodus je iz Izraela naredil izvoljeno ljudstvo. V Izraelu je zato zavladal patos ograjevanja od drugih; sebe je zacel dojemati kot nekaj posebnega, kot ljudstvo s posebno nalogo – in ne le kot eno izmed ljudstev. Mit o izvoljenosti po Maxu We-bru konstituira vsako ljudstvo – to ga vodi v alohtonijo, v razlago, da je drugacno, z izvori v tujem svetu: Rimljani so jih našli v Troji, prav tako Franki in Normani,Škoti pa v Egiptu. Eksodus ustvarja tudi pojem ljudstva, celo dva: ‘am in gôj. Egipt pojma za ljud­stvo ne pozna; temelji na pojmu država, ki ga utemeljuje religiozno. Tudi Eksodus pojem ljudstvo utemeljuje religiozno in ga postavlja nasproti Egiptu – državi. Ljud­stvo, ki se v zavezi z Bogom vzpostavi na Sinaju, deluje protiegipcansko, protivla­darsko: pojem ljudstva deluje vladarsko kriticno. Kot tak se prvic izrazi v 17. pogl. Devteronomija; pomembno vlogo je odigral pozneje v revolucijah. (Assmann 2015, 397–399) 9.5 Eksodus in monoteizem Sodobna globalna kultura, ki – kakor pravi Assmann – danes stoji na pragu digital-ne dobe, ima svoje temelje v svetopisemskem monoteizmu; ta je postavil okvire njenega razvoja, omogocil pa je tudi ateizem kot svoje nasprotje in zanikanje (Ža­lec 2021). Monoteizem in ateizem sta dve temeljni determinanti našega izrocila in sodobne globalne kulture. Tudi tu je Eksodus odigral osrednjo vlogo. Temeljna znacilnost monoteizma, ki se razvije v Eksodusu, ni zgolj spoznanje o obstoju enega resnicnega Boga med drugimi lažnimi, ampak zvestoba enemu sa­memu Bogu, Jahveju, rešitelju Izraelcev iz egiptovske sužnosti. Drugi bogovi so bili za Izraelce mikavni – a Izraela je izvolil Jahve, ga rešil iz sužnosti in sklenil z njim zavezo. Ta odnos ni bil naraven, kakor je naraven odnos stvarnik-stvarstvo. Ta od-nos je bil sad Božje izvolitve in ljubezni; temeljil je na tem, kar je Bog do svojega ljudstva cutil – in kar je od svojega ljudstva zahteval. Ta zveza ni naravna, ampak ‚afektivna‘; zato je prva metafora zanjo prispodoba zarocencev in zakona. Vstopi-ti v to zvezo, zavezo zahteva ‚izhod‘ iz necesa drugega. »Odhajati (db. iti ven = exire) zacne tisti, ki zacne ljubiti (Incipit exire qui incipit amare),« pravi Avguštin. (Enarrationes in Psalmos 64.2, v: Assmann 2015, 5; 24; 241; 399) In nadaljuje: »Mnogi zacnejo odhajati v veselju in noge tistih, ki odhajajo, so cutenje srca (cor-dis affectus): odhajajo namrec iz Babilona.« Sv. Avguštin tu razlaga Psalm 65 (64), ki naj bi ga po izrocilu napisala preroka Jeremija in Ezekiel v casu, ko so se Izraelci zaceli iz Babilona vracati v Jeruzalem – Avguštin namrec razlaga ‚Babilon‘ in ‚Jeru­zalem‘ v luci razlikovanja med ‚zemeljskim mestom‘ (civitas terrena) in ‚Božjim mestom‘ (civitas Dei). Clovek pripada enemu ali drugemu mestu glede na svojo ljubezen, ki je lahko ljubezen do tega sveta (amor saeculi), kot je znacilna za Ba-bilon, ali pa ljubezen do Boga – ta pa je znacilna za Jeruzalem. Assmann ne neha poudarjati, da je na Sinaju sklenjena zaveza ‚afektivna‘: te­melji na ljubezni in zvestobi, s katerima pa so – kot sence z lucjo – povezani jeza, izdaja in greh; pragreh je odpad od Jahveja, prestop k drugim bogovom. Ljubeci Bog zaveze je ljubosumni, jezljivi Bog. Zaveza je torej ambivalentna; deluje kot dvorezni mec – to je posledica njene afektivne obteženosti. V tem je novost in moc sevanja, ki jo zaveza ima. »Kljub raznim vrstam razvoja in nanosov je ta mo-noteizem zvestobe ostal prevladujoci element v vseh abrahamskih religijah.« (As-smann 2015, 400) Monoteizmu zvestobe stoji nasproti vera v enega stvarnika; od njega je vse odvisno. V izraelski religiji so miti o stvarjenju obstajali že zgodaj – šele z duhovniškim spisom, ki vkljuci Genezo, pa dobijo zavezujoco teološko obliko. Vkljucitev Geneze je bila po­sledica srecanja Izraelcev z babilonskimi in iranskimi predstavami o bogu v casu babi­lonskega izgnanstva. V Genezi vera ni afektivna, ampak je stvar spoznanja, uvida – zato ne govori o zvestobi in jezi, ki sta znacilni za Eksodus: za semantiko teologije zaveze. Tudi Egipcani so verovali v enega boga, iz katerega je izšel svet in mnogi drugi bogovi, a ta egiptovski kozmogonicni monoteizem dopušca na nižji ravni politeizem. Izraelci pa so ta kozmogonicni monoteizem, kot so ga poznali od Egipcanov, Babiloncev in Perzijcev, spremenili v absolutni monoteizem – povezali so ga z monoteizmom zve­stobe, ki ne priznava nobenih drugih bogov. Izraelec dolguje absolutno zvestobo Ja­hveju, ki je Izraelce odrešil iz Egipta – in ta je tudi edini resnicni Bog. Duhovniški spis ustvarja pripovedni lok od stvarjenja do vstopa v obljubljeno deželo, Eksodus – del duhovniškega spisa – pa od izhoda iz Egipta do nastanitve Boga v shodnem šotoru. Tu se kaže revolucionarni preboj teologije zaveze. Pripo­ved namrec ustvarja lok od skrajne revšcine do najvišje izvoljenosti – od egiptovske sužnosti do osvobajajoce Božje službe, od oddaljenosti Boga v Egiptu do simbioze z Bogom. Eksodus o nadaljevanju poti po sklenitvi zaveze in o vstopu v Kanaan ne govori; o tem govorijo druge knjige, Levitik (3 Mz) in Numeri (4 Mz), sam Eksodus pa se konca s postavitvijo in opremo svetišca, to je svetega, shodnega šotora. V tem je koncentrirano bistvo Eksodusa, ki predstavlja revolucionarni preboj – tu Bog stopi v bivanjsko skupnost z izvoljenim ljudstvom. Tu se zgodi nekaj povsem nasprotnega temu, kar je znacilno za ‚poganski svet‘, za Egipt in Babilon, kjer bo­govi in boginje bivajo v obredih v božjih mestih – mestni bogovi so središce druž­benega in prostorskega reda. Eksodus pa Božje domovanje prestavi v tabor, v šo-tor – tu je sedaj Bog navzoc neposredno, med ljudmi. Vezanost na prostor, znacil­na za mesto, nadomesti gibljivost šotora, potovanje – ki ima za cilj obljubljeno deželo. Boga, navzocega v obrednih opravilih, nadomesti živa naselitev Boga, nav­zocega v njegovi slavi (kavôd) – ki jo ponazarja oblak –, v njegovih besedah, navo­dilih in usmeritvah. Takšna predstavitev Božje navzocnosti razbija dotedanjo obre­dno (mestno) umešcenost navzocnosti bogov. S tem, ko je duhovniški spis povezal Genezo z Eksodusom, je pripoved odlocil-no razširil. Stvarjenje sveta je povezal s postavitvijo šotora, to je poznejšega tem­plja: s tem je tempelj dvignil na raven drugega stvarjenja, na raven dovršitve stvar­jenja. Tako je ustvaril novo religijo – v tem je revolucija naše ere, ki jo je prinesel in sprožil Eksodus. Sveti šotor povzema izkušnjo izgnanstva: šotor ni vezan na eno mesto, je gibljiv. Sveti prostor ni narejen iz neunicljivih, nepremakljivih kamnov, ampak je to ljud­stvo samo, ki je v gibanju; to se posvecuje z zvestobo zakonom in postavi – v njem se Bog naseljuje. Na primeren literarni nacin – Assmann izpostavlja ‚katalogno poezijo‘ – pa je mogoce sveti šotor ‚postaviti‘ tudi v domišljiji bralcev in posluša­joce skupnosti. Prav v tej poduhovljeni obliki je postal temelj, ki je Izraelskemu ljudstvu omogocil preživeti v diaspori in se med ljudstvi tega sveta kot edino izmed anticnih ljudstev cudežno ohraniti v svoji etnicni, kulturni in religijski identiteti vse do danes. (Assmann 2015, 402) Assmann sklene: pojem religije se je v Eksodusu transformiral. Tu najde religija svoj temelj v razodetju; razodetje se v nasprotju z neposredno danostjo vedno bolj uveljavlja kot rastoca resnica in zahteva. Razodetje se ne omejuje na obicaj, na obred ali na sveto, temvec se širi na sfero pravicnosti, življenjskih oblik in na-cinov, na praznike in navadne dni, državo in družino. S tem se religija loci od vsa­kokratne kulture – do nje vzpostavlja kriticen odmik. Na tak nacin tudi pridobiva prvenstvo v razmerju do vseh drugih vrednostnih sfer, kakor so politika, pravo, gospodarstvo, znanost ali umetnost – v razmerju do teh podrocij se torej vzposta­vlja kot nekaj nadrejenega. Ta nepredstavljivi preobrat se je zgodil v Eksodusu. Poznejši zgodovini je tlakoval pot – ta se je v njem navdihovala, zlasti so se v njem navdihovali drugi utemeljitveni preobrati: duhovni, religijski ali politicni. Reference Assmann, Aleida. 2013. Ist die Zeit aus den Fugen? München: Hanser. 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London: Imago Pub. Co. Horbury, William, William D. Davies in John Stur­dy. 2008. The Cambridge History of Judaism.8 zv. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kasper, Walter. 1988. The Christian understanding of freedom and the history of freedom in the Modern Era: the meeting and confrontation between Christianity and the Modern Era in a postmodern situation. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press. Keel, Othmar. 2007. Die Geschichte Jerusalems und die Entstehung des Monotheismus. 2 zv. Fribourg; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Klun, Branko. 2021. Vera, upanje in ljubezen v luci fenomenološko eksistencialne analize. Bo-goslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:783–795. https://doi. org/10.34291/bv2021/04/klun Krajnc, Aljaž. 2021. Vloga Abrahama v koranski historiografiji. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 1:75– 89. https://doi.org/10.34291/bv2021/01/ krajnc Kratz, Reinhard G. 2016. Historical and Biblical Israel: the history, tradition, and archives of Israel and Judah. Oxford Scholarship Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lactantius. 1974. Vom Zorne Gottes [De ira Dei]. Ur. Heinrich Kraft in Antonie Wlosok. Darm­stadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Nordhofen, Eckhard. 2018. In der Spur – Gedächt­nis als Ereignis: Aleida und Jan Assmann erhal-ten den Friedenspreis des Deutschen Buchhan­dels. Stimmen der Zeit, št.10:725–733. Osredkar, Mari Jože. 2021. Upanje kot teološka krepost v luci relacijske teorije Guya Lafona. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:857–866. https:// doi.org/10.34291/bv2020/01/osredkar Petkovšek, Robert. 2017. Vloga razuma v samora­zumevanju svetopisemskega monoteizma po Janu Assmannu. Bogoslovni vestnik 77, 3/4:615–636. – – –. 2018. Veselje resnice in svetopisemski mo-noteizem. Edinost in dialog 73, št. 1/2:235– 258. – – –. 2019. Peace and justice: professed aims of monotheism (Jan Assmann). V: Robert Petkov­šek in Bojan Žalec, ur. Religion as a factor of intercultural dialogue, 23–37. Dunaj: Lit, – – –. 2020. 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Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:825– 834. https://doi.org/10.34291/bv2021/04/ zalec Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 353—364 Besedilo prejeto/Received:03/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:04/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-18Tertulijan DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Bogataj © 2022 Bogataj, CC BY 4.0 Jan Dominik Bogataj Caro salutis est cardo: Tertulijanova antropologija v razmerju med telesom, odrešenjem in zdravjem Caro salutis est cardo: Tertullian’s Anthropology in the Relationship between Body, Redemption, and Health Povzetek: Prispevek odpira vprašanja Tertulijanove antropologije v novi luci. Ta antropologija velja za unitarno: kljub osnovnemu razlikovanju dveh delov v clo­veku (duša in telo) teh ne razume kot medsebojno sovražnih, pac pa kot kom­plementarne. Tovrsten pogled na clovekovo telesno razsežnost, ki se znotraj patristicne antropologije uvršca v azijsko-antiohijsko teološko izrocilo, Tertuli­janu posebej v slovitem delu O vstajenju mesa omogoca pozitivno vrednotenje telesa (corpus) oz. mesa (caro), zato je mogoce govoriti o t. i. karnalni antropo­logiji. Prispevek izpostavlja dve posledici takega nauka o clovekovem telesu: pritrdilno vrednotenje medicine na eni in prepleten, vzajemen odnos med od­rešenjem in zdravjem na drugi strani. Kljucne besede: patristicna antropologija, odrešenje, telo, meso, duša, zdravje, O vstajenju mesa Abstract: The paper raises in a new light some questions of Tertullian’s anthropo­logy, which is considered unitary, i.e., that despite the basic distinction betwe­en two parts in man (soul and body), these are not seen as mutually hostile, but complementary. This kind of view of man’s bodily dimension, which within Patristic anthropology is rooted in the Asian-Antiochian theological tradition, allows Tertullian, especially in his famous work On the Resurrection of the Fle­sh, to positively evaluate the body (corpus) or the flesh (caro), which is why we can speak of a so-called carnal anthropology. The article highlights two con­sequences of this kind of doctrine of the human body: the affirmative evalua­tion of medicine on the one hand, and the intertwined, reciprocal relationship between salvation and health on the other. Keywords: Patristic anthropology, redemption, body, flesh, soul, health, De resur­rectione carnis 1. Uvod Pojmovanje telesa v poganski in kršcanski antiki kot pojava samega po sebi1 – pa tudi z njim povezanih preostalih cloveških razsežnosti – je bilo v zadnjih desetle­tjih pogosto predmet raziskav, a so to zanimanje navadno navdihovala predvsem socialno-zgodovinska metodološka izhodišca.2 Cilj naše raziskave, ki se osredotoca na ucenje najzgodnejšega latinskega teologa, kartažanskega ucitelja Tertulijana († ok. 230; Dunn 2004, 2–8), predvsem na njegovo slovito delo O vstajenju mesa, je nadgradnja prej nakazanih pristopov na dveh ravneh: po eni strani je za celo­vito razumevanje semantike telesa nujno osvetliti njeno teološko konstrukcijo, po drugi strani pa se ob aktualnih epidemicnih razmerah odpirajo nova, nerazi­skana vprašanja, ki omogocajo novo in globlje teološko razumevanje starodavnih besedil samih – v tem primeru vprašanja o razmerju med telesom, odrešenjem in zdravjem (Amundsen 1982; Boudon-Millot in Pouderon 2005; Globokar 2020; Strahovnik in Scasserra 2021). 2. Razpotja patristicne antropologije Znotraj anticne kršcanske misli o cloveku lahko na podlagi svetopisemske antro­pologije v grobem sledimo dvema smerema razvoja: eni v skladu z 1 Mz 1,26 (sku­paj z 1 Mz 2,7) in drugi v skladu s Pavlovo antropologijo, zasidrano v kristologiji (Grossi 2006). Na podlagi preproste trditve apostolskih ocetov, da je clovek iz 1 Mz 2,7, oblikovan iz zemlje, enak cloveku iz 1 Mz 1,26, narejenemu po Božji po­dobi in podobnosti, je sledil dvojni razvoj. Ce so cerkveni ocetje v splošnem sicer sprejeli grško dihotomicno shemo o cloveku, sestavljenem iz telesa in duše, pa te zaradi skupne vere kristjanov v utelešenje Besede in vstajenje telesa ni zaznamo­valo ostro dualisticno locevanje. Kršcanska misel se je torej na podlagi temeljne enotnosti cloveškega bitja, kot je razvidna iz svetopisemskega porocila o stvarjenju, antropološko razdelila v dve sme­ri: 1. aleksandrijska in zahodna (posttertulijanovska) tradicija poudarjata razumsko prvino cloveka (nous) (1 Mz 1,26); 2. (malo)azijska in antiohijska tradicija medtem dajeta vecji poudarek plasis, samemu oblikovanju cloveškega telesa (1 Mz 2,7). Aleksandrijski antropološki pristop si je cloveka prizadeval opredeliti po njegovi bistveni sestavini – nous; to temelji na opisu stvarjenja v 1 Mz 1,26. Gre za cloveka po Božji podobi in podobnosti, ki je duhovni in popolni clovek, ki pa mora v kon­kretnem obstoju izkusiti omejitev cloveka iz prsti iz 1 Mz 2,7 – omejitev, ki se je 1 Prispevek je nastal v okviru raziskovalnega programa št. P6-0262 („Vrednote v judovsko-kršcanskih virih in tradiciji ter možnosti dialoga“), ki ga sofinancira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. 2 Poleg znamenite Brownove študije (slovenski prevod iz leta 2007) lahko na tem mestu zgolj opozorimo še denimo na knjigo Aline Rouselle (1988), predvsem pa na cetrti zvezek znamenite serije Histoire de la sexualité avtorja Michela Foucaulta, posvecen prav razumevanju spolnosti v kršcanski antiki, ki je post-humno, na podlagi njegovih zapiskov, izšel leta 2018 pod naslovom Les Aveux de la chair (slovenski prevod je nastal leta 2020). Jan Dominik Bogataj - Caro salutis est cardo mora popolni clovek osvoboditi z nenehno askezo. V tej perspektivi Kristus cloveka iz prsti ni ustvaril, temvec je zanj postal predvsem eticni model, za katerega si je treba prizadevati: Božji Logos je v tako v bistvu prava pot nazaj k temu, kar clovek v resnici je. Na to antropološko usmeritev je vplival predvsem platonizem, ki je za-crtal metafizicno antropologijo brez posebne pozornosti za zgodovinskega cloveka. Azijsko-antiohijski antropološki pristop, predvsem pri dveh zgodnjih eminentnih predstavnikih Ireneju Lyonskem in Tertulijanu, je na drugi strani v ospredje posta­vil zgodovinskega cloveka, ustvarjenega iz zemeljskega prahu – ki je Božja podoba v vsej svoji izoblikovanosti (plasma), ne zgolj v enem delu (duši). Utelešena Bese­da tako ne predstavlja le eticnega modela cloveka, temvec cloveka kot Božjo po­dobo. Po tej shemi kristologija postane hermenevticno nacelo antropologije, kar je Irenej izrazil z znamenitimi besedami: »Bog se bo povelical v svoji ustvarjenini (plasma), ko jo bo naredil skladno in podobno svojemu Sinu.« (Zoper krivoverstva 5.6.1) Biti ustvarjen po Božji podobi torej v tem izrocilu ni sovpadalo predvsem ali zgolj s clovekovimi intelektualnimi sposobnostmi: clovek je podoba Boga v vsej svoji somaticnosti, telesnosti, kar pomeni, da je povezan s pocelom, ki ga presega – to je z Bogom. Prvotno dejstvo ustvarjenosti je torej skupno vsem bitjem, razli­kujejo in dolocajo pa jih razlicni cilji. Povedano drugace: azijsko-antiohijska tradi­cija bere 1 Mz 1,26 pod vplivom vere v utelešenje Besede znotraj konteksta 1 Mz 2,7. Božja podoba v cloveku se nanaša na celotnega cloveka in s tem tudi na nje­govo telo. V zvezi s tem je Irenej v 1 Mz 1,26 uvedel razlikovanje, ki sicer ni izvirno biblino: ,podobo‘ (e....) je razumel kot naravno sestavino cloveka, ,podobnost‘ (.µ...s..) pa kot njegovo življenje v Duhu (Zoper krivoverstva 5.1.3; 5.28.4). Kri­stus z antropološkega vidika tako predstavlja konkretnega cloveka, ,podobo-po­dobnost‘ – s cimer postane pot, kako clovek postane ,podoba-podobnost‘ Boga. Ceprav Duh v zgradbo cloveka (meso/telo-duša) neposredno ne spada, pa v zgo­dovini zagotavlja, da clovek postane to, kar mora biti. Zato Irenej pravi, da cloveka sestavljajo trije elementi: meso, duša in Duh (5.6.1; 5.9.1). To antropološko poj­movanje poteka na zgodovinsko-dinamicni ravni. Clovek zanj ni predvsem nekaj ustvarjenega, temvec dejansko to, kar bo postal – zato ni le ‚Božje delo‘ v smislu, da ga je ustvaril Bog, ampak predvsem ,jamstvo‘ (Res. 6.5), pravzaprav ,jamstvo Duha‘, kot se je izrazil Irenej (Zoper krivoverstva 5.8.2). Za Ireneja je utelešena Beseda nosilka Božje podobe v skladu z 1 Mz 1,26, s ci-mer vzpostavlja bistveno povezavo med kristologijo (utelešeni Kristus kot Božja podoba) in antropologijo (clovek kot Kristusova podoba) ter razširja imago Dei iz 1 Mz 1,26 na clovekovo telesnost in umnost. Clovekovo meso je Božja podoba v obzorju mesa Utelešene Besede. Ta t. i. somato-antropologija je nastala kot reak­cija zoper gnostike in platonike, ki so telesnemu možnost odrešenja odrekali, zato znacilnosti utelešene Besede pripisuje tudi cloveški podobi. Tertulijan tako lahko zapiše: »V kakršnikoli že obliki je bil oblikovan tisti prah, je bil v njem že mišljen Kristus, ki bo postal clovek.« (Res. 6.3)3 Slovenski prevodi odlomkov iz dela O vstajenju mesa so avtorjevi. V bližnji prihodnosti je sicer predviden izid poslovenjenega izbora Tertulijanovih apologetskih, polemicnih in katehetskih spisov. Del izbora bo tudi integralni prevod dela O vstajenju mesa. 3. Tertulijan in pozitivno vrednotenje telesa/mesa Tertulijanova antropologija je bila – tudi v zadnjem casu – predmet pogostih analiz (Waszink 1947, 263–264, 431–433; Braun 1977, 301–303; Fernandez 1979, 307–398; Leal 2001, 17; Fredouille 2005, 324; Brown 2007, 93–114). Razlagalci si glede ocene konsistentnosti njegove antropološke terminologije zaradi njene velike kompleksnosti niso vedno enotni, a v splošnem iz spisov lahko izlušcimo, da Tertulijan v vecini prime-rov pojma caro (meso) in corpus (telo) razume kot sopomenki, pri cemer je drugi izraz splošnejši,prvi pauporabljenzlastitakrat,ko želi Tertulijan poudaritisnovnorazsežnost cloveka. Ta je bila v antiki podvržena pogostim kritikam, ki so izvirale tako iz filozof­skih (predvsem platonisticnih) tradicij kot iz gnosticnih krogov, kartažanski ucitelj pa na temelju Kristusovega uclovecenja in vstajenja poudarja njeno pozitivno vrednost.4 V splošnem Tertulijan dihotomicno antropološko shemo priznava – kar lepo prikazuje ena izmed njegovih opredelitev: homo sit qua caro et anima (De carne Christi 13.6; 14.4) –, vendar pri tem prevladuje izrazito holisticno pojmovanje clo­veka. Tertulijan – verjetno na sledi stoiški misli, da je vse, kar obstaja, iz dveh sub­strata – navaja razlicne dvojice: clovek da je sestavljen iz duše in telesa, mesa in duha, mesa in duše, duha in duše. Cloveka sestavljata dve temeljni substanci – telo in duša (Apologeticum 22.5). Ti substanci se sicer razlikujeta (Res. 35.5), vendar ju ni mogoce lociti, saj nastaneta socasno (De anima 37.1). To enovitost lahko prekine le smrt (Adversus Marcionem 5.9.3) – pri cemer je duša od telesa locena, vendar le dokler ne bo zopet združena z vstalim telesom. (Fredouille 1972; Alexan­dre 2001; Leal 2001; Fredouille 2005; Vicastillo 2006; Montero 2007) S paradoksalnim mišljenjem, ki je za Tertulijana znacilno, smo pri kartažanskem katehetu po eni strani prica ostremu zavracanju sveta – to se izraža tudi v visokih asketskih zahtevah –, po drugi pa izraziti obrambi mesa kot takega in dobrosti stvarstva. V tej obrambi gre Tertulijan, ceprav sam kot prvi latinski teolog stoji šele na zacetku dolgega izrocila, dlje kot kateri koli drug zgodnjekršcanski pisec, ki mu je sledil. Posebej v njegovem spisu De resurrectione carnis srecamo v zacetnih poglavjih eno najizrazitejših lavdacij mesa v vsej kršcanski tradiciji. Ta njegov pra­econium carnis, ,hvalnica mesu‘ v poglavjih 5–10, je nasploh eno najznacilnejših pozitivnih vrednotenj clovekove telesne razsežnosti. Tertulijan svojo hvalnico mesu oz. telesu na zacetek spisa umešca kot odgovor krivovercem – markionitom in predvsem gnostikom vec vrst (doketisti, valentini­janci, Bazilid, Apel) –, ki ob preziranju mesa mislijo zgolj na vstajenje duše; s tem po njegovem mnenju prezirajo Gospoda mesa (Res. 2.12). Zoper tovrstne poglede kartažanski pisec nastopi s pozitivnim vrednotenjem mesa: po njegovem je bilo v redu božanskega stvarjenja cloveško meso ustvarjeno pred dušo (5.8). Ob koncu 7. poglavja Tertulijan izreka zagovor mesu najprej znotraj splošnega antropološkega obzorja: Naj na tem mestu zgolj spomnimo na dilemo o slovenjenju besede incarnatio (prim. razlicne sorodne grške izraze: ..s.µ.t.s.., ..s....s.., ..a....p.s..), za katero po našem prepricanju dovolj us-treznega prevedka še vedno ni. Najbolj uveljavljena izraza, uclovecenje in utelešenje, ne izražata pol-nosti latinskega pojma, ki poudarja prav razsežnost mesa; bi zato lahko govorili raje o umęsenju? Jan Dominik Bogataj - Caro salutis est cardo »9. Je Bog dušo torej postavil v meso ali jo raje vstavil in vmešal mesu? Tako tesno ju je povezal, da ne moremo biti gotovi, ali meso (caro) nosi naokrog dušo (anima) ali duša meso, ali je meso v službi duše ali duša v službi mesa. 10. Ceprav je bolj verodostojno, da je duša, ki je bolj sorodna (proxima) Bogu, nošena s strani mesa in da gospoduje, je tudi to – da vsebuje dušo, ki je soro­dna Bogu, in da ji daje v posest to isto oblast – v prid slavi mesa. 11. Kajti ka­kšno rabo narave, kakšen sad sveta, kakšen okus prvin lahko uživa duša, ce ne s pomocjo mesa? Kaj menite? Preko mesa dušo bogati celoten aparat cutov: vid, sluh, okus, vonj, dotik. Preko mesa se duša napaja z božansko mocjo, saj za vse poskrbi z govorom, cetudi le predhodno, v tišini. Tudi govor namrec iz­haja iz mesa kot svojega organa. 12. Preko mesa so mogoce obrti, preko mesa svobodni in strokovni študiji, preko mesa dela, dejavnosti, službe; in v takšni meri pripada celotno življenje duše mesu, da je za dušo prenehati živeti pov­sem enako, kot da bi se iz mesa umaknila. Tako sámo umiranje pripada mesu, ker mu pripada tudi življenje. 13. Poleg tega, ce so prek mesa vse stvari pod-vržene duši, so podvržene tudi mesu: pri uporabi neke stvari moraš nujno uporabiti orodje, s katerim jo uporabljaš. Tako je meso – ceprav velja za slu­žabnika in slugo (ministra et famula) duše – njen sopotnik in sodedic (consors et coheres). Ce pa v posvetnih stvareh, zakaj ne tudi v vecnih?« (Res. 7.9–13) Bog je dih svojega duha pomešal z mesom in po Tertulijanu ni mogoce reci, ali meso nosi dušo ali duša meso (7.9). Ceprav mora duša prevladati nad telesom, to dejstvo daje slavo tudi telesu, saj je duša blizu Bogu (7.10). Tem splošnim premi­slekom o zagovoru mesa se nato v odlomku, ki obsega tudi znacilno Tertulijanovo izjavo caro salutis est cardo, pridružujejo še znacilno kršcanski: »2. Zadostovalo bi dejstvo, da nobena duša ne more doseci odrešenja, ce ne zacne verovati v casu, ko je v mesu: tako je meso os odrešenja (caro sa­lutis est cardo); ker je namrec duša preko odrešenja povezana z Bogom, je meso tisto, ki omogoca, da Bog izvoli dušo. 3. Tudi telo umijemo, da bi bila ocišcena duša; telo mazilimo, da bi bila posvecena duša; telo zaznamujemo (s križem), da bi bila zašcitena tudi duša; telo zastremo s polaganjem rok, da bi bila z Duhom razsvetljena tudi duša; telo hranimo s Kristusovim telesom in krvjo, da bi bila z Bogom nasicena tudi duša. Pri placilu torej ni mogoce lociti tega, kar je povezano v delovanju.« (8.2–3) Ta zagovor mesa (suffragium carnis) vsebuje slovito izjavo, v kateri Tertulijan meso oznacuje za cardo odrešenja (8.2) – torej za os, tecaj, jedro, zglob, nasadilo oz. vrtišce, na katerem visi in od katerega je odvisno odrešenje celotnega cloveka. To se po Tertulijanovem mnenju najlepše kaže pri zakramentalnem delovanju (8.3), kjer je vidno telo zaznamovano z znamenji in materijo, da bi to ustvarilo ucinek v nevidni duši. Kar se Tertulijana tice, je jasno, da clovek nujno vstopa v odnos z Bogom prav prek telesa: »4. Kajti tudi boguvšecne daritve – v mislih imam mrtvicenja duše, poste, pozno in skromno hrano ter nevšecnosti, ki spremljajo ta naš trud – sproža meso s svojimi lastnimi neprijetnostmi. Poleg tega so devištvo, vdovstvo ter skrivna, zgolj navidezna sklenitev zakona in enkratno zakonsko spoznanje tudi daritve Bogu na podlagi dobrin mesa. 5. No, kaj si mislite o mesu, ko ga zaradi vere v Ime vlecejo v javnost in se bori izpostavljeno javnemu sovra­štvu, ko se v zaporih muci v ogabnem izgonu od svetlobe, v pomanjkanju vsakega okrasja, v bedi, umazaniji, sramotni hrani – svobodno ni niti v spa-nju, saj je celo priklenjeno na posteljo in iznakaženo zaradi svojega ležišca –, ko ga nato celo pri dnevni svetlobi raztrgajo z vsemi mucilnimi pripomocki, ko ga naposled unicijo z usmrtitvijo, potem ko si je prizadevalo poplacati Kristusa s smrtjo zanj, pogosto z istim križem, da ne omenjam še hujših ka­znilnih pripomockov? 6. Da, preblaženo in preslavno je, ko lahko pred Kri­stusom Gospodom poravna tako velik dolg, da mu ne dolguje nicesar razen tega, kar mu je prenehalo dolgovati; toliko bolj zvezano, kolikor bolj je bilo osvobojeno.« (8.4–6) Meso se bori za Kristusovo ime in je izpostavljeno cloveškemu sovraštvu: mor­da bo moralo iti celo v jeco, pretrpeti vsa nasprotovanja in se na koncu v smrti darovati za Kristusa. Meso mora biti najbolj blagoslovljeno in slavno, ko lahko svo­jemu Ucitelju v celoti povrne velikanski dolg, ki ga ima do Njega (8.5sl.). V nadaljevanju kartažanski ucitelj izpostavlja odlicnost mesa v ontološki per-spektivi, saj ga je Bog kot edino ustvarjenino ustvaril s svojimi rokami in ga zato ne bo pustil propasti, ampak ga bo obudil (9). Sledi serija dialekticnih obratov v obrambo mesa na podlagi svetopisemskih navedb, v katerih pa si Tertulijan oci pred slabotnim stanjem mesa ne zatiska, temvec odgovarja z razlago o Božjem milostnem posegu, ki to šibkost mesa pravzaprav predpostavlja. »1. Torej, ce povzamem: meso, ki ga je Bog z lastnimi rokami napravil po Božji podobi (ad imaginem dei struxit); ki ga je z lastnim dihom oživil po po­dobnosti svoje življenjske moci; ki ga je postavil za obdelovanje, uživanje in gospodovanje nad vsemi svojimi deli; ki ga je oblekel v svoje skrivnosti in nauke; cigar cistost ljubi, cigar mrtvicenje odobrava, cigar trpljenje pri sebi šteje za dragoceno – mar to meso, ki je tolikokrat postalo Božja stvar, ne bo zopet vstalo? 2. Nikar, nikar naj Bog vecnemu unicenju ne prepusti dela svo­jih rok, pozornosti svoje spretnosti, posode svojega diha, kraljice svoje stva­ritve, dedica svoje velikodušnosti, duhovnika svoje vere, bojevnika svojega pricevanja, sestre svojega Kristusa! 3. Vemo, da je Bog dober; poleg tega nas je njegov Kristus poucil, da je on edini nadvse dober. Tisti, ki zapoveduje lju­bezen – najprej do sebe in nato do bližnjega (Mt 22,37) –, to, kar zapovedu­je, izvršuje tudi sam. On ljubi (diligit) telo, ki je na toliko nacinov njegov bli­žnji: 4. ceprav je slabotno, se vendar ›moc izpopolnjuje v slabotnosti‹ (2 Kor 12,9); ceprav je šibko, vendar ›ne potrebujejo zdravnika zdravi, marvec bol­ni‹ (Lk 5,31); ceprav je neugledno, vendar neuglednim stvarem dajemo vecjo cast‹ (1 Kor 12,23); ceprav je izgubljeno, vendar pravi: ›Prišel sem rešit, kar je izgubljeno‹ (Lk 19,10); ceprav je grešno, vendar pravi: ›Rajši imam rešitev grešnika kot njegovo smrt‹ (Ez 18,23); ceprav je pogubljeno, vendar pravi: Jan Dominik Bogataj - Caro salutis est cardo ›Jaz bom udaril in bom ozdravil‹ (5 Mz 32,39). 5. Zakaj grajate v mesu to, kar pricakuje Boga, kar upa na Boga? Cemur Bog pomaga, to tudi odlikuje. Dr-znim si reci: ce meso ne bi imelo teh pomanjkljivosti, bi bila Božja dobrota, milost in usmiljenje, vsaka njegova dobrotna moc, prazna.« (9.1–5) V sklepnem odlomku predstavljene evlogije mesa Tertulijan eksegetsko dialek­tiko nadaljuje – in tako starozaveznim kot pavlinskim mestom, ki govorijo o šibko­sti mesa, zoperstavlja druga mesta, ki naznanjajo rešitev tudi za telesno razsežnost cloveka. »1. Oklepate se Pisem, v katerih je meso nepomembno; ohranite tudi tista, v katerih je povelicano. Berete, ko je ponižano; naglejte se tudi, ko je povzdi­gnjeno. 2. ›Vse meso je trava‹ (Iz 40,6). Izaija ni izrekel le tega, ampak tudi: ›Vse meso bo videlo Božje odrešenje‹ (Iz 40,5). V Prvi Mojzesovi knjigi je za­pisano, da Gospod pravi: ›Moj duh ne bo ostal na teh ljudeh, ker so meso‹ (1 Mz 6,3), po Joelu pa ga slišimo reci tudi: ›Od svojega Duha bom izlil na vse meso‹ (Jl 2,28). 3. Tudi apostola ne bi smeli poznati zgolj po tej eni sami témi, s katero pogosto zbada meso. Ceprav namrec zanika, da bi v njegovem mesu prebivalo kaj dobrega (Rim 7,18), ceprav trdi, da tisti, ki so v mesu, Bogu ne morejo ugajati (Rim 8,8), ker meso poželi zoper Duha (Gal 5,17), in ce zatrju­je še kaj podobnega – s cimer dejansko vendarle ne obsoja bistva (substantia), marvec delovanje (actus) mesa –, bom v nadaljevanju povedal, da mesa ni prav kriviti, razen v smislu grajanja duše, ki si meso podreja za svojega služab­nika. 4. Pavel je namrec v teh spisih opisan kot tisti, ki na svojem telesu nosi Kristusova znamenja (Gal 6,17); ki prepoveduje skruniti naše telo, ki je Božji tempelj (1 Kor 3,16-17); ki naše telo napravlja za Kristusove ude (1 Kor 6,15); ki nas opominja, naj v svojem telesu nosimo in povelicujemo Boga (1 Kor 6,20). 5. In ce necasti mesa pomenijo zanikanje njegovega vstajenja, zakaj ne bi potem njegove casti bolj vodile k njegovemu vstajenju? Kajti Bogu je bolj primerno, da k odrešenju povrne tisto, kar je vcasih grajal, kot da izroci po­gubi tisto, kar je celo odobril.« (10.1–5) Po Tertulijanu se torej celotno dogajanje vere odvija v telesu. V nadaljevanju tudi opisuje, kako usta izgovarjajo svete besede, jezik se vzdrži bogokletja, srce se izogiba razdraženosti, roke pa dajejo in delajo (45.15). Da bi se izognil izkrivljenim razlagam tovrstne antropologije, po katerih naj bi pozitivno vrednotenje cloveko­ve telesne razsežnosti odprlo moralno relativisticen pogled na telo, Tertulijan jasno razlikuje med telesno danostjo v cloveku in deli mesa, ki da jih je treba zatirati: »Tisti, ki ne morejo ugajati Bogu, niso tisti, ki so v mesu, ampak tisti, ki živijo po mesu; medtem ko tisti, ki so v mesu, vendar hodijo po Duhu, Bogu ugajajo.« (46.3)5 Po njegovem je nacin našega življenja v mesu treba spremeniti v nacin svetosti, pravicnosti in resnice (49.7). Preobrazba naših teles v podobo Kristusovega telesa bistvo mesa ohranja – tako da bo isto telo, ki je raztrgano zaradi muceništva, no-silo krono (56.11). Telesa, ki so bila pred smrtjo ali po njej pohabljena, bodo ob Kljuc za diferenciacijo je torej eticno ravnanje, prim. Petkovšek 2021. vstajenju ponovno pridobila svojo popolno celovitost (57.2). Ob vstajenju bo tako meso postalo sposobno nove vrste življenja, ne da bi izgubilo svojo bistveno iden­titeto (59.1sl.). Božja sodba bo unicila grešno meso in rešila tisti njegov del, ki je celovit, cist. Tertulijan se zaveda, da si v istem mesu, v katerem je nekoc prešu­štvoval, zdaj prizadeva za vzdržnost. V naši moci je namrec, da grešno meso, ki je trava, pokosimo – in ohranimo meso, ki ga bo Bog rešil (59.3sl.). Uporabnost vsta­lega mesa ni vprašljiva, saj v Božji navzocnosti ne bo brezdelja (60.9). Tako meso kot duh sta združena v Kristusu, ki ju je združil kot nevesto in ženina, sponsa in sposus (63.3): »Meso je tisto, ki je nevesta, saj je v Jezusu Kristusu s pomocjo krvi sprejelo duha za ženina.« (63.3) Tertulijanov paradoks hkratnega zanikanja – ki se ga v tej predstavitvi ni bilo mogoce dotakniti – in pozitivnega vrednotenja sveta odraža božansko ekonomijo, ki se giblje od stvarjenja do vstajenja – in za katero je treba živeti svoboden od grešnih poželenj in v polnosti mesa, ki bo ponovno vstalo. Telo in duša obstajata v harmoniji in imata skupno prihodnost v vstajenju. Bog je uredil stvarstvo za clo­veka, ki je hkrati duša in telo (5). Ceprav je clovek sestavljen iz telesa in duše, je njegovo življenje nedeljiva enotnost – clovekovega mesa ni mogoce zavreci; njegov koncni cilj se mora nanašati tako na dušo kot na telo – in ne le na en del cloveka. 4. Izpeljave Tertulijanove karnalne antropologije Ocrtana pozitivna karnalna antropologija, kot je znacilno izražena pri Tertulijanu, neizogibno – že skozi polivalenten pojem salus6 sam – odpira vec vprašanj, ki za­devajo tudi vrednotenje medicine (ukvarja se namrec s telesom) ter posledicno odnos med odrešenjem in zdravjem. Kot metodološko pojasnilo je treba tu dodati, da gre tudi pri razumevanju to-vrstnih posledic Tertulijanove antropologije zgolj za poskus historicne kontekstu­alizacije. Medtem pa se velja – vsekakor ob priznavanju dolocenega transkonte­kstualnega pomena anticne oz. patristicne misli za razbiranje znamenj tudi dana­šnjega casa – že vnaprej metodicno distancirati od kakršne koli pretirane anahro­nisticne aktualizacije. 4.1 Pozitivno vrednotenje medicine Razlagalci Tertulijana že dolgo opisujejo kot prvega kršcanskega pisca, ki izkazu­je precejšnje poznavanje medicine: analiza korpusa njegovih del razkriva dosle­dno spoštovanje zdravnikov, poglobljeno razumevanje medicinske znanosti in pa ustvarjalno uporabo medicinskih metafor (Amundsen 1982, 344–345; Fredouille 2005; Hayne 2011). Njegovo medicinsko znanje, ki ga je crpal predvsem iz Sorana Efeškega in Plinija Starejšega, je bilo globlje od znanja predhodnih kristjanov in Slovenjenje besede salus (prim. tudi izraze sanitas, s.t...a, ...e.a) le stežka zajame njeno široko semanticno polje, ki sega od pomenov ,zdravje‘, ,blagostanje‘, ,varnost‘, ,cilost‘, ,sreca‘ pa vse do po­menov ,rešitev‘ in ,odrešenje‘. Jan Dominik Bogataj - Caro salutis est cardo zdi se, da se je za casa njegovega življenja še poglobilo. Vecina zgodnjekršcanskih piscev je medicino na splošno (dokler je bila podrejena Bogu) sprejemala, ven­dar podrobnosti medicinske znanosti ni poznala. Razen Atenagora Atenskega in Klementa Aleksandrijskega pred Tertulijanom noben kristjan posebne medicinske erudicije ni izkazoval. A ce so nekateri kršcanski pisci tiste, ki so vero zamenjali z medicinsko teorijo (kot npr. Galenovi castilci pri Evzebiju, Historia ecclesiastica 5.28.14), obsojali, je obenem zelo malo zgodnjih kristjanov zdravniški poklic od­krito kritiziralo. Medicina ni bila nikoli vkljucena na sezname poklicev, ki bi bili kristjanom prepovedani. Spoštovanje do zdravnikov in medicine je nakazano z uporabo medicinskih metafor pri prvih ocetih, pri cemer je šlo za združitev po­ganskega metaforicnega izrocila z evangeljskimi porocili o tem, kako se je Kristus sam imenoval za zdravnika bolnikov (Mt 9,12; Mr 2,17; Lk 5,31). Po drugi strani vsaj pri dveh kršcanskih avtorjih, Tacijanu in Origenu, zadržke do medicine je mogoce zaslediti. Tacijan, ki je bil pred Tertulijanom in je nanj vpli-val, je uporabo pharmakeie zavracal – in trdil, da se mora kristjan za ozdravitev obrniti na Boga (Tacijan, Govor proti Grkom 4.17–18). Origen je manj radikalno verjel, da je medicina sicer Božji dar – kristjanom dovoljen –, vendar je tudi pre­dlagal, naj tisti, ki želijo »živeti na nacin, ki je boljši od življenja množic,« raje mo-lijo, kot da se zatekajo k medicini (Contra Celsum 8.60). Za Origena – zaradi nje­gove antropologije, ki daje prednost umskemu delu cloveka – je najvišji zdravnik Kristus. To se lepo pokaže v argumentaciji, da kakor med boleznimi telesa obsta­jajo tudi takšne, ki jih nobena zdravniška spretnost ne more pozdraviti, po drugi strani v umu ni tako mocnega zla, da ga ne bi mogla premagati vrhovna Beseda in Bog: »Kajti mocnejša od vsega zla v duši je Beseda in zdravilna moc, ki prebiva v njej; in to zdravljenje po Božji volji uporablja za vsakega cloveka.« (8.72) Tertulijan ni nikoli trdil, da bi se morali ,boljši‘ kristjani medicini odpovedati – niti v svojih poznejših, bolj elitisticnih (montanisticnih) delih. Eden od razlogov za to spoštovanje medicine je v njegovi antropologiji: Tertulijan je – drugace kot Ta-cijan in Origen – telo dojemal kot casti vredno in bil zato globoko preprican o ne­locljivi enotnosti mesa in duše, o intimni in nedeljivi enotnosti obcudovanja vre­dnega telesa s telesno dušo. Oborožen s to antropologijo je Tertulijan v poznava­nju in spoštovanju medicine presegal mnoge nekršcanske in kršcanske predhodni­ke. Tertulijan vidi telo (caro, corpus) kot veliko dobrino, in ne kot neoplatonsko ali gnosticno jeco. Bolj kot kateri koli drug zgodnjekršcanski pisatelj caro zagovarja; ne le zato, ker je imago Dei in templum Dei, ampak ker je Bog sam rasel v telesu, zdravil telesne bolezni, umrl v telesu – in ga bo spet obudil. Adam je bil imenovan homo, ko je bil še zgolj caro (še preden je prejel svojo animo), medtem ko se Pa­vlova sintagma ,dela mesa‘ po Tertulijanu dejansko nanaša na nerazumne izbire duše (Res. 17; 40.3; 53.4–9). V Tertulijanovi perspektivi bi bilo zato telo nerazumno zanicevati ali poškodovati (morda tudi ne dovolj skrbeti zanj), saj lahko clovek do-bra dela, krst, askezo in muceništvo opravlja samo prek mesa (7–11; Adversus Marcionem 5.7.4–5.). V Tertulijanovi misli sta anima in caro nelocljivo združena od spocetja do smr-ti – zato lahko težave telesa prizadenejo dušo, pa tudi obratno. Enotnost teh so­rores substantiae je še posebej intenzivna, ker je duša sama po sebi – na podlagi stoiškega materialisticnega nauka – corpus, ki prebiva na istem mestu kot meso in je dejansko sposobna bolecine in užitka (De anima 7–10; 52.3; 58.3–5; Res. 17.3–5). Tako lahko spodobna prehrana animo nahrani, medtem ko jo pretirano uživanje hrane, pijace ali spolnosti oslabi (De ieiunio 6.2–7; De anima 25.3–4; 6.6). Ker pomeni telesna bolezen presežek ali primanjkljaj, ki nasprotuje naravi, preko telesa vpliva tudi na dušo: bolezni, vkljucno s febris, phrenesis, lethargia ali pa­ralysis, lahko animo oslabijo (Apologeticum 17.5; De praescriptione haereticorum 16.2; Scorpiace 9.13; De anima 5.5; 17.9; 20.4; 25.4; 43.8). Askeza in medicina imata ocitno, v nasprotju s tem, kar bi morda mislili, skupni cilj – izboljšati duhov-no zdravje (De anima 20.4; Ad martyras 3.4; De ieiunio 17.7–8; Apologeticum 46.2–15). Ceprav telesno zdravje ni ne osrednja prioriteta ne absolutna nujnost, se zdi, da bi se moral clovek bolezni vsaj delno izogibati, saj Tertulijan trdi, da je težje moliti z vznemirjenim umom (De oratione 12.1). V nasprotju z Origenom Tertulijan ne zagovarja etericne predstave, da bi se morali resnicno ,duhovni lju­dje‘ zdravnikom kar odpovedati. Tertulijan zdravnikov tudi nikoli ni zaniceval, kot to velja za mnoge njegove sodobnike – kljub temu pa Galena ocitno ni poznal in medicina zanj nikoli ni bila osrednja, prednostna naloga. 4.2 Tertulijanova salus: med odrešenjem in zdravjem Zavedanje o odlicnosti in dostojanstvu mesa, ki – kot razlaga Tertulijan – temelji na posebni pozornosti Boga pri stvarjenju, vsekakor narekuje skrb za to meso. Njega je namrec Stvarnik – drugace kot druge ustvarjenine, ki so nastale z Bese-do – edinega ustvaril s svojimi rokami, kot o tem poroca biblicno porocilo o stvar­jenju (1 Mz 1,26). Tertulijan na podlagi svoje antropologije do zdravnikov in obenem povezave med zdravljenjem in telesnim zdravjem (razen, razumljivo, da ocitno nasprotuje splavu) kaže pozitiven odnos (De anima 25; Ad nationes 1; Apologeticum 9). Pri tem medicinskih metafor ne uporablja zgolj kot nacin razlage Svetega pisma, kot izraz osebnega mnenja o zdravju oz. zdravju cloveške duše ali o terapevtskem raz­merju med telesom in dušo, pa kot enoznacne ustreznice – npr. krivoverci in vro-cica, krst in ozdravljenje, potrpežljivost in zdravje, pokora in medicina (Kamimura 2017, 6). Tovrstne metafore namrec širi tudi na podrocja, ki vkljucujejo casovno spremembo, rast in implikacijo izpolnitve odrešenja: denimo preroške metafore o ozdravitvi (v spisu De baptismo) in pojmovanje sedanjega trpljenja v funkciji prihodnjega odrešenja (v spisu De paenitentia). Med zdravjem in odrešenjem po njegovem obstajajo razlicne vzporednice: clovek trpi bolecine, ker je grešil; kot morajo bolni ljudje prestati grenko bolecino zdravljenja, tako morajo grešniki pre­stati neprijetno bolecino pokore, ki vodi k odrešenju: »Sredstva, ki so neprijetna, vendarle opravicujejo bolecino, ki jo povzrocajo, in to z ozdravitvijo, ki jo povzrocajo, saj sedanje trpljenje naredijo prijetno zaradi koristi, ki bo prišla v prihodnosti.« (De paenitentia 10.10) Jan Dominik Bogataj - Caro salutis est cardo Poleg patološkega in kirurškega znanja je torej Tertulijan ocitno pristopal tudi k zdravljenju duše in telesa ter iskal terapevtske možnosti za zdravljenje obojega – duše in telesa. Na podlagi svoje unitarne antropologije se je zavedal, kako zelo je oboje v cloveku prepleteno, nelocljivo. Platonisticna epimeleia tes psyches – skrb za dušo – tako v tertulijanovski perspektivi postane skrb za celotnega clove­ ka, za totius hominis salus. Kratici Res. – Evans 1960 [De resurrectione carnis]. Zoper krivoverstva – Irenej Lyonski 2018. Reference Primarni viri Evans, Ernest, ur. 1960. Q. Septimii Florentis Ter­tulliani de Resurrectione Carnis liber: Tertullian’s Treatise on the Resurrection. The Text Edited with an Introduction, Translation and Commentary. London: S.P.C.K., 1960 Irenej Lyonski. 2018. Zoper krivoverstva: razkritje in zavrnitev lažnega spoznanja. Prevedli Jan Ciglenecki, Benjamin Bevc in Gašper Kvartic. Ljubljana: KUD Logos. Waszink, Jan Hendrik, ur. 1947. Tertullian’s De Anima: Q. Septimi Florentis Tertulliani De Anima. Edited with Introduction and Commen­tary. Amsterdam: Meulenhoff. Sekundarni viri Alexandre, Jérôme. 2001. Une chair pour la gloire: L‘anthropologie réaliste et mystique de Tertulli-en. Pariz: Beauchesne. Amundsen, Darrel W. 1982. Medicine and Faith in Early Christianity. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 56, št. 3:326–350. Boudon-Millot, Véronique, Bernard Pouderon, ur. 2005. Les Pčres de l’Eglise face ŕ la science médicale de leur temps. Pariz: Beauchesne. Braun, René. 1977. Deus Christianorum: Recher­ches sur le vocabulaire doctrinal de Tertullien. 2. izdaja. Pariz: E´tudes Augustiniennes. Brown, Peter. 2007. Telo in družba: spolno odreka­nje v zgodnjem kršcanstvu. Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis. Daniel-Hughes, Carly. 2011. The Salvation of the Flesh in Tertullian of Carthage: Dressing for the Resurrection. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Dunn, Geoffrey D. 2004. Tertullian. London: Rou­ tledge. Fernández, Aurelio. 1979. La escatología en el siglo II. Burgos: Aldecoa. Foucault, Michel. 2020. Zgodovina seksualnosti 4: Priznanja mesa. Ljubljana: Škuc. Fredouille, Jean-Claude. 1972. Tertullien et la conversion de la culture Antique. Pariz: E´tudes Augustiniennes. – – –. 2005. Observations sur la terminologie anthropologique de Tertullien: constantes et variations. V: Véronique Boudon-Millot in Bernard Pouderon, ur. Les Peres de l’Église face a la science médicale de leur temps, 321–334. Pariz: Beauchesne. Globokar, Roman. 2020. COVID-19, nacionalna država in družbeni nauk Cerkve. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 2:379–394. https://doi. org/10.34291/bv2020/02/globokar Grossi, Vittorino. 2006. Antropologia patristica. V: Angelo di Berardino, ur. Nuovo dizionario patristico e di antichitŕ. Zv. 1 (A–E), 370–378. Genova: Marietti. Hayne, Thomas. 2011. Tertullian and Medicine. Studia patristica 50:131–176. Kamimura, Naoki. 2017. Tertullian’s Approach to Medicine and the Care of Souls: Predavanje na NAPS 2017 annual meeting. Chicago, 26. 5. Leal, Jeronimo. 2001. Antropología de Tertuliano: Estudio de los tratados polémicos de los ańos 207–212 d.C. SEA 76. Rim: Institutum Patristi-cum Augustinianum. Montero, Roberto Lo´pez. 2007. Totius hominis salus: La antropología del Adverus Marcionem de Tertuliano. Madrid: Publicaciones de la Facultad de Teología San Dámaso. Petkovšek, Robert. 2021. Kaj je etika in zakaj ravnati eticno? Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:991–998. https://doi.org/10.34291/ bv2021/04/petkovsek Rouselle, Aline. 1988. Porneia: On Desire and the Body in Antiquity. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Strahovnik, Vojko, in José Ignacio Scasserra. 2021. Avtonomija, avtoriteta in zaupanje: virus in meje leta 2020. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:867–879. https://doi.org/10.34291/ bv2021/04/strahovnik Vicastillo, Salvador. 2006. Un cuerpo destinado a la muerte: Su significado en la antropología de Tertuliano. Madrid: BAC. Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 365—375 Besedilo prejeto/Received:02/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:03/2022 UDK/UDC: 2-175.2:502/504 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Kovacs © 2022 Kovács, CC BY 4.0 Gusztáv Kovács After the Catastrophe: What Can We Learn from Fictional Apocalyptic Scenarios? Po katastrofi: kaj se lahko naucimo iz domišljijskih apokalipticnih scenarijev? Abstract: Narratives often take the form of a thought experiment, trigger intuitive responses, and aim at the moral conversion of the audience. The current ar­ticle introduces two stories concerning the environmental crisis, Richard Rout­ley’s Last Man Thought Experiment from 1973, and the satirical film Don’t Look Up from 2021. Although they belong to different genres, both function as thought experiments designed to highlight issues of ecological concern. The article provides an analysis of the context and argumentation of the two imag­inary scenarios and of the way they motivate responsible action. They both offer an adequate but differing criticism of their contemporary societies and might help to overcome the triviality of the talk about an impending environ­mental catastrophe. Keywords: environmental crisis, thought experiment, apocalyptic scenarios, Last Man, Don’t Look Up, Richard Routley Povzetek: Pripovedi se pogosto pojavljajo v obliki miselnih eksperimentov, spro­žajo intuitivne odzive in težijo k moralni spreobrnitvi gledalcev. Prispevek obrav­nava dve zgodbi na temo okoljske krize: Miselni eksperiment poslednjega clo­veka Richarda Routleya iz leta 1973 in satiricni film Ne glejte gor iz leta 2021. Ceprav sta razlicnih zvrsti, obe zgodbi delujeta kot miselni eksperiment za po­udarjanje ekološke obcutljivosti. Prispevek ponuja analizo konteksta in argu­mentacije obeh domišljijskih scenarijev ter nacina, kako motivirata odziv z od­govornimi dejanji. Oba scenarija ponujata ustrezno in hkrati medsebojno raz-licno kritiko sodobne družbe – in lahko pripomoreta k preseganju trivialnosti, ko se govori o grozeci okoljski katastrofi. Kljucne besede: okoljska kriza, miselni eksperiment, apokalipticni scenariji, Poslednji clovek, Ne glejte gor, Richard Routley In 2022, it is extremely difficult to talk about the impending environmental ca­tastrophe endangering the earth and us, human beings. The talk about this real threat often seems to be trivial in both religious and secular discourse. (Opatrny 2017, 34-41) We have become accustomed to the state of being constantly at risk, similar to the persistence of COVID-19 in our everyday lives. One reason for this apparent triviality might be our continuous and intense oc­cupation with the question in the last decades in popular and academic discourse. Most major news sites publish stories and articles on environmental issues on a daily basis. Neither individuals nor communities are able to provide a solution to the constant feeling of being endangered since the environmental issue is a glob­al problem requiring global solutions. The helplessness resulting from how far off true, effective and comprehensive solutions are, might be responsible for this sense of triviality. Another reason is the need of academics to work with comprehensive state­ments of facts concerning the climate crisis and its effects on human beings. Mateja Pevec Rozman’s description is a good example of this comprehensiveness: »Humanity has become the master of nature, but nature and our environment are increasingly vulnerable and endangered. /…/ With his consumer way of life, man contributes significantly to unfavourable climate change. /…/ We live in a paradoxical situation where man has become a victim and a slave to his progress. The question arises as to whether we prepare for climate change and what we are willing to do to survive and preserve planet Earth for future generations.« (2021, 836) Certainly, her article provides further elaboration on this state of affairs, but this short quotation still points to the core of the climate crisis and the responsi­bility the current situation poses to us. The words ‚survive‘ and ‚preserve‘ show clearly what is at stake. There is another question concerning all texts about the climate crisis, namely, whether they are able to induce moral conversion by mak­ing ethically important values visible and actuating responsible actions. The current article introduces two stories – more precisely thought experiments –, which were created for the purposes mentioned above: making values visible and actuating responsible actions. The first was formulated by Richard Routley (Sylvan) and became part of the environmental canon as the Last Man Thought Experiment. It is a characteristic thought experiment from the 1970s, while the other one is a contemporary thought experiment coined in the form of a movie, the satirical film Don’t Look Up from 2021. Although they both belong to different genres, I will treat them as thought experiments designed to highlight issues of ecological concern.1 The question to be answered is: what is the nature of values that the two thought experiments illuminate, and what is their capacity to actu- By ethical thought experiment I understand »(1) imaginary scenarios (2) referring to selected morally relevant aspects of reality and (3) aiming at testing moral beliefs, theses or theories (4) by activating the moral intuitions of the audience« (Kovács 2021, 54). ate responsible action? Further, this article will consider whether it is possible to reformulate them to serve as thought experiments applicable to the current eco­logical crisis, that is to show relevant aspects of reality and to induce ecological conversion (Porras 2015, 136). 1. The context of the Last Man Thought Experiment If one had to choose an encyclical and a popular movie to describe the current cri­sis, one would probably name the encyclical „Laudato si’“ by Pope Francis (2015) and Adam McKay’s movie Don’t Look Up (2021). The crisis of the 1960s also has its emblematic papal encyclical and popular film: „Pacem in terries“ by Pope John XXIII (1963) and Franklin J. Schaffner’s Planet of the Apes from 1968. While the former were born in the context of global warming, the latter were created in the shadow of the threat of war. Ted Post’s Beneath the Planet of the Apes from 1970 presents an iconic apocalyptic scene: Taylor, the astronaut who arrives on earth after making a long space journey in a state of hibernation, pushes the button of a doomsday device, thereby destroying all living beings, including superior apes and inferior humans. Just three years later, in 1973, Richard Routley drew a similar apocalyptic pic­ture at the 15th World Congress of Philosophy by asking the audience to imagine Mr. Last Man after a global cataclysm as he destroys all living beings, plants and animals completely. Does Mr. Last Man act in a morally right way, knowing that there will not be any sentient or intelligent being in the future who could experi­ence and enjoy the presence of flora and fauna? It is no coincidence that Routley formulated his thought experiment at this time. Not only the two movies and the general fear drove him to draw up this apocalyptic scenario, but also the apperception of the ecological crisis (Mathews 2010, 543). The Club of Rome published its ground-breaking report „The Limits to Growth“ in 1972, providing an extensive and data-based prognosis on the eco­logical effects of population and economic growth (Meadows et.al. 1972). In 1967 Lynn White Jr. published his famous essay „The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis“, where he outlines a history of ideas – including Christianity, among others -which had influenced the relationship of the Western world with the environ­ment (White, 1967, 1203-1207). He argues that Western culture, where eve­rything revolves around us humans, needs to be changed: »Despite Copernicus, all the cosmos rotates around our little globe. Despite Darwin, we are not, in our hearts, part of the natural process. We are superior to nature, contemptuous of it, willing to use it for our slightest whim.« (1204) Routley, who together with his wife, Val Routley, participated actively in Aus­tralian environmental movements, calls attention to the limits of anthropocen­trism. He raises his voice against Western, chauvinistic ethics, according to which »one should be able to do what he wishes, providing (1) that he does not harm others and (2) that he is not likely to harm himself irreparably« (Routley 1973, 207). This principle, however, only refers to human beings and overlooks the en­vironment. Routley not only wants to extend Western ethics to consider the en­vironment, but he also wants to develop a new, environmental ethics, which con­siders nature less as an instrument, but rather as intrinsically valuable. 2. The Last Man Thought Experiment as social criticism Although Routley does not use the term thought experiment in his original arti­cle, the example about Mr. Last Man fits the definition of thought experiments in practical philosophy. Since it searches for the answer to how »should we evalu­ate what would happen« in that particular imaginary situation, it should be con­sidered as an ethical thought experiment (Gendler 2013, 25). Routley’s thought experiment goes as follows: »The last man (or person) surviving the collapse of the world system lays about him, eliminating, as far as he can, every living thing, animal or plant (but painlessly if you like, as at the best abattoirs). What he does is quite permissible according to basic chauvinism, but on environmental grounds what he does is wrong. Moreover, one does not have to be committed to esoteric values to regard Mr. Last Man as behaving badly (the reason be­ing perhaps that radical thinking and values have shifted in an environ­mental direction in advance of corresponding shifts in the formulation of fundamental evaluative principles).« (1973, 207) Although it differs from traditional thought experiments by starting with a state­ment instead of a question, it can still easily function as a thought experiment. As all thought experiments do, the Last Man Example sets up a trap for the audience. If someone condemns the actions of Mr. Last Man, he or she thereby departs from the chauvinism criticised by Routley. Since the death of Mr. Last Man is also the death of the last intelligent being, no one remains to experience the potential ef­fects of the survival or devastation of the natural environment. 3. Does Nature have Intrinsic Value? The thought experiment brings the audience into a world without a subject and asks whether nature possesses value on its own, without the presence of human beings. If »natural entities possess intrinsic value, this would most likely provide the strongest plausible reason for preserving them when they might otherwise be destroyed for their instrumental value as, for example, economic resources« (Carter 2004, 60). This is why it is essential for Routley and other environmentalists to show the intrinsic value of nature. Since, if nature receives distinctive protection along with its non-anthropocentric view, any damage caused to nature cannot be justified merely by human interests. Routley questions one of the fundamental tenets of Western thought, which draws a clear distinction between humans and other entities of the world. Immanuel Kant writes the followings concerning per­sons in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: »The human being, howe­ver, is not a thing, hence not something that can be used merely as a means but must in all his actions always be considered as an end in itself.« (2002, 4:429) But if nature has ultimate value, and it, therefore, cannot »be used merely as a means«, it moves into a category that thus far has been reserved only for persons. If this were to be true, what intuition does the thought experiment trigger? Most people would probably intuitively condemn the pointless destruction since the description does not say anything neither about Mr. Last Man’s motivation nor about his character. Destruction motivated by anger is also intuitively turned down as a pointless deed. 4. The Last Man Thought Experiment as Social Criticism Although Routley’s thought experiment fails to certify the intrinsic value of na­ture, it does succeed in criticizing the way contemporary societies treat nature. Routley formulates three other thought experiments in his article, two of which are modified versions of the original Last Man Thought Experiment. In the Last People Example, Routley describes a group of people who know that they are the last of their kind (Routley 1973, 207-208). They are unable to repro­duce themselves due to the damage caused by some sort of radiation. There is no chance that rational beings will ever take their place, thus a succession is ruled out this way, too. The Last People decide to engage in activities through which they exploit all natural resources on earth: »They humanely exterminate every wild animal and they eliminate the fish of the seas, they put all arable land under intensive cultivation, and all remaining forests disappear in favour of quarries or plantations, and so on.« (208) However, in contrast to Mr. Last Man, they are able to justify their actions: »they believe it is the way to salvation or to perfection, or they are simply satisfying reasonable needs, or even that it is needed to keep the last people employed or occupied so that they do not worry too much about their impending extinctions.« (208) Routley finds their actions and their justification that »they do not wilfully destroy natural resources /.../ environmentally inade­quate« (208). This shows that Routley did not mean to use this second version as part of the thought experiment, but merely as an example of how it might mislead us if we conceive environmental ethics only as an extension of what Routley calls Western chauvinist ethics. He is right in claiming that the Last Man Example does not serve his purposes. It does not induce the intuition qualifying the Last People’s behaviour as ethi­cally bad. For if their actions are done with good reason, e.g., to sustain their lives or to prevent them from suffering, most people would not be likely to intuitively condemn their behaviour. A very precious piece of art could be used and even destroyed under certain conditions with good reason -at least when human lives are at stake -and the same is true with the destruction of natural objects. Routley admits that the intuition induced by the argument does not fit with his idea of ‚an environmental ethics‘ according to which »the last people have behaved badly; they have simplified and largely destroyed all the natural ecosystems, and with their demise the world will soon be an ugly and largely wrecked place« (208). The reasons given in the case of the Last People for the exploitation of nature are intuitively justified, especially since they happen to be mostly for humane purposes. Accordingly, Routley transforms the imaginary scenario to point at pur­poses justified by Western ethics, which the audience might intuitively reject. He points to the logic of industrialist societies and their relationship with nature to show the failure of ethical chauvinism. »The last man is an industrialist; he runs a giant complex of automated factories and farms which he proceeds to extend. He produces automobiles among other things, from renewable and recyclable resources of course, only he dumps and recycles these shortly after manufacture and sale to a dummy buyer instead of putting them on the road for a short time as we do. Of course, he has the best of reasons for his activity, e.g. he is increasing gross world product, or he is improving output to fulfil some plan, and he will be increasing his own and general welfare since he much prefers increased output and productivity. The entrepreneur’s behaviour is on the Western ethic quite permissible; indeed, his conduct is com­monly thought to be quite fine and may even meet Pareto optimality re­quirements given prevailing notions of being better off.« (208) The behaviour of the industrialist Mr. Last Man is probably intuitively rejected by most people. Reasons such as »increasing gross world product«, »improving output to fulfil some plan«, or »increasing his own and general welfare« are seen solely as a means to an end; thus, they have only instrumental value. The intuitive response of disgust would suggest that the integrity of nature is more valuable than the rea­sons mentioned. Routley claims that »the entrepreneur’s behaviour is on the West­ern ethic quite permissible; indeed, his conduct is commonly thought to be quite fine and may even meet Pareto optimality requirements given prevailing notions of being ,better off‘« (208). Interestingly, the Great Entrepreneur Example lacks an-thropocentrism. It is not the man who is at the centre of Mr. Last Man’s actions, but only the optimization of the industrial process and the expansion of the industrial system. Thus, industrialism is falsely identified with anthropocentrism; however, the Great Entrepreneur Example is a clear and legitimate criticism of the contem­porary industrial system and its blindness to all-natural systems. Routley does not stop at the analysis of the logic of industrialism; he also tar­gets the other side of the system: the desire to consume. He uses the actual ex­ample of the hunting of the blue whale, which left the population on the verge of extinction. Routley describes the blue whale as a ,mixed good‘ which has both public and private value. He, however, focuses on the latter aspect, namely its use »as a source of valuable oil and meat« (208). In the example, the possible harms to individuals or society are neutralized so that whale hunting appears to be al­most neutral with regard to human individuals or communities: »it does not harm the whalers; it does not harm or physically interfere with others in any good sense.« (208) Moreover, whalers do not stand in the need of hunting, since those who might be upset by whale hunting are »prepared to compensate the whalers if they desist« (208). Thus, it is assured that the hunting and its final result, the extinction of the blue whale, does not harm anyone. Although he cannot elimi­nate the suspicion that it might still harm others, even the most obvious harms to man are neutralized. This is because the Vanishing Species Example is an ac­tual example with already existing implications and presuppositions from the au­dience. Routley claims that »the behaviour of the whalers in eliminating this mag­nificent species of whale is accordingly quite permissible -at least according to basic chauvinism. But on an environmental ethic it is not« (208). The point is that chauvinism, which is the underlying morality of consumer society and the logic of the free market, is simply blind to the ethical problem of making the world of such a species as the blue whale poorer by hunting. Both examples, The Great Entrepreneur Example and The Vanishing Species Example, are much closer to the Lebenswelt of the audience than The Last Man Example. Industrialism and consumer society have been fundamental experienc­es of the western world and were especially dominant in the 1970s. Using these examples, Routley managed to point at the blindness of industrialist and con­sumer mentality towards nature and its value. They induce obvious intuitions which protest against the deeds of the industrialist Mr. Last Man and the whale hunters, and which also succeed at pointing at the wrongness of the senseless destruction of nature. Neither production nor consumption appears to be as valu­able – i.e., having final value -which would justify the destruction of nature. 5. The Context of Don’t look up The movie The Planet of the Apes and Routley’s Last Man Thought Experiment both focus on a problem recognized not so long ago. The film Don’t Look Up focus­es on challenge mankind has known about for at least half a century. The predic­tions proposed in the 1972 report proved to be valid, and the processes harming nature persist and bring us closer to the breakdown of natural and social systems (Sjřvaag 2016, 377-390). It is difficult to doubt the thesis saying that we are close to the limits of development, more precisely at the limits of the endurance of na­ture, which is necessary for the survival of mankind. Certainly, there is a minority that doubts the reality of the natural crisis or global warming. This fact, however, strengthens the case that no one with minimal awareness and information can evade the question. The threat has become permanent by now. 6. Don’t Look Up as a Thought Experiment If we want to summarize Don’t Look Up in the form of a thought experiment, the Last Man Example is not the most helpful for this purpose––not only because in the movie there are people who survive the cataclysm, but also due to its parti­cular perspective. In the Last Man Thought Experiment, we are forced to evaluate the actions of another person, social actor, group or people intuitively, while the movie – through its unmistakable analogy with our world –, places its viewers in the middle of the story which runs towards a catastrophe. Concerning literary or historical parallels, the story of Don’t Look Up resembles most closely those prophetic biblical stories in which the prophetic voice is disre­garded, and the prophet must suffer humiliation and persecution. If we had to reformulate the story of the movie in the form of a thought experiment, the Trol­ley Problem Thought Experiment suits this purpose the best: Imagine that we are in San Francisco and plan to travel on one of its famous cable cars. We are waiting at the station along with our friends and some strang­ers to enter the vehicle. The crowd is growing, and we are forced to stand on the rails. Suddenly we see that a runaway cable car is barrelling toward the station. We realize that if we don’t stop it, the monstrous vehicle will run over the pas­sengers waiting on the rails. At this moment we also get sight of a very fancy and expensive car parked nearby. Are the people waiting at the station – even if they have the chance to escape the collision – morally obliged to stop the runaway trolley by pushing the fancy, expensive car onto the rails, if this is the only way to save the lives of the passengers standing on the rails and unable to escape? Our first intuitive response is certainly a clear ,yes‘, since people’s lives are more important than things, no matter how expensive they might be. But how does it change our intuitive moral response if we provide some additional information concerning the uniqueness of the cable car? As the cable car advances toward us, we find out that it is unique and irreplace­able, since it was the first cable car traversing the streets of San Francisco. We also know how much income it produces each year as a tourist attraction for the city. Moreover, it is also clear that pushing the fancy and expensive car on the rails is not the only way to stop it. If someone was fast enough to jump into the cable car and was able to pull the emergency brake, the cable car could be stopped without any damage. This plan, however, is very risky and less secure in comparison to pushing the fancy expensive car onto the rails. Although we know that the latter option would result in the destruction of San Francisco’s historic first cable car, from an ethical point of view, it is more important to save the human lives at stake. Similarities emerge in the case of the asteroid approaching the Earth: the pro­tagonists of Don’t Look Up canvass the world of politics and media in a prophetic fashion, warning people of the imminent danger. The President of the United States still opts for bringing the asteroid to the ground via a very risky operation – instead of destroying it in a straightforward manner, with the help of rockets. The reason motivating this decision is the valuable precious metals carried by the asteroid. While the two protagonists realize the real danger immediately and can act responsibly, decision-makers and media personnel act differently than one would intuitively – and after rational consideration – respond to the situation. This is the key to the satirical character of the movie. Don’t Look Up provides its viewers with a reverse thought experiment: it tells a morally univocal story – since the scenario with the asteroid threatening all life on Earth cannot be understood as a moral dilemma, just like the triggered intui­tive response cannot be labelled as uncertain. The powerful effect of the film lies in the tension between this clear ethical evaluation of the scenario, and the irra­tional actions of most of the film’s characters. 7. Don’t Look Up as Social Criticism and the Power of Prayer The film is a powerful criticism of the functional differentiation of societies, namely that the different segments of society – such as economy, industry, health care, education, or religion – each operate according to their own distinctive logic and are unable to transcend the inner rules of their functioning (Luhmann 1977). The means for this criticism are the irrational reactions of the characters to the news of the asteroid approaching the Earth: the hosts of a morning show talks about this imminent danger to mankind and all nature as entertainment news, while the President of the United States is only interested in how the asteroid might affect the upcoming election. Neither the logic of entertainment nor the logic of politics are capable of addressing this simple challenge. One important message of the movie is the need for an all-embracing logic – with the responsible subject at its heart, capable of recognizing problems in a global way and acting accordingly –, transcending the particular logic of the different segments of society. When considering the fundamental needs of human beings, the current seg­mentation of the social system might prove itself irrational. This culminates in the prayer of the president’s son and chief of staff: »I’ve been noticing a lot of prayers recently, for people during this time, and I commend that. But I also want to give a prayer for stuff. There’s dope stuff, like material stuff, like sick apartments and watches and cars, and clothes and shit that could all go away, and I don’t want to see that stuff go away, so I’m gonna say a prayer for that stuff. Amen.« (Cohen 2021) This prayer is the most radical criticism of consumer society, since in a border­line situation when the existence of mankind is at stake, it holds things as impor­tant, which – at least in this situation – prove to be irrelevant. Borderline situati­ons and prayer both create the space for absolute honesty by virtue of their cha­racter. Just as consumer societies are only able to function with the logic of tri­ggering, sustaining, and increasing consumer appetite, the president’s son in the movie is unable to recognize what is important in life. In contrast, it is Yule – a youngster gamer and son of a born-again Christian mother –, who uses authentic religious language and is able to pray authentically in dire circumstances: »Dearest Father and Almighty Creator, we ask for your grace tonight, despite our pride. Your forgiveness, despite our doubt. Most of all, Lord, we ask for your love to soothe us through these dark times. May we face whatever is to come, in your divine will, with courage and open hearts of acceptance. Amen.« (Bellm 2022) This prayer proves to be a plea in favour of religious traditions and institutions responsible for the handing down of religious tradition from one generation to another. Yule relies on the religious language he learned from his born-again Chris­tian mother, whose religious community he has turned his back on. This prayer is authentic in two ways: it is in accordance with the tradition of saying grace at sup­per, and it mirrors the reality of those around the dinner table and makes hope present even in this hopeless situation. (Platovnjak and Svetelj 2021, 798) 8. Conclusion: Look Up! If we put the two stories – that of the Last Man Thought Experiment and the movie Don’t Look Up –, the pioneering character of Routley’s imaginary scenario beco­mes visible immediately. He tried to approach a reasonably new problem in a no­vel way. Despite its academic achievement concerning the intrinsic value of nature, it had little effect on the cause of environmentalist pursuits since it drew a sharp line between man and nature. All versions of the Last Man Thought Experiment ended in an imaginary world without the presence of human beings. This distan­cing from the existential relevance of nature was a necessary element in each of these scenarios since they were designed to support the idea of intrinsic value. It is different from the story of Don’t Look Up, since the asteroid approaching the Earth is an obvious analogy to the environmental crisis – more particularly to global warming – which is threatening our world. In contrast to the Last Man Thought Experiment, the film tries to point at a value not independent of human cognition, but rather within the Lebenswelt of human beings. It does not take the intrinsic value of nature as its starting point, but rather pursues the answer to the question concerning the existentially valuable things in human life: What is worth living for and what is not? This contrast is displayed by the ,prayer for stuff‘, ut­tered by the President’s son on behalf of the public, and the penultimate scene of grace at the dinner table, which does not intend to inform the public but is an act of those present addressing God, who creates and sustains humankind and the world both. The film formulates a clear message for everyone: decision-makers should sur­pass the logic of particular goals, and everyday people are urged to discover what is important here and now in their lives. The last scene seems to be the odd one out since it is not an organic part of the thought experiment proposed by the film. Still, it provides us with a new theological perspective: we can look at humankind from beyond our current history, watching human beings’ floundering steps on Earth with mercy and love (Malmenvall 2018, 389). References Bellm, Cameron. 2022. ‚Don‘t Look Up‘ highlights the deep sacramentality of human connection. National Catholic reporter. 22. 1. Https://www. ncronline.org/news/opinion/dont-look-highli­ghts-deep-sacramentality-human-connection (accessed 5. 2. 2022). Carter, Alan. 2004. Projectivism and the Last Person Argument. American Philosophical Quarterly 41, no. 1:51–62. Cohen, Anne. 2021. Of Course That ‘Don’t Look Up’ Birkin Bag Was Jonah Hill’s Idea. Netflix. 24. 12. Https://www.netflix.com/tudum/ articles/dont-look-up-birkin-bag-jonah-hills­-idea (accessed 5. 2. 2022). Gendler, Tamar Szabo´. 2013. Thought Experiment: On the Powers and Limits of Imaginary Cases. New York: Routledge. Kant, Immanuel. 2002. Groundwork for the Meta­physics of Morals. New Haven: Yale University Press. Kovács, Gusztáv. 2021. Thought Experiments in Ethics. Pécs: Episcopal Theological College of Pécs. Luhmann, Niklas. 1977. Differentiation of Society. The Canadian Journal of Sociology 2, no. 1:29– 53. Malmenvall, Simon. 2018. Salvation History in Fides et Ratio: Theological (Ecumenical) and Historiographical Implications. Bogoslovni vestnik 78, no. 2:387–400. Mathews, Freya. 2010. Environmental Philosophy. In: Nick Trakakis and Graham Oppy, eds. A Companion to Philosophy in Australia and New Zealand, 543–591. Melbourne: Monash Uni­versity Publishing. Meadows, Donella H., Dennis L. Medows, Jřrgen Randers and William W. Behrens III. 1972. The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind. New York: Universe Books. Opatrny Dominik. 2017. Végso forrásnak terem­tette oket [The Ultimate Resource He Created]. In: Gusztáv Kovács and Lázár Vértesi, eds. A teremtés értéke – az ember méltósága [The Value of Creation: The Dignity of Man], 34–42. Pécs: Pécsi Püspöki Hittudományi Foiskola. Pevec Rozman, Mateja. 2021. Upanje za naravo in cloveštvo: nekateri eticni premisleki [Is there a Hope for Nature and Humanity: Some Ethical Consideration]. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, no. 4:835–848. Platovnjak, Ivan, and Tone Svetelj. 2021. Chronos and Kairos of Hope. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, no. 4:797–806. https://doi.org/10.34291/ bv2021/04/platovnjak Porras, Ileana. 2015. Laudato Si’, Pope Francis’ Call to Ecological Conversion: Responding to the Cry of the Earth and the Poor – Towards an Integral Ecology. AJIL Unbound 109, no. 1: 136– 141. https://doi.org/10.1017/ s239877230000132x Routley, Richard. 1973. Is there a need for a new, an environmental ethic? In: Proceedings of the 15th World congress of Philosophy, 205–210. Sophia: Sophia Press. Sjřvaag, Marit. 2016. From The Limits to Growth to 2052. In: Hans Günter Brauch, Úrsula Oswald Spring, John Grin and Jürgen Scheffran, eds. Handbook on Sustainability Transition and Sustainable Peace, 377–390. Berlin: Springer. White, Lynn Jr. 1967. The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis. Science 155, no. 3767:1203– 1207. ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 81 Janez Juhant Lambert Ehrlich, prerok slovenskega naroda Knjiga je celovit prikaz osebnosti Lamberta Ehrlicha (1878–1942) ter njegovega vsestransko bogatega delovanja v Cerkvi in družbi na Koroškem in v Sloveniji. De-loval je kot duhovnik, profesor, veroslovec, misijonar, socialni in narodno-politic­ni delavec. Odlikujejo ga izjemna sposobnost, treznost, preudarnost in cloveška bližina pri presoji problemov ter zmožnost vkljucevanja razlicnih ljudi pri iskanju najprimernejših rešitev za narod in Cerkev. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta, Mohorjeva družba in Društvo ob Lipi sprave, 2022. 640 str. ISBN 978-961-7167-03-0 (TEOF), 42€ Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 377—390 Besedilo prejeto/Received:08/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:10/2021 UDK/UDC: 2-72-1 271.2 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Salim © 2022 Salim, CC BY 4.0 Emil Salim Church Unity as Political Unity: An Eastern Orthodox Perspective1 Cerkvena edinost kot politicna edinost: pravoslavni pogled Abstract: The image of the Church as a holy city is present in the Scriptures, in the writings of the holy fathers, and in the thoughts of modern Orthodox theologians. If the church is a polis, the unity of the Church must, in some ways, although not exhaustively, be a political unity. In this article, I argue that the Church is a City of God both as a present and as an eschatological reality. First, by seeing the Church as a polis, one can reconfirm that Orthodox unity is a unity in the ecumenical councils, canons, and creeds. Second, by seeing the Church as a polis, one can use the concept of citizenship to understand which behaviours would be considered dishonourable. The concept of citizenship would also provide a new vocabulary to explain the relations between Orthodox Christians, Orthodox Christians who are not in communion with each other, and non-Orthodox Christians. Keywords: ecclesiology, city, polis, citizenship, councils, constitutions Povzetek: Podoba Cerkve kot svetega mesta je prisotna v Svetem pismu, besedilih cerkvenih ocetov in misli modernih pravoslavnih teologov. Ce je Cerkev polis, mora biti njena edinost v nekaterih pogledih – ceprav ne izkljucno – politicna. V prispevku zagovarjamo stališce, da je Cerkev božje mesto tako v sedanji kakor tudi vecnostni resnicnosti. Prvic, gledati na Cerkev kot na polis lahko potrdi, da je pravoslavna edinost zaobjeta v ekumenskih koncilih, kanonih in veroizpove­dnih obrazcih. Drugic, gledati na Cerkev kot na polis omogoca uporabo koncep­ta državljanstva za razumevanje, katera ravnanja so necastna. Koncept drža­vljanstva bi lahko tudi prispeval k novemu besednjaku za razlago razmerij med pravoslavnimi kristjani, pravoslavnimi kristjani, ki med seboj niso v obcestvu, in nepravoslavnimi kristjani. Kljucne besede: ekleziologija, mesto, polis, državljanstvo, koncili, ustave Acknowledgments: My thanks goes to the participants of the 2019 Annual Meeting of the Orthodox Theological Society in America for their feedback on my presentation. I also thank Frank Senn, Dimitri Conomos, Sylvia Chan, and Fr. James Ellison for commenting on an earlier draft of this article. 1. Introduction The image of the Church as a holy city is present in the Scriptures, the writings of the holy fathers, and in the thoughts of modern Orthodox theologians. This un­derstanding of the Church as a polis, however, has not contributed much to the discourses on Church unity. When discussing Church unity, many theologians un­derstandably discuss the more familiar image of the Church as the body of Christ (Lossky 1957, 174; Bordeianu 2011, 185; Zizioulas 1997, 147–148; Malmenvall 2018, 393; Raczynski-Rozek 2019, 760). Yet the Church is also a polis. If the Church is a polis, then Church unity must in some ways, although not exhaustively, be a political unity. Furthermore, if unity is necessary for the existence of a polis, then it is also necessary for the survival and the flourishing of the Church qua polis. In the first section of this article, I show that the Scriptures, the holy fathers, and some modern theologians see the Church as a polis not only as an eschato-logical reality, but also as a present reality. In the second section, I propose two examples of how understanding the Church as a polis can contribute to the dis­courses on church unity. First, understanding the Church as a polis will reaffirm the necessity of conciliar unity. The reason is that just as the councils, the consti­tution, and concord are central to political unity, the same is true of Church unity. Second, understanding the Church as a polis would provide a new vocabulary for speaking about the relation between the Orthodox Church and non-Orthodox churches. I will end the article with a brief conclusion. 2. The Church as Polis In this section, I will show that the Scriptures, the holy fathers, and some modern theologians see the Church as a polis. I will also argue that this political nature of the Church is already a present reality, not just an eschatological reality. 2.1 The Scriptural Basis The Sermon on the Mount offers an initial remark of the Church as a city. After saying that the disciples are the light of the world, Jesus uses the image of the city to illustrate his point further: a city (polis) built on a hill cannot be hidden (Matt 5,14), just like his disciples are the light of the world that should not be hidden. St. Paul elaborates further on the idea that the church is a polis. He writes that the citizenship (politeuma) of believers is in heaven (Phil 3,20) and that they are now fellow citizens (sumpolitai) in the covenant of promise (Eph 2,19). I argue here that this citizenship is already a present reality, not merely an eschatological pro­jection. The reason for this is twofold. First, in Eph 2,19, St. Paul uses the present tense (este) in his description of believers as fellow citizens. The same case obtains with Phil 3,20, where St. Paul says that the citizenship of believers exists (hupar­chei)—in the present tense—in heaven. Second, Eph 2,19 also says in the same sentence that Christians are members of the household of God. There is no questi­on that believers are members of the household of God now (Evdokimov 2011, 49). If that is the case, it is only consistent that believers are also fellow citizens now. On this model, one might say that if the Church is the city of God, then the different jurisdictions (e.g., the five ancient patriarchates) could be the households in the city, with their respective paterfamilias in the office of the patriarch or the pope. The language of citizenship in Ephesians and Philippians suggests that the be­lievers are citizens of something. I argue that the believers are citizens of the po­lis of God, which is the Church. One evidence for this is available in the Epistle to the Hebrews, where the polis of God is directly identified with the Church. Heb 12,22-23 says that »you [the believers] have come (proseleluthate) to Mount Zion, to the city (polei) of the living God, to the festal gathering of the thousands of angels, to the church of the firstborn (ekklesia(i) prototokon) whose names are written in heaven.« [my translation] This passage literally asserts that the Church is the city of God and that Christians have already come—in the perfect tense—to this city. Accordingly, Christians are already citizens of the City of God. Finally, the book of Revelation contrasts the great city of Babylon with the holy city of Jerusalem which has twelve foundations, which are Christ’s apostles (Rev 21,14). The New Jerusalem is not a human achievement, but something that co­mes down out of heaven (21,2). It is also the Bride of the Lamb (21,2), which po­ints out that the city is in fact the Church because the Church is the Bride of Christ (cf. Eph 5,25-27). The image of the Church as a polis in the Book of Revelation is undoubtedly eschatological. The passages discussed above are evidence that the Scriptures describe the Church as the city of God both as a present and as an eschatological reality. This understanding is confirmed by the holy fathers, to whom I now turn. 2.2 The Writings of the Fathers Some of the Church fathers agree that the Church is a polis. I will only mention three in this article. First, in one of his commentaries, St. Cyril of Alexandria quotes Heb 12,22-23 to describe the Church as the city of heavenly Jerusalem: »And the boast of the church will never end or cease because the souls of the righteous are leaving earthly matters behind and sailing to the city above, the heavenly Jerusalem, the church of the firstborn ›who is our mother,‹ as Paul says« (2013, 356).2 Second, St. Basil the Great also sees the Church as a polis, which he explicitly asserts in his commentary on Ps 59 (Homily 20): »The shoe of the divinity is the God-bearing flesh, through which he appro­aches men. In this hope, pronouncing blessed, the time of the coming of the Lord, the prophet says: ›Who will bring me into the fortified city?‹ Note, however, that in another commentary, he sees the Church as a mountain instead of a city (2008, 63–64). Perhaps, he means the Church, a city, indeed, because it is a community governed conformably to laws« (1963, 339). More importantly, he thinks that the description of the Church as polis does not apply only to the New Jerusalem above, but also to the Church at present: »Since God is in the midst of the city, He will give it stability, providing assistance for it at the break of dawn. Therefore, the word, ,of the city‘, will fit either Jeru­salem above or the Church below (1963, 304).« (Homily 18 on Ps 45) Lastly, Blessed Augustine is famous for his De Civitate Dei (11.1), in which he ar­gues that the Church is the city of God, based on Ps 87,3 (»Glorious things are said of you, city of God« [NIV]), Ps 48,1 (»Great is the LORD, and most worthy of praise, in the city of our God, his holy mountain« [NIV]), and Ps 48,8 (»As we have heard, so we have seen in the city of the LORD almighty, in a city of our God.« [NIV]). In addition to the writings of St. Cyril, St. Basil, and Blessed Augustine, the de­scription of the Christian Church as a polis, specifically as Jerusalem or the city of God, is also present in other Greek and Latin texts before and during Augustine’s time, for example, in the writings of Ambrose and Origen (O’Daly 1999). I shall now discuss the writings of more recent theologians. 2.3 The Writings of Modern Theologians Some Orthodox theologians believe that the Church is a polis. A few, like Christos Yannaras, believe that the Church is already a polis at this present age. Yannaras draws a comparison between the Greek ekklesia as a political assembly and the Church as a Christian assembly (2013, 21–22). For him, a polis is not simply a set­tlement, but rather an event; it is a way of life. In the same way, the church is not a building, but an ecclesial/Eucharistic event. The Christian polis is characte­rized by trust in God and love for each other (Gounopoulos 2018, 64; 79). A joint Orthodox-Catholic document in 1982 also seems to assert that the Church is a polis, which is manifested as a present reality in the local church (Joint Internati­onal Commission, 1982; 2014, 57). While Yannaras is very explicit about the fact that the Church is already a polis even in the present age, Sergei Bulgakov is a little bit unclear about whether the Church is already a City of God or not. He indeed puts a strong emphasis on the eschatological aspect of the Church as polis. In the Bride of the Lamb, he sees the Church, the heavenly Jerusalem, the City of God, as a future reality at the end of the world (1976, 521). The City of God is not a part of history, but something that is meta-history. I am guessing that he means the City of God is fully realized ‚after‘ (meta) the history of the world ends. That the City of God is something eschato-logical is also asserted by Bulgakov in an essay in his Two Cities, when he discuss­es the Russian intelligentsia: »A certain unworldliness, the eschatological vision of the City of God, the coming kingdom of righteousness /... / make up the famil­iar, invariable and distinctive characteristics of the Russian intelligentsia.« (1999, 74) Here he seems to say that the City of God is still yet to come. However, in an article entitled „On the Question of the Apocatastasis of the Fallen Spirits“, he says that the Church as the City of God is already present now: »The history of the world, which is also the history of the Church, is the building of the Kingdom of God, the City of God.« In this work, he identifies history with temporality, which concerns both ‚the present ćon‘ and eternity (1995, 28–30). Finally, some theologians tend to emphasize the eschatological aspect of the Church as polis. For instance, in his reflection on the Holy and Great Council of 2016, Metropolitan Amfilohije Radovic quotes Rev 21,2; 22-23, implying that the Church is a Holy City, which will be manifested at the end of the world (2017, 43). In the same way, Nikolai Berdiaev notes that Khomiakov does not believe that the Church is the City now, although Khomiakov believes that the Church is the Com­ing City (1998, 335–336). In the remainder of the article, I will continue with the assumption that the Church is already a City of God even in the present age, although it is still imper­fect in many ways.3 In a sense, then, the Church is ,already, but not yet‘ the City of God. I will now discuss the benefits of seeing the Church as a polis for the dis­courses on church unity. I will begin with a discussion of the councils, the consti­tution, and concord. 3. Church Unity as Political Unity A simple definition of a polis, which is also accepted by St. Basil, is that it is »an established community (sustema) administered according to law (nomon)« (1963, 302). There are two elements of a polis that are explicit in this definition, viz., an organization of people and a law. This way of understanding the polis is also pres­ent in Aristotle, who says in the beginning of his Politics that »every state (polin) is a community of some kind (koinonian tina), and every community is established with a view to some good« (1252a1–2).4 The political community must share a constitution in common: the constitution is a ,fellowship‘ (e gar politeia koinonia tis esti) (1260b40). The constitution, which describes the political offices and the telos of a polis, in turn will determine the rest of the administrative laws for the polis (Politics 4.1). Based on this definition of the polis, political unity should be understood in terms of the unity of the community in accordance with the ac­cepted constitution. In the following, I will first discuss the importance of councils, constitution, and concord for political unity. Afterwards, I will discuss the issue of citizenship in political unity. 3 In one of his books, Frank Senn, a Lutheran scholar, argues that the church is a civitas: »The church itself is to replicate on earth the new Jerusalem that the Seer in his revelation saw coming down out of heaven from God (Revelation 21:10). Here in the Apocalypse we see a sectarian faith that stands against the world and moves toward the most catholic model of Christianity—that of the polis of a world empire whose Kyrios or Dominus is Christ Jesus.« (2006, 139) 4 The English translation of Aristotle’s texts in this paper is taken from Aristotle (1984). 3.1 Councils, Constitution, and Concord Hannah Arendt observes that an ancient polis is primarily not a physical space surrounded by walls, but instead an organization of people who act and speak to­gether (1998, 198). To live a political life embodies freedom, and everything must be decided by words and persuasion (1998, 26). This is a correct observation of the political life in ancient Greece, where a polis or a city-state is ruled by a special assembly of people, in the form of a council. The assembly would consist of citi­zens who are free and equal in their political rights to partake in decision-making for the city, including in producing legal and political documents. In Politics, Aris­totle writes that »there must be a body which convenes the supreme authority in the state. In some places they are called ‚probuli‘ (probouloi), because they hold previous deliberations, but in a democracy more commonly ‚councillors‘ (boule).« (1322b, 15–17) The Roman Republic, at least in the early days, can also be imagined as a polis. In the Roman Republic, the Senate is the center of power, but it has less constitutional power than its Greek council counterpart. The Roman Senate is functioning more as an advisory assembly. There are, however, more forms of the popular assembly in the Roman Republic than in the ancient Greek society. These Roman assemblies are the comitia curiata, centuriata, tributa, and the concilium plebis. Both in ancient Greece and in Rome, it is the assemblies or councils of citizens that have the authority to decide on legal and political matters. This fact about the polis has a direct relevance to the Church. If the Church is a polis, then Church matters must also be decided ultimately by a council or an assembly. The very first significant deliberative meeting of Christ’s apostles hap­pened in Jerusalem (Act 15), where the New Testament Church began during the Feast of Pentecost. The Jerusalem meeting in Act 15 would be a precedent for the future conciliar meetings of the Church as the City of God. The early Church prefers to adopt the image of Greek ekklesia instead of the Jewish qahal (Hovorun 2015, 4). This is simply a historical fact. The similarity be­tween the Greek council or the Roman senate and the Church council is widely recognized. Cyril Hovorun also highlights the political nature of the Church by agreeing that »the council is not just an appendix to the Church, but the Church itself is a council« (2017, 82). He goes on to argue that the ecclesial conciliar pro­cedures are adapted from the Roman senate to be a blueprint for the works of the bishops, including the emphasis on the equal rights to speak and vote (isegoria) of the council participants (2017, 84). Moreover, Leo Donald Davis men­tions that the collective deliberations of the bishops follow the official Roman senatorial formulć of convocation (1983, 23). Just as the unity of the ancient polis depends on the conciliar unity, the unity of the Church as polis should be a conciliar unity. John Meyendorff writes that »wherever and whenever there is disagreement, the tradition of the Church rec­ommends that a conciliar procedure take place« (1987, 126). When the bishops meet, they deliberate as equals. As Bulgakov says, there cannot be any episcopus episcoporum or a super-bishop (1999, 124). Furthermore, just as the Greek councils are responsible for the legislation of the polis, the Church councils are responsible for the canons of the Church. For the Church to be united, not only should the councils be recognized as the supreme authority for deliberation, but also the canons resulting from those councils should be obeyed. Aristotle’s idea of political unity is useful here. In the polis, some peo­ple are rulers and legislators, and others are the ruled. Both the rulers and the ruled must be virtuous in their own capacity (Deslauriers 2013, 138–139). Political unity can obtain only when the legislators produce excellent legislation through the con­ciliar procedure, when the rulers virtuously govern the people in accordance with the laws, and the ruled willingly obey the laws. In the same way, unity in the Church can obtain only when the Church councils produce great canons that are obeyed by the Church community under the rule of the bishops. This understanding of Church unity reaffirms the fact that the Church is indeed a canonical community (Clapsis 2000, 117). How one interprets the canon law of the Church is indeed a complicated issue, but the reception of the canons in the life of the Church must avoid the extremes of legalism and anarchism (Erickson 1991, 10–12). In the ancient polis, obedience to the law is essential to achieve concord among citizens (Bakke 2001, 119). Concord is a necessary element for political unity. In the Nicomachean Ethics, for example, Aristotle says that »friendship (he philia) seems too to hold [cities] (tas poleis) together, and lawgivers to care more for it than for justice; for [concord] (he homonoia) seems to be something like friend­ship, and this they aim at most of all, and expel faction (ten stasin) as their worst enemy« (1155a, 22–26). Again, later in the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle says that »a city is [in concord] when men have the same opinion about what is to their interest, and choose the same actions, and do what they have resolved in com­mon« (1167a, 25–28). Blessed Augustine, too, in De Civitate Dei emphasizes the importance of concord for the unity of the city: »For the rational and well-ordered concord of diverse sounds in harmonious variety suggests the compact unity of the well-ordered city.« (17.14)5 Since the very beginning of the Church, civil conflict or dissension is a reason for split or division. The first Jerusalem council in Act 15,2 begins with a sharp dispute (staseos) between Paul and Barnabas and the party of the circumcisers about the matter of circumcision of the Gentile believers. Canon 15 of Nicea I says that in case there are discords (tas staseis), the Canon must be obeyed. Such obe­dience, in turn, will result in concord. The importance of concord is attested in other documents of the early church, such as in „Apostolic Canon“ 34 (Hagiorite and Agapius 1957, 50): »But let not even such a one do anything without the advice and consent and approval of all. For thus will there be concord (homonia), and God will be glorified through the Lord in Holy Spirit; the Father, and the Son; and the Holy Spirit.« The translation is taken from Philip Schaff (1977). In the Life of Constantine, Eusebius describes how Constantine oversees Nicea I, »There was no other way of resolving important issues except by synodal meetings; /... / [Constantine] promoted peace and concord by assembling the priests of God in obedience to the divine law« (1.51). As Kallistos Ware writes, the aim of every council is to attain a ‚common mind‘ through collective discernment (2019, 23). The first letter of Clement to the Corinthians also emphasizes the importance of concord (homonia) and peace to stave off sedition (stasin) (20; 30; 51; 60– 61). 1 Clem 30,3, for example, asks the readers to clothe themselves in concord and to avoid backbiting and slander.6 One practical consequence that comes from the emphasis on concord is the fact that the Church members as fellow citizens must become political friends with each other, which means that they would subscribe to the ideal of the City of God for a noble life, reaffirm the necessity and centrality of the conciliar fel­lowship, and obey the canons of the Church as best as they can. Such attitudes and actions will result in concord and peace. In this section, I have shown that taking the image of the Church as polis seri­ously contributes to the discussion of church unity in that there is a strong con­firmation of the need for conciliar unity, obedience to the canons, and concord. I will now discuss the issue of citizenship in a polis. 3.2 Citizenship One other possible contribution from understanding the Church as a polis for the discourses on church unity comes from the issues of citizenship and church membership. Aristotle defines citizenship in his Politics (1275b, 17–21): »The conception of the citizen (polites) now begins to clear up. He who has the power to take part in the deliberative (bouleutikes) or judicial (kritikes) administration of any state is said by us to be a citizen of that state (tes poleos); and, speaking generally, a state is a body of citizens suf­ficing for the purposes of life.« Aristotle also mentions that sometimes a polis will admit aliens as citizens if the law permits them to be (1278a, 26–27). In his definition of ,citizen‘, Aristotle empha­sizes the fact that citizens would potentially be able to hold public or political office. The public offices or public roles in ancient Greece are called hai timai or ho-nours. Those who are committing dishonour or disgrace (atimia) lose their pri­vileges in public or political life. Aristotle makes the distinction between citizens as follows: »Hence, as is evident, there are different kinds of citizens; and he is a citizen in the fullest sense who shares in the honours of the state. Compare Homer’s words »like some dishonoured (atimeton) stranger«; he who is excluded from the honours of the state is no better than an alien (metoikos).« (1278a, 34–38) See also Werner Jaeger‘s discussion of Clement (1961, 16–17). Atimia should be avoided to stave off penalty or exile. In the ancient polis, ati­mia is a designation for cases deserving of outlawry, such as establishing tyranny, overthrowing the democracy, or intentional homicide (Forsdyke 2005, 10–11). If the Church is a polis, then atimiawould be something that needs to be avo­ided to stave off schism or excommunication. In the Scriptures, the word can refer to sins, such as shameful lusts (Rom 1,26), or to a social disgrace, such as when a man wears long hair (1 Cor 11,14). St. Chrysostom thinks that having illegitimate children with slaves or prostitutes is an atimia (Wet 2015, 249). The canons of the ecumenical councils do not speak much of atimiaother than in Canon 6 of Constantinopolitanum I (Hagiorite and Agapius 1957, 213): »But if anyone, scorning what has been decreed in the foregoing statements, should dare either to annoy the emperor’s ear or trouble courts of secular authorities or an ecumenical council to the affrontment (atimasas) of all the Bishops of the diocese, let no such person be allowed to present any information whatever, because of his having thus roundly insulted the Canons and ecclesiastical discipline.« Nevertheless, this rare appearance of atimia is very informative: dishonour is attributed to those who would belittle the canons, which in this context concerns accusations against Orthodox bishops. The canons emphasize the importance of honour or office (time) repeatedly, for example, in Nicea I (Canons 7-8), Constan­tinopolitanum I (Canon 3), and Chalcedon (Canon 4). My proposal is that the unity of the Church must be the unity of its members who have the honour (time). Atimia will undermine church unity. It is very inte­resting that Yannaras, in his 2018 article on the hubris of autocephaly, uses the idea of atimia when talking about the Patriarch of Moscow with regards to the Episcopal Council of the Phanar. Yannaras thinks that the Patriarch »blackmails the economically (or politically) Moscow-dependent ‚primates‘ to follow him in his abstaining. In ecclesiastical language, such behaviour is characterized as ‚che­ese‘, in common language: ‚dishonesty‘ (atimia)« [translated by Dimitri Conomos] (Yannaras 2018). The issues that are at hand here are far from uncontroversial and it is not my intention to offend the parties involved. What is important here is for the Church to identify which behaviours are considered an atimiaand what appropriate responses need to be made to those behaviours. What is interesting about the idea of atimiais that it is not only about dishono­ur, but also about the deprivation of political office. The word timecan mean ho-nour or office. A citizen with full political rights would be a citizen with time. Howe­ver, one can be a citizen although at the same time an atimos(without honour or office). This would be a case in which a citizen is committing a punishable mistake or is being suspended in political activity or being exiled. In the same way, one can be a resident alien or a metic (metoikos) who is atimos. A metic is not a slave but barred from political participation and holding property (Nussbaum 1990, 419). If Christians are fellow citizens in the City of God, then it is important to under­stand who can be citizens, what is considered atimia, and who are considered the metics. In Orthodox theology, the citizens of the City of God are those who have received valid baptism and chrismation. It is probably safe to say that non-Chri­stians can be considered metics or resident aliens.7 What about non-Orthodox Christians? Are they not fellow citizens of the City of God? Some Orthodox theologians do not believe that baptisms of other churches can be fully recognized as valid. Some utilize the principle of the sacramental eco­nomy for the baptisms of the Roman Catholics and the Reformed Protestants (Merras 1998, 144). The baptisms of non-Orthodox churches are difficult for the Orthodox Church to accept because the sacraments of baptism, chrismation, and eucharist are ultimately inseparable (Joint Commission for Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church1993, 65). Bulgakov understands the problem. To him, there needs to be a distinction be­tween non-Christians and non-Orthodox Christians. While non-Christians proba­bly are deprived of the sacraments and the life of grace, it is not entirely clear that non-Orthodox Christians are also on the same boat as the non-Christians (Niko­laev 2007, 90). And then there are the Oriental churches and Orthodox churches that are non-canonical. How should one view these groups? Canon 95 of the Co­uncil of Trullo clearly makes a distinction in the reception of different groups of people. Some need to be rebaptized, some need to be baptized, some need to be chrismated only, and some only need to repudiate their heretic beliefs. The language of citizenship in the City of God might be able to provide a new vocabulary here. From the Eastern Orthodox point of view, Eastern Orthodox Christians are usually citizens with time, unless someone is excommunicated.8 I argue that it is reasonable to think of those who are not Eastern Orthodox as analogous to passive citizens, i.e., citizens without time. This would be true be­cause one cannot hold an ecclesiastical office as a deacon or a priest in Eastern Orthodox Church without being Eastern Orthodox. But this is true as well in Ro­man Catholicism. The vocabulary of ,passive citizens‘ can in fact be used by other mainline Protestant denominations. Isn’t it true that one needs to be a Lutheran to be a pastor in the Lutheran church? And isn’t it true that one must be a Dutch Reformed of a certain denomination to be a pastor in that denomination? In this section, I have argued that seeing the Church as a polis is beneficial in understanding Church unity. The reason is that one can try identifying forms of atimia and then avoid them at all costs. The language of citizenship also might provide a new vocabulary to understand how Orthodox Christians relate to non-Orthodox Christians. 7 An older Greek constitution refers to those who do not believe in Christ as metics, who can’t be officers but can be soldiers (Arnakis 1998, 115). 8 Bernd Wannenwetsch reminds us that a full citizen of the Church’s polis can still be no more than a paroikos in the secular community (2004, 142). 4. Possible Concerns One immediate concern about my proposal to take the city metaphor seriously might be about the competing claims of different Christian groups to be the true city of God, i.e., the true catholic church. How does the metaphor of the city help the relations between Christian groups not in communion with each other, who each think that they are the genuine city of God? My answer to this concern would be to point out that the problem of competing claims made by different Christian groups is present not only for the metaphor of the city of God, but also for other metaphors, such as the body of Christ. The Catholics believe that they are the true body of Christ, just as the canonical Orthodox believe that the true body of Christ only extends to the canonical jurisdictions (Jillions 2009, 296–297). Given these competing claims, the city metaphor might in fact offer a political language by which Christian groups may interact. For example, they need to be courteous to one another in ‚diplomacy‘ (e.g., dialogues and gifting of relics and icons), ‚ho­spitality‘ (e.g., papal visits and delegations), and ‚trade‘ (e.g., exchange of goods and services for liturgical and legal purposes). The second possible concern might be that this metaphor might not have a normative force. In other words, one might ask how the metaphor of the Church as a polis translates into a prescription that the Church must be politically united. To respond to this concern, I would like to quote Jesus’ wise words against the Pharisees, when he was accused of casting out demons by the power of Beelze­bul, that a city (polis) divided against itself will not stand (Matt 12,25). Although not his main point in the immediate discourse, Jesus is saying that unity is an exi­stential necessity and an ideal to pursue if a city wants to flourish. If the Church is indeed a polis, it is an existential concern that the Church must be politically united. In other words, the normativity emerges from existential needs to survive. The third concern might be about how to determine which metaphors on church unity are most appropriate. The Scriptures depict the Church not only as a city, but also as a human body, a household, and a temple. The kind of unity in each of these metaphors is quite different. A human body has more unity than a household, and a household has more unity than a polis. Which unity is more im­portant? As a response, this concern is actually not specific only for those who see the Church as a polis, but also for those who believe that the Church is depic­ted in many ways in the Scriptures. I believe each metaphor for the Church is use­ful in different ways. The metaphor of the Church as a polis is probably most use­ful when thinking about the Church as a hierarchical organization with its canon laws. The metaphor of the Church as the body of Christ, by comparison, might be more useful when discussing the various gifts that Christians can offer in their ministries together. Another concern might be that my discussion of political unity is too materia­listic, given the fact that the Church is actually a spiritual or alternative reality, not a physical reality. My answer to this concern would be to say that the utilization of political apparatus in the life of the church does not necessarily undermine the spiritual nature of the Church. In fact, just as liturgy must be embodied in the worshipers, the spiritual nature of the Church is embodied in the political admi­nistration of the Church. The last concern might be that the image of the Church as a polis is not really adding any practical or real-life contribution to the discussion of church unity. For example, what if people do not want to obey the canons and constitutions? To respond to this concern, my proposal to see the Church as a polis is not primarily motivated by the desire to give a practical contribution, but instead an affirmati­on of what the Scriptures and the holy fathers have presented to us, the teaching of which does have practical ramifications. The fact that some people are not obedient to the political administration of the Church simply shows the reality that the Church is still not ideal. The same kind of concern is present for other metaphors of the Church as well. For example, the image of the Church as the body of Christ is subject to the very same problem of noncompliance and anarchy of the different bodily parts. Still, theologians think that there are values to using the metaphor of the body of Christ for the Church. 5. Conclusion In this article, I have argued that the Church is a City of God as both a present and an eschatological reality. This idea is attested in the Scriptures, in the writin­gs of the Church fathers, and in contemporary Orthodox discourses. Taking this political image of the Church seriously directly impacts the discourses on Church unity at least in two ways. First, just as a polis is united by its people and its laws, one can reconfirm that Orthodox unity is a unity in the ecumenical councils, canons, and creeds. Efforts towards Church unity should then aim for a common acceptance of essential Church constitutions and conciliar decisions. This is not a reductive understanding of Church unity, because it can recognize other kinds of unity such as liturgical unity (Rommen 2017, 75–76; Vukašinovic 2013, 255). Second, just as a polis has different kinds of residents (e.g., active citizens, pas­sive citizens, and aliens), the Church qua polis can be seen as a city with different kinds of members. Invoking the idea of citizenship would provide a new vocabu­lary to explain the relations between Orthodox Christians, Orthodox Christians who are not in communion with each other, and non-Orthodox Christians. More specifically, the idea of ‚passive citizens‘ can be used to refer to other Christian groups. 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Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the Church. Con­temporary Greek Theologians 4. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. Pregledni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 391—403 Besedilo prejeto/Received:05/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:10/2021 UDK/UDC: 27-1 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Campagnaro © 2022 Campagnaro, CC BY 4.0 Matteo Campagnaro „Fratelli Tutti“ e sviluppo umano integrale: un lun-go cammino da Paolo VI a Francesco „Fratelli Tutti“ and Integral Human Development: A Long Journey from Paul VI to Francis „Vsi bratje“ („Fratelli tutti“) in celovit cloveški razvoj: dolga pot od Pavla VI. do Franciška Riassunto: Quest’articolo vuole dare un contributo per una lettura intelligente e contestualizzata dell’ultima Enciclica di Papa Francesco „Fratelli tutti“. Nelle pagine seguenti vogliamo dimostrare, infatti, come la „Fratelli tutti“ sia il cul-mine di un cammino che parte lontano, dalla Lettera Enciclica „Populorum Pro-gressio“ di Paolo VI del 1967 che, a sua volta, nasce dall’esperienza delle chie­se di periferia, in particolare dall’esperienza della Chiesa in America Latina. C’č infatti un filo rosso che inizia dalla „Populorum Progressio“ e attraverso emi­nenti documenti quali la „Sollecitudo Rei Socialis“ di Giovanni Paolo II (1987) e la „Caritas in Veritate“ di Benedetto XVI (2009) arriva fino alla „Fratelli tutti“ legando cosě, nello spirito dell’ermeneutica della continuitŕ, l’insegnamento sociale di tutti i Papi postconciliari. Questo filo rosso č il concetto di sviluppo umano integrale. Parole chiave: sviluppo umano integrale, Paolo VI, Papa Francesco, teologia del popolo, Fratelli tutti, America Latina Abstract: The article aims to make a contribution to an intelligent and contextu­alized reading of the latest Encyclical by Pope Francis „Fratelli Tutti“, demon­strating how it is the culmination of a journey that starts far away, from the Encyclical Letter „Populorum Progressio“ of Paul VI of 1967 which, in turn, it arises from the experience of the peripheral churches, in particular from the experience of the Church in Latin America. In fact, there is a red thread that begins with „Populorum Progressio“ and through eminent documents such as John Paul II’s „Sollecitudo Rei Socialis“ (1987) and Benedict XVI’s „Caritas in Veritate“ (2009), it reaches the „Fratelli Tutti“, thus linking, in the spirit of the hermeneutics of continuity, the social teaching of all post-conciliar Popes. This red thread is the concept of integral human development. Keywords: integral human development, Paul VI, Pope Francis, Theology of the people, Fratelli tutti, Latin America Povzetek: Prispevek želi pripomoci k razumnemu in obenem kontekstu ustreznemu branju zadnje okrožnice papeža Franciška „Vsi bratje“ (Fratelli tutti). V prispev­ku želimo pokazati, kako pomenijo Vsi bratje vrhunec dolge poti od okrožnice „Populorum Progressio“ Pavla VI. iz leta 1967, ki se poraja iz izkušnje Cerkva na obrobjih, zlasti iz izkušnje Cerkve v Latinski Ameriki. Obstaja torej rdeca nit: zacenja se pri „Populorum Progressio“, nadaljuje z zelo pomembnimi dokumen-ti, denimo s „Sollecitudo Rei Socialis“ Janeza Pavla II. (1987) in „Caritas in Veri­tate“ (2009) Benedikta XVI., ter zakljucuje pri „Fratelli tutti“ – in na tak nacin v duhu hermenevtike kontinuitete povezuje družbeni nauk vseh pokoncilskih papežev. Omenjena rdeca nit je koncept celovitega cloveškega razvoja. Kljucne besede: celovit cloveški razvoj, Pavel VI., papež Francišek, teologija ljudstva, Vsi bratje, Latinska Amerika L’enciclica „Fratelli tutti“ (in seguito FT), firmata dal Santo Padre Francesco il 3 ottobre 2020 sulla tomba di San Francesco ad Assisi, rappresenta un prezioso compendio dell’insegnamento pontificio di Papa Bergoglio. Come osserva Bruno Forte, «si ha fra le mani una preziosa ricapitolazione» che aiuta a sistematizza-re il pensiero del Pontefice e offre «stimoli numerosi e fecondi al pensiero del-la fede ed all’azione» (Forte 2020, 17). Dopo averci regalato l’enciclica scritta a quattro mani con Benedetto XVI „Lumen Fidei“ e l’enciclica sociale „Laudato si“ sulla cura della casa comune e sulla necessitŕ di una ecologia integrale, con FT ci propone una riflessione sorprendentemente attuale, sulla fraternitŕ e l’amicizia sociale: tema questo molto caro al Pontefice che, come fa notare Spadaro (2020, 115) proprio dal concetto di fratellanza fece iniziare il suo pontificato. Al popolo riunito in Piazza San Pietro dopo la sua elezione al soglio pontificio chiese di ini­ziare assieme un «cammino di fratellanza, di amore, di fiducia tra noi» (France­sco, 2013). Francesco ci propone, dunque, un’altra enciclica sociale e, prenden-do ad esempio il suo patrono San Francesco che «non faceva la guerra dialettica imponendo dottrine, ma comunicava l’amore di Dio» (FT 4), cerca come fece il Poverello d’Assisi, un luogo meta-teologico d’incontro, una piattaforma di dialogo con tutti gli uomini «di buona volontŕ, al di lŕ delle loro convinzioni religiose» (56). Questo non stupisce un attento conoscitore dell’ambiente teologico nel quale č nato e cresciuto Francesco, il quale fin da giovane gesuita, poi come provinciale, rettore e infine vescovo e arcivescovo di Buenos Aires ha sempre cercato, nel suo agire pastorale squisitamente poliedrico, il dialogo con le altre culture e le altre religioni. Il poliedro, infatti, «rappresenta una societŕ in cui le differenze convi­vono integrandosi, arricchendosi e illuminandosi a vicenda, benché ciň comporti discussioni e diffidenze. Da tutti, infatti, si puň imparare qualcosa, nessuno č inu­tile, nessuno č superfluo.» (215) Francesco, teologo del popolo, ci propone un documento scritto dalla posizione dei popoli piů oppressi, dal punto di vista delle periferie, convinto che chi «vive in esse ha un altro punto di vista, vede aspetti della realtŕ che non si riconoscono dai centri di potere dove si prendono le deci­sioni piů determinanti» (215). Per riuscire a cogliere appieno la ricchezza dottrinale e pastorale di FT, non pos­siamo prescindere dall’esaminare il tessuto culturale e teologico che hanno forma-to il suo autore. Troppo spesso infatti l’ignoranza sulle origini del pensiero di Papa Francesco, di cui purtroppo siamo testimoni in molti ambienti europei, porta a inutili discussioni e polemiche che non hanno alcuna valenza accademica ma sono spinte solamente da convinzioni ideologiche. Quest’articolo vuole dare un piccolo contributo per una lettura intelligente e contestualizzata dell’Enciclica pontificia. Nelle pagine seguenti vogliamo dimostrare, infatti, come la „Fratelli tutti“ sia il cul-mine di un cammino che parte lontano, dalla Lettera Enciclica „Populorum Progres­sio“ do Paolo VI del 1967 che, a sua volta, come vedremo, nasce dall’esperienza delle chiese di ,periferia‘, in particolare dall’esperienza della Chiesa in America La­tina (PP 4). C’č infatti un filo rosso che inizia dalla „Populorum Progressio“ (in se­guito PP) e attraverso eminenti documenti quali la „Sollecitudo Rei Socialis“ (in seguito SRS) di Giovanni Paolo II (1987) e la „Caritas in Veritate“ (in seguito CIV) di Benedetto XVI (2009) arriva fino alla FT legando cosě, nello spirito dell’ermeneuti-ca della continuitŕ, l’insegnamento sociale di tutti i Papi postconciliari. Questo filo rosso č il concetto di sviluppo umano integrale. Questo concetto viene introdotto nell’insegnamento della Chiesa per la prima volta da Giovanni XXIII nella sua enci­clica „Mater et Magistra“ del 1961. Papa Roncalli usa per la prima volta questo termine in riferimento al bene comune quando invita gli «uomini investiti di auto-ritŕ pubblica» ad avere «una sana concezione del bene comune»; essa, «si concre­ta nell’insieme di quelle condizioni sociali che consentono e favoriscono negli es-seri umani lo sviluppo integrale della loro persona.» (MM 51) Gli fa eco Paolo VI, secondo il quale lo sviluppo, per essere autentico, «deve essere integrale, il che vuol dire volto alla promozione di ogni uomo e di tutto l’uomo» (PP 14). Il tema principale della FT rappresentato dall’idea di fraternitŕ e amicizia sociale č realiz­zabile solamente attraverso la ricerca e l’attuazione, appunto, di uno sviluppo uma-no integrale: «l’inequitŕ e la mancanza di sviluppo umano integrale non permet­tono che si generi pace» (FT 235) e impediscono la realizzazione della fraternitŕ tra i popoli. Ecco allora che lo sviluppo integrale a livello personale e internaziona­le č condizione della fraternitŕ e sua meta: i segni dei tempi, infatti, «mostrano chiaramente che la fraternitŕ umana e la cura del creato formano l’unica via verso lo sviluppo integrale e la pace» (Francesco 2020b). Divideremo l’articolo in tre parti: nella prima ripercorreremo brevemente la nascita della PP e ne mostreremo gli stretti legami che la legano al pensiero lati­noamericano che ne fu d’ispirazione. Nella seconda parte, ci soffermeremo sulla SRS di Giovanni Paolo II e sulla CIV di Benedetto XVI esaminando il percorso del concetto di sviluppo umano integrale. Infine, nell’ultima parte, tenteremo una sintesi che dimostri da una parte la continuitŕ dottrinale della FT con l’insegna­mento pontificio postconciliare e, dall’altra, la sua attualitŕ e importanza per la societŕ odierna. 1. Lo sviluppo integrale nella „Populorum Progressio“, l’enciclica ,latinoamericana‘ di Paolo VI Il 26 marzo 1967 Papa Paolo VI firma l’enciclica sullo sviluppo „Populorum Progres­sio“. Questa enciclica č certamente tra i documenti piů importanti del magistero della Chiesa nella seconda metŕ del Novecento, dove «la riflessione sul tema dello sviluppo tocca una dei livelli piů alti sotto il profilo culturale e dottrinale» (Zaninelli 1987). La PP, prima enciclica scritta dopo il Concilio Vaticano II, č frutto maturo dell’aggiornamento conciliare: ispirata dalla Costituzione Pastorale sulla Chiesa nel mondo contemporaneo „Gaudium et Spes“, ricerca una risposta concreta ai «segni dei tempi» (GS 4) in quel periodo cosě turbolento che era la societŕ degli anni ’60 caratterizzato da una sempre maggior disuguaglianza tra paesi sviluppati e paesi poveri. Inoltre la guerra fredda tra Stati Uniti e Russia, l’intervento militare degli Stati Uniti nel Vietnam, la rivoluzione culturale in Cina, la rivoluzione cubana, il crescente malessere sociale -di cui furono inizialmente interpreti i giovani -che stava preparando l’esplosione del ’68, sono solo alcuni degli avvenimenti di sca-la mondiale che danno inizio ad una nuova fase della storia del Novecento. Essi fanno sě che la questione sociale acquisti «dimensione mondiale» (PP 3). I popoli della fame, ricorda Paolo VI, «interpellano oggi in maniera drammatica i popoli dell’opulenza». Di fronte a ciň «la chiesa trasale davanti a questo grido d’angoscia e chiama ognuno a rispondere con amore al proprio fratello» (3). Tra i popoli della fame c’era certamente l’America Latina. Fu proprio il viaggio di Paolo VI in Brasile nel 1960, invitato da Mons. Dom Helder Câmara per predi-care gli esercizi spirituali ai vescovi brasiliani, (Rampon 2016, 58) che permise al Pontefice di «quasi toccar con mano le gravissime difficoltŕ che assalgono popo­li di antica civiltŕ alle prese con il problema dello sviluppo» (PP 4). In America La­tina a metŕ degli anni ’60, infatti, la fiducia che il progresso economico imposto dai paesi piů sviluppati potesse risolvere quasi automaticamente i problemi so-ciali, stava cedendo il posto ad una crescente consapevolezza dei meccanismi economici connessi a un tipo di sviluppo portatore di nuova dipendenza e di for-me asservimento neocoloniale. (Campagnaro 2020, 56) Le ,politicas desarrollistas‘ portate avanti da organismi internazionali a partire dagli anni ’50, intendevano lo sviluppo dei paesi poveri come un conformarsi alle societŕ piů sviluppate del mon-do moderno. Queste politiche non diedero perň i risultati sperati a causa di vari ostacoli sociali, politici e culturali messi in atto dalle strutture arcaiche proprie dei paesi sottosviluppati in quanto societŕ di transizione. Inoltre, il sempre piů cre­scente bipolarismo nella societŕ creato dall’ingiustizia sociale, provocava delle difficoltŕ serie nell’azione pastorale della Chiesa (Scatena 2007, 93). Da qui l’ur-genza di affrontare in modo nuovo i problemi dello sviluppo e del dialogo fra pa-esi poveri e paesi sviluppati. Fu per questo che un anno prima della promulgazione della PP, il tema dello svi­luppo venne trattato dalla X assemblea del CELAM che si tenne a Mar del Plata, in Argentina dal’11 al 16 ottobre del 1966. Quest’incontro, che si rivelň determinante nel processo di stesura della PP, mise a tema proprio la presenza della Chiesa nello sviluppo e nell’integrazione del continente alla luce del Vaticano II. (Campagnaro 2020, 56-60) L’incontro di Mar de la Plata fu aperto dalla lettura di un messaggio inviato da Paolo VI che forně in modo autorevole delle linee guida ai dibattiti dell’as­semblea e che, in un certo senso, contiene giŕ concetti che si troveranno successi­vamente nella PP. Il Papa all’inizio partendo dalla GS richiamava alcuni punti fonda­mentali appunto sul tema dello sviluppo (Scatena 2007, 190). Paolo VI ricordava ai vescovi riuniti che la Chiesa non era chiamata ad essere esperta in sociologia o eco­nomia, ma essa deve contribuire alla promozione dello sviluppo con le risorse di ordine religioso e soprannaturale ricevute da Cristo. (Paolo VI 1966, 423-429) Inol­tre, di fronte «ad un materialismo pratico e teorico, che racchiude l’uomo nella sua prigione terrestre», Paolo VI invitava i vescovi a presentare un umanismo cristiano ed una visione cristiana dello sviluppo. Esso infatti non andava identificato «con la crescita puramente economica di beni», ma, per essere autentico doveva essere infatti anche integrale, «indivisibile e armonico, ordinato in tutte le sue componen-ti, sorretto da un principio unificatore e guidato da un intervento razionale e conti­nuo dell’intelligenza e della volontŕ dell’uomo.» In questo senso il ruolo della Chie­sa doveva essere un’opera illuminatrice che doveva tendere ad infondere allo svi­luppo un’anima, «per cui esso non sia fine a se stesso, ma mezzo per facilitare la formazione completa della facoltŕ dell’uomo, nella piena espansione di una ordina­ta vita individuale e sociale». Infine il Pontefice richiamava la questione del rappor-to, sempre molto instabile tra, da una parte, la necessitŕ di condurre uno sviluppo graduale evitando metodi violenti e, dall’altra, «l’esigenza di profonde riforme di struttura e profondi mutamenti della societŕ» (Scatena 2007, 190). L’incontro di Mar del Plata fu importante anche perché le sue conclusioni fu­rono approvate dalla Sante Sede e pubblicate formalmente (CELAM 1967). Il do-cumento finale fu dato alle stampe il 30 novembre 1966 e conteneva otto capito­li nei quali si articolavano le conclusioni basati su una prospettiva tricotomica: fatti, riflessione, raccomandazioni (evidente č il richiamo allo schema jocista del vedere-giudicare-agire1). Il documento si basň in gran parte sul messaggio di Pa­olo VI dedicando la sezione introduttiva ad una riflessione teologica sullo sviluppo e successivamente esaminando concrete norme di azione pastorale tenendo pre­sente sia gli obbiettivi finali – quali sviluppo integrale, pace, societŕ responsabile – sia gli obbiettivi intermedi come l’integrazione, le riforme di base, la creazione di nuove forme e metodi pastorali. La PP fu accolta in modo entusiastico dalla Chiesa in America Latina, che vede­ va in essa una conferma autorevole della conclusioni contenute nel documento finale di Mar del Plata. Come fa notare Scatena (2007, 213), se il messaggio di Paolo VI rivolto ai vescovi riuniti a Mar del Plata il settembre precedente influen­zň notevolmente il dibattito e le conclusioni dell’incontro, queste ultime prepara­rono a loro volta il terreno per un’enciclica che Paolo VI disse a McGrath di aver scritto «per voi» (213). Questo metodo č stato sviluppato dal fondatore della Gioventů Operaia Cattolica (JOC) e piů tardi Cardinal Joseph Cardijn (1882-1967). La novitŕ magistrale della PP consiste nel fatto che essa coniuga definitivamente la qualifica di integrale, giŕ presente nel messaggio di Paolo VI ai vescovi latinoame­ricani del settembre precedente, al concetto di sviluppo, che veniva a sostituire l’idea di progresso, associata ormai alle ideologie liberali; inoltre, l’enciclica, pur ripropo­nendo su quasi tutti i punti il patrimonio classico della dottrina sociale della Chiesa, «richiamň l’attenzione dell’opinione pubblica per la sua novitŕ» (SRS 5): per la prima volta trattava il problema della giustizia sul piano mondiale ed entrava direttamente nel merito delle attitudini pratiche dei cristiani e di tutti gli uomini di buona volontŕ, ai quali era esplicitamente indirizzata. La PP, con un linguaggio accessibile a tutti, forniva un orientamento cristiano sui problemi della giustizia e dello sviluppo del paesi del terzo mondo, inserendosi al tempo stesso nel dibattito su quelle ideologie desarrollistas che proprio in America Latina avevano trovato il principale campo di applicazione (Scatena 2007, 214). Oltre ad accennare alla questione sociale che, come abbiamo visto aveva ormai assunto una dimensione mondiale, Paolo VI collocava la situazione dei paesi del terzo mondo nel contesto del processo di decolonizzazione e, riconosceva le negative conseguenze di un certo colonialismo, sottolineando che le potenze colonizzatrici «hanno spesso avuto di mira soltanto il loro interesse, la loro potenza o il loro prestigio, e che il loro ritiro ha lasciato talvolta una situazione eco­nomica vulnerabile, legata per esempio al rendimento di un’unica coltura, i cui corsi sono soggetti a brusche e ampie variazioni.» (PP 7) Paolo VI, dunque, insistette sulla necessitŕ di un superamento dei rapporti ne­ocoloniali di dipendenza economica, attraverso un riequilibrio delle relazioni in-ternazionali e una correzione dei meccanismi di indebitamento dei paesi in via disviluppo. Č proprio questa dipendenza, per il Santo Padre, a aumentare il rischio di conflitti: «Si danno certo delle situazioni» afferma Paolo VI, «la cui ingiustizia grida verso il cielo. Quando popolazioni intere, sprovviste del necessario, vivono in uno stato di dipendenza tale da impedir loro qualsiasi iniziativa e responsabili­tŕ, e anche ogni possibilitŕ di promozione culturale e di partecipazione alla vita sociale e politica, grande č la tentazione di respingere con la violenza simili ingiu­rie alla dignitŕ umana.» (30) Come la defině Mons. Helder Camara, la PP era «l’enciclica che ci mancava» e per questo divenne subito un fondamentale punto di riferimento per i vescovi dei diversi paesi latinoamericani che in essa trovarono la conferma della necessitŕ di quei processi di riforma giŕ avviati e l’imput per la ricerca del modo piů appro­priato di rapporto con l’inquieta societŕ latinoamericana (Scatena 2007, 216). Inoltre la PP, propone come urgenza sociale e pastorale l’idea di sviluppo che, «per essere autentico sviluppo, deve essere integrale, il che vuol dire volto alla promo-zione di ogni uomo e di tutto l’uomo». In questo senso per Paolo VI l’idea di svi­luppo puň essere intesa solo partendo da una sana antropologia, che rispetti l’in­nata dignitŕ dell’essere umano: «noi non accettiamo di separare l’economico dall’umano, lo sviluppo dalla civiltŕ dove si inserisce. Ciň che conta per noi č l’uo-mo, ogni uomo, ogni gruppo d’uomini, fino a comprendere l’umanitŕ tutta intera.» (PP 14) Ogni uomo ricorda il carattere globale (tutti gli uomini) in una dimensione integrale, cioč in gerarchie di valori uno sviluppo armonico. 2. Lo sviluppo umano integrale in Giovanni Paolo II e Benedetto XVI L’idea di sviluppo umano integrale, concettualizzata per la prima volta nella MM e sviluppata da Paolo VI nella PP, trova eco in altri documenti pontifici promulgati dai successori di Papa Montini. In questo senso vediamo che la dottrina sociale della Chiesa riguardo la necessitŕ di uno sviluppo integrale, si evolve secondo un’ermeneutica della continuitŕ. Dopo Papa Montini fu proprio Giovanni Paolo II che, per il ventesimo anniversario della PP «nella convinzione che gli insegnamenti dell’Enciclica „Populorum Progressio“, indirizzata agli uomini ed alla societŕ degli anni Sessanta, conservano tutta la loro forza di richiamo alla coscienza» (SRS 4) decise di scrivere la Lettera Enciclica „Sollecitudo rei socialis“, proponendosi «sullo scorcio degli anni Ottanta» e restando sempre «nell’ottica del motivo ispiratore, lo sviluppo dei popoli» di prolungare l’eco della PP, collegando i suoi insegnamenti »con le possibili applicazioni al presente momento storico, non meno drammatico di quello di venti anni fa» (4). Il papa polacco scrive chiaramente da un’altra prospettiva temporale e sociale, come figlio di una nazione allora ancora sotto il regima comunista di influenza sovietica. «La configurazione del mondo«, infatti, fa notare Papa Wojtyla, «nel corso degli ultimi venti anni, pur conservando alcune costanti fondamentali, ha subito notevoli cambiamenti e presenta aspetti del tutto nuovi.» (4) La SRS viene promulgata negli anni che segnano la fine della guerra fredda, e il tramonto dell’i­deale comunista. Gli avvenimenti di quegli anni portano anche ad un cambiamen-to della geografia politica in Europa, Asia e America Latina. Certamente questi avvenimenti non ebbero luogo tutti nel 1987, anno di promulgazione della SRS, ma sicuramente alcuni processi erano giŕ in atto al momento della sua stesura e altri sarebbero maturati immediatamente dopo: basti pensare agli scioperi dei sindacati dei lavoratori in Polonia (il Papa polacco visse di prima persona questi eventi, non solo incoraggiando i sindacati che lottavano con il regime comunista ma anche visitando la Polonia per ben 3 volte in un decennio: 1979, 1983, 1987) che scatenň poi la caduta del muro di Berlino nel 1989, simbolico inizio delle ri­forme dei regimi politici nei paesi giŕ sottoposti al dominio sovietico quali, oltre la giŕ citata Polonia, l’Ungheria, la Cecoslovacchia e la Romania. Anche in altre parti del mondo, con tempi e modalitŕ diverse, ci fu il crollo delle dittature e un ritorno alla democrazia, come, per esempio, nelle Filippine e in molti paesi dell’A­merica latina. Tutti questi avvenimenti che caratterizzano il decennio degli anni ’80, segnarono in modo drammatico il passaggio da regimi autoritari a governi democratici e provocarono grandi cambi sociali, politici ed economici. Il tema del-lo sviluppo rimaneva, dunque, quanto mai attuale e diventava per questo argo­mento centrale nella dottrina sociale della Chiesa e tema fondamentale della SRS. Giovanni Paolo II, dopo aver spiegato l’importanza e la novitŕ che ebbe la PP quale «risposta all’appello conciliare» (PP 6) alle concrete situazioni di miseria e sottosviluppo, propone uno sguardo realista al problema dello sviluppo, ritenuto da alcuni addirittura pessimista (Charrier 1988, 1): «le speranze di sviluppo«, cosě vive negli anni ‘60, «appaiono oggi molto lontane dalla realizzazione» (PP 12). Il Santo Padre constata, infatti, che persiste e spesso si allarga quel «fossato tra l’a­rea del cosiddetto Nord sviluppato e quella del Sud in via di sviluppo». Per Giova­ni Paolo Il l’autentico sviluppo umano si puň raggiungere solo attraverso un cam-biamento degli atteggiamenti culturali e la promozione di nuove categorie mora­li quali l’interdipendenza, la solidarietŕ, la corresponsabilitŕ, l’unitŕ, la comunione, la convivenza sociale; solo cosě, si puň sperare di promuovere in modo opportuno il vero sviluppo dei popoli, in quanto «il vero sviluppo non puň consistere nella semplice accumulazione di ricchezza e nella maggiore disponibilitŕ dei beni e ser­vizi, se ciň si ottiene a prezzo del sottosviluppo delle moltitudini, e senza la dovu­ta considerazione per le dimensioni sociali, culturali e spirituali dell’essere umano» (PP 9). Il giudizio sullo sviluppo che si trae dall’enciclica non č dunque solamente socio-economico ma soprattutto morale: la diseguaglianza economica che porta a un nuovo tipo di colonialismo di mercato, se non č retto da norme morali, im­pedisce lo sviluppo integrale sia a livello internazionale quanto a livello persona-le. Giovanni Paolo II indica quale sia la caratteristica fondamentale per uno svilup­po pieno, piů umano, che sia «in grado di mantenersi all’altezza dell’autentica vocazione dell’uomo e della donna» (SRS 28): lo sviluppo deve fare riferimento a quella vocazione all’eternitŕ iscritta nel cuore dell’uomo, creato ad immagine di Dio. Per questo, «uno sviluppo soltanto economico non č in grado di liberare l’uomo, anzi, al contrario, finisce con l’asservirlo ancora di piů. Uno sviluppo, che non comprenda le dimensioni culturali, trascendenti e religiose dell’uomo e della societŕ nella misura in cui non riconosce l’esistenza di tali dimensio­ni e non orienta ad esse i propri traguardi e prioritŕ, ancor meno contri­buisce alla vera liberazione. L’essere umano č totalmente libero solo quan-do č se stesso, nella pienezza dei suoi diritti e doveri: la stessa cosa si deve dire dell’intera societŕ.» (46) Il tema dello sviluppo umano integrale, verrŕ ripreso in un’altra enciclica pon­tificia, la CIV di Benedetto XVI. Scritta in un contesto sociale diverso da quello della PP e SRS, in un contesto cioč di globalizzazione e post-modernitŕ, a solo un anno dall’enorme crisi finanziaria che sconvolse i mercati mondiali nel 2008, č considerata da Toso (2010), «Magna Charta dell’evangelizzazione del sociale di questo inizio di Terzo Millennio e della nuova presenza dei cattolici nella societŕ civile.» La CIV inizia la riflessione sociale partendo proprio dalla PP e dalle «due grandi veritŕ» (CIV 11) che essa ci ha lasciato: la prima č che «tutta la Chiesa, in tutto il suo essere e il suo agire, quando annuncia, celebra e opera nella caritŕ, č tesa a promuovere lo sviluppo integrale dell’uomo», la seconda č che «l’autentico sviluppo dell’uomo riguarda unitariamente la totalitŕ della persona in ogni sua dimensione» (11). In questo luogo Benedetto XVI fa eco a quanto affermato anche da Giovanni Paolo II nella SRS, sulla dimensione morale dello sviluppo, che per i credenti deve basarsi sulla fede e sull’antropologia cristiana, in quanto «senza la prospettiva di una vita eterna, il progresso umano in questo mondo rimane privo di respiro» (11). Le grandi questioni etiche, biologiche, economiche, tecnologiche, ecologiche vengono analizzate come elementi di un’unica grande questione so-ciale che, come sottolinea il pontefice, «č divenuta radicalmente questione an-tropologica, nel senso che essa implica il modo stesso non solo di concepire, ma anche di manipolare la vita, sempre piů posta dalle biotecnologie nelle mani dell’uomo» (75). Secondo la CIV, nella questione sociale č in gioco l’identitŕ dell’uomo: egli, limitandosi al livello meramente materiale e tecnico dello svilup­po, non č in grado di raggiungere di svilupparsi pienamente, in quanto tale svilup­po richiede «una visione trascendente della persona, ha bisogno di Dio: senza di Lui lo sviluppo o viene negato o viene affidato unicamente alle mani dell’uomo, che cade nella presunzione dell’auto-salvezza e finisce per promuovere uno svi­luppo disumanizzato.» (11). Č proprio in questo piano teologico che Benedetto XVI inserisce il tema della fraternitŕ, cosě caro a Papa Francesco e tema della FT. Quello che impedisce di arrivare ad una piena fraternitŕ č la natura ferita dell’uo-mo, il peccato originale, che influisce anche in campo economico. La convinzione «della esigenza di autonomia dell’economia, che non deve accettare influenze di carattere morale, ha spinto l’uomo ad abusare dello strumento economico in modo persino distruttivo» (34). Una piena fraternitŕ non puň prescindere da un riferimento trascendentale, in quanto la comunitŕ umana «non potrŕ mai con le sole sue forze essere una comunitŕ pienamente fraterna né essere spinta oltre ogni confine, ossia diventare una comunitŕ veramente universale: l’unitŕ del ge­nere umano, una comunione fraterna oltre ogni divisione, nasce dalla con-voca­zione della parola di Dio-Amore.» (34) 3. La „Fratelli Tutti“: lo sviluppo integrale che porta alla fraternitŕ Ed č proprio al tema della fraternitŕ tra i popoli, legata allo sviluppo integrale di ogni persona, che Francesco dedica la FT. Ritengo che essa si debba leggere a partire dalla lunga storia del concetto di sviluppo umano integrale che abbiamo tentato di tratteggiare in quest’articolo e che ha le sue origini nella PP, a sua volta ispirata dalla ricerca di risposte ai «segni dei tempi» inaugurata dal Concilio Vati­cano II, e che si evolve nei decenni successivi grazie alle encicliche SRS e CIV che abbiamo avuto modo di esaminare. Nella FT l’idea di sviluppo integrale si presen­ta, da un parte, come culmine del percorso di maturazione della dottrina sociale della Chiesa nel post-concilio, dall’altra come strumento pastorale. La FT, come afferma Barrios Pietro (2020) č ,una nuova bussola‘ che indica anche dal punto di vista politico «il percorso verso lo sviluppo umano integrale», mostrando come i nostri sistemi economici e politici vadano plasmati dalla fraternitŕ e dal dialogo. In questa continua ricerca di uno sviluppo integrale che porti alla pace tra popoli e singoli (FT 257) si evince chiaramente quell’impronta del mondo culturale, so-ciale e religioso in cui Papa Francesco č cresciuto. In modo particolare si notano influenze della teologia del popolo argentina. Questo si nota soprattutto nell’at­tenzione del Papa verso i movimenti popolari, piů volti citati nella FT (116, 169). Con essi, secondo Papa Bergoglio, «sarŕ possibile uno sviluppo umano integrale, che richiede di superare quell’idea delle politiche sociali concepite come una po­litica verso i poveri, ma mai con i poveri, mai dei poveri e tanto meno inserita in un progetto che riunisca i popoli» (169). La teologia del popolo puň essere definita come il tipo argentino della teologia della liberazione, che ha imboccato la sua propria strada, sviluppando un suo spe­cifico profilo (Kasper 2015, 29). I rappresentanti principali di questa corrente sono Lucio Gera, Rafael Tello, Juan Carlos Scannone. L’ambiente in cui nasce la teologia argentina del popolo fu la Commissione Episcopale di Pastorale – COEPAL – costi­tuita nel post-concilio (1966) dalla Conferenza Episcopale Argentina per imposta-re un piano nazionale di pastorale secondo lo spirito del Concilio Vaticano II. La teologia del popolo si differenzia dalle altre correnti della Teologia della liberazio­ne innanzitutto perché non parte, da un’analisi delle condizioni socio-politiche ed economiche né dai contrasti sociali; essa inizia la propria riflessione teologica da un’analisi storica della cultura del popolo, unito da un ethos comune (Kasper 2015, 29). Il soggetto dell’intelligenza di fede nella teologia del popolo, intesa come ca-ritŕ operante, č il popolo di Dio incarnato nei diversi popoli. Questa linea teologi-ca valorizza, dunque, in modo particolare la religiositŕ del popolo e la dimensione religiosa della prassi liberatrice. Il punto centrale che la differenzia dalla teologia della liberazione classica, consiste nella comprensione che ha della realtŕ popolo e della posizione diversa che assume verso l’analisi marxista. Essa concepisce, in-fatti, il popolo innanzitutto in un’ottica collettivo-comunitaria, storico-culturale – ovvero unito da cultura comune, memoria comune, stile di vita comune, comu­ne destino – ed etico-politico che si manifesta come comunitŕ organica autode­terminata socialmente, politicamente e storicamente; la teologia del popolo ri­tiene che le categorie desunte dalla storia e dalla cultura latinoamericana (popo-lo, anti-popolo, mescolanza culturale) siano piů adatte di quelle marxiste (di clas­se) per interpretare la realtŕ del continente. Per questa corrente popolo č il sog­getto comunitario di una storia concreta (quella dei singoli paesi latinoamericani) e di una cultura intesa come stile di vita. (Midali 2008, 271) Questa sensibilitŕ verso il rispetto della cultura di ogni popolo, č argomento fondamentale anche nella FT e proprio qui si nota piů chiaramente l’influenza della teologia del popolo nel documento pontificio; per Bergoglio, infatti, «la pa-rola ‚cultura‘ indica qualcosa che č penetrato nel popolo, nelle sue convinzioni piů profonde e nel suo stile di vita» (FT 216). Per il pontefice argentino, l’economia globale strumentalizzando «i conflitti locali e il disinteresse per il bene comune» vuole imporre un modello culturale che «unifica il mondo ma divide le persone e le nazioni, perché la societŕ sempre piů globalizzata ci rende vicini, ma non ci ren­de fratelli» (12). Č proprio nel dialogo e nell’integrazione tra le culture dei popoli che si puň dare uno sviluppo umano integrale. Un Paese si sviluppa, infatti, «quan-do dialogano in modo costruttivo le sue diverse ricchezze culturali: la cultura po­polare, la cultura universitaria, la cultura giovanile, la cultura artistica e la cultura tecnologica, la cultura economica e la cultura della famiglia, e la cultura dei me­dia.» (199) Il dialogo tra culture č fondamentale per il raggiungimento di uno svi­luppo umano integrale; esso rimarrebbe perň arido se non partisse dal livello morale e trascendentale dell’uomo. In continuitŕ con i suoi predecessori Papa Francesco mostra come «la ricerca del bene degli altri e di tutta l’umanitŕ« passa essenzialmente attraverso la «maturazione delle persone e delle societŕ nei di­versi valori morali che conducono ad uno sviluppo umano integrale» (112). Anche per Papa Francesco questa maturazione nella moralitŕ puň avvenire solamente attraverso un riferimento al trascendente: riprendendo la Centesimus Annus di Giovanni Paolo II Papa Francesco ricorda che «se non esiste una veritŕ trascen­dente, obbedendo alla quale l’uomo acquista la sua piena identitŕ, allora non esiste nessun principio sicuro che garantisca giusti rapporti tra gli uomini» (273). Il riconoscere l’esistenza di un Dio creatore che č «Padre di tutti» (272) č anche elemento fondamentale del dialogo inter-religioso in quanto le diverse religioni «offrono un prezioso apporto per la costruzione della fraternitŕ e per la difesa della giustizia nella societŕ» (271). Nonostante Papa Bergoglio stimi molto il va-lore del dialogo inter-religioso, con chiarezza mostra anche quale sia la sorgente della moralitŕ cristiana, della dignitŕ umana e della fraternitŕ: essa «sta nel Van-gelo di Gesů Cristo» (277). Da esso, infatti, «scaturisce per il pensiero cristiano e per l’azione della Chiesa il primato dato alla relazione, all’incontro con il mistero sacro dell’altro, alla comunione universale con l’umanitŕ intera come vocazione di tutti» (277). Lo sviluppo integrale dell’uomo č uno dei temi fondamentali dell’insegnamen-to sociale di Francesco. Sicuro che «in tutto il suo essere e il suo agire, la Chiesa č chiamata a promuovere lo sviluppo integrale dell’uomo alla luce del Vangelo» (HP 1), con la lettera apostolica in forma di Motu Proprio „Humanam Progressio­nem“, il 17 agosto 2016 istituisce il Dicastero per il Servizio dello Sviluppo Umano Integrale che nasce dalla fusione dei seguenti Consigli Pontifici: per la Giustizia e la Pace, della Pastorale per i Migranti e gli Itineranti, il Cor Unum e il Pontificio Consiglio per gli Operatori Sanitari per la Pastorale della Salute. Questo nuovo dicastero dovrŕ occuparsi delle «questioni che riguardano le migrazioni, i biso­gnosi, gli ammalati e gli esclusi, gli emarginati e le vittime dei conflitti armati e delle catastrofi naturali, i carcerati, i disoccupati e le vittime di qualunque forma di schiavitů e di tortura» (1). Questo nuovo dicastero č un segno concreto dell’at­tenzione di Francesco verso le ,periferie esistenziali‘, cioč verso i piů poveri e i piů fragili. Concludendo questo articolo č necessario fare un riferimento al difficile perio-do sanitario provocato dal Covid-19: il tema dello sviluppo integrale della persona riproposto da Francesco nella FT, infatti, porta con se un importante suggerimen-to pastorale e sociale che puň aiutare concretamente le nostre comunitŕ in que­sto periodo di pandemia «che ha messo in luce le nostre false sicurezze» (FT 7). Oggi siamo spettatori, invero, di come i vari Paesi in tutto il mondo stiano facendo del loro meglio per preservare la salute fisica dei propri cittadini di fronte alla mi-naccia del Covid-19. Tanti governi, ammette Papa Francesco, «hanno profuso gran-di sforzi per dare prioritŕ al benessere del loro popolo, agendo con determinazio­ne per proteggerne la salute e per salvare vite» (Francesco 2020, 32). In questa ricerca di salvaguardia della salute fisica non ci si puň, perň, dimenticare dell’in­tegritŕ della persona, cioč della sua salute psichica e spirituale. In questo, il con-cetto di sviluppo integrale della persona puň essere una chiave per uscire dalla crisi. Infatti, la pandemia ha mostrato come l’uomo fosse fragile e come la man-canza di un sistema valoriale vissuto e profondamente accettato, porti, di fronte a tragedie come la pandemia, ad una forte crisi umana ed esistenziale. Ecco allo­ra che «ogni societŕ ha bisogno di assicurare la trasmissione dei valori, perché se questo non succede si trasmettono l’egoismo, la violenza, la corruzione nelle sue varie forme, l’indifferenza e, in definitiva, una vita chiusa ad ogni trascendenza e trincerata negli interessi individuali» (FT 113). La persona deve crescere integral-mente, svilupparsi al meglio fisicamente e spiritualmente, per poter essere vera­mente se stessa, libera e felice. Questa č la grande lezione che la FT, rimarcando il tema dello sviluppo integrale, propone oggi al mondo. «Il dolore, l’incertezza, il timore e la consapevolezza dei propri limiti che la pandemia ha suscitato», ricorda il Pontefice «fanno risuonare l’appello a ripensare i nostri stili di vita, le nostre relazioni, l’organizzazione delle nostre societŕ e soprattutto il senso della nostra esistenza» (33). Abbreviazioni CIV – Benedetto XVI. 2019 [Caritas in Veritate]. FT – Francesco 2020c [Fratelli Tutti]. GS – Concilio Vaticano II 1965 [Gaudium et Spes]. HP – Francesco 2016 [Humanam Progressionem]. MM – Giovanni XXIII. 1961 [Mater et Magistra]. PP – Paolo VI. 1967 [Populorum Progressio]. SRS – Giovanni Paolo II. 1987 [Sollicitudo Rei Socialis]. Riferimenti bibliografici Benedetto XVI. 2009. Lettera Enciclica Caritas In Veritate sullo sviluppo umano integrale nella caritŕ e nella veritŕ. Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Campagnaro, Matteo. 2020. Posoborowa teologia Ameryki Lacinskiej: Geneza, charakterystyka, perspektywy. Wroclaw: Papieski Wydzial Teologiczny we Wroclawiu. CELAM. 1967. Presencia activa de la Iglesia en el desarrollo y en la integración de América Latina: Conclusiones de la 10. Asamblea Extra-ordinaria del CELAM. Criterio 1520:190–195. Charrier, Fernando. 1988. L’enciclica Sociale „Solli­citudo Rei Socialis“: Conferenza tenuta a Bre­scia il 21.4.1988 su invito della Cooperativa Cattolico-democratica di Cultura. Cooperativa Cattolico-democratica di Cultura. https:// www.ccdc.it/documento/lenciclica-socia­le-sollicitudo-rei-socialis-4/ (accesso 2. 11. 2020). Concilio Vaticano II. 1965. Gaudium et Spes. Costituzione Pastorale sulla Chiesa nel mondo contemporaneo. Roma: Paoline Editoriale Libri. Forte, Bruno. 2020. Fratelli Tutti, la terza enciclica di papa Francesco. In: Fratelli Tutti: Sulla frater­nitŕ e l’amicizia sociale, 5–23. Brescia: Editrice Morcelliana. Francesco. 2013. Benedizione Apostolica ‚urbi et orbi‘ primo saluto del Santo Padre Francesco. Vatican. 13. 3. https://www.vatican.va/con­tent/francesco/it/speeches/2013/march/docu­ments/papa-francesco_20130313_benedizio-ne-urbi-et-orbi.html (accesso 29. 10. 2020). – – –. 2016. Humanam progressionem. Lettera Apostolica in forma di ‚Motu Proprio‘ con cui si istituisce il Dicastero per il Servizio dello Svi­luppo Umano Integrale. Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana – – –. 2020a. Ritorniamo a sognare. Milano: Mon-dadori. – – –. 2020b. Angelus. Piazza San Pietro Domenica, 4. 10. 2020. Vaticano, 4. 10. https://www. vatican.va/content/francesco/it/angelus/2020/ documents/papa-francesco_ange­lus_20201004.html (accesso 29. 10. 2020). – – –. 2020c. Fratelli Tutti. Lettera Enciclica sulla fraternitŕ e l’amicizia sociale. Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Giovanni Paolo II. 1987. Sollicitudo Rei Socialis. Lettera Enciclica nel 20. Anniversario della Po-pulorum Progressio. Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Giovanni XXIII. 1961. Mater et Magistra. Lettera Enciclica sui recenti sviluppi della questione so-ciale, alla luce della Dottrina Cristiana. Vatica-no: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Kasper, Walter. 2015. Papa Francesco: La rivoluzi-one della tenerezza e dell’amore. Brescia: Queriniana. McGrath, Marcos Gregorio. 1995. Unas notas sobre Paulo VI. y la colegialidad episcopal en America Latina. In: Paolo VI e la collegialitŕ episcopale: Colloqui internazionale di studio, 236–240. Brescia: Istituto Paolo VI. Midali, Mario. 2008. Teologia pratica, attuali modelli e percorsi contestuali di evangelizzazio­ne. Roma: Libreria Ateneo Salesiano. Paolo VI. 1966. Messaggio di Paolo VI al CELAM, Mar del Plata 1966. Insegnamenti di Paolo VI. 16, 423–429. – – –. 1967. Populorum Progressio. Lettera Encicli-ca. Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Rampon, Ivanir Antonio. 2016. Paulo VI. e Dom Helder Camara: Exemplo de uma amizade espiritual. Monte Alegre: Editora Paulinas. Scatena, Silvia. 2007. In populo pauperum: La chiesa latinoamericana dal concilio a Medellin (1962-1968). Bologna: Il Mulino. Spadaro, Antonio. 2020. Fratelli Tutti: Una guida alla lettura. La Civiltŕ Cattolica 4088, nr. 4:105– 119. Toso, Mario. 2010. Presentazione della ‚Caritas In Veritate‘ al Pontificio Consiglio Della Giustizia e della Pace. Justice et paix. 18. 3. http://www. justiceetpaix.va/content/dam/giustiziaepace/ Eventi/DOCS/SS_CV_2010/2010_CV_TOSO_ SS.pdf (accesso 29. 10. 2020). Valloni, Alessio. 2011. Sollicitudo Rei Socialis: Una lettura teologica dei problemi moderni nell’en­ciclica. Frontiera. 13. 8. http://www.frontiera­rieti.com/26-sollecitudo-rei-socialis-una-lettu-ra-teologica-dei-problemi-moderni-nel-l%E2%80%99enciclica/ (accesso 2. 11. 2020). Zaninelli, Sergio. 1987. Populorum Progressio, Introduzione storica. Chiesa di Milano. https:// www.chiesadimilano.it/servizioperlapastorale-socialeedellavoro/files/2017/05/734__Fog­163bis.pdf (accesso 2. 11. 2020). ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 69 Roman Globokar Vzgojni izzivi šole v digitalni dobi Monografija predstavi vpliv digitalnih medijev na celosten razvoj otrok in mladih. Izpostavi poudarke sodobne kulture (hitre spremembe, provizoricnost, globalnost, virtualnost, vrednotna praznina itd.) in predlaga vrednote, ki naj bi jih spodbujala šola v digitalne dobe (samospoštovanje, custvena vzgoja, kriticno mišljenje, kre­ativnost, skupnost). Del celostne vzgoje je tudi poznavanje religij, zato avtor za­govarja uvedbo nekonfesionalnega religijskega pouka za vse ucence v slovenskih javnih šolah. Ob koncu predstavi rezultate dveh obsežnih raziskav o katoliškem šolstvu pri nas. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta, 2019. 247 str. ISBN 978-961-6844-74-1. 10 €. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Pregledni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 405—417 Besedilo prejeto/Received:10/2019; sprejeto/Accepted:10/2021 UDK/UDC: 27-584 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Zyzak © 2022 Zyzak, CC BY 4.0 Wojciech Zyzak The Theory of the Spiritual Senses Teorija duhovnih cutov Abstract: The author of the article tries to systemize the approaches of Christian writers about spiritual senses. He presents theological bases of the theory of spiritual senses, concepts of their existence, quantity, a hierarchy of impor­tance, nature and subject. The text is mainly based on the Holy Bible, the Fa­thers of the Church and the most important theologians dealing with this issue. The text shows, that in the Christian tradition spiritual senses refer to an inte­gral experience of Christian mystery by a believer and even more by a mystic who experiences God in a total and integrating communion through Jesus Christ. Keywords: spiritual senses, incarnation, Holy Spirit, spirituality, Fathers of the Church Povzetek: Avtor prispevka poskuša sistematizirati pristope kršcanskih avtorjev pri obravnavi duhovnih cutov. Predstavlja teološke temelje teorije o duhovnih cu­tih, koncepte njihovega obstoja, števila, hierarhije pomembnosti, narave in po­drocja. Besedilo temelji zlasti na Svetem pismu, cerkvenih ocetih in najpo­membnejših teologih, ki so se z dano temo ukvarjali. Kaže, da se duhovni cuti v kršcanskem izrocilu nanašajo na sestavni del izkušnje kršcanske skrivnosti – že pri verniku, še bolj pa pri mistiku, ki izkuša Boga v popolnem in celovitem ob­cestvu po Jezusu Kristusu. Kljucne besede: duhovni cuti, uclovecenje, Sveti Duh, duhovnost, cerkveni ocetje 1. Preface The spiritual Christian experience has been analyzed over the centuries from the point of view of the description of the content. Nevertheless, throughout this time we can always find authors who have also considered the theological and anthropological conditions of this experience, creating theories of spiritual cogni­tion. The most important basis of this has been the Holy Scripture. A particular example of spiritual interpretation of the Bible in the tradition of the Church is the doctrine of five spiritual senses: »Christian authors of all ages have used sensory language to express human encounters with the divine.« (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 1) They have understood this in various ways. On the one hand, Anselm of Canterbury, in Proslogion, complained about the incomprehensibility of God in the human experience: »Still You hide away, Lord, from my soul in Your light and blessedness, and so it still dwells in its darkness and misery. For it looks all about and does not see Your beauty. It listens and does not hear Your harmony. It smells and does not sense Your fragrance. It tastes and does not recognize Your savor. It feels, and does not sense Your softness.« (Anselm of Canterbury 1996, 97) On the other hand, Augustine, in his Confessions describes this experience in a positive way: »Thou didst call and cry aloud, and didst force open my deafness. Thou didst gleam and shine, and didst chase away my blindness. Thou didst breathe fragrant odors and I drew in my breath; and now I pant for thee. I tasted, and now I hunger and thirst. Thou didst touch me, and I burned for thy peace.« (Augustine 1955, 38) The purpose of the following text is a reflection on the mean­ing of the above and similar texts which suggest a sensory experience of God. 2. Theological Foundations The sources of theological foundations for reflection on spiritual senses are found in the Bible. Since Philo, the Book of Exodus has been allegorically interpreted as the soul’s spiritual ascent to God, similarly to Moses climbing Mount Sinai. Philo inspired many patristic authors, who had to struggle with the problem of how the invisible God, whose theophany was potentially lethal to human beings (Ex 33,20), could be manifested in a visible form. The crucial epistemic clue for dealing with the problem has been found in the Johannine emphasis that the incarnate Word made the knowledge of the Father possible. At the same time Paul’s words about the transformative, eschatological vision in 1 Cor 13,12 were the inspirati­on for reflection on the beatific vision. The Song of Songs, which has often been referred to, elicited meditation on the soul’s spiritual union with Christ. Descrip­tions of embraces and kisses prompted a further elaboration of tactile, gustato­ry and olfactory imagery. In addition, the religious experiences of prophets and the gospel miracles of the healing of sight and hearing complete the concept of spiritual senses. »Beginning with Origen, the authors attuned to our theme saw in the parable of the ten virgins (Mt 25,1-13) a framework for talking about the five physical senses represented by the foolish virgins, and the five spiri­tual senses represented by the wise ones. The five yokes of oxen men­tioned in the parable of the great dinner (Lk 14,15-24), as well as the five husbands of the Samaritan woman (Jn 4,16-18), prompted Augustine to ponder the self’s attachment to the five physical senses. Even more sug­gestive were the post-resurrection recognition scenes, such as the Noli me tangere (20,17) or the opening of the disciple’s eyes during the supper at Emmaus (Lk 24,30-31).« (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 11). In the writings of Origen, the description of the sacrifice of the paschal lamb in Ex 12 includes many allusions to the senses, however, it should be noted that the Bible itself offers no doctrine of the spiritual senses. The teaching of the Holy Scripture in connection with the Greek culture, espe­cially Platonism, which treated embodiment as hindering the vision of the divine, needed a deeper reflection. The ,baptism‘ of the Platonic version of the intellec­tual vision was bound to an ambivalent attitude towards the role of the body in the contemplation of God in the scriptures of Origen and Pseudo-Dionysius (7). However, an authentic Christian concept of anthropology claims that contact with the spiritual reality is made through man in his substantial unity, whose body to­gether with the soul experiences God’s grace.1 That is why there is a participation of senses in the spiritual life which, according to the mystery of Incarnation, joins body and spirit (Borriello2009, 16). Hence it is obvious that in the history of spiri­tuality attempts to develop a theory of spiritual senses were based both on the truth of the Word incarnate and the role of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. The Word became incarnate making God ‚comprehensible‘ for the human senses, healing them through faith and making the belief of the spiritual realities, lost in the orig­inal sin, possible. This happens thanks to the power of the Holy Spirit (Platovnjak 2018, 1043-1054; Platovnjak and Svetelj 2019, 675-678). Sometimes authors pres­ent two points of view, focusing both on the contemplation of the Word incarnate and illumination by the Spirit. Origen in Contra Celsus VI, 77 assumes a certain evolution among apostles who at the beginning experienced Jesus in kenosis, so that only three of them could see Him transfigured whilst after the resurrection He was seen by those whose senses had been purified. Therefore, not all of those looking at the body could see the Word, because in order to do so faith is neces­sary (Canévet1988, 608-610). Looking for a bond between the perception of the outer and inner senses, based on the mystery of Incarnation in the experience of mystics, especially women like Mechthild, reaches both back to the history of Adam and Eve, who were able to see God with their corporeal eyes (Roszak and Huzarek 2019), and to eschatology since the second Person of the Trinity does not lose the human nature even after the ascension (McGinn2012, 203; 209). Theological foundations for the theory of spiritual senses have not only a Trin­itarian, pneumatological, Christological or eschatological dimension, but in the In Christian anthropology human being is a spiritual and a material being, as a ,whole‘ he is a religious being. True religiosity is in expropriation, true religiosity is mystical, which means that »man ‚expropri­ates‘ himself, gives up all his expectations, including the expectations and ideas he has about God. Ex­propriation is in transcending oneself and one’s belief, expropriation is in openness to God, to his call and love.« (Pevec Rozman 2017, 298) framework of a deepened Christology also a clearly ecclesiological one. Especial­ly from early scholastic theological discourse the bond of spiritual senses and visio beatifica, as well as the Eucharist and particularly mystical body of Christ, can be seen (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 14). According to Alexander of Hales, incarnate Christ possessed the spiritual senses and communicates them to the members of his body. From Him as the head, the spiritual senses flow down into the members of the ecclesial body. He is the source of spiritual senses firstly for the Church as his body and secondly for individual members. This theory also has a sacramen­tological dimension, because in baptism the ability for spiritual senses is activated and the Eucharist feeds it. Similarly, the idea of Alexander that the contemplation of Christ’s divinity restores the spiritual senses like the contemplation of his hu­manity the exterior ones and, in connection to this, that the incarnation of the Word would have been useful even if Christ had not suffered, has soteriological consequences, because it precedes later Franciscan teaching about God’s inten­tion to incarnate even in the absence of a fall (Coolman2012a, 127; 129). 3. Existence of Spiritual Senses The theological foundations mentioned above have found, in the history of Chri­stian thought, different specific forms of application in the theory of spiritual senses. When mystics try, despite difficulties, to express the inexpressible, they inevitably start to use images drawn from sensual cognition. Describing in such a way the experience of God they speak about seeing, hearing, touching, tasting and smelling spiritual realities. The main source of this language is, for them, the Holy Bible (Borriello2009, 177). Numerous texts point to certain features of hu­man cognition that make perception-like contact with God possible. However, the idea of special spiritual senses in theological-spiritual literature seems to be highly debatable (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 1-2). A century ago, theologian Dunstan Dobbins claimed, that speaking about spir­itual senses is reasonable only when the intensity of the experience of grace must be underlined. In his opinion ‚spiritual senses‘ sounds like an oxymoron. Senses are concerned with receiving the corporeal world, but the spiritual reality cannot be experienced physically, so spiritual senses are a metaphor at best (LaNave2012, 161). It has been observed that if a given author discusses only one perceptual mode, he probably uses the name of a sense figuratively, referring to ordinary mental acts. In such a way some words taken from sensual perception become metaphors describing forms of thinking. That is why, in the twentieth century, in discussions on the topic, the analogical and metaphorical functions of the lan­guage of spiritual perception were commonly distinguished. Analogy happens when the operation of the spiritual senses is described in terms similar to the operation of physical sensation. Metaphorical use can be assumed when no clos­er similarity with the functioning of a physical sensorium is intended. However, it must be taken into consideration, that not every correlation of the senses with the intellect can be reduced to a metaphor depicting ordinary mental activity (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 6). When leading thinkers within Christianity re­jected the concept of spiritual senses, they did so by suggesting it would be »an unnecessarily literal reading of poetic license, or an offensively elitist grading of human noetic capacity, or a redundant epistemological addendum to an already assumed theory of the intellect« (18). Especially in the Middle Ages the gradual adoption of Aristotelian sense-psy­chology appears correlated with an eclipse of the traditional doctrine of the spir­itual senses (Coolman2012a, 136). The leading thinker of the age, Thomas Aqui­nas, seldom referred to spiritual senses, speaking about Christ as the Head of the Church. This is more concerned with metaphors relating to the acts of intellect (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 15). For him, the beatific vision is an act of intellec­tually cognitive power and the senses, as directed merely to material particulars, cannot be involved in it (Cross 2012, 182). Later scholastic thinkers would agree with Thomas that there is no need to posit spiritual senses. The development of Aristotelian principles in cognitive psychology and theories of will and emotions in mainline medieval philosophy eliminated the necessity to suppose the existence of spiritual senses (189). The modern positive concept of spiritual senses, that does not deal with met­aphors defined as the use of the language of five senses to express the spiritual perception of immaterial reality, is owed to Karl Rahner and his investigation of this issue in the writings of Origen (Rahner1932, 114). The translation of a frag­ment of the Book of Proverbs: »Thou shalt find a divine sense« (2,5) was an oc­casion to develop the whole doctrine based on analogy and not metaphor, inde­pendently of the results of discussions between such authors as John Dillon, who sees this analogy only in the late writings of Origen, and Mark J. McInroy, who follows its evolution in the early biblical commentaries and in De principiis (Mc­Inroy2012a, 21-24; Dillon1986, 446-447). The results of analysis of the works of Origen show that throughout the period of his literary activity a mix of analogy and metaphorsoccurswhile describingspiritual senses(McInroy2012a,26-35). It is important that Origen constructed his doctrine in discussion with Celsus who accused the Christians of preaching corporeal-sensual cognition of God. In this context, the author explains that it concerns senses which, with corporeal ones, only have a common name (Borriello2009, 178). In connection with the writings of Origen, the doctrine of spiritual senses in the Patristic Period was also developed by Gregory of Nyssa, which was an occa­sion for the modern further investigation of the topic by Jean Daniélou (1953, 224). It is impossible to omit the works of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite who is a great authority in spiritual theology. His reflection on the special, based on the grace of baptism, ability to see (.e...a) cannot be reduced to a metaphor or identified with sensual seeing or cognition. Generally, the author considers that apart from physical sensuality and intellectual cognition, people are capable of a higher-order, non-discursive mental apprehension of reality. Sometimes Dionysius uses in this context his own original terminology, like ,supercosmic eyes‘ (.pe..osµ.o. .f.a.µo.) (Gavrilyuk2012, 96-97). In Medieval theology Anselm of Canterbury, Alexander of Hales and Bonaventure were influential continuators of the thought of Origen (Tedoldi1999, 326). Also, in the later period, Origenist heritage had followers, which is illustrated by the attempt to join it with the Aris­totelian psychology in the works of Nicholas of Cusa (Green2012, 210). The exis­tence of the spiritual senses was not only a topic for catholic authors, which can be seen in the cases of John Wesley and Robert Moberly in the XVIII and XIX cen­turies (Abraham2012, 276). In the Catholic milieu, the question was widely dis­cussed in theological treatises, especially about spiritual direction, by such authors as Giovanni Battista Scaramelli, Augustin-François Poulain, Karl Rahner and Hans Urs von Balthasar (Fields1996, 226). Poulain, particularly meritorious for the the­ory of mystical theology, maintained that the soul possesses spiritual senses sim­ilar to physical ones because it is analogically able to feel the presence of pure spirits above all, God (1921, 71). 4. Quantity and Hierarchy of Senses Among Christian authors who accept the existence of spiritual senses, many say important things, although they do not constitute a kind of complete system and often deal with fewer than five instruments of spiritual perception. The most im­portant specialists from the patristic period, like Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Augu­stine, Pseudo-Dionysius, Maximus the Confessor and Gregory the Great did not elaborate on a coherent doctrine. In the Middle Ages Alexander of Hales, Thomas Gallus and Bonaventure accentuated more a twofold division into senses connec­ted with intellect and affectivity. Karl Rahner mentioned the case of Diadochus of Photike who emphatically spoke of a single spiritual modality. That is why when speaking about five spiritual senses I do not intend to discredit a unitary concep­tion focusing on only one sense in the writings of some authors (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 3; 5). It seems to be the case for Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite who does not develop his lecture on the five senses because in his doctrine the mystical ascent, in which noetic vision plays the main role, is described as progres­sive unification and simplification, which seems to exclude a division of spiritual perception into the five distinct modalities (Gavrilyuk 2012, 99). The original con­cept was proposed by Alexander of Hales, underlining that there is greater unity in the acts of the intellect than in the physical senses. The plurality of spiritual senses is not a function of many objects or powers, but it is because of the mode of perceiving. Here to see is the same as to hear but taking into consideration the mode of perceiving it is not the same (Coolman2012a, 131). Most Christian authors are inclined to describe spiritual senses as analogues to physical ones. This analogy was sometimes extended to other parts of the body due to this it was said that a spiritual person has spiritual hands, feet and heart (Canévet 1988, 599-600). Origen even maintained that »every member of the external human being is also called the same thing in the inner human being« (McInroy2012a, 21). In the texts of Bonaventure, there is a clear division into five spiritual senses based on intellectus or affectus. The intellectus is connected more with sight and hearing, the affectus with smell, taste and touch. These senses also relate to theological virtues: sight and hearing to the faith, smell, taste and touch to the love.2 So, the activity of the senses engages different aspects of the expe­rienced object (Tedoldi 1999, 327). Obviously, it is possible, while investigating classical spiritual texts, to focus on singular senses, but the safest way seems to be to follow the path laid out by Karl Rahner, according to whom, one can reaso­nably speak about a doctrine of spiritual senses only when these partly figurative, partly literal expressions are found integrated into a complete system of the five instruments of the spiritual perception of suprasensible religious realities (Ga-vrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 3). Acceptance of the concept of five spiritual senses raises the question concer­ning their hierarchy, although some authors underline more the domination of one sense over the others than their hierarchy (Canévet1988, 601-602). There are also Christian writers who in the case of spiritual senses remain faithful to Aristotle whose fivefold division of senses was composed according to the impor­tance in the following way: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. When for Chri­stian authors sight is assumed to be the highest spiritual sense, it is connected with the concept of the eschatological culmination of the encounter with God expressed predominantly in terms of the beatific vision (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 8). For example, in the teaching of Augustine, happiness consists in ,pos­sessing God‘, which can be achieved by His vision. The fullness of human knowled­ge is the result of the perpetual vision of God by the »eyes in your heart« (oculos cordis) (O’Connell 2012, 205). In this context, the Doctor of the Church speaks clearly about spiritual sight. However, the same author left us the famous senten­ce which shows that the touch is the peak of perception: »Tactus enim tamquam finem facit notionis.« (Augustinus, De Trinitate 1.9.18) Christian writers taking the Song of Songs as a point of departure freely rear­ranged the ranking of the senses established by Aristotle showing that in the my­stical ascent spiritual hearing and sight were toppled by spiritual touch as the mode of perception implying closer contact with its subject. The operation of spiritual taste was often treated within the framework of Eucharistic practices. In the Latin sources, wisdom (sapientia) was connected with ,tasted knowledge‘ be­cause of the word ,taste‘ (sapor). In patristic and later sources spiritual smell was sometimes associated with spiritual discernment, taken as a paradigm of the »sen­ses that are trained to discern good and evil« (Heb 5,14) (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 9). Especially the doctrine by Bonaventure gives rhythm to the cognitive process according to which the subject (cognitum-amatum) is at first seen and kept in the memory of the heart by the senses of sight and hearing, then it is in­vestigated as a presence of smell, tasted in its worth and finally reached by touch (tactus) in union (Tedoldi 1999, 327-328). Karl Rahner when writing about Bona- Regarding faith and love as a (direct) resonant relationship (with God), see Žalec 2020, 273; 275-276. venture underlined the meaning of spiritual touch equated with ecstasy (McInroy 2012b, 259). The mystical touch as the most perfect union with God can also be found in the texts of many other authors, such as William of Saint-Thierry, Alexan­der of Hales, Thomas of Vercelli and Thomas Gallus. Such an approach in mystical theology has become classic (McGinn 2012, 193; Coolman 2012a, 133; 2012b, 157). The analysis above shows the extent to which Gordon Rudy is mistaken when he claims that the Christian tradition is dominated by a dualistic and intellectua­listic tendency which reduces the importance of the bodiless because in spiritual senses the privileged place takes sight, being the most spiritual and the least cor­poreal sense (Rudy2002, 35). 5. The Nature of Spiritual Senses In the history of theology, one can identify many different concepts of the nature of spiritual senses and their relation to physical ones. Some aspects of medieval mysticism of such authors as Bernard of Clairvaux, William of Saint-Thierry, Ha-dewijch of Antwerp, Mechthild of Magdeburg and Richard Rolle seem to under­mine the very differentiation between experiences of physical and spiritual senses (Knauss2013, 114). Especially the anthropology of Hans Urs von Balthasar forbids separation of the corporeal from the spiritual, as the corporeal senses perceive the material form and the spiritual senses behold the splendour and luminosity of being as it is revealed in the supersensory aspect of the form (McInroy 2012b, 272-273). Analysing the works of Origen, Mark McInroy proposed the idea that the physical senses themselves may undergo a transformation in developing inti­macy with God (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 12). Likewise, in the writings of Gre­gory the Great, in his description of the experiences of prophets, one can find the suggestion that their senses are able to behold things spiritually (Demacopoulos 2012, 79). Especially based on the mystery of Incarnation and in connection with the teaching of Gregory of Nyssa, the theologians speculate about the possibility of the gradual transformation of physical senses into spiritual ones (Canévet1988, 604-606). In contrast to this opinion, there is a theory that physical and spiritual senses are disjunctive faculties, in active competition with one another (Dema­copoulos2012, 82). Alexander of Hales and Thomas Gallus are cited as teaching that the spiritual senses are not transformed physical counterparts but totally different cognitive faculties (Coolman 2012a, 130; 2012b, 157). Among the experts on spiritual senses, the majority underlines the biblical and integral vision of the human as a spiritual-corporeal union. However, for them, in the conception of sensus spiritualis, the accent on the spiritual dimension inspired by Bonaventure is very important. His respect for the empirical sphere is con­nected with the priority of God’s grace, which constitutes the basis of ,the de­scending way‘ in the development of spiritual senses. For Bonaventure, the spir­itual senses are not new faculties but usus of grace. In his opinion, thanks to theological virtues, human regains spiritual senses which are acts of intellect (sight and hearing) and will (taste, smell and touch). They are a reference of inner grace to God making it possible to experience Him as present proportionally to the five senses (Tedoldi 1999, 326-330). The emphasis on the importance of grace and theological virtues identified as spiritual senses can also be found outside the catholic environment, as confirmed by John Wesley (Bartels2004, 171). The development of spiritual senses, thanks to which human becomes able to experience God, constitutes regaining the condition of paradise lost by original sin (Daniélou 1953, 222). The consequence of this assumption is the agreement with the thesis that the perfect harmony of spiritual and physical senses has an eschatological dimension and will occur only after the resurrection (Pereira2012, 54; 60-61). However already in earthly life, according to Gregory the Great, the recovery of the spiritual senses is a consequence of God’s grace and ascetic prog­ress (Demacopoulos2012, 71). Saint Francis of Assisi is an example that a proper subjugation of bodily senses does not result in their disappearance but transfor­mation and perfect obedience to the spirit (LaNave2012, 170). It is possible to show the dynamism of the development of the spiritual senses as they mature, in which the language of spiritual senses constitutes a diachron­ic spectrum of possibilities in human responses to God (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 13). The starting point is the situation in which the use of corporeal senses has the advantage over the use of spiritual senses. For Bonaventure incurvatio sensuum has its root in the human heart, where adhering to sin defines a nega­tive influence concerning the spirit and, in an inevitable way, also the body (Tedol­di 1999, 332). The fourth-century Fathers of the Church like Cyril of Jerusalem, John Chrysostom and Ambrose of Milan had already connected the activation of the spiritual sense to baptismal initiation and participation in the sacramental life of the Church (Gavrilyuk and Coakley 2012, 13). Especially Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite introduced the concept of ,divine birth‘ (.eo.e.es.a) to underline that baptism marks the beginning of the process of illumination and the activation of the spiritual senses. Thus, the spiritual perception becomes activated in baptism and purified through participation in the sacramental life of the Church (Gavrilyuk 2012, 92). Such authors as Maximus the Confessor or later Alexander of Hales underlined in this context the special meaning of the Eucharist. One can also not forget the importance of spiritual direction for the development of spiritual sens­es, which was very important for Gregory the Great. It is worth mentioning that Teresa of Avila in her Interior Castle describing seven mansions assumed the first three concern mostly asceticism and not until the fourth is connected with awak­ening of spiritual senses in the prayer of quiet (Rebidoux2014, 216). 6. Object of Perception The major object of perception of spiritual senses is God. Saint Augustine expres­sed it clearly in his Confessions: »But what is it that I love in loving thee? Not physical beauty, nor the splendour of time, nor the radiance of the light -so pleasant to our eyes -nor the sweet melodies of the various kinds of songs, nor the fragrant smell of flowers and ointments and spices; not manna and honey, not the limbs embraced in physical love -it is not these I love when I love my God. Yet it is true that I love a certain kind of light and sound and fragrance and food and embrace in loving my God, who is the light and sound and fragrance and food and embracement of my inner man -where that light shines into my soul which no place can contain, where time does not snatch away the lovely sound, where no breeze disperses the sweet fragrance, where no eating diminishes the food there provided, and where there is an embrace that no satiety comes to sunder. This is what I love when I love my God.« (Confessions 10.6) Saint Anselm explained, that as created, the physical world has sensible objects perceived by corporeal senses, in a similar way the spiritual soul has senses that perceive the uncreated divine nature. He assumed that despite the essential sim­plicity of the divine nature in se, it has diverse and distinguishable attributes, that the soul may encounter variously, through its own diversified spiritual sensorium. Later scholastics will consistently orient the spiritual senses toward two transcen­dental properties of God: the true (prima veritas) and the good (summum bonum) (Coolman2012a, 123). Gregory the Great developed a theory based on a spiritual sense of sight, thanks to which, through God’s grace, it is possible to get participation in God’s knowl­edge. Sometimes he wrote about the illumination by God’s inspiration thanks to the Holy Bible (Demacopoulos 2012, 83-84). However, the senses were mostly associated with both truth and goodness. According to Alexander of Hales, the object of spiritual senses are divine veritas and bonitas. In this concept, every sense gets a subject distinguishable from other subjects, two of which are identi­cal to transcendentals, namely, truth correlated with sight and goodness con­nected with the sense of touch. So, the human spirit has five senses in relation to God: two of them are related to the truth namely sight and hearing, three of them are related to goodness, namely smell, taste and touch. In the simplicity of God veritas and bonitas do not differ from each other, but they are perceived differ­ently as distinguishable manifestations of God’s nature (Coolman2012a, 132). The theological texts concerning spiritual senses in the strict Christian context take on a special meaning regarding the incarnation of the Word. Especially Bo­naventure connected the uncreated Word with spiritual senses of sight and hear­ing, the inspired Word with the spiritual sense of smell and the incarnate Word with the spiritual senses of taste and touch. In Breviloquium Christ as Splendor »is seen by spiritual sight, as Word is heard by spiritual hearing, as Wisdom is ap­prehended by spiritual taste, as inspired Word is smelled by spiritual smell and as incarnate Word is embraced by spiritual touch.« In the teaching of Bonaventure, the corporeal senses experience their Passover in the humanity of Christ and the spiritual senses in His divinity. Before they reach their fullness in this way, the senses interpreted in a Christocentric manner find their purification in the cross and fulfilment in the life of Resurrected (LaNave2012, 167; Tedoldi 1999, 330). The above introduces us to the eschatological dimension of the subject of spiritual senses. According to Augustine the human being endowed with both corporeal and spiritual senses finds true happiness after the resurrection in the use of spiritual senses completely directed to God. However, the life of resur­rected will still engage both modes of perception. Bodily and spiritual perception in the resurrected body will not offer a fragmented and limited experience, but one of immediacy, clarity and fulfilment, in which God will be seen and known in the sense of spiritual comprehension by everything in Himself (Lootens2012, 70). In a similar way, Alexander of Hales and William of Auxerre maintained that the present activity of spiritual senses will find its consummation in patria, where the eschatological perfection of sensus Dei began and in via takes place. The spiritual senses will exist in a more perfect form in the next life. There the highest Truth will be known as a vision and word, and the highest Goodness as smell, taste and touch. Spiritual senses will be perfected through the contemplation of Christ’s divinity and the corporeal senses through the contemplation of His humanity (Coolman2012a, 135). 7. Conclusion This article presents the results of research into spiritual senses in Christian litera­ture. These results show that contrary to the opinion of Jean Daniélou, it is difficult to speak about a doctrine understood as something systematic and consequent. Rather than about a doctrine, one can speak, in the case of given authors, about the experience of spiritual sense which enables the avoidance of a static reifica­tion of a dynamic experience, which is characteristic of a theory. For Bonaventure, it was the difference between theory and wisdom in which the aim of a doctrine is to be experienced and shown in a dynamic action (Daniélou 1953, 239-240). Maximus the Confessor in the context of relations to God differentiated proposi­tional knowledge from knowledge by acquaintance being not only knowledge of something about somebody, but somebody, that leads to the deification (.e...a) (Aquino2012, 118). It proves that the topic of spiritual senses is at the very center of spiritual theology. 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Žalec, Bojan. 2020. Rezilienca, teologalne kreposti in odzivna Cerkev [Resilience, Theological Virtues, and a Responsive Church]. Bogoslovni vestnik 80, no. 2:267-279. https://doi. org/10.34291/bv2020/02/zalec ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 72 Marjan Turnšek (ur.) Stoletni sadovi Clani katedre za dogmaticno teologijo v jubilejnem letu z zbornikom predstavljajo »dogmaticne sadove« na »stoletnem drevesu« TEOF v okviru UL. Prvi del z naslovom »Sadovi preteklosti« s hvaležnostjo predstavlja delo njenih rajnih profesorjev. Kako katedra živi ob stoletnici svojo sedanjost in gleda v prihodnost z upanjem, predstavljajo prispevki živecih clanov katedre v drugem delu pod naslovom »Sadovi sedanjosti«. Tretji del ponuja »Podarjene sadove«, ki so jih ob jubileju poklonili nekateri pomembni teologi iz tujine, ki so povezani z našo fakulteto (zaslužni papež Benedikt XVI., Hans Urs von Balthasar, Jürgen Moltmann, Bruno Forte, Marino Qualizza in Marko I. Rupnik). Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta, 2019. 476 str. ISBN 978-961-6844-81-9, 20€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 419—431 Besedilo prejeto/Received:02/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:03/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-184.3-454 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Slatinek © 2022 Slatinek, CC BY 4.0 Stanislav Slatinek Vera zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev The Faith of Spouses Who Have Suffered a Divorce Povzetek: Na cerkvenih sodišcih (v zadnjem casu) beležimo povecano število zakon­skih razvez oz. locitev. Na prvi pogled se lahko zdi, da pastorala ta pojav pogosto razlaga kot ‚krizo vere‘ porocenih. Cerkveno pravo medtem ugotavlja, da so prav nicnostne zakonske pravde pogosto znamenja ‚prebujene vere‘ trpecih zakoncev, ki so izkusili zakonsko locitev. Tožbeni spisi za nicnost zakona so pogosto polni vere, da ni vse izgubljeno. Tudi raziskava nicnostnih zakonskih pravd na cerkvenem so­dišcu v Mariboru (2010–2020) kaže, da se cerkveni zakoni pri mnogih zakoncih niso sklenili zaradi ohranjanja kršcanske tradicije in da zakonska zveza ni bila zgolj nekaj nakljucnega. Ugotavljamo, da so mnogi zakonci dober zakon iskreno želeli skleniti, pa so doživeli zakonski ‚brodolom‘ (locitev). Z nicnostno pravdo pa se je pri mnogih sled ‚vere v Boga‘, ki jo podpira božja milost – v smislu besede verova-ti, verjeti, da bodo vsaj drugic (oz. prvic, po sodbi o nicnosti) pravi zakon v smislu popolne podaritve in zakonske zvestobe lahko sklenili –, ponovno prebudila. Kljucne besede: zakonska vez, osebna vera, locitev, nicnost zakona, blagor zakoncev Abstract: In the ecclesiastical courts (recently) we have seen an increase in the num­ber of divorces. At first sight, the pastoral ministry often seems to interpret this phenomenon as a ,crisis of faith‘ of the married. Canon law, however, notes that it is often the annulments that are signs of the ,awakened faith‘ of suffering spo­uses who have suffered a divorce. Marriage annulment lawsuits are often full of faith that all is not lost. Even a study of annulment lawsuits in the ecclesiastical court in Maribor (2010-2020) shows that for many spouses, church marriages were not contracted in order to preserve Christian tradition and that the marri­age was not just something accidental. We find that many spouses sincerely wanted to make a good marriage, but experienced a marital ,shipwreck‘ (divorce). However, the nullity lawsuit has reawakened in many a trace of ,faith in God‘ (in the sense of the word believe), supported by God‘s grace, so that at least the second time (or the first time, after the nullity judgment) they will be able to en­ter into a true marriage, in the sense of total consecration and marital fidelity. Keywords: marital bond, personal faith, divorce, nullity of marriage, the well-being of the spouses 1. Uvod Vsak veren zakonec je poklican, da v svojem zakonu živi vero in ljubezen. Temu najvišjemu cilju se noben veren zakonec ne sme odpovedati. Verni zakonci so prvi poklicani, da bi živeli in hkrati posredovali vrednote ljubezni, sprejemanja drugih brez zadržka, spoštovanja vsakega cloveškega bitja – ne glede na njegovo misel, custvo, prakso in celo njegove grehe. Medtem ko se v sedanji družbi bohoti indi­vidualizem, so verni zakonci poklicani, da drug drugega ljubijo »kot najpomemb­nejše cloveško bitje, kakor da bi na svetu poleg njega ne bilo nikogar drugega« (FT, cl. 193), ki bi ga še lahko ljubili. Razprava opozarja na locitve in razveze ter na pomanjkanje vere pri zakoncih, kar privede do hudih posledic za odrasle, otroke in celotno družbo – to pa slabi posameznika in družbene vezi. Iz propadlih zakonov se porajajo novi odnosi, novi pari, nove zveze in novi zakoni, ki ustvarjajo zapletene in pogosto problematicne družinske situacije (AL, cl. 41; Müller 2015). Ugotavljamo, da zakonske krize ne­katere zakonce od vere in Boga oddaljijo, drugim pa Božjo navzocnost omogocijo prepoznavati – in tako »ohranjati in poglabljati vero« (Osredkar 2021, 860). 2. Vprašanje ,osebne vere‘ zakoncev Vera je skrivnost, »ki cloveka povezuje z Bogom, in je nekaj osebnega, intimne­ga« (Valentan 2019c, 6). Skrivnost ,osebne vere‘ se zgodi v intimnem odnosu med Bogom in clovekom (De Paolis 2017, 270). Je »osebna pritrditev cloveka Bogu« (Turnšek 2021, 980) in hkrati »odgovor na celovit osebni nagovor razode­tega Boga« (Klun 2021, 789). Pojem osebne vere mora zato vkljucevati »osebni odnos z umrlim in vstalim Gospodom« (Turnšek 2021, 980). Zakonci, ki verujejo, se prepoznavajo kot ljudje, vredni spoštovanja. Osebna vera zakonce osredinja na bistveno: cešcenje Boga in medsebojno ljubezen. »Iskreno in ponižno cešcenje Boga« zakoncev »ne vodi k delitvam, sovraštvu in nasilju« (Francišek 2015, tc. 139), temvec k spoštovanju in ljubezni. Moc zakoncev je prav v tem, da središce moci postavijo izven sebe in zaupajo v Boga, ki je njihova moc (Klun 2021, 789). Tako zakonci lahko išcejo skupne stvari, ki so dobre – in si prizadevajo za mirno sožitje. V današnjem casu škandali in veri nenaklonjena civilna družba osebno vero v Boga v zakoncih unicujejo. Bolj kot osebna vera se ohranjata tradicija in ritualizem, ki pa za stabilno zakonsko življenje še zdalec nista dovolj. »To pa odseva v razko­raku med osebno vero in obhajanjem zakramentov.« (Turnšek 2021, 980) Zato mnogi zakonci živijo brez osebne vere in so od Boga oddaljeni. O tem pricajo šte­vilne raziskave in študije (Simoni, Osweska in Pate 2019, 540–544). »Kadar osebna vera izkljucuje identifikacijo z izpovedovanjem vere Cerkve in z življenjem Cerkve, takrat vera ni vec vkljucitev v Kristusovo skrivnostno telo in zato vodeni. Poleg skušnjave privatizacije vere obstaja nasprotna nevarnost: pozunanjena vera. Ta vera resda besedno pristaja na veroizpo­ved Cerkve, je pa ne naredi za svojo z osebnim sprejetjem (molitev). Su­bjektivna privatizacija in ritualizem sta dve nevarnosti, ki ju je treba ne­nehno premagovati.« (Turnšek 2021, 983) Ko zakonci Boga iz svojega življenja izkljucijo, na koncu castijo idole in kmalu izgubijo same sebe, njihovo dostojanstvo je poteptano. Med najpomembnejše vzroke za zakonsko krizo spada odmik od osebne vere v Boga, pa tudi prevlada individualizma. Na kompleksnost tega vprašanja je papež Francišek opozarjal zla­sti ob sinodah o družini (2014 in 2015). »Iz razprav je predvsem izstopila zavest o veliki razlicnosti možnih stopenj vere kršcenih (zakoncev), ki so lahko: nevedni, takšni, ki po veri ne živijo, takšni, ki so vero izgubili, a ohranili neko religioznost, takšni brez vsake religioznosti, takšni, ki poznajo razumevanje verskih resnic, a jim naspro­tujejo, takšni, ki zavracajo vsako svetost in versko institucionalnost.« (986) Ob vse pogostejšem usihanju osebne vere zakoncev se vera dejansko spreminja v malikovanje, Bog sam pa v malika. V zakoncih posledicno ugaša tudi namen skle­niti resnicni (zakramentalni) zakon (Osredkar 2021, 861). 3. Raziskava vere zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev Številni analitiki menijo, da je krizo vere v Boga povzrocila prav kriza družine. Zato je vsaka raziskava družinskih oziroma zakonskih odnosov koristna in neobhodni pogoj (conditio sine qua non) za novo sintezo, ki omogoca razumeti, kako se kriza družine prepleta s krizo vere – na kar je opozoril že zaslužni papež Benedikt XVI. (2019, 13–15). S to predpostavko je bila na Mcs-MB izvedena kvalitativna razi­skava posebej izbranih tožbenih spisov o vprašanju vere zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev. V obdobju 2010–2020 (T1) je bilo na Mcs-MB vloženih 279 tožbenih spisov za ugotavljanje nicnosti zakona; od tega je bilo 120 tožnikov moških (43,1 %) in 159 žensk (56,9 %). Najvec (152) tožbenih spisov je sodišce prejelo v letih od 2016 do 2019 (54,0 %), najmanj (le 12) pa leta 2013 (4,3 %). 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Šs % M 9 10 5 4 7 10 20 11 15 17 13 120 43,1 Ž 10 9 13 9 9 11 22 18 25 24 9 159 56,9 Šs 19 19 18 12 16 21 42 29 40 41 22 279 100 % 6,8 6,8 6,6 4,3 5,7 7,5 15,0 10,4 14,3 14,7 7,9 100 Legenda: T1 = tabela 1; M = tožnik je moški; Ž = tožnica je ženska; Šs = število tožbenih spisov po posa­meznih letih; % = pretvorba v odstotke Tabela 1: Vložene tožbe za nicnost zakonske zveze. Za raziskavo vernosti zakoncev ni nepomemben podatek (T2), da se je 165 za­konskih parov (59,1 %) pred poroko poznalo samo 1 do 2 leti. Prav tako presene-ca podatek, da se je kar 40 zakonskih parov (14,3 %) pred poroko poznalo manj kot 1 leto. Zelo majhen odstotek zakonskih parov (4,2 %) se je pred cerkveno po­roko poznal vec let (od 8 do 15 let). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + Šs 2010 5 7 2 1 - 2 - 1 1 19 2011 2 4 9 - - 2 - 1 1 19 2012 5 5 3 - 2 - - 2 1 18 2013 - 4 2 - - 1 3 2 - 12 2014 3 5 - 1 3 2 - 2 - 16 2015 2 4 7 3 - 2 - 2 1 21 2016 4 8 14 6 - 4 - 4 2 42 2017 5 10 - 2 6 4 - 2 - 29 2018 5 7 5 5 - 4 6 4 4 40 2019 4 8 12 4 5 4 - 3 1 41 2020 5 7 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 22 Šs 40 69 56 24 17 27 10 24 12 279 % 14,3 24,7 20,1 8,6 6,1 9,7 3,6 8,6 4,3 100 Legenda: T2 = tabela 2; število 0–8 = število let poznanstva pred poroko; Šs = število tožbenih spisov po posameznih letih od 2010 do 2020: % = pretvorba v odstotke Tabela 2: Poznanstvo pred poroko. Le kratko in bežno spoznavanje zarocencev v casu pred poroko je eden kljucnih razlogov, da so zakonske zveze hitro razpadle. Iz raziskave (T3) je vidno, da je 177 zakonskih parov (63,5 %) vztrajalo v zakonski zvezi 3 leta. Samo eni petini zakon­skih parov (21,1 %) je uspelo zakon ohraniti 7 let. Slabi šestini zakoncev (15,4 %) pa je uspelo zakonsko skupnost ohraniti tudi nad 8 let. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 + Šs 2010 6 1 1 3 - 1 - - 7 19 2011 1 3 4 1 - - - 1 9 19 2012 2 3 - 1 2 1 1 1 7 18 2013 3 1 1 2 - - 1 1 3 12 2014 - 1 2 3 - 2 1 - 7 16 2015 3 - 2 1 2 1 - 3 9 21 2016 6 10 10 2 4 2 2 6 - 42 2017 5 3 5 6 2 4 4 - - 29 2018 6 14 13 5 1 1 - - - 40 2019 10 8 8 4 8 1 1 1 - 41 2020 6 2 1 8 1 1 1 1 1 22 Šs 48 46 47 36 20 14 11 14 43 279 % 17,3 16,5 16,8 12,9 7,2 5,0 3,9 5,0 15,4 100 Legenda: T3 = tabela 3; število 0–8 = število let trajanja zakonske zveze; Šs = število tožbenih spisov po posameznih letih; % = pretvorba v odstotke Tabela 3: Trajanje zakonske zveze. Zakonci, ki so se civilno locili hitro (T4), so imeli najvec enega otroka (36,9 %), mnogi pa tudi nobenega (33,7 %). Iz raziskave je razvidno, da je rojstvo drugega ali tretjega otroka verjetno nekakšen poskus zakoncev, da bi zakonsko krizo rešili z rojstvom otroka. 0 1 2 3 4 Šs 2010 6 10 3 - - 19 2011 5 6 8 - - 19 2012 7 5 4 2 - 18 2013 3 7 1 1 - 12 2014 5 6 5 - - 16 2015 7 5 7 2 - 21 2016 14 10 14 4 - 42 2017 10 12 5 2 - 29 2018 13 17 8 2 - 40 2019 15 16 9 1 - 41 2020 9 9 4 - - 22 Šs 94 103 68 14 - 279 % 33,7 36,9 24,4 5,0 - 100 Legenda: T4 = tabela 4; število 0–4 = število otrok ob civilni locitvi; Šs = število tožbenih spisov po posa­meznih letih; % = pretvorba v odstotke Tabela 4: Število otrok ob civilni locitvi. V raziskavi smo iskali odgovore zlasti na vprašanja o vernosti oz. prejeti verski vzgoji zakoncev v primarni družini. Zanimala so nas vprašanja, povezana z vero, versko vzgojo in odnosom do Boga v domaci družini. Osebna vera se namrec lah­ko spocne in živi že v domaci družini. Šs M % Toženi zakonec % Vprašanja o verski vzgoji zakoncev v primarni družini – tožnik je moški; tožena je ženska 42 35,0 12 10,0 tradicionalna verska vzgoja, nedeljska maša, zakramenti 23 19,2 33 27,5 verska vzgoja, krst in maša za praznike 15 12,5 21 17,5 samo krst 12 10,0 25 20,9 brez verske vzgoje 9 7,5 13 10,8 nasprotovanje verski vzgoji oz. njeno oviranje 7 5,8 1 0,8 vzgoja v nekršcanski veri 12 10,0 15 12,5 sovražen odnos do Boga 120 100 120 100 Tabela 5a: Verska vzgoja zakoncev v primarni družini. Šs Ž % Toženi zakonec % Vprašanja o verski vzgoji zakoncev v primarni družini – tožilka je ženska; toženi je moški 51 32,0 14 8,8 tradicionalna verska vzgoja, nedeljska maša, zakramenti 43 27,0 37 23,3 verska vzgoja, krst in maša za praznike 17 10,7 42 26,4 samo krst 12 7,5 38 23,9 brez verske vzgoje 16 10,1 13 8,2 nasprotovanje verski vzgoji oz. njeno oviranje 7 4,4 6 3,7 vzgoja v nekršcanski veri 13 8,3 9 5,7 sovražen odnos do Boga 159 100 159 100 Legenda: T5 = tabela 5; M = tožnik je moški; Ž = tožnica je ženska; toženi zakonec = kadar je tožnik moški,je toženi zakonec ženska in obratno; Šs = število tožbenih spisov, ki so jih vložili moški ali ženske; % = pretvorba v odstotke Tabela 5b: Verska vzgoja zakoncev v primarni družini. V tožbenih spisih (T5a), ki so jih vložili možje, beremo, da je kar 65 moških (54,2 %) v svoji primarni družini imelo tradicionalno versko vzgojo (nedeljska maša, za­kramenti uvajanja). Ko možje opisujejo versko vzgojo svojih žena, je zanimiv po­datek, da je tudi pri njih velika vecina, kar 58 (48,4 %), v svojih primarnih družinah tradicionalno versko vzgojo imela. K maši so žene hodile samo za praznike ali pa so prejele samo krst. Tudi žene same (T5b) versko vzgojo, ki so jo prejele v svoji primarni družini, opisujejo podobno. Velik odstotek žena (59 %) je v primarni dru­žini prejel tradicionalno (oz. ritualno) versko vzgojo. Ženske kot tožnice poudarja­jo, da so njihovi možje (50,3 %) v svoji družini prejeli samo krst ali celo ostali brez verske vzgoje. Oboji zakonci izpovedujejo, da je bila v njihovih primarnih družinah navzoca predvsem tradicionalna oz. ritualna verska vzgoja – in zelo površna po­doba o Bogu. V tožbenih spisih so opisani tudi zelo negativni vzorci (nasprotovanje verski vzgoji, sovražen odnos do Boga itd.). V tožbenih spisih zakonci še opisujejo, kakšne so bile njihove osebne oz. družinske vrednote, npr. družina, spoštovanje, pravicnost, solidarnost, delo, prijateljstvo, šport, poštenost in drugo. Ugotavljamo, da so zakonci, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev, v svojih primarnih družinah prejeli precej šibke nastavke za oblikovanje osebne vere. Le pri redkih zakoncih je opazna nekaj skrbnejša domaca verska vzgoja. Ta ugotovitev klice k resnemu premisleku, na kaj naj bo Cerkev pri pripravah na zakon v prihodnosti pozorna. V raziskavi smo posebno pozornost namenili tudi vprašanju, kako sta zakonca po poroki svojo vero živela in kako je vera zaznamovala njuno življenje v družini. Zanimala nas je podoba o Bogu, ki so jo zakonci v casu trajanja zakona imeli, in kako so versko vzgojo prenašali na svoje otroke. Ugotavljamo, da so se pri mnogih zakoncih samo ponovili verski vzorci, ki so jih prejeli v svojih primarnih družinah. Le tu in tam se opazijo premiki v pozitivno ali negativno smer. Šs M % Šs Ž % Vprašanja o verskem življenju zakoncev: pozitivna podoba o Bogu 12 10,0 12 7,5 zakramenti uvajanja pred poroko 6 5,0 19 11,9 osebna molitev v zakonu 30 25,0 41 25,8 udeležba pri maši (nedelja, prazniki, med tednom) 16 13,3 23 14,5 verska vzgoja otrok 35 29,2 25 15,7 praznovanje cerkvenih praznikov 12 10,0 24 15,2 vera v Boga 9 7,5 15 9,4 prošnja k Bogu za rešitev zakona 120 100 159 100 Tabela 6a: Versko življenje zakoncev v casu trajanja zakonske zveze. Šs M % Šs Ž % Vprašanja o verskem življenju zakoncev: negativna podoba o Bogu 18 15,0 34 21,4 nevednost o Bogu 19 15,8 24 15,2 zanikanje Boga 18 15,0 22 13,8 norcevanje iz vere v Boga 17 14,2 13 8,2 sovražno vedenje do vernega zakonca in otrok 23 19,2 38 23,9 nasprotovanje verski vzgoji otrok 18 15,0 22 13,8 oviranje verske vzgoje otrok 7 5,8 6 3,7 prakticiranje nekršcanske vere 120 100 159 100 Legenda: T6 = tabela 6; M = tožnik je moški; Ž = tožnica je ženska; Šs = število tožbenih spisov, ki so jih vložili moški ali ženske; % = pretvorba v odstotke Tabela 6b: Versko življenje zakoncev v casu trajanja zakonske zveze. Najprej smo (T6a) pri zakoncih po sklenitvi zakonske zveze raziskovali pozitivno podobo o Bogu. Kar 54,2 % mož omenja, da so kot zakonci z družino hodili k maši in praznovali cerkvene praznike. Za osebno vero se jih je opredelilo samo 10 %. Tudi 41,5 % žena je v tožbenem spisu navedlo, da so v casu trajanja zakonske sku­pnosti hodile k maši in da so v družini praznovali cerkvene praznike. Precej skro­mnejši odstotek (15,2 %) žena se je opredelil za osebno verne. Kvalitativna razi­skava kaže na upad osebne molitve in prošnje k Bogu za rešitev zakona. Iz zbranih podatkov je razvidno, da se je za osebno verne izrazilo komaj 36 zakoncev (25,2 %). Nekoliko vecji odstotek zakoncev (27,8 %) si je v zakonu prizadeval za ohranitev verske vzgoje otrok, kljub temu da je bila – po njihovem mnenju – družbena klima veri zelo nenaklonjena. Raziskovali smo tudi (T6b) negativno podobo o Bogu. Precej velik odstotek za­koncev (43,1 %) opisuje, da je v zakonu vsaj eden od zakoncev verski vzgoji otrok nasprotoval. Nekoliko nižji odstotek zakoncev (36,4 %) trdi, da sta bila o Bogu ne­vedna oba zakonca oz. da je vsaj eden od njiju vero v Boga v svojem življenju celo zavrgel (31,0 %). Presenetljivo je tudi, da zakonca opisujeta, da se je obicajno eden od zakoncev iz Boga norceval (28,8 %) ali pa se do vernega zakonca vedel skrajno sovražno (22,4 %). 4. Razprava o veri zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev 4.1 Splošne ugotovitve Sistematicen pregled tožbenih spisov odkriva številne vzroke, zaradi katerih so zakoni razpadli. Tožbe kažejo na širok spekter motenj osebnosti, ki se v medicini imenujejo travmaticne (npr. psihopatološke, depresivne, perverzne, nevroticne itd.) in pristen zakonski odnos onemogocajo (Barbieri 2019, 37; Palombi 2019, 116–159). V ka­nonskem pravu jih imenujemo preprosto hibe v privolitvi (Slatinek 2018, 110–114). Ugotavljamo, da so številni zakoni razpadli zaradi nepricakovane nosecnosti. Mno­ge mlade pare je v zakon pahnila prav nosecnost, kasneje pa so nosecnost nekateri zakonci izpostavili kot nicnostni razlog. Številne raziskave (Slatinek 2016) opozarjajo, da je nepricakovana nosecnost kriza sodobnega casa. Nosecnica in njen partner bi se po mnenju številnih avtorjev morala najprej drug drugemu posvetiti, se dobro spoznati; šele nato nosecnost, ki ju je pripeljala skupaj, povzdigniti tudi v zakonsko zvezo. Odlocitev za zakon v trenutku nosecnosti je pogosto samo beg pred stisko mladega para – saj za širšo okolico nepricakovana nosecnost pomeni tudi sramoto in je odlocitev za poroko zgolj nacin reševanja družinskega ugleda (Dastoli 2019, 65–66). Raziskava potrjuje, da nepricakovana nosecnost v nosecnici sproži travmo, zaradi ka­tere se pocuti grešno, ranjeno, nelagodno in krivo. Zato je v tem primeru odlocitev mladega para za zakon pogosto dejanje custvene razburjenosti, pomanjkanja jasne volje – znamenje negotovosti in obupa. Še posebej nosecnica svojo nosecnost doži­vlja kot rano v srcu in mesu. Številni avtorji menijo, da so za mnoge zakonce prav ,rane‘ kljucna beseda: del vsakdana, ki jih najprej pahne v zakonsko zvezo in kasneje v locitev (Aiello 2019, 102–104; Janiri e Cristiano Barbieri 2019, 122). Drug perec razlog za zakonsko locitev so primeri patološke spolnosti (kot npr. nimfomanija, homoseksualnost, vaginitis, sadomazohizem itd.), zaradi katere se je že pred sklenitvijo zakona ali tudi šele v zakonu pokazala nesposobnost zakoncev za zakonske obveznosti (kan. 1095, tc. 3; DC, cl. 205). Prof. Luigi Janiri – specialist za psihiatrijo – meni, da mnogi zakonci zakonske zvestobe, popolne izrocitve in spre­jetja drug drugega ne dosegajo prav zaradi težav v spolnosti – in zato trpijo zaradi resnicnega pomanjkanja popolne ljubezni (2019, 84). Raziskava je pokazala, da zakonski konflikti mnoge zakonce od Boga oddaljijo. V konfliktu namrec zakonci obicajno vidijo predvsem temne plati zakona, ki jih poženejo v beg in v hitro zakonsko locitev. Le redkim zakoncem kriza vero v Boga okrepi (Eisenring 2020). Tožbeni spisi kažejo na beg iz trpecega odnosa, ki ni bil zares zakonski. Za mno­ge zakonce je nicnostni postopek pomenil zacetek nove poti – kot nova priložnost, da se rane iz travmaticnega odnosa pozdravijo. Tudi številne mednarodne raziska­ve poudarjajo, da je lahko prav nicnostni zakonski postopek prvi korak, ki ga Cer­kev ranjenim zakoncem ponuja, da se rešijo iz trpecega odnosa. Slediti pa bi mo­ral še drugi korak, to je spremljanje. To nalogo Cerkev nalaga škofom, duhovnikom, zlasti župnikom (Sabbarese 2019, 74–88). Del njihove službe se vedno nanaša na zakonce kot protagoniste oltarnih skupnosti – da jim nudijo spremljanje. Papež Francišek pravi, da ,spremljati‘ pomeni zakoncem pomagati, »da bi lahko krize, v katere zaidejo, presegli, da se bodo sposobni soociti z izzivom in krizam odmeriti pravi prostor v življenju družine« (AL, cl. 232). 4.2 Posebne ugotovitve 4.2.1 Tradicionalna vzgoja v primarni družini ni garancija za osebno vero zakoncev Raziskovalni vzorec kaže, da je pri zakoncih, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev, osebne vere zelo malo. Prav tako skromno je zaupanje v Boga ter praznovanje nedeljskih maš in praznikov. Raziskava potrjuje, da je bila tradicionalna verska vzgoja v devet­desetih letih 20. stoletja, ko so ti zakonci sklepali zakonsko zvezo, zelo živa. Ceprav je velika vecina zakoncev v svoji domaci družini tradicionalne verske vzgoje bila deležna, zakonci pa so vzorec kasneje v zakonski zvezi tudi ponovili, se v mnogih osebna vera ni prebudila. Raziskava nakazuje pojav nove duhovnosti ‚brez vere‘ kot posledico zgolj tradicionalne religioznosti, kar pa že kaže na nicnost zakonske zveze (Slatinek 1998, 297; Ruiz 2004, 20; Ruyssen 2018, 435). Prav tako je prese­netljivo, da tradicionalna verska vzgoja pri mnogih zakoncih kasneje sproža razlicne oblike sovražnosti do Boga in Cerkve. Raziskava kaže tudi na prisotnost nekakšne ,religije vrednot‘, kaj je zakoncem sveto. Zakonci na prvo mesto postavljajo dru­žino, pravicnost, solidarnost, delo, prijateljstvo, ljubezen, vero, svobodo, kulturo itd. Vera in svoboda sta torej na lestvici ,zakonskih svetinj‘ bolj pri repu. 4.2.2 Zaupanje v Boga v casu zakonske krize je pri zakoncih zelo šibko Zakonci v tožbenih spisih izpostavljajo »oddaljevanje od Cerkve na podrocju mo­rale«. Opazen je velik premik stran od poudarjanja greha proti moralni praznini, ki se vse bolj ujema s kultom individualnosti. Zakonci se obnašajo nadvse samo­zavestno, brez zadržkov poudarjajo osebno vedenje kot izraz svobode. Gre za ne­kakšen postmoderni ‚narcizem‘, znacilen za infantilno generacijo (Sammassimo 2019, 460–464). Raziskava izpostavlja resen dvom glede zaupanja zakoncev v Boga. Ceprav je raziskovalni vzorec zgolj bežni kazalec krize vere, lahko upamo, da bodo to razi­skavo vzeli resno zlasti tisti, ki so v Cerkvi oz. za vse razsežnosti, ki so za oblikova­nje bodocih zakoncev kljucne, odgovorni. Poleg ocitnega oddaljevanja od osebnega zaupanja v Boga raziskava razkriva umik zakoncev v zasebno sfero, v lastno duhovnost, v neko ,religijo vrednot‘. Se-veda se s takšno prakso izgublja skupnostna razsežnost vere. To je zaskrbljujoce, saj ce je pomembno, da ima religiozna izkušnja osebno, individualno (recimo ji zasebno) razsežnost, je vendar pomembno tudi, da ima obenem javno razsežnost (kot npr. vkljucitev v oltarno obcestvo). Javna razsežnost religiozne izkušnje na­mrec zasebni razsežnosti daje smisel in pomen. V nasprotnem primeru druga po­stane žalosten umik vase. 4.2.3 Zakonci, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev, Boga išcejo šele po razpadu zakona Raziskava kaže na številne nove razsežnosti v Cerkvi, ki ne sledijo starim paradi­gmam, vendar pa tudi danes gotovo obstajajo ljudje, ki versko izkušnjo živijo, jo živijo predano, so iskreni – in za to resnicnost vlagajo in zastavljajo svoja življenja. Zakonci, ki so bili v domaci družini deležni tradicionalne vzgoje, so kasneje fi-zicno udeležbo pri liturgijah, praznovanjih in srecanjih zaceli v veliki meri opušca-ti. Kljub temu se od verske razsežnosti kot take niso popolnoma oddaljili. V kvalitativni raziskavi se odnos zakoncev do vere v Boga razkriva skozi dihoto­mije: življenje ali smrt; sreca ali bolecina; vsakdanje življenje ali zabava; iskanje Boga ali bližnjega itd. O prebujanju vere prica predvsem eno dejstvo: vsi zakonci, ki so vložili tožbeni spis, s svojo prisego zagotavljajo, da so po vec letih iskanja srece vendarle prišli do spoznanja, da jih Bog ni zapustil – in to kljub razpadlemu zakonu. Cerkev jim verjame (Valentan 2019a, 161–163), da so zaceli osebno vero v Boga v sebi prebujati šele po tragicni izkušnji propadlega zakona. Raziskava je pokazala, da velika vecina zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev (72 %), po letih samote nacrtuje nov zakon. Cas po locitvi preživijo v spokornosti, ko presojajo preteklost in nacrtujejo prihodnost. Postajajo drugacni in tudi bolj odprti za presežno. Nacrtovanje novega zakona jim vzbuja upanje, ki je mocnejše od ma-šcevanja za prejete rane iz preteklosti. Na tej tocki se mnogi zakonci ponovno sre-cajo z Bogom. V njih se prebudi vera iz otroštva, ki se nikoli ni otresla tradicionalnih vzorcev. Kljub temu postaja njihova vera bolj osebna, cista in usmiljena. Hrepenijo po tem, da bi bili v cerkvenih obcestvih dobrodošli in lepo sprejeti. Za to resnico bo naša oltarna obcestva v prihodnosti treba vzgajati. Treba bo vec govoriti o tem, kaj so civilno loceni zakonci pretrpeli. Mnoge ženske so bile žrtve nasilja, zlorab in šte­vilnih travm (Simonic, Osewska in Pate 2019, 536–538). Vsaka zakonska locitev je tudi rana na telesu Cerkve. To verigo, ki se zdi neizogibna, je treba zdrobiti. 4.2.4 V želji po sklenitvi novega zakona je skrita vera, ki je drugacna od tradicionalnih oblik religioznosti Raziskava kaže, da civilno loceni zakonci niso popolnoma brez osebne vere. Sled vere v Boga je v življenju vecine zakoncev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev, prisotna – ceprav se tradicionalni vzorci vere, ki so jih prejeli v otroštvu, niso popolnoma izbrisali. Sled vere v Boga je v vecini ostala. Zakonci, ki so utrpeli bridko izkušnjo civilne locitve, so pogosto odprti za nove izraze vere, ki niso povsem v skladu z ura­dnim liturgicnim izkustvom Cerkve. Privlacijo jih svobodne oblike molitve. Išcejo nov odnos z Bogom. Za mnoge je prav želja po sklenitvi novega zakona referencna tocka za osebno vero (Gas-Aixendri 2020, 676). Pri zakoncih, ki si željo skleniti nov zakon, je skrita religioznost, ki ni vec formal-na, sestavljena iz obredov, kot je sodelovanje pri praznovanjih, udeležba pri ne­deljski maši – vendar pa bolj premišljena, meditativna, zato tudi bolj skrivnostna, skrita in sramežljiva. Tako se pri mnogih tradicionalnih vernikih prebuja dvom, ali ti zakonci (ker so odprti za nove oblike religioznosti, za nove oblike vere, o katerih se vcasih zdi, da že mejijo na magicnost in vraževernost) sploh verujejo. V resnici pa gre samo za novo iskanje Drugega. Išcejo molitev na drug nacin. Obstaja veliko, res nešteto novih formul, ki v nekaterih pogledih tradicionalni verski praksi posta­nejo alternativa – v mnogih drugih pogledih pa obstaja kontinuiteta, povezave se ohranjajo. Gre za iskanje svetega, morda celo drugacnega od tega, ki so ga vajene tradicionalno naravnane oltarne skupnosti. Kljub temu njihova vera ni povsem stabilna, ni stalna, je nihajoca – s skoki na­prej in skoki nazaj v preteklost. Ceprav negotova, je utemeljena z moralo, ki teme­lji bolj na subjektivnem kot na zaupanju temu, kar pravijo drugi – morda celo du­hovniki, škof ali papež. Zato ti zakonci, ki so se civilno locili in morda znova civilno porocili, v sodobni svet, ki je že precej individualisticen, prinašajo novo duhovnost, ki je osebna in hkrati za marsikatero oltarno skupnost nova. Ni vedno solipsisticna, ceprav temelji na osebnem izkustvu. V mnogih primerih so lahko njihovi izrazi du­hovnosti za Cerkev bogastvo – sploh ce pomislimo na vse vrste karizem ali gibanja, ki so za cerkvena obcestva kot novo vino. 4.2.5 Prejem zakramentov pred poroko je pogosto razlog za versko nestrpnost v zakonu Treba je omeniti še eno bridko spoznanje. Raziskava zelo jasno kaže, da prejem zakramentov uvajanja pred poroko za razvoj osebne vere in ljubezni do Cerkve ni najkoristnejši – mnogi zakonci, ki so prejeli zakramente na hitro, pred poroko, brez temeljite priprave, se v zakonu pogosto obrnejo proti Bogu in proti Cerkvi. Postanejo celo nestrpni in vernemu zakoncu versko prakso ovirajo. V nekaterih primerih lahko pri sebi razvijejo zelo negativno podobo o Bogu kot tekmecu, pro-ti kateremu se borijo z agresivno retoriko do vernega zakonca in otrok (Slatinek 2014, 296–301). 5. Sklep Za sklep lahko zapišemo, da na cerkvenih sodišcih v zadnjem casu beležimo po-vecano število zakonskih razvez oz. locitev. Na prvi pogled se zdi, da pastorala ta pojav pogosto razlaga kot ,krizo vere‘ porocenih. Cerkveno pravo pa ugotavlja, da so prav nicnostne zakonske pravde pogosto znamenja ,prebujene vere‘ zakon­cev, ki so utrpeli zakonsko locitev. To potrjuje tudi raziskava, ki smo jo opravili na Mcs-MB in je predstavljena v tej razpravi. Med ugotovitvami iz razprave, ki so za kanonsko pravo in pastoralo zelo koristne, je najdragocenejše spoznanje, da so tožbeni spisi za nicnost zakona pogosto skriti izrazi vere, da ni vse izgubljeno. Raz­iskava nicnostnih zakonskih pravd na Mcs-MB (2010–2020) kaže, da se cerkveni zakoni pri mnogih zakoncih niso sklenili niti v globoki veri niti zaradi ohranjanja kršcanske tradicije. Raziskava kaže tudi, da obravnavane zakonske zveze (ki so res razpadle) niso bile zgolj nekaj nakljucnega. Ugotavljamo, da so mnogi zakonci dober zakon hoteli skleniti iskreno, pa so doživeli zakonski ,brodolom‘ (locitev). Z nicnostno pravdo pa se je pri mnogih ponovno prebudila ,drobna sled vere‘ (ve­stigium fidei) – ki je sicer za sklenitev veljavnega zakona potrebna in brez katere ni mogoce govoriti, da si bodoca zakonca želita storiti to, kar dela Cerkev (faciendi id quod facit Ecclesia Christi). ,Vere v Boga‘ (v smislu besede verovati, verjeti), ki jo podpira Božja milost, da bodo (prvic nesrecno poroceni) zakonci pravi zakon v smislu popolne podaritve in zakonske zvestobe lahko sklenili vsaj drugic (oz. pr­vic, po sodbi o nicnosti). Kratice AL – Francišek 2016b [Amoris laetitia]. DC – Papeški svet za zakonska besedila 2014 [Dignitas connubii]. FT – Francišek 2020 [Fratelli tutti]. Mcs–MB – Metropolitansko cerkveno sodišce v Mariboru. MIDI – Francišek 2016a [Mitis Iudex Dominus Iesus]. ZCP – Zakonik cerkvenega prava 1983. Reference Aiello, Martina. 2019. Gravidanza inaspettata e matrimonio canonico. V: Barbieri, Gepponi, Janiri in Sansalone 2019, 97–108. Barbieri, Cristiano. 2019. 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V: Le regule procedurali per le cause di nullitŕ matrimoniale: Linee guida per un processo pastorale nel solco della giustizia, 71–94. Studi giuridici 76. Vatikan: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Sammassimo, Anna. 2019. Narcisismo e simulazi-one del consenso matrimoniale. V: L‘incapacitŕ consensuale tra innovazione normativa e pro-gresso scientifico (can. 1095, Mitis Iudex e DSM.5), 457–476. Annales 8. Vatikan: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Simonic, Barbara, Elzbieta Osewska in Tanja Pate. 2019. Partnersko nasilje v kršcanskih družinah in vloga vere. Bogoslovni vestnik 79, št. 2:535– 553. https://doi.org/10.34291/bv2019/02/ simonic Slatinek, Stanislav. 1998. Porocna slovesnost tistih, ki ne verujejo. Bogoslovni vestnik 58, št. 3:295–302. – – –. 2014. Verska nestrpnost med zakonci. Bogo­slovni vestnik 74, št. 2:295–303. – – –. 2016. Žrtve nepricakovane nosecnosti. Bogoslovni vestnik 76, št. 2:333–344. – – –. 2018. Velikodušna ljubezen: Pot do zakonske srece. Znanstvena knjižnica 60. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta. Turnšek, Marjan. 2021. Zakramentalnost in dialo­škost vere. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:973– 989. https://doi.org/10.34291/bv2021/04/ turnsek Valentan, Sebastijan. 2019a. Ensuring Justice and Searching for Truth in the Marriage Nullity Process. Diacovensia 26, št. 1:155–168. https:// doi.org/10.31823/d.26.1.8 – – –. 2019b. I tre Papi e la necessitŕ degli stru­menti di comunicazione sociale nella Chiesa. Bogoslovni vestnik 79, št. 4:1075–1086. https:// doi.org/10.34291/bv2019/04/valentan – – –. 2019c. Ustavnopravna povezanost med državo in Cerkvijo v Sloveniji. Pravnik 136, št. 1/2:5–34. Zakonik cerkvenega prava. 1983. Ljubljana: Nad­škofijski ordinariat. ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 61 Christian Gostecnik Psihoanaliza in sakralno izkustvo Psihoanaliticna relacijska paradigma predpostavlja, da imata tako religiozni kot ne­religiozni clovek svoje psihicne razloge za vero oziroma nevero. Zato je pomemb-no ugotoviti v kakšnega Boga verujoci veruje oziroma v kakšnega Boga neverujoci ne veruje. Tudi religiozna oseba namrec ne veruje v Boga v katerega nereligiozna oseba ne veruje ali ne more verjeti. Ljubljana: TEOF, ZBF in FDI, 2018. 455 str. ISBN 9789616844611, 20€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 433—443 Besedilo prejeto/Received:07/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:08/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-472:373(497.4)“19/20“ DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Valentan © 2022 Valentan, CC BY 4.0 Sebastijan Valentan Pravne dimenzije verskega pouka v slovenskih šolah od knezoškofa Napotnika do danes Legal Dimensions of Religious Education in Slovenian Schools from Prince-Bishop Napotnik to the Present Day Povzetek: Slovensko šolstvo se je zacelo razvijati znotraj avstrijskega šolskega sis-tema. Knezoškof Mihael Napotnik, ki je mariborsko škofijo vodil od leta 1889 do 1922, je verskemu pouku v šoli namenil posebno skrb, saj je tu prepoznal pomanjkljivost šolskega pouka. Z novo politicno ureditvijo na Slovenskem je postal od leta 1952 dalje v vseh treh slovenskih škofijah edina oblika verskega pouka župnijski verouk, ki pa ni bil v sestavu šolskega programa. Stanje se je na podrocju vzgoje in izobraževanja malenkostno izboljšalo po slovenski osamo­svojitvi, ko je v novi državi lahko zaživelo zasebno šolstvo z integracijo verske dimenzije. Vkljucevanje religijskih vsebin v javni osnovnošolski program bi lah­ko dolgorocno pozitivno pripomoglo k mirnemu sožitju in potrebnemu dialogu v slovenski družbi. Kljucne besede: verski pouk, šola, osnovna šola, religija, izobraževanje, vzgoja, vera, Napotnik, odnosi država–Cerkev Abstract: Slovenian education began to develop within the Austrian school system. Prince-Bishop Mihael Napotnik, who governed the Diocese of Maribor from 1889 to 1922, paid special attention to religious education in schools, as he recognized the shortcomings of school education in this respect. With the new political system in Slovenia, from 1952 onwards in all three Slovenian dioceses, the only form of religious education was the parish religious education, which was not part of the school curriculum. The situation in the field of education improved slightly after Slovenian independence when private schooling with the integration of the religious dimension was able to come to life in the new country. The inclusion of religious content in the public primary school curri­culum could positively contribute to peaceful coexistence and the necessary dialogue in Slovenian society in the long term. Keywords: religious education, school, primary school, religion, education, upbrin­ging, Napotnik, State-Church relations 1. Uvod Kot pri drugih narodih so tudi pri Slovencih zacetki nacrtnega izobraževanja po­vezani z najstarejšimi jezikovnimi zapisi. Literarna produkcija zgodnjega srednjega veka je bila sicer na obmocjih slovenske naselitve skromna in, podobno kakor v drugih delih Evrope, po vsebini predvsem verska, po obliki in jeziku pa latinska. Samostani so bili najstarejša tako kulturna kot izobraževalna središca, ki so – poleg zagotavljanja vzgoje in izobraževanja za redovne novince – izobraževali tudi širše z namenom obširnejše in ne le verske rabe, tako v smislu izobraževanja prebivalstva glede poljedelstva kot recimo gospodarstva. Najstarejši literarni in drugi spisi so nastali prav v samostanih. Edini prostor, kjer so v srednjem veku izobrazbo prido­bivala dekleta, so bili ženski samostani, sicer pa so bila v smislu izobraževanja po­nekod zapostavljena še dalec v 19. stoletje.1 Od druge polovice 18. stoletja naprej je absolutisticna država izgrajevala državni šolski sistem prav z uporabo premože­nja ukinjenih samostanov in ob pomoci delujocih redov. Slovensko šolstvo se je zacelo razvijati znotraj avstrijskega šolskega sistema in v okviru njega uveljavljalo slovenski ucni jezik. Ta sistem se vsaj v vsebinskem smislu do leta 1848 ni posebej spreminjal. Predvsem na podrocju elementarnega šolstva je dobre sadove prina­šalo sodelovanje Cerkve in države. Na zakonodajni ravni je šolstvo v habsburški monarhiji urejala „Politicna šolska ustava“ (Politische Schulverfassung). V skladu z zakonodajo je bil na obmocju župnije za izvajanje šolskih zakonov zadolžen krajevni šolski nadzornik (župnik), na obmocju dekanije okrajni šolski nadzornik (dekan) in na obmocju škofije škofijski šolski nadzornik (kanonik škofijskega konzistorija), ki je o šolskih zadevah porocal najvišjemu državnemu uradu v deželi. Z deželne ravni so porocila pošiljali študijski dvorni komisiji na Dunaj, ki je vodila ves šolski sistem v monarhiji. V burnem politicnem ozracju so v dunajskem parlamentu leta 1869 sprejeli zakon, ki je dotedanji osnovnošolski sistem bistveno spremenil. Dve leti pred tem je „Zakon o splošnih pravicah državljanov“ dolocil, da je država tista, ki prevzema vodstvo in nadzor nad vzgojo in izobraževanjem – Cerkvam ali verskim skupnostim pa prepušca nadzor nad verskim poukom v šoli (Okoliš 2008, 8–13, 58, 79). Organiziranost šolstva so urejali deželni zakoni. Za Štajersko in Koroško so tako recimo predpisovali osemletni obvezni program, ceprav je bil v drugih deželah šestletni. Tretji avstrijski osnovnošolski zakon iz leta 1869 je namen osnovne šole opre­delil tako: »Ljudski šoli je naloga, otroke nravno-versko vzgajati, razvijati jim duševne moci, oskrbovati jih s potrebnimi znanostmi in zvedenostmi, da se lahko dalje izobražujejo za življenje in dajati jim pravo predstavo, da bodo kdaj vrli ljudje in državljani.« (Melik 1970, 46) V župnijo Sv. Petra v Malecniku pri Mariboru je tamkajšnji župnik in castni kanonik Marko Glaser (1806 –1889) npr. poklical šolske sestre iz Algersdorfa (kasneje Eggenberga) pri Gradcu, ki so nato leta 1869 zacele z dekliškim poukom. Njihova dekliška šola je 23. februarja 1879 od deželnega šolskega sveta prejela pravico javnosti (Zmazek 1879, 39). 2. Sinode v lavantinski škofiji in verski pouk Knezoškof Mihael Napotnik, ki je mariborsko škofijo vodil od leta 1889 do 1922, je sklical pet škofijskih sinod, na katerih so obravnavali razlicne vidike cerkvene­ga življenja, kot npr. delovanje cerkvenih ustav, zakramenti, bogoslužje, socialna vprašanja, cerkvena glasba ter razmerja med Cerkvijo in državo. Posebno skrb pa je Napotnik namenil verskemu pouku v šoli, saj je na tem podrocju prepoznal po­manjkljivost šolskega pouka (Ambrožic 2010, 407). O vprašanjih kateheze oziroma verskega pouka v šolah se je sicer razmišljalo že na pastoralnih konferencah leta 1862. Te so jasno podprle sklic sinode in posebej omenile pricakovanja glede izboljšanja katekizma. Po dvajsetih letih je knezoškof Jakob Maksimilijan Stepišnik leta 1882 v škofijskem uradnem listu napovedal sklic sinode za prihodnje leto (Urlep 2010, 96). Na drugi generalni kongregaciji sinode leta 1883 so odbori v obravnavo med drugim predložili prošnjo, da se katehetom zagotovi prevoz za lažje obiskovanje šol v oddaljenih krajih. Kateheza je bila obravnavana že na drugi Napotnikovi sinodi, medtem ko je bilo na cetrti izpostavljeno vprašanje o dolžnostih katehetov ter o dobrem razumevan­ju med kateheti in ucitelji. Najbolj pa se je tematiki verskega pouka v šoli posveti-la peta Napotnikova sinoda, saj je govorila o ucnem nacrtu za verouk v ljudskih in srednjih šolah ter izpitih za srednješolske profesorje verouka (Ojnik 1987, 33–35). 3. Napotnikov ucni nacrt za verski pouk Prve norme o verskem pouku v ljudskih šolah, obvezujoce za lavantinsko škofi­jo, so bile izdane leta 1873 pod naslovom „Lehrplan für den Religionsunterricht an den Volksschulen der Diözese Lavant“. Ko so leta 1894 avstrijski škofje izdali nov katekizem, se je pojavila potreba po reformi verskega pouka v ljudskih in mešcanskih šolah. Leta 1897 je tako izšlo navodilo o uvajanju katekizma, ki pa je zaradi raznolikosti med deželami in škofijami prepušcalo razdelitev ucne snovi v posameznih šolskih razredih krajevnim škofom. Leta 1899 je bil nato v cerkve­nem uradnem listu za lavantinsko škofijo objavljen natancen ucni nacrt za verski pouk v omenjenih šolah lavantinske škofije (Kirchliches Verordnungs-Blatt für die Lavanter Diözese 1899, 155–164), ki je prav zaradi objave katekizma upošteval dolocbe drugih ordinarijev, obenem pa ucni nacrt, ki se je v lavantinski škofiji uporabljal že dotlej. Popolno ljudsko šolo je sestavljalo pet razredov ljudske in trije razredi mešcan­ske šole. Za ucence, ki šolanja niso nadaljevali na mešcanskih šolah, da bi dopol­nili izobrazbo, ki presega ucni namen ljudskih šol, so bili po mestih ustanovljeni dodatni razredi, kjer so lahko pridobili dolocen poklic. Ucno snov za verski pouk je bilo mogoce ustrezno predelati le po ucnem nacrtu za posamezne razrede v popolni ljudski in mešcanski šoli, in tak ucni nacrt je bil opredeljen kot za verski pouk obicajen. V razlicnih drugih ljudskih šolah je bilo treba ucno snov za verski pouk skrciti sorazmerno z razredi in oddelki. Na peti škofijski sinodi, ki jo je sklical knezoškof Napotnik (šesti za lavantinskoškofijo od prestavitve škofijskega sedeža iz Št. Andraža v Labotski dolini v Maribor dalje) leta 1911, je bil sprejet „Normalni ucni nacrt za verski poduk na ljudskih in mešcanskih šolah Lavantinske škofije“ (Knezoškofijski lavantinski ordinariat 1912, 321–349). Normalni ucni nacrt je dolocal snov, ki so jo morali kateheti v posameznih ra­zredih obdelati, le v temeljnih obrisih. Katehet naj bi si na njegovi podlagi že ob zacetku šolskega leta izdelal natancen ucni nacrt za vsako uro posebej. Ta nacrt je moral biti pripravljen tako, da je imel katehet dovolj casa, da je predelano snov tudi obnovil, pripravil otroke na sveto spoved in obhajilo, hkrati pa je moral v pouk vkljuciti liturgiko in cerkveno zgodovino. Katehet je moral razlagati katekizem – splošni kršcanski zakonik. Pri njegovi razlagi je moral biti natancen in se je moral za vsako uro vestno pripravljati. Ucni nacrt je dolocal bližnjo katehetsko pripravo: najprej si je moral narediti kratek osnutek, premišljevati resnice, ki jih je želel pri uri razlagati, in si zamisliti, kako jih bo otrokom nazorno razložil. To pripravo je morala spremljati kratka molitev. Dalj­na katehetova priprava na verski pouk pa je obsegala njegovo redno in zvesto iz­obraževanje, prebiranje ustrezne literature in izdelavo katehez. Verski pouk je moral katehet izvajati redno. Ucni nacrt je dolocal tudi izjeme, ko zaradi kakšnega cerkvenega opravila ali drugega važnega vzroka katehet v šolo ni mogel. To je moral sporociti vodstvu šole in hkrati napovedati, kdaj se bo izpu-šcena snov nadomešcala. V razredu je lahko sedel ali stal, a vedno na istem mestu – tako, da je imel vse otroke pred seboj. Otroci so morali kateheta pozdravljati s »Hvaljen bodi Jezus Kristus!«, on pa jim je moral mirno odgovoriti: »Vekomaj. Amen.«. Sledila je molitev pred poukom, kot jih je naucil; preveriti je moral, ali so bili otroci minulo nedeljo ali praznik pri sveti maši in kako so se pri njej vedli. Napotnikov normalni ucni nacrt se je dotikal tudi vprašanja, ali naj se otroci odgovorov iz katekizma ucijo na pamet in dobesedno, ali pa naj bo poznavanje teh odgovorov bolj splošno. Med kateheti so obstajali tako tisti, ki so glede kate­kizma zagovarjali dosledno poznavanje, kot tisti, ki so menili, naj se od otrok do-besednih odgovorov ne terja, saj bi to pri otrocih povzrocilo površnost, nerazu­mevanje in nesmiselno naštevanje – odgovore pa bi nato v kratkem pozabili. Ucni nacrt je bil jasen in je zahteval, da se otroci, kolikor je le mogoce, odgovorov iz katekizma naucijo dosledno in odgovarjajo dobesedno – lahko pa je katehet izvzel vprašanja, ki bi bila po njegovi presoji za ucence, ki jih je pouceval, prezahtevna. Prav tako ni bilo dovolj, da so otroci na vprašanja odgovarjali zgolj z da ali ne ozi­roma z nedokoncanimi stavki, ampak so morali odgovarjati jasno in popolno ter posamezne besede pravilno naglašati. Normalni ucni nacrt je zagovarjal stališce, da si otroci vsebino katekizma zapo­mnijo lažje, ce ga katehet razlaga temeljito, razlago pa dopolni oziroma obogati s prilikami in reki iz Svetega pisma. Pri tem je katehetova razlaga verskih resnic mo-rala ustrezati predmetu, starosti in osebnosti otrok, sam pa je moral izbrati tudi ustrezno metodo. Njegova razlaga je morala biti prakticna in nazorna, segati pa je morala od konkretnega k abstraktnemu.2 Katehet je moral otrokom snov približa-ti tako, da so lahko vzljubili Boga, Jezusa, Mater božjo, angela varuha, pa tudi svo­jega krstnega zavetnika, Katoliško Cerkev in papeža. Prizadevati si je moral tudi, da bi otroci spoštovali škofa, duhovnike in domaco cerkev ter da bi gojili dobroto do bližnjega in bili odkritosrcni. Z Napotnikovim normalnim ucnim nacrtom ni bila zapovedana nobena posebna metoda poucevanja, se je pa priporocalo, da katehet sledi tistim nacinom, ki so jih zagovarjali priznani pedagogi in ki so obenem njegovi osebnosti blizu. Uporabljati je moral jezik, ki je bil otrokom razumljiv – ne previsok, a vendar tudi ne prevec vsak­danji. Katehet otrok ni pouceval le verskih resnic, ampak je bil tudi pravi vzgojitelj, saj je moral ob koncu vsake ure otrokom nameniti kako prijazno besedo in jih tudi opozoriti na lepo vedenje po poti domov. Nagajivih in nevestnih otrok katehet ni smel kaznovati ob koncu pouka, ampak že prej, da bi iz šole odšli z dobrim vtisom. Kljub vsemu pa naj bi kaznoval le v primeru, da bi se otroci mocno pregrešili in ne bi zale-gel noben opomin. Posebej je bilo doloceno, da naj katehet telesno otrok nikdar ne kaznuje, ampak to prepušca staršem. Verski pouk je moral zakljuciti z molitvijo. Lavantinski knezoškof Mihael Napotnik je torej v petih škofijskih sinodah nakazal poti in glavne usmeritve cerkvenega življenja. Bil je aktiven na številnih podrocjih in ni želel nicesar prepušcati nakljucju. Obenem mu je delovanje v dvojni monarhiji omogocalo široko seznanitev s problemi in potrebami tistega casa – vse to pa je odlicno vkljuceval v svoje okolje, ki mu je ostajal zvest in predan. Napotnikova skrb za šolo, ki naj vzgaja in izobražuje, je bila na seznamu njegovih prioritet visoko, zato so bile z njo povezane vsebine aktualne in dosledne – z namenom integralne in per-spektivne poti v versko in družbeno prihodnost. 4. Kateheza in religijski pouk danes Novejši razvoj kateheze v Cerkvi na Slovenskem sega v zgodnja petdeseta leta dvajse­tega stoletja, ko je na ozemlju ljubljanske in mariborske škofije do 1. februarja 1952 verouk potekal v šolskih prostorih, medtem ko je na Primorskem potekal v cerkvenih prostorih – torej zunaj šole – postopno že od leta 1923 naprej, ko je takratna zased­bena oblast prepovedala javno rabo slovenšcine. V letih 1947–1952 je bil verouk na Primorskem formalno uveden v javne osnovne šole. Edina oblika verouka od leta 1952 dalje je bil v vseh treh škofijah župnijski verouk, ki pa ni bil v sestavu šolskega programa. Nanj je treba gledati skozi njegov povojni razvoj. Po vsebini je bil to ver-ski pouk in vzgoja h kršcanskemu življenju s poudarkom na uvajanju v zakramente. Pri katehetskem nacrtovanju je kateheza v Sloveniji postopno in po svojih moceh upoštevala smernice drugega vatikanskega koncila in poznejše cerkvene katehet­ske usmeritve (Plenarni zbor Cerkve na Slovenskem 2002, 77–78). Ko Slovenija še Napotnikov ucni nacrt je vseboval Aristotelovo misel: Nihil est in intellectu, quod non prius fuerit in sensu. ni bila samostojna država in tudi še ni imela samostojne škofovske konference, je bila Katoliška cerkev na Slovenskem del Jugoslovanske škofovske konference. Ta je leta 1989 izdala smernice o obnovi verske vzgoje in kateheze, posebno pismo o tem so istega leta napisali tudi slovenski škofje. Medškofijski katehetski svet je medtem vsa leta pripravljal katekizme, prirocnike za katehete in delovne zvezke za otroke. Plenarni pokrajinski cerkveni zbor, ki se je v Sloveniji zacel leta 1997 in trajal pet let, je v svojem sklepnem dokumentu katehezo opredelil kot celostno uvajanje v kršcanstvo in dodal, da kateheza predstavlja specificno nalogo Cerkve pri pastora­li odraslih, mladine in otrok, ki omogoca pristno življenje v hoji za Kristusom, s po­udarkom na njegovi osebi.3 Dejansko gre za poznavanje vere in življenje po veri. Plenarni pokrajinski cerkveni je poudaril, da je v Sloveniji župnijska kateheza osnov­na oblika kršcanskega uvajanja v vero in da je njena prednost v tem, »da je v polni pristojnosti Cerkve, kar pa je hkrati njena meja, ker težje doseže obrobne in oddaljene ter je veckrat naravnana pretežno na uvajanje v zakra­mentalno življenje otrok. Umestitev verskih vsebin v nacionalni šolski sistem bi pomenila ustrezno razširitev in dopolnitev sedanje kateheze.« (2002, 78) Plenarni pokrajinski cerkveni je izpostavil potrebo po enotnem katehetskem na-crtu za vse škofije, ki naj jasno izrazi svoje posebnosti in hkrati usklajeno povezuje v celoto razlicne katehetske procese, ki jih škofija predlaga za ljudi v razlicnih življenj­skih obdobjih. Prav zaradi enovite in usklajene katehetske dejavnosti naj bi bil kate­hetski nacrt enoten za vso Slovenijo. Slovenska škofovska konferenca je po petnajstih letih l. 2017 na svoji 102. redni seji potrdila „Slovenski katehetski nacrt“. Gre za do-kument, ki želi katehetu predstaviti smer katehetskega dela in v ospredju katerega je celoten proces kateheze v vseh življenjskih obdobjih. SKN poudarja, da se pojem ‚kateheza‘ ne nanaša zgolj na verouk kot poucevanje v veri, temvec zajema dejav­nost vzgoje v veri vse od posameznikovega rojstva pa do smrti. Obenem opozarja, da je kateheza odgovornost celotne kršcanske skupnosti. V skladu s SKN namrec za uvajanje v kršcanstvo ne skrbijo le kateheti ali duhovniki, temvec vsi verniki. SKN želi poudariti procesni pogled na katehezo, ki se ne ustavi ali zacne z vstopom posame­znika v formalno versko izobraževanje, temvec je v zvezi z njegovo temeljno oseb­nostno in duhovno rastjo. Tako se lahko v proces vkljuci na kateri koli stopnji, nato pa vsebinsko sledi ciljem svojega starostnega obdobja. Pomenljiva je tudi opredeli­tev, da se zakramenti (zlasti zakramenti uvajanja) ne podeljujejo zgolj po kriteriju starosti, temvec tudi po kriteriju osebnega pristopa in izraženi osebni prošnji – v smislu katehumenatskega znacaja uvajanja v kršcanstvo (SKN 2018, 8). Med zakramente uvajanja spada tudi sveta birma in SKN v konkretizaciji ciljev glede na namen katehetskega nacrta predvideva, da otroci po ustrezni pripravi ta zakrament prejmejo med 12. in 14. letom starosti. Ce zacnejo otroci v Sloveniji osnovno šolo obiskovati, ko so stari šest let,4 to pomeni, da bi zakrament birme 3 Ta oseba se razodeva po Božji besedi v vsem, kar je ustvarjeno (Fryvaldsky 2021, 95). 4 Prvi odstavek 45. clena Zakona o osnovni šoli doloca, da morajo starši v prvi razred osnovne šole vpi­sati otroke, ki bodo v koledarskem letu, v katerem bodo zaceli obiskovati šolo, dopolnili starost 6 let. prejeli enkrat med 7. in 9. razredom osnovne šole. Ta praksa je v glavnem uvelja­vljena in po slovenskih župnijah in škofijah tako tudi poteka. V letošnjem letu je murskosoboški škof Peter Štumpf v slovenskem katehetskem prostoru uvedel novo prakso.5 Na 2. seji Duhovniškega sveta svoje škofije (9. junij 2022) je Štumpf spregovoril o birmi in birmanskih botrih ter omenil, da se duhovniki in kateheti pri pripravi otrok na prejem zakramenta svete birme – pa tudi on sam ob birmovanju – soocajo s težavami.6 V razpravi, ki je sledila, je Duhovniški svet razpra­vljal o primernem casu za podelitev zakramenta svete birme in o birmanskih botrih ter izpostavil ugotovitev, da vecina ljudi pogojev za opravljanje službe botra ne izpol­njuje – prav tako pa starost otrok, pri kateri so zakrament birme prejemali doslej, ni primerna. Štumpf je predlagal, da bi se v veroucnem letu 2022/23 zakrament birme podelil otrokom vse od 5. pa do 9. razreda, da se do nadaljnjega služba birmanskega botra ukine in da se od veroucnega leta 2023/24 dalje v vseh župnijah murskosobo­ške škofije zakrament birme podeljuje vsako leto v 5. razredu, torej v starosti 10 let – in Duhovniški svet je njegov predlog podprl (Štihec 2022, 168). Gre vsekakor za pomembno novost, ki bi lahko vplivala tudi na odlocitve po drugih škofijah. 5. Religijski pouk v slovenski šoli Slovenski pokrajinski cerkveni zbor je menil, da bi umestitev verskih vsebin v na­cionalni šolski sistem pomenila ustrezno razširitev in dopolnitev kateheze. To se kljub prizadevanjem Katoliške cerkve ni zgodilo. Pouk o religijah – s poudarkom na avtohtonih – v osnovni šoli bi pomembno vplival tudi na splošno razgledanost slovenskih državljanov, saj se tisti otroci, ki verske vzgoje niso deležni,7 z vpraša­nji religije sicer ne srecujejo in se v kasnejši dobi s temi vsebinami težje soocajo. Leta 1996 sprejeti „Zakon o organizaciji in financiranju vzgoje in izobraževanja“ (ZOFVI), ki je bil kasneje še velikokrat dopolnjen in spremenjen, v svojem 72. cle-nu opredeljuje pojem avtonomije šolskega prostora. ZOFVI doloca, da se dejav­nosti, ki z vzgojo in izobraževanjem niso povezane, v javnem vrtcu ali šoli lahko izvajajo le z dovoljenjem ravnatelja, konfesionalna dejavnost pa v njih (nacelno) ni dovoljena. V tistih vrtcih in šolah, ki imajo koncesijo, ZOFVI konfesionalno de­javnost dovoljuje, kadar se izvaja zunaj programa, ki se opravlja kot javna služba. Konfesionalna dejavnost je v vrtcih in šolah s koncesijo dovoljena le, ce casovno ne prekinja in prostorsko ne ovira programa, ki se izvaja kot javna služba. Izvajanje konfesionalne dejavnosti mora biti organizirano tako, da tistim, ki se te dejavnosti ne želijo udeležiti, omogoca nemoten prihod in odhod. ZOFVI še pojasnjuje, da konfesionalna dejavnost obsega verouk ali konfesionalni pouk religije s ciljem vzga­ 5 O tem je pisal tudi katoliški tednik Družina (Purger 2022). 6 Murskosoboški škof Peter Štumpf je svojim duhovnikom, katehetom in katehistinjam glede zakramenta svete birme leta 2021 napisal posebno pismo, v katerem jim je predstavil nekatere svoje poglede natrenutno stanje, težave in vprašanja. V pismu jih je tudi prosil za mnenja (Štumpf 2021, 152), ki so bila ocitno temelj za razpravo na DS. 7 O verski vzgoji v družini glej Slatinek 2017. jati za to religijo ter pouk, pri katerem o vsebinah, ucbenikih, izobraževanju ucite­ljev in primernosti posameznega ucitelja za poucevanje odloca verska skupnost; kot konfesionalna dejavnost so razumljeni tudi organizirani verski obredi. Medtem ko je v vrtcih in šolah po ZOFVI delovanje politicnih strank, njihovih podmladkov prepovedano, pa lahko minister na predlog ravnatelja v prostorih javnega vrtca/šole izven pouka ali izven casa delovanja vrtca/šole verouk ali kon­fesionalni pouk religije izjemoma dovoli, ce v lokalni skupnosti za tako dejavnost ni drugih primernih prostorov.8 V vsakem primeru se po aktualni slovenski zako­nodaji konfesionalni religijski pouk v sklopu programa javnih šol ne izvaja in ni del kurikuluma javne osnovne šole. Tako je le še v Albaniji, Makedoniji in Ukrajini, kjer verski pouk v javni šoli ni redni predmet – te države pa verskega pouka z drugimi ukrepi pomembneje tudi ne podpirajo. Slovenija se torej prišteva k omenjeni pe-šcici evropskih držav (Cepar 19. 4. 2017). 6. Vzgoja v skladu z verskim prepricanjem Dodatni protokol k „Evropski konvenciji o varstvu clovekovih pravic“ v 2. clenu zagotavlja pravico staršev, da otroke izobražujejo v skladu s svojim verskim in fi­lozofskim prepricanjem. Drugi odstavek 26. clena „Splošne deklaracije clovekovih pravic“, ki jo je sprejela Generalna skupšcina Združenih narodov,9 doloca, da mora biti izobraževanje usmerjeno k polnemu razvoju clovekove osebnosti in utrjevanju spoštovanja clovekovih pravic in svobošcin. Prav tako mora pospeševati razumeva­nje, prijateljstvo in strpnost med verskimi skupnostmi. Po tretjem odstavku istega clena je staršem dana prednostna pravica pri izbiri vrste izobraževanja svojih otrok. Cetrta alineja prvega odstavka 29. clena „Konvencije ZN o otrokovih pravicah“, pod-pisana leta 1989, v Sloveniji kot najširši ratificiran mednarodnopravni dokument s podrocja clovekovih pravic veljavna od leta 1992, doloca, da mora biti izobraževanje otrok usmerjeno k pripravi otroka na odgovorno življenje v svobodni družbi v duhu prijateljstva med vsemi narodi in verskimi skupnostmi. 1. alineja prvega odstavka 28. clena „Konvencije o otrokovih pravicah“ še pred tem doloca, da mora biti vsem zagotovljeno brezplacno dostopno osnovno šolanje. Tudi „Listina Evropske unije o temeljnih pravicah“, ki je bila sprejeta leta 2000, pravno obvezujoca pa je postala z uveljavitvijo „Lizbonske pogodbe“, v 14. clenu govori o pravici do izobraževanja. V tretjem odstavku tega clena je opredeljena pravica staršev, da otrokom zagotavljajo vzgojo in izobraževanje v skladu s svojimi verskimi, svetovnonazorskimi in pedago­škimi prepricanji. Ta pravica se spoštuje v skladu z nacionalnimi zakoni. Republika Slovenija in Sveti sedež sta leta 2004 ratificirala „Sporazum o pravnih vprašanjih“ (BHSPV). V 10. clenu BHSPV je dogovorjeno, da lahko Katoliška cerkev 8 Leta 2009 je bilo v Sloveniji okrog 50 šol, ki so omogocale izvajanje verouka po pouku v svojih prostorih,ker bi bila pot iz veroucne ucilnice do šole za otroke nevarna (Štuhec 2010, 15). 9 Od 58 takratnih držav clanic jih je za njeno sprejetje glasovalo 48, osem pa se jih je glasovanja vzdržalo – med njimi tudi Jugoslavija, Sovjetska zveza in Savdska Arabija. Težko si predstavljamo, da danes Slo­venija z dolocili Splošne deklaracije clovekovih pravic ne bi soglašala. v skladu s slovensko zakonodajo in kanonskim pravom ustanavlja šole vseh vrst in stopenj ter da bo slovenska država take ustanove podpirala. Status ucencev teh ustanov je izenacen s statusom ucencev v podobnih državnih ustanovah. Ustava RS v 54. clenu doloca, da so starši tisti, ki imajo pravico in dolžnost svo­je otroke izobraževati in vzgajati. Po 57. clenu Ustave RS je izobraževanje svobo­dno. Osnovnošolsko izobraževanje je obvezno in se financira iz javnih sredstev, država pa ustvarja možnosti, da si državljani lahko ustrezno izobrazbo pridobijo. V Sloveniji konfesionalnega pouka religije v državnih šolah ni (verouk poteka za­sebno po župnišcih in tudi ni priznan kot izbirni ali dodatni predmet, ki bi se kakor­koli štel v kvoto priznanih šolskih predmetov in dejavnosti – kot na primer pevski zbor ipd.), pouk o religijah in verstvih pa se vecinoma tudi ne izvaja, saj mora biti za to dovolj interesentov (otroci katolicanov verouk, kjer pridobijo znanja tudi o drugih religijah, tako ali tako obiskujejo). Tako lahko verni starši pravico do izobraževanja otrok v skladu s svojim verskim ali filozofskim prepricanjem – ob zavedanju, da je njihova naloga opolnomociti otroke za samostojno življenje – uresnicujejo le z vpisom otrok v zasebne šole, kjer pa zaradi neenakovrednega financiranja državnoveljavnih in drugih programov v teh šolah omenjeno pravico izvršujejo na omejen nacin.10 Ce­prav je to ugotovilo tudi Ustavno sodišce RS (2014), zakonodajalec protiustavnosti dolgo ni odpravil, še vec: da bi se spoštovanju odlocbe Ustavnega sodišca RS izognil, je želel celo spremeniti ustavo. To mu naposled ni uspelo, prav tako pa so poslanci Državnega zbora zavrnili predlog zakona glede financiranja izobraževanja, ki odlocbe Ustavnega sodišca RS ni spoštoval v celoti. To sodišce je leta 2020 o problematiki fi­nanciranja programov v zasebnih osnovnih šolah odlocalo ponovno in pojasnilo tudi razliko med obveznim javno veljavnim programom ter razširjenim programom osnov­nošolskega izobraževanja. Toda kljub temu diskriminacija otrok v zasebnih osnovnih šolah ostaja, saj morajo po l. 2021 noveliranem delu ZOFVI starši otrok v teh šolah doplacevati stroške dopolnilnega pouka, jutranjega varstva in podaljšanega bivanja. Ce ob vsem tem preverimo, kako lahko v Sloveniji starši izvršujejo pravico do vzgoje in izobraževanja otrok v skladu s svojim verskim prepricanjem, ugotovimo predvsem dvoje: prvic, staršem to pravico dajejo mednarodni in domaci pravni dokumenti; drugic, izvajanje te pravice je ovirano in preprecevano. Katoliška cerkev v Sloveniji lahko po BHSPV šole ustanavlja, država jih podpira – in status ucencev naj bi bil izenacen s statusom tistih v javnih (državnih) šolah. V trenutnih razmerah, ko dostopnost do javnoveljavnih programov niti v državnih niti v zasebnih šolah ni izenacena (zaradi razlicnega financiranja), o izenacenosti statusa enih in drugih ucencev težko govorimo. Ucenci zasebnih osnovnih šol in njihovi starši so v neenakovrednem položaju, saj morajo del osnovnega izobraže­vanja doplacevati – in to zato, ker tak program obiskujejo v šolah, kjer jim je omo-goceno izobraževanje v skladu z verskim prepricanjem.11 10 Glej tudi Valentan 2018. 11 Na Hrvaškem se verouk izvaja v osnovnih šolah. To obliko sta na ustavnem sodišcu izpodbijala dva hrvaška državljana, vendar je hrvaško ustavno sodišce leta 2018 odlocilo, da verouk v vrtcih in šolah ni v nasprotju z ustavo – in da država in verske skupnosti niso absolutno locene (Ustavno sodišce Republike Hrvaške 2018). 7. Zakljucek Od casa knezoškofa Mihaela Napotnika pa do danes so se razmerja med državo in Cerkvijo ter percepcija verskega pouka v slovenskih šolah mocno spremenili, kar je nenazadnje logicna posledica sekularizacije slovenske (enako kot evropske) družbe. Da je v primerjavi z drugimi evropskimi državami Slovenija, kar se tice vkljucevanja verskih vsebin v javno šolo oziroma državne podpore tem vsebinam na druge nacine, osamljen otok, gre pripisati tudi dolgotrajnemu in sistematicnemu komunisticnemu obvladovanju slovenskega družbenega prostora v partijskih casih. Partija je onemo-gocala vsako organizirano obliko javne vzgoje in izobraževanja (zasebno šolstvo), ki bi bila v nasprotju z njeno enoumno doktrino. S tem, ko je verouk izlocila iz javne šole, je iz izobraževanja hotela izlociti tudi kršcanstvo (Vodicar 2010, 35) – in tako nadaljevala svoj moralno vsaj vprašljiv, ce ne neeticen pohod (Petkovšek 2021, 991). Ce kaj (in tudi, kaj) danes otroci v državnih osnovnih šolah o kršcanstvu izvedo, je odvisno od tistih, ki jim snov posredujejo – pa še to morda bolj pri pouku zgodo-vine ali slovenšcine. So osnovnošolski ucitelji za to sploh usposobljeni, ce sami reci-mo versko niso bili vzgojeni, v casu javnega vzgojno-izobraževalnega procesa pa o kršcanstvu niso mogli biti (ustrezno) pouceni? Razlage, da je slovenska šola nevtral­na, so deplasirane, saj vsaka šola izobražuje in vzgaja po dolocenem nazorskem pro-gramu – cetudi ateisticnem. Nenazadnje se je treba ob vsem zapisanem vprašati, kakšna je pri nas konsolida­cija pravice do verske svobode, ki je lakmusov papir stanja demokraticnosti, odpr­tosti in pravne države – ce se k vprašanjem, povezanim s kršcanstvom oziroma Ka­toliško cerkvijo, s katero slovensko ljudstvo veže vecstoletna povezanost, kot to v preambuli BHSPV priznava Republika Slovenija, pristopa na izkljucujoc in a priori negativen nacin (Valentan 2022, 5). Ob vse vecjem zavedanju o pomenu religije v svetu12 upraviceno pricakujemo, da bi z vkljucevanjem religijskih vsebin v javni osnov­nošolski program k mirnemu sožitju in potrebnemu dialogu v družbi dolgorocno pozitivno lahko pripomogla tudi Slovenija. Kratice BHSPV – SporazummedRepublikoSlovenijoinSvetimsedežemopravnihvprašanjih. SKN – Slovenski katehetski nacrt 2018. ZOFVI – Zakon o organizaciji in financiranju vzgoje in izobraževanja 1996. 12 Organizacija Združenih narodov (OZN) denimo prepoznava dragocen prispevek ljudi vseh religij ali prepricanj k cloveštvu ter prispevek dialoga med vsemi verskimi skupnostmi k boljšemu zavedanju o skupnih vred­notah in njihovemu razumevanju za celotno cloveštvo. Generalna skupšcina Organizacije združenih narodov je ob seznanitvi z vsemi mednarodnimi, regionalnimi, nacionalnimi in lokalnimi pobudami, obenem pa tudi prizadevanji verskih voditeljev za spodbujanje medverskega in medkulturnega dialoga – kot je npr. srecanje med papežem Franciškom in velikim imamom Al-Azharja Ahmadom al-Tayyibom 4. februarja 2019 v Abu Dabiju, ko je bil podpisan dokument „O cloveškem bratstvu“ – 4. februar z resolucijo 75/200 21. decembra 2020 razglasila za Mednarodni dan cloveškega bratstva. Papež in veliki imam sta pomemb-no prispevala k širjenju verske svobode v svetu. Od leta 2018 dalje se organizira tudi mednarodna ministrska konferenca o svobodi vere ali prepricanja (letos jo je med 5. in 6. julijem gostila vlada Velike Britanije). Reference Ambrožic, Matjaž. 2010. Lavantinska škofija za casa Slomškovih naslednikov (1862–1922). Studia historica Slovenica: Casopis za humani­sticne in družboslovne študije 10, št. 2/3:399– 428. Cepar, Drago. 2017. 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Vodicar, Janez. 2010. Uvajanje verskega pouka naGimnaziji Želimlje. V: Roman Globokar, ur. Verski pouk v slovenskih šolah: ovrednotenje in perspektive, 35–42. Ljubljana: Zavod sv. Stani­ slava. Zakon o organizaciji in financiranju vzgoje in izobraževanja. 1996. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 12:841–862. Zakon o osnovni šoli. 2006. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 81:8662–8673. Zakon o ratifikaciji sporazuma med Republiko Slovenijo in Svetim sedežem o pravnih vprašanjih. 2004. Uradni list Republike Sloveni­je 4:3010–3012. Zmazek, France. 1879. Fara sv. Petra pri Mariboru: Krajepisno-zgodovinske crtice. Maribor: samo­založba. ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 65 Luka Trebežnik Med nihilizmom in mesijanizmom: Derridajeva filozofija religije Derridaju nikakor ne gre za zavracanje obstoja resnice, temvec gre le za sporoci-lo, da ta nastopa preko razlike. Dekonstrukcija trdi, da ne obstaja zunaj teksta, kar pomeni, da ne obstaja vecna resnica. Temu je tako, ker je sleherna resnica in-karnirana v jezik in pripoved. Ta Derridajeva stališca pa so v veliki meri nasprotna tradiciji, ki veruje, da se za tekstom nahaja trden in nesporen smisel. Izmed vse­ga slovstva je to najocitneje izraženo pri religijah, ki sprejemajo nadnaravni izvor svojih tekstov. Od to sledi, da sta dekonstrukcija in teologija izvorno nerazdružljivi. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta, 2018. 264 str. ISBN 9789616844673, 17€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Pregledni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 445—457 Besedilo prejeto/Received:05/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:06/2022 UDK/UDC: 27-774“20“ DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Przygoda © 2022 Przygoda, CC BY 4.0 Wieslaw Przygoda What Parish for the 21st Century? Parish Renewal Guidelines in the Context of Current Cultural Changes in Europe1 Kakšna naj bo župnija v 21. stoletju? Smernice žu­pnijske prenove v kontekstu trenutnih kulturnih spre­memb v Evropi Abstract: On the 29th of June 2020 the Vatican’s Congregation for the Clergy re­leased a new pastoral instruction on the parish: “The pastoral conversion of the Parish community in the service of the evangelizing mission of the Church.” The organizational structure of the Church, well-established over previous epo­chs, is currently undergoing a certain crisis – a consequence of a wider crisis of the Church and even a wider crisis of the Christian faith in the countries of We­stern civilization. It is not only the declining number of priests but also the dec­reasing number of Catholics that has led to a weakening of the parish status. Bishops in Germany, Switzerland and other countries in Western Europe have probably already accepted this phenomenon and are focusing on the deve­lopment of pastoral care in supra-parish organizations, such as unions (com­munities) of several parishes or large regional pastoral centers. Unfortunately, these organisms resemble religious services and Church administration stations rather than former parish communities bustling with religious life. The aim of this study is to determine the chances of survival for the parish un­der the current circumstances of the Church in Europe. If a parish is to survive the current cultural changes, it is necessary to answer the following questions: What should the parish be like? What are the sources of its renewal and streng­thening? The methodological tool behind the theses developed here will be the analysis of the above-mentioned instruction released by the Congregation for the Clergy and statements made by the last three popes, especially Pope Francis. After a short introduction, the current cultural context of parish pasto­ral work in Europe will be outlined, and then three directions of parish renewal will be presented: the parish as a missionary community, the parish as a com- The article is a part of the project funded by the Ministry of Education and Science, Republic of Poland, „Regional Initiative of Excellence“ in 2019-2022, 028/RID/2018/19, the amount of funding: 11 742 500 PLN. munity of communities, and the parish as a community of co-responsible ser­ vice. Keywords: parish, pastoral care, Church, community, missionary renewal Povzetek: 29. 6. 2020 je vatikanska Kongregacija za kler izdala novo pastoralno navodilo za župnije z naslovom „Pastoralno spreobrnjenje župnijske skupnosti v službi evangelizacijskega poslanstva Cerkve“. Organizacijska struktura Cerkve, dobro izoblikovana v preteklih obdobjih, se trenutno spopada z doloceno krizo, ki je posledica širše krize v Cerkvi – in še širše krize kršcanske vere v državah zahodne civilizacije. Ne le zmanjševanje števila duhovnikov, temvec tudi zmanj­ševanje števila vernikov je privedlo k oslabitvi vloge župnij. Škofje v Nemciji, Švici in drugih državah Zahodne Evrope so to dejstvo verjetno že sprejeli in se osredotocajo na razvoj pastoralne oskrbe v nadžupnijskih organizacijah – kot denimo v zvezah (skupnostih) vec župnij ali v velikih pokrajinskih pastoralnih središcih. Takšni organizmi na žalost bolj spominjajo na verske storitve in po­staje cerkvene uprave kakor pa na nekdanje župnijske skupnosti, kjer cveti ver­sko življenje. Cilj te študije je opredeliti možnosti preživetja župnij v trenutnih razmerah v Evropi. Ce naj bi župnija trenutne kulturne spremembe preživela, je treba od­govoriti na naslednja vprašanja: Kakšna naj bo župnija? Kateri so viri njene pre­nove in okrepitve? Metodološko orodje v ozadju tez, ki jih razvijamo, je analiza prej omenjenega navodila, ki ga je izdala Kongregacija za kler, in izjave zadnjih treh papežev – zlasti papeža Franciška. Za kratkim uvodom je orisan trenutni kulturni kontekst župnijskega pastoralnega dela v Evropi, nato pa so predsta­vljene tri smeri župnijske prenove: župnija kot misijonska skupnost, župnija kot skupnost skupnosti in župnija kot skupnost soodgovornega služenja. Kljucne besede: župnija, pastoralna oskrba, Cerkev, skupnost, misijonarska prenova 1. Introduction The parish is a social structure of the Church, the one closest to Catholics. Most Christians discover the Church through the parish (Rahner 1967). Owing to the parish, the Church becomes a visible sign of redemption and a tool for a com­munity of believers to lead a holy life, united at the table of God’s Word and at the altar of the Communion, penetrated by the power of the Holy Spirit, the first activator of faith and love in the Christian hearts. Although other forms of the Church community are possible, the ecclesial community finds its direct and cle­ar role in parish life. The parish is a multifaceted phenomenon with two basic dimensions that can be recognized: institutional and communal. The former makes the parish a visible, specific, historical reality, which belongs to the diocese, subject to social changes. What is of major importance here are parish institutions and a community of the faithful both performing various functions and roles. The latter, internal and invi­sible in character, makes the parish a community of faith, religion, and love. The decisive role is performed here by God through the Holy Trinity, a source of grace and love. Unity of the faithful with Christ, achieved through the Holy Spirit, on the way to the Father’s house, is a fundamental aim of the parish community. On the 29th of June 2020, the Congregation for the Clergy announced a new pastoral instruction regarding the parish. It seems that this well-established orga­nizational structure of the Church is undergoing a crisis in Europe. There are many causes lying at the foundations of the crisis. Predominantly, the crisis of the pari­sh is a consequence of a crisis within the Church, and even from a broader per­spective, of a crisis of the Christian faith observed in Western civilization. A dec­reasing number of priests and Catholic believers has led to the weakening of the parish in many European countries. However, is the process of parish degradation irreversible? Or can it be stopped and reversed? We would like to address the is­sue of the survival chances of the parish as a basic organizational structure of the Church and the chances for the development of parish pastoral care in Europe. This will be achieved on the basis of an analysis of the above-mentioned instruc­tion published by the Congregation for the Clergy. We also heavily rely on the teachings of John Paul II, Benedict XVI, and Francis. This study will briefly outline the current cultural context of parish pastoral work in Europe in order to offer three synthetic conclusions. 2. The Current Cultural Context of Parish Pastoral Care in Europe The cultural context of parish pastoral care in Europe at the beginning of the 21st century can be characterized by its multi-dimensional nature and great dynamics of changes (Swies 2019, 75). Pluralism even manifests itself in the descriptions of society (modern, post-modern, post-capitalist, democratic, civil society, etc.). In the religious context, one may talk about a lay, secular, de-christianized, chur­chless, neopagan society (Marianski 2010, 19–20). The domain of culture produ­ces more and more content characteristics of post-modern societies. These are: a) an increasing rebellion against an established order (in culture and the arts), leading to postmodern chaos and pluralism of cultures, worldviews and religions, b) a lack of accepted authorities, c) the rising importance of information and the media, leading to information noise, d) a crisis of the Enlightenment’s rationali­sm, e) triumph of the idea of the common liberty and civic society, f) the renais­sance of localism and new individualism, g) global and civilizational threats, e.g. terrorism, pollution, rebellions of the excluded ones in the richest countries (Sliz and Szczepanski 2008, 9). Contemporary Europe is dominated by a consumerism culture, prioritizing per­sonal happiness, individualism, self-fulfilment, youth, agility, pleasure, comfort, and entertainment. The realization of these values fulfils many of people’s needs, although it impedes social relationships, hampers the pursuit of higher values, promotes egoistic attitudes, limits oneself to worldly goods, and weakens the fe­eling of being responsible for oneself and others. The consumerism culture is shaped mostly by the mass media, in particular by advertising campaigns (Swies 2019, 78). Contemporary culture has become a marketing culture. The way it functions is strictly connected with products for sale. Through a process of Mc-Donaldization, culture has become ludic and easily accessible, simple in terms of its structure and cognitive reception. Andrzej Potocki, a sociologist of religion, observes that »we have gone away from the source – from the cultivation which requires some effort from us« (2016, 89). Cultural changes in Western Europe take place in the context of ideological se­cularism, which manifests itself through a spread of atheistic beliefs and attitudes. As observed by the Spanish archbishop Fernando Sebastián, »yesterday atheism was present in the minds of a few philosophers. Today atheism is present in our houses, among cousins, grandchildren, neighbors. Atheism concerns all of us and living as if God did not exist became atheism by negligence.« (GilTamayo 2013, 61) The issues such as faith deconstruction in the lives of many baptized Europe­an citizens, the issue of egoism, moral relativity, the triviality of sexual experience and dehumanization of culture become challenges facing the Church (Huzarek, Fialkowski and Drzycimski 2018, 133–154). Pope Benedict XVI drew attention to the dramatic character of the current situation, expressed not only through indif­ference to the Christian faith but also its relegation to the margins of social life. Faith exerts an ever-diminishing influence on culture and »people wish to belong to the Church, but they are strongly shaped by a vision of life which is in contrast with the faith« (Benedict XVI 2011). However, the biggest change took place in the sphere of marital and family life. Individualism verging on the absurd destroys the Christian vision of marriage un­derstood as communio personarum. Liberty is understood as anarchy and an ina­bility to create steady relationships consequently leads to the breakup of marri­age and family. Marriage suffers even greater harm due to gender ideology, su­ggesting that gender identity is not a result of human nature but is a socio-cultu­ral construct. Family, according to gender ideology, is not a social unit serving the common good but is a place where the individual needs of its members are met. Hence, the family cannot be defined as it is a project of an individual, where time, gender, and duration are relative and depend on personal preferences (Porada 2014, 77-90). According to Bahovec, »contemporary postmodern culture is so pluralistic and diverse that the features of pluralism are also expressed in Christianity« (2020, 896). Pluralism is the coexistence of diverse, often contradictory realities. In a pluralistic society, there is no place for any hierarchy of values, everything is al­lowed and equal. Modern pluralism is not only the existence of various options, but it is a fundamental value that is the source and goal of modern society, in which everyone can choose what they want without having to justify their choice and without remaining faithful to values once chosen. Multiple choices and their diversity usually lead to conflicts and social unrest. Hence, in a situation of plura­lism, the only guarantee for maintaining order and peace in society is tolerance, which appears as a necessary value (Makosa 2009, 138–139). Cultural pluralism also has an effect on religious life in parishes. The Vatican instruction mentions mobility and digital culture, which challenge the territorial character of the parish. The pandemic brings out the need to rely on digital tools, which cannot fully replace traditional participation in the life of the Church, espe­cially when it comes to sacraments (broadcasting a holy mass, similarly to broad­casting a gourmet dinner, cannot satiate the hunger). The religious life of the fa­ithful in Europe is shaped by other cultural phenomena, not mentioned by Vatican instruction. This is, for instance, the dominance of a post-modern mentality pre­sent in public discourse, contesting the idea of God, as well as the notion of objec­tive truth, rational cognition, and constant values that lie at the foundation of stable morality. All of the above have a destructive impact on faith, even if people are not aware of it. When the mentality of ,fluid modernity‘ (Baumann 2000) is accompanied by sexual scandals among the clergy – cases of paedophilia – it is no wonder then that religious life suffers in many parishes. However, such a bad tendency could be reversed, which requires that the priests and the faithful make an effort to renew the parish. 3. Parish Renewal in the Context of the Current Circumstances of the Church in Europe The instruction of the Congregation for the Clergy entitled „The pastoral conver­sion of the Parish community in the service of the evangelizing mission of the Church“ points out that »the parish is a house among houses and is a response to the logic of the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, alive and active among the com­munity. It is visibly characterized then, as a place of worship, a sign of the perma­nent presence of the Risen Lord in the midst of his People.« (PC 7) Therefore, the parish cannot be crossed out from the Church’s map and replaced with another pastoral structure. For most Christians around the world, the parish is a natural place to experience the Church. Also, for Christians in Ljubljana and Warsaw, it is the parish that is the ultimate and closest location of the Church (John Paul II 1988, 26). Hence the parish should be defended and renewed so that it still plays an important role in the process of animation of religious life (Slatinek 2019, 1069). Inspired by the above-mentioned Vatican instruction, we will point towards a few directions for the renewal and strengthening of the parish community in the con­text of current cultural challenges facing the Church in Europe. 3.1 The Parish as a Missionary Community The very title of the document released by the Congregation for the Clergy draws attention to a need for a missionary conversion of the priests and all the faithful. A missionary spirit, proof of the living faith and other forms of evangelization are first and foremost a step towards the renewal and strengthening of the parish community in these challenging historical and cultural times for the Church. The Church has been paying attention to such a direction of parish renewal at least since the Second Vatical Council: »the care of souls should always be infused with a missionary spirit.« (Paul VI 1965, 30) John Paul II in a speech delivered to the members of the Congregation for the Clergy highlighted that the parish should be »making evangelization the axis of all pastoral activity since it is an urgent, preeminent and important demand« (John Paul II 1984). Benedict XVI taught that »the parish is a beacon that radiates the light of the faith and thus responds to the deepest and truest desires of the human heart, giving meaning and hope to the lives of individuals and families« (Benedict XVI 2006). Pope Francis, at the very beginning of his papacy, stated that »the parish is not an outdated institu­tion; precisely because it possesses great flexibility, it can assume quite different contours depending on the openness and missionary creativity of the pastor and the community« (2013c, 28). There is no doubt then that the parish must be a missionary community. However, a question remains: how to complete such a task amidst the current circumstances of the Church in Europe? The Congregation for the Clergy stresses out that »the Parish no longer being the primary gathering and social centre, as in former days, it is thus necessary to find new forms of accompaniment and closeness« (PC 14). Attempts to renew the parish community in the missionary context have been undertaken for a long time. In France, the concept of the parish as a missionary community was developed and implemented by Rev. Georges Michonneau (1899-1983), together with his colleagues from the Sons of Charity. He believed that the parish should be an open community, spreading light to the surrounding, de-christianized society. G. Mi-chonneau was inspired to look for his own concept of renewal of the parish com­munity by the book by H. Godin and Y. Daniel, France, pays mission? (Paris 1943). The authors, on the basis of sociological studies, showed the inadequacy of the available pastoral forms to the French society, which required new forms of evan­gelization in the context of working classes in big cities. Michonneau’s views and activity were influenced by the Catholic Action, dynamically developing before the Second World War, especially its branch Jeunesse Ouvričre Chrétienne, as well as two charity foundations established by E. Suhard, i.e. Mission de France (1941) and Mission de Paris (1943). In 1945 G. Michonneau published a book entitled Paroisse, communauté mis-sionaire, offering a description of his concepts of the parish as a missionary com­munity. Michonneau believed that parish pastoral care was at that time ineffec­tive in the context of a growing process of secularization. He deemed it necessa­ry to widen the scope of pastoral activity, from a narrow circle of those belonging to the parish to all the inhabitants of the parish area. He also claimed that the parish community can affect the distanced Christians through spreading of the Word of God, liturgy and testimony of the Christian faith. He postulated a missi­onary revival of the parish through the inclusion of lay people in the planning and realization of pastoral tasks. Michonneau’s teachings are filled with kerygmatic predictions and postulates to spread the Gospel not only in Churches but also in public places. He placed his hopes on the direct ministry of Catholics realized in groups of neighbours and on the parish-based religious instruction of adults. He showed appreciation for the missionary character of the liturgy. He believed that the testimony of faith and love shared by parishioners gives credibility to the pa­rish community and directly contributes to the spread of Christianity. He attached great importance to small parish groups, especially to priests (Przygoda 2006, 482–483) when it came to missionary activity. Michonneau’s concepts were regarded after the Second World War as a brave attempt to renew the parish community. It should be acknowledged that it is still a valid strategy for strengthening the impact of the parish on a local community. However, Pope Francis noted that »the call to review and renew our parishes has not yet sufficed to bring them nearer to people, to make them environments of living communion and participation, and to make them completely mission-ori­ented« (Francis 2013c, 28). Hence, the task of missionary conversion did not be­come outdated in the parish environment, and the instruction released by the Congregation for the Clergy states that »[i]f the Parish does not exude that spiri­tual dynamic of evangelization, it runs the risk of becoming self-referential and fossilized, offering experiences that are devoid of evangelical flavor and missio­nary drive« (PC 17). The missionary renewal of the parish requires a new approach and new pastoral solutions »so that the Word of God and the sacramental life can reach everyone in a way that is coherent with their state in life« (18). We live in times of dynamic social and cultural changes and it is difficult to pin down one way for the missionary renewal of the parish in Europe. It seems that there are as many ways to achieve this goal as there are ideas developed by the­ologians of pastoral care, together with priests and lay people in a given parish. One pastoral postulate seems to be particularly adequate to the parish in general, i.e. so that the parish becomes »a sanctuary where the thirsty come to drink in the midst of their journey and a centre of constant missionary outreach« (Francis 2013c, 28; PC 26). An interesting solution is to bring back the post-baptism catechumenate, whi­ ch relies on »spreading the Christian word to those who were baptized and confirmed, in accordance to their religious consciousness and spiritual development, openness to God’s word and cooperation with the Lord’s Grace. The exi­stential circumstances of a particular person should be by all means taken into account. Such an approach should lead to their genuine conversion, internal change and mature faith, always built on the foundation of bap­tism.« (Krakowiak 2006, 352) A proper objective of baptism formation is the development and strengthening of all manifestations of the Christian life in specific cultural contexts. Contemporary disciples of Christ should not only be reminded about the moral principles of conduct but also should be provided with a profound and convincing intellectual justification thereof. What is needed is attractive and tailor-made religious instruction targeted at adults. The faithful should be taught how to participate in liturgy, which binds the community. In the current circumstances, loneliness is a weakness, community is power. Religious instruction targeted at adults should make frequent references to baptism as a genuine basis and source of the Christian life. Conversion of the bapti­zed is nothing short of renewing faith in God and the grace of baptism. It is based on such a renewal and aims at its full development. Only well-prepared and fully-fledged parishioners can be involved in missionary activity with a local community. 3.2 The Parish as a Community of Communities According to the Second Vatican Council, the Church is a mystery of unity and community, since it is the sacrament and icon of the Holy Trinity, »a people made one with the unity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit« (Vatican II 1964, 4). Each parish is supposed to be a sign of community, unity and Trinitarian love. The experience of results of social studies show how difficult it is for contemporary parishes to realize this Trinitarian model of interpersonal community. Many con­temporary parishes resemble centers of religious service rather than communities of faith, hope, and love. Therefore, a question is raised concerning how to build a parish community in the spirit of the theology of the Second Vatican Council. The Congregation for the Clergy indicates in the instruction that the parish – understood as a community which integrates, spreads evangelization, showing sensitivity to the poor – should become a community of communities. »The various components that make up the Parish are called to commu­nion and unity. When each part recognizes its complementary role in ser­vice of the community, on the one hand, we see the fulfilment of the col­laborative ministry of the Parish Priest with his Assistant Priests, while on the other hand, we see how the various charisms of deacons, consecrated men and women and the laity, cooperate in building up the singular body of Christ (1 Co 12:12).« (PC 28) The model of the parish as a community of communities is well known in Po­land, due to the involvement in the parish renewal on the part of Rev. Franciszek Blachnicki and his colleagues from the Institute of Pastoral Theology at the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin and the charismatic Light-Life Movement. Blachnicki’s idea to renew the parish community was a methodical formation among religious adolescent and family-oriented groups, which were to consider the Word of God during weekly meetings run by lay animators and confront it with their personal experience. An important role was also to be played by a well­-prepared and shared Sunday liturgy and the Eucharist. Attempts to renew the parish on the basis of the model of a community of communities were undertaken by R. Lombardi, who established the Movement for a Better World in Italy (a mo­del of the parish as a community of neighbouring communities), P. Perini and G. Macchoni, priests of the Church of St. Eustorgius in Milan (a model of the parish as a community of smaller units – oikos), and lately an author of the Newpastoral. net initiative (a model of a community of parish-based home groups). A team of priests and lay assistants can always develop a new model for the renewal of the parish community on the basis of the existing group categories, apostolic teams or communities of charismatic renewal (Przygoda 2003, 130–144). The Vatican instruction stresses that »the ‚spiritual and ecclesial style of Shri­nesx – which are true ‚missionary outposts‘ in their own right – is not extraneous to the Parish, characterized as they are by their spirit of welcome, their life of prayer and silence that renews the spirit, the celebration of the Sacrament of Re­conciliation and their care for the poor« (PC 30). In the contemporary, ever more secular society, parishes begin to perform a similar role to sanctuaries, the centers of spiritual life and beacons of hope for the poor. Today, the holy places to which at least some of the faithful make pilgrimages are parish churches. It is difficult to neglect this fact in the pastoral care strategy. According to the instruction released by the Congregation for the Clergy, charity activity should be revived not only in sanctuaries but also in parishes as they are: »the first place of personal human encounter that the poor have with the face of the Church. Priests, deacons and consecrated men and women are among the first to have compassion for the ‘wounded flesh’ of their brothers and sisters, to visit the sick, to support the unemployed and their families, thereby opening the door to those in need. With their gaze fixed upon them, the Parish community evangelises and is evangelised by the poor, discovering anew the call to preach the Word in all settings, whilst recalling the ‚supreme law‘ of charity, by which we shall all be judged.« (33) Hence, the renewal of the parish understood as a community of communities requires not only taking care of spiritual development and animation of all the religious groups within a parish but also caring for the horizontal relationships between parishioners. What is needed to achieve this goal is a pattern of sanctu­ary functioning, being the centers of spiritual life, model liturgy and radiating love in reference to the poor, those in need of material, psychological, social, and spi­ritual support (Ujházi 2020, 792-793). The pandemic limited the possibilities of sanctuaries affecting the faithful, which should motivate parish priests to take some forms of pastoral care previously available in sanctuaries. 3.3 The Parish as a Community of Service Based on Co-responsibility The Vatican instruction reminds us of a postulate of pastoral conversion and rene­wal of the parish’s mission through the words of Pope Francis. A question is raised: how to achieve this goal given the diminishing number of priests at the parish? Prie­sts get older, retire, cannot take the pressure, experience moral and ethical doubts. After the Second Vatican Council, great hopes were placed on the renewal of the permanent diaconate, which indeed took place in 1972, and on greater opportu­nities to be involved in the parish life and pastoral care of the laity. Deacons are in fact ordained to serve, and cannot obtain the sacrament of priesthood. They can assist bishops and presbyters but cannot replace them, i.e. they cannot celebrate masses, hear other’s confession, perform last rites or become parish priests. This is the result not of legal but theological issues. The parish priest is a representative of the diocesan bishop as a visible head of the local Church. There is a subtle bond between the bishop and the parish, without which the parish could not become a realization of the Church, and consequently would become an out-of-Church being. That is why the parish priest cannot be a lay or consecrated person. Being ordained at least as a presbyter is an absolute condition to represent the visible head of the Church in a parish. The Vatican instruction reminds us about such an important premise of fulfilling the role of a parish priest, especially in the context of recent experiments and attempts to solve the problem of vacant positions of parish priests in various corners of the world. Not all of these attempts were successful and acceptable. The Vatican instruction rectifies certain misuses in running a pa­rish, which were noted in some of the local Churches, through the strengthening of the role of a parish priest, which can be only an ordained steward (PC 66–74). Although the parish priest is »the pastor of the Parish entrusted to him« (CIC, can. 519), it does not mean that he is the only one responsible for the animation of religious life in the parish. The Congregation for the Clergy warns against the mistake of clericalizing pastoral activity and affirms that »the whole community, and not simply the hierarchy, is the responsible agent of mission, since the Church is identified as the entire People of God« (PC 38). Each parish community consists mostly of the lay faithful, whose essential vocation and mission is to »to strive that earthly realities and all human activity may be transformed by the Gospel« (85). There is no return from the model of co-responsibility for pastoral care and parish apostleship. Therefore, it is vital to create new and support the already existing finance and pastoral councils in the parish. A keyword for the proper functioning of the finance councils in the parish is co-responsibility for the materialistic goods of the Church. This area of parish life shows links with evangelization, since as Pope Francis noted »[m]oney contributes greatly to many good works for the development of the human race« (2013b). The instruction offers encouragement to establish a finance council in each pari­sh that should consist of at least three people, and which, under the supervision of the parish priest, would handle financial and legal issues. The Congregation for the Clergy hopes that the council will play »a role of particular importance in the growth, at the level of the Parish community, of a culture of co-responsibility, of administrative transparency, and of service to the needs of the Church« (PC 106). Transparency of its actions, attained, among others, by publishing the annual fi­nancial report presented to the local ordinary, can contribute to the credibility and reliability of the Church. The financial council should consist of the skilled and competent lay faithful, who will not only help to run the finances of the parish but also find new ways of finding funds for investments and pastoral enterprises. It seems that an even more significant role in the process of building the parish as a co-responsible community is played by the Pastoral Parish Council. Pope Fran­cis is convinced that neither the bishop nor the parish priest may run the diocese without the Pastoral Parish Council (Francis 2013a). The Council is written in the constitutive reality of the Church and it contributes to the development of the spi­rit of the communion. The diversity of charisms and services available in the pari­sh, which stem from the inclusion into Christ and gifts from the Holy Spirit, cannot be subject to uniformity in order to become »uniformity, where everyone has to do everything together and in the same way, always thinking alike« (2017). The Pastoral Council »highlights and realizes the centrality of the People of God as the subject and active protagonist of the evangelising mission, in virtue of the fact that every member of the faithful has received the gifts of the Spirit through Baptism and Confirmation« (PC 110). The Vatican document states that the main function of the Pastoral Council is »to investigate everything pertaining to pastoral activiti­es, to weigh them carefully and to set forth practical conclusions concerning them so as to promote conformity of the life and actions of the People of God with the Gospel« (110). Moreover, it recommends that the Pastoral Council should »should consist for the most part of those who have effective responsibility in the pastoral life of the Parish, or who are concretely engaged in it, in order to avoid the mee­tings becoming an exchange of abstract ideas that do not take into account the real life of the community, with its resources and problems« (114). A challenge for the Church in Europe is to be an ecclesial formation, which sho­uld acknowledge Pope Francis’ recommendations concerning co-responsibility, dialogue and cooperation in the missionary activity of the Church consisting of priests, clerics, and the laity. It is necessary to get rid of the dominant, at least in some local Churches located in Central-Eastern Europe, an individualistic vision of redemption for the sake of an inclusive, integrating and communion-based vi­sion. The parish is the priority environment in which the vision should be brought into life. Therefore, it is not the parish priest alone but he together with the su­pport of the Parish Council that should be the cornerstone of unity and commu­nion in the parish. Despite all difficulties that may arise in appointing and leading a team of the faithful, the Parish Council is indispensable for the parish to become a dynamic structure, changing in accordance with social, cultural, and religious circumstances and able to respond adequately to new challenges. 4. Conclusions What are the main conclusions and postulates that may hint at possible directi­ons for the renewal of the parish community in Europe under the current cultural circumstances? It is important not to be focused categorically on the number of the faithful but rather concentrate on the quality of their faith, i.e. the quality of their relationship with God’s people. If parishes are to be the centers of spiritual life and the hubs of the Church’s renewal mission, pastoral care should revolve around various ways of formation leading to sanctity. The sanctity, based on love, should be evidenced through marriages and families, and then in the local com­munity, the environment of life, work, and leisure. In light of the instruction released by the Congregation for the Clergy, parishes should undoubtedly attempt to extend the number of the pro-active faithful en­gaged in various forms of Christian life and apostleship. It is strictly intertwined with the establishment and animation of the finance and pastoral councils. It is still necessary for both priests and the laity to look for new forms of pre-evange­lization and evangelization, adjusted to specific parish communities. It is a chal­lenge, not only during the coronavirus pandemic, to take care of the poor, the sick, and the unemployed, »whilst recalling the ‚supreme law‘ of charity, by whi­ch we shall all be judged« (PC 33). In order to renew the parish in line with the missionary message, it is vital to animate the testimony of the authentically Christian life of priests, clerics, cate­chists, spouses, parents, and all other parishioners. What is more, an atmosphe­re of calm and tranquillity should be cultivated, together with regular praying and adoration of the Host. Last but not least, activity taken outside of the parish ought to be considered. Namely, other parishes should be taken care of, especially in the missionary countries that are in need of financial, organizational, personal and spiritual support. The Church is not restricted by space or limited to ‚our pa­rish‘. This postulate could be extended also to parishes of other Christian deno­minations and other religious communities. Abbreviations CIC – Codex Iuris Canonici 1983. PC – Congregation for the Clergy 2020 [Pastoral coversion]. References Bahovec, Igor. 2020. Civilisation, Religion and Epochal Changes of Cultures. Bogoslovni ve­stnik 80, no. 4:887–899. https://doi. org/10.34291/bv2020/04/bahovec Bauman, Zygmunt. 2000. Liquid Modernity. Cam­ bridge: Polity Press. Benedict XVI. 2006. Pastoral visit to our Lady Star of Evangelization Parish of Rome. Vatican. 10. 12. https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict--xvi/en/homilies/2006/documents/hf_ben--xvi_hom_20061210_star-evangelization.html (accessed 28. 2. 2021). – – –. 2011. Address of his holiness Benedict XVI to participants in the plenary assembly of the pontifical council for promoting the new evan­gelization. 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Lublin: Wydawnictwo KUL. Marianski, Janusz. 2010. Religia w spoleczenstwie ponowoczesnym. Warszawa: Oficyna Naukowa. Paul VI. 1965. Christus Dominus. Decree concer­ning the pastoral office of bishops in the Church. Vatican. 28. 10. https://www.vatican. va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/ documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus--dominus_en.html (accessed 28. 2. 2021). Porada, Ewa. 2014. Malzenstwo we wspólczesnej kulturze: Koncepcja genderowa czy katolicka? Ateneum Kaplanskie 163, no. 1:77–90. Potocki, Andrzej. 2016. Szlachetny choc nieco naiwny optymizm: „Gaudium et spes“ o kultur­ze. Roczniki Teologiczne 63, no. 6: 75–91. https://doi.org/10.18290/rt.2016.63.6-6 Przygoda, Wieslaw. 2003. Parafia jako komunio. Dobry Pasterz 28:130–144. – – –. 2006. Michenneau Georges. In: Ryszard Kaminski, Wieslaw Przygoda and Marek Fi-alkowski, eds. Leksykon teologii pastoralnej, 482–483. Lublin: TNKUL. Rahner, Karl. 1967. Schriften zur Theologie. Vol. 8. Einsiedeln: Benzinger Verlag. 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Vatican. 21. 11. https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_ const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html (acessed 28. 2. 2022). ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 68 Branko Klun, Luka Trebežnik (ur.) Vracanje religije v postmodernem kontekstu Zbornik želi pokazati, da religija ni izginila iz filozofije, kot so napovedovali nekateri razsvetljenski misleci, temvec se vanjo vraca in jo na novo vznemirja. Sicer je to vracanje raznoliko in pogosto nekonvencionalno, vendar pa to ne zmanjšuje njego­vega pomena in s tem potrebe po dialogu med postmoderno filozofijo in teologijo. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta, 2019. 137 str. ISBN 978-961-6844-73-4, 9€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Pregledni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 459—468 Besedilo prejeto/Received:09/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:10/2021 UDK/UDC: 37:27-47 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Orozco © 2022 Orozco Sánchez et al., CC BY 4.0 Luis Guillermo Orozco Sánchez, Luis Alfredo Molina Guzmán and Martha Cecilia Posada Diez Sunday Pedagogy: A Commitment to the Renewal of the Church Nedeljska pedagogika: predanost prenovi Cerkve Abstract: Year after year the Church celebrates the Day of the Lord, a celebration that has transcended the boundaries of evangelization as the most sublime thing in the Church. This is why there is a need for a dynamic, pastoral and priestly pedagogy, which will make Sunday a real place for the transformation of spiritual experiences, and which, from a hermeneutic analysis of the texts and authors that have to the survey is used as a tool for collecting information on priests to measure their pedagogical formation and the results which show the need for an articulation between the pedagogical and the pastoral, in which a contribution is made to the formation of priests through a revitalization of the liturgy, especially the celebration of the Lord’s Day. This is why this research is an extremely important contribution to the ecclesial renewal in the celebra­tion of the Lord’s Day, so that the clergy, from their pastoral work, implement pedagogy as an articulating element of evangelization and the will of the Church focused on the Gospel of Christ. Keywords: Pedagogy, pastoral, church, clergy, Sunday celebration Povzetek: Leto za letom Cerkev obhaja Gospodov dan – gre za praznovanje, ki pre­sega meje evangelizacije in ki je v Cerkvi nekaj najvišjega. Od tod izvira potreba po dinamicni, pastoralni in duhovniški pedagogiki, ki naj nedeljo naredi za re­snicni kraj preobrazbe duhovnega izkustva. Hermenevticna analiza besedil in avtorjev, sodelujocih v anketi, je uporabljena kot orodje za zbiranje informacij o duhovnikih, s cimer se ugotavlja njihova pedagoška formacija in rezultati, ki kažejo na potrebo po razmejitvi med pedagoškim in pastoralnim podrocjem. Predlagana je tudi formacija duhovnikov s pomocjo poživitve liturgije, zlasti obhajanja Gospodovega dne. Na tem temelju je raziskava pomemben prispevek k cerkveni prenovi pri obhajanju Gospodovega dne – da bi tako duhovniki na podlagi svojega pastoralnega dela uresnicevali pedagogiko kot utemeljevalno prvino evangelizacije in kot voljo Cerkve, osredotoceno na Kristusov evangelij. Kljucne besede: pedagogika, pastorala, Cerkev, duhovšcina, nedeljsko praznovanje 1. Introduction Pedagogy is that differentiating element that allows priests to appropriate it to energize evangelization and make Sunday a day, as John Paul II states: »The Day of the Lord -as Sunday has been called since apostolic times« (DD, 1); moreover, it is a meeting of celebration and worship, a place in which the transformation of the subject is proposed. While it is true that priests receive a strong academic formation rich in ecclesiology, biblical, sacramental, theology and pastoral care, all this formation must be accompanied by the pedagogical element that makes it possible to carry out the evangelizing work of the Church. In this order of ideas, and bearing in mind that Sunday Day, according to the Spanish Episcopal Conference (1991, 2): »is one of the first and most original Chri­stian institutions. His birth must be sought in the fact that the Lord rose and ma­nifested himself to his own the first day of the week as all the Evangelists testify«, so Sunday is the time of meeting of the communities that gather around listening to the Word and the Fraction of the Bread; it suffers pedagogical and didactic ele­ments that allow in the participation of the faithful in the meaningful celebration, which helps not only to live the faith in Christ, but also to become a transforming experience of the human and the social, since the well-explained Word and the Eucharist are very dynamic, they make the experience of the human God been felt and experienced: Jesus in the realities of the man and woman of today, in other words: »He finds that only the Church which responds to concrete problems of concrete people, especially the weakest and most vulnerable, is consistent with its mission.« (Žalec 2020, 268) From this perspective, then, the need arises to answer the question: How to make the celebration of Sunday truly become a place of transformation of the spiritual experiences of the faithful, in such a way that it serves as the axis of the experience of faith in Christ Jesus? Answering this question implies thinking of a priestly pedagogy, which involves the formative differentiating elements for the pastoral work of the validly ordained priest and brings to an evangelizing quality in the style of Jesus the Teacher and Pedagogue par excellence. 2. Pedagogy and Pastoral Work Are the Articulating Axes That Energize the Sunday Celebration Since the beginning of the history of knowledge, there has always been speculati­on about how humankind gradually developed knowledge, learning and knowing, elements so significant that have been in all cultures, people, nations, traditions, languages and idiosyncrasies from generation to generation; till reaching the kno­wledge developed from the disciplines and knowledge supported in didactics that enable holistic learning, that allows the development of the capacities that accor­ding to (Nussbaum 2012, 40) »It refers to the potentialities of humankind, sub­stantive freedoms that individuals have to develop as functions that allow them Luis Guillermo Orozco Sánchez et al. - Sunday Pedagogy to realise themselves and achieve well-being«; however, from these substantive freedoms of individuals, pedagogy1 plays an important role in the development of the capacities of thinking subjects, culture, society, religion and in this sense in the evangelizing pastoral of the Church, understood as it manifests: »As a re­newed and vigorous organic pastoral action, so that the variety of charisms, mi­nistries, services and organizations are oriented in the same missionary project to communicate life in their own territory.« (CELAM 2007) However, pastoral care, understood from this ecclesial and Latin American con­text, is based on the very roots of the Gospel, when in Saint Mark we find the divine mandate of Jesus when he says: »Go in to all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature. He who believes and is baptized will be saved, but he who does not believe will be condemned.« (Mk 16:15-16) Therefore, evangelization is then a human and divine action that makes it pos­sible to focus its evangelizing activity on the culture, society and communities that make up not only the conglomerate of people to be evangelized but also, the com­munity of the baptized who must be accompanied in the formation process from the faith and in the certainty of impregnating with hope in the face of the daily vicissitudes that are presented to the man and the woman of today: since »Only the Church that responds to concrete problems of concrete people, especially the weakest and most vulnerable, is consistent with its mission« (Moore 1995, 572). 3. Formation in Pastoral Pedagogy for Priests: A Commitment to Ecclesial Transformation The pedagogical formation of the priest helps to qualify the evangelizing action of the Church, thus fostering a good community and especially formative climate, as Pope John Paul affirmed in the 1994 Encyclical „Pastores dabo vobis“: »Certainly there are also purely human reasons that must impel the priest to permanent formation. This is a requirement of progressive personal fulfilment, since every life is an unceasing journey towards maturity, a continuous formation.« (PDV 66) Consequently, all this makes it possible to apply pedagogical formation as a new transversal trend in the field of evangelization, in such a way that it serves as an effective means for a personal experience of the Lord’s Day as a place of living en­counter with the faith and in which the Second Vatican Council expressly states in the Dogmatic Constitution „Sacrosanctum Concilium“: »On the day that is rightly called ‚The Day of the Lord‘ or Sunday. On this day the faithful must gather in order to hear the word of God and participate in the Eucharist.« (SC 106) The notion of pedagogy is linked to the social, cultural and educational climate of each historical mo­ment, as well as to contexts in which new conceptions and approaches emerge. Although it has been part of the training processes since ancient times, its major developments coincide with the emergence of modernity. Today it is associated with the apogee of the ‚postmodern‘ discourses of education and the transformation of social relations and, in this way, with the constitution of new realizations of subjectivity, identity and individual and collective social practices. (Díaz Villa 2019). In the same way, the evangelizing, celebrational and liturgical work of the Church is seen as an imperative need for the priest’s human, Christian, biblical, catechetical, liturgical and pedagogical formation, as John Paul II puts it: »In the human dimensi­on, the priest must increase and deepen that human sensitivity which enables him to understand the needs of today and to accept the pleas, to share the hopes and expectations, the joys and the works of ordinary life« (PDV 69), which means that this firm Sunday decision must permeate all the ecclesial structures and all the pa­storal plans of the dioceses, parishes, religious communities, movements and any institution of the Church. No community should be excluded from entering decisively, with all its strength, into the constant celebratory renewal, without losing the essential: the celebration of The Lord’s Day, and from abandoning the obsolete structures that no longer favo­ur the transmission of the faith. Faith is therefore closely intertwined with trust inGod, so we can conclude that faith is a source of human strength. (Žalec 2020, 272) Thus, this formative need emerges as the fruits of testimonies through the survey and the facts observed, based on the experience of the parish communities that have deepened in pedagogical practices to evangelize, which presumes the need to implement a new comprehensive pedagogical formation that is appropriate to the continuing formation of the priest and his communities, so as not to »Lament the deficiencies in the participation of the Eucharist« (Ratzinger 2012) and with strate­gies to structure in the pastoral, a theoretical-practical foundation, in relation to the teaching of the faith within a dynamic and meaningful framework for the faithful and communities as proposed in the Constitution „Sacrosanctum Concilium“: »Zeal to promote and reform the sacred liturgy is rightly regarded as a sign of God’s pro­vidential dispositions in our time, as the passing of the Holy Spirit through his Church.« (SC 43) It is, therefore, a question of building and proposing participatory, creative, flexi­ble, integrated and relevant didactics that respond to the most sensitive needs, interests and problems of the communities, which celebrate the faith on the day of the Lord as Pope Francis points out in the Encyclical „Laudato Si’“: »Sunday is the day of the Resurrection, the ›first day‹ of the new creation, whose first fruit is the risen humanity of the Lord, guarantee of the final transfiguration of all created re­ality.« (LS 237) In short, it seeks to rescue the pedagogical part of the priest in the construction of his evangelizing work as well as harmonize the different aspects of pastoral care, so that it can carry out a true transformative action that has transcendence in the prie­stly life; as Pope John Paul II insistently invites: »Sunday, established as a support for the Christian life, naturally has a value of witness and proclamation. A day of prayer, communion and joy, which radiates energies of life and reasons for hope.« (DD 84) Now, to renew and revitalize the Church’s Sunday celebration and evangelizing, it is necessary to read the reality and apply the methods of Jesus’ pedagogy in order to be more effective in the day that has been entrusted to the Church and that in the words of John Paul II is understood as »The day of rest is such first of all because it is Luis Guillermo Orozco Sánchez et al. - Sunday Pedagogy the day ‚blessed‘ and ‚sanctified‘ by God, that is, separated from the other days to be, among all, the ‚day of the Lord‘« (DD 14) and to proclaim the Gospel, with the witness of life and the word, in such a way that every Sunday celebration becomes a ‚Delivery‘ (Mc 16;15, Mt 28;19) that Jesus proposed to his disciples; which involves going out, accompanying, pointing out the way, proposing and interpreting the mes­sage of salvation today and applying it to the cultural reality from the liturgical expe­rience and from the Day of the Lord. However, as worship is an act of Christ and the Church, the first host is God, who through the Holy Spirit makes humanity visited by God. This encounter with the One who brings salvation is the expression of God’s greatest hospitality. The Church, howe­ver, must remember this hospitality of God by becoming the host of the Eternal Com­munion. (Krajnc 2020, 489) In this regard, the Church is called to think about the renewal of the communities to which CELAM (2007) insists with determination: »The entire parish community is called to be the space where the Word is received, celebrated and expressed in the adoration of the Body of Christ, and thus is the dynamic source of the missionary di­sciple«; this interest is born from systemic reflection, traced by the Aparecida docu­ment as an integrated model of parish communities and of the priest who mediates the processes of the transformation and reconfiguration of the liturgical and pastoral celebration, who must have as their basis a properly founded epistemological kno­wledge and with clear methodological criteria, which allow effective processes of evangelization, supported by pedagogical knowledge and the human sciences that study the fact of learning to learn and learn to teach. »In this way, learning the art of celebrating, passing through the liturgy of each Sunday (one day of the Lord, one day for the Lord, one day to the Lord to enter into the mystery.« (Lopez-Corps 2019, 15) 4. Methodology This research is qualitative-ethnographic, carried out in the Archdiocese of Medel­lín. It aims to analyse the pedagogy used by the priests of the parish communities in the celebration of Sunday and how they appropriate the concepts of pedagogy, didactic, and the pedagogical methods used in the celebration to transmit the Sun­day message, in such a way as to help raise the quality of evangelization according to the will of Pope John Paul when he affirms in the encyclical Dies Domini: »The Lord’s Day, as Sunday has been called since apostolic times, has always been given special consideration in the history of the Church because of its close relationship with the very core of the Christian mystery« (DD 1); this research then succeeds, through the survey, in establishing the importance of Sunday in parish communi­ties and through the interpretative analysis the researcher collects. The object of study of the research are the priests of the Archdiocese of Me-dellín, whose population is as follows: 722 validly ordained Catholic priests, of which 100 priests are sampled. Analysis of Information 1. IMPORTANCE OF SUNDAY IN THE CHRISTIAN LIFE Percentage Number of answers Always 41% 41 Almost always 19% 19 Occasionally 4% 4 Never 11% 11 Don´t know/No response 25% 25 Total 100% 100 Table 1: Importance of Sunday in the Christian Life. Source: Orozco (2021). Information from question 1 41% of the sample clearly defined the importance of Sunday in their parish com­munities, while 19% stated the importance of transforming Sunday celebrations into Christian life; 25% of the respondents were concerned because they did not know how to answer the question asked (see Figure 1). 41% Always 25% Don't know \ No response 11% Never 4% Occasionally 19% Almost always Figure 1: Importance of Sunday in Christian Life. Source: Orozco (2021). 2. PEDAGOGICAL METHODS USED IN THE SUNDAY CELEBRATION Percentage Number of answers Exegetical method 22% 22 Catechetical method 20% 20 Discursive method 43% 43 Pedagogical method 15% 15 Total 100% 100 Table 2: Pedagogical methods used in the Sunday celebration. Source: Orozco (2021). Information obtained from question 2 Discursive method 43% of the population surveyed are not clear about the peda­gogical methods to be used during Sunday celebrations, while Exegetical method 22% of the priests surveyed answered that pedagogical methods are always used on the Lord’s Day, which means that they are focused on the pedagogical methods required by today’s evangelization so that the message of the Good News can be used. On the other hand, Catechetical method 20% respond that almost always, Luis Guillermo Orozco Sánchez et al. - Sunday Pedagogy which makes it clear that on Lord’s Day, some use these methods to make the Go­spel message more explicit. All this makes it possible to analyse the urgent need to train the archdiocesan clergy in pedagogical methods so that pastoral work may be more effective and relevant in changing times. It is important to bear in mind that 15% of the interviewees have pedagogical methods, which means that pedagogical training is needed for the Sunday celebration. (See Figure 2). 43% Discursive method 15% Pedagogical method 22% Exegetical method 20% Catechetical method Figure 2: Pedagogical methods used on Sunday celebration Source: Orozco (2021). 3. PEDAGOGY OF THE PRIEST TO KNOW HOW TO TRANSMIT THE SUNDAY MESSAGE Percentage Number of answers Always 11% 11 Almost always 15% 15 Occasionally 65% 65 Never 9% 9 Total 100% 100 Table 3: Pedagogy of the priest to know how to transmit the Sunday message. Source: Orozco (2021). Information obtained from question 3 Regarding the pedagogy used by the priest to convey the Sunday message, 11% of the respondents replied that they always used it, while 15% replied that they almost always used methods to explain the Gospels. In a high percentage, 65%, that is, 65 priests occasionally use methods to celebrate on Sunday. 9% say that there is never any pedagogy by the priest (see Figure 3). 9% Never 11% Always 15% Almost always 65% Occasionally Figure 3: Pedagogy of the priest to know how to transmit the Sunday message. Source: Orozco (2021). 4. THE CELEBRATION OF SUNDAY TRANSFORMS CHRISTIAN LIFE Percentage Number of answers Always 67% 67 Almost always 12% 12 Few times 16% 16 Never 5% 5 Total 100% 100 Table 4: The celebration of Sunday transforms Christian life. Source: Orozco (2021). Information obtained from question 4 In question 4, which is based on the transformation of a Christian life of Sunday celebration, a high percentage of 67% responds that whenever they go to Sunday celebration, it transforms them, while 12 priests almost always, while if the per­centages of few and never times are added, 21% of the faithful who take part in Sunday celebrations do not feel transformed as Christians (see Figure 4). 67% Always 12% Almost always 16% Few times 5% Never Figure 4: Sunday celebration transforms Christian life. Source: Orozco (2021). 5. Interpretative Analysis – Discussion This research does not only try to reproduce reality but constitutes a development based on perception and thought. Its success is the result of interaction with the subjects under investigation, who in turn take the influence of assessment and points of view. Once the technique has been applied, the analysis allows us to elucidate the ba­sic categories of the importance of Sunday for the communities, from the pedago­gical methods to the pedagogy of the priest to transmit the Sunday message, how Sunday the Lord’s Day must transform Christian life. In this sense, John Paul II affirms: »The discovery of this day is a grace to be asked for, not only to live to the full the demands of faith but also to give a concrete answer to the deepest longings of the human being« (DD 7); according to the survey, the answers show that Sunday is truly the Day of the Lord; this is demonstrated by the answers to questions 1, 4: »Sunday is therefore a sign of the Easter event of the Lord’s Day. Past and anticipa­tion, through faith and hope, of God’s rest, the perfect and endless future life.« Luis Guillermo Orozco Sánchez et al. - Sunday Pedagogy From the category of Pedagogical Methods used in the Sunday celebration, which is linked to the pedagogy used by the priest to transmit the Gospel messa­ge on the Lord’s Day, it is relevant to note that, from the answers to questions 2 and 3, and that in words (Orozco Gómez 2015, 176) it is understood as: »proce­dures, forms, systems and Education laws allow teachers and intellectuals intere­sted in the subject to acquire clear and precise concepts and then to introduce themselves to the great complexity that these subjects have acquired today.« With regard to the category of ,Priestly Pedagogy for Knowing how to Transmit the Sunday Message in the Homily‘, which is linked to the way in which practical elements are used, not only for catechetical pastoral care but also for the biblical and celebratory pastoral care of the Church, it should be noted that from the su­rvey carried out and the answers to questions 2 and 3, it can be deduced that among the priests of The dioceses of Medellín need to strengthen the use of new didactics so that the Sunday Gospel message can come to an end. In this regard, CELAM (2007): »The pastoral efforts directed towards the encounter with the li­ving Jesus Christ have borne fruit. Among others, we highlight the following: the efforts of pastoral renewal in parishes are growing, fostering an encounter with the living Christ, through various methods of new evangelization.« These answers suggest that priests need a pedagogical and didactic formation so that they can overcome difficulties in the transmission of the Sunday message through practical means, with the advice of the Apostolic and Roman Catholic Church, Pope Francis affirms: »The homily cannot be an entertaining spectacle, it does not respond to the logic of the media resources, but it must give fervour and meaning to the celebration. It is a peculiar genre; it is a preaching within a liturgical celebration.« (EG 138) After highlighting the importance of the Pedagogy of the Priest to know how to transmit the Sunday message, the analysis leads to another category: The ce­lebration of Sunday transforms Christian life. The survey and the answers to que­stions 1 and 4 allow us to have a clear vision of the need for a Sunday celebration that transforms the lives of believers, in which the Encyclical Dies Domini notes: »Man’s relationship with God requires moments of explicit prayer, this relation­ship becomes an intense dialogue that involves all the dimensions of the person. The ‚day of the Lord‘ is, par excellence, the day of this relationship.« (DD 16) 6. Final Considerations The above research leads to the conclusion that pastoral pedagogy is of the utmost importance in the formation of priests, since it not only makes it possible to use didactic and pedagogical tools for evangelization and the formation of grassroots ecclesial communities and the celebration of the Lord’s Day but also makes pos­sible a commitment to today’s ecclesial transformation and renewal. The research contributes to the pedagogical formation of the priest, although it is true that his initial formation in theology, pastoral care, catechesis, ecclesiol­ogy, biblical and exegetical formation, among others, pedagogy is an important element that serves as a basis for linking priestly activity with methodological didactics for the new evangelization. especially in the celebration of Sunday day. The contributions that have supported the research, have served as a cross­cutting axis for the research development, it is clear that all of them allow the solidification of pastoral pedagogy, since pedagogical elements are needed that can energize evangelization and the transformation of parish communities through a pastoral pedagogy that is evident, dynamic and innovative. Based on this research, it is possible to carry out further research on pedagogy and what to do with the priest, for the sake of the new tendencies of the modern and globalized world, in which the Church and her Pastors must strive for didac­tics and methodologies new in their ardour, new in their expression and new in their language, always respecting the Magisterium of the Church and its doctrine. Abbreviations DD – John Paul II 1998 [Dies Domini]. EG – Francis 2015 [Evangelii Gaudium]. LS – Francis 2015 [Laudato Si’]. NMI – John Paul II 1992 [Novo Millennio Ineunte]. PDV – John Paul II 1992 [Pastores Dabo Vobis]. SC – Vatican Council II. 2004 [Sacrosanctum Concilium]. References CELAM. 2007. Fifth Conference of the Latin Ameri­can and Caribbean Bishops: Concluding Docu­ment. Aparecida, 13–31. 5. Celam. https:// www.celam.org/aparecida/Ingles.pdf (acces­sed 13. 6. 2022). Diaz, Villa, Mario. 2019. What is that called peda­gogy? Pedagogía y Saberes [Bogotá], št. 50:11– 28. Online. Francis. 2013. Evangeii Gaudium. Apostolic Exhorta­tion on the proclamation of the Gospel in today’s world. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. – – –. 2015. Laudato Si’. Encyclical Letter. Vatican: Libraria editrice Vaticana. John Paul II. 1992. Pastors Dabo Vobis. Apostolic Exhortation on the Formation of Priests in the Current Situation. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. – – –. 1998. Dies Domini. Apostolic Letter on the Sanctification of Sunday. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. – – –. 2001. Novo Millennio Ineunte. Apostolic Letter at the conclusion of the Great Jubilee of the Year 2000. Vatican: Libreria Editrice Vati­cana. Krajnc, Slavko. 2020. Gostoljubje – osebna izkazni-ca liturgicnega in pastoralnega sodelavca. Bogoslovni vestnik 80, no. 3:489–503. https:// doi.org/10.34291/bv2020/03/krajnc Lo´pez-Corps, Manuel G. 2019. Celebrando la peculiaridad del domingo [Celebrating the peculiarity of Sunday]. Cuestiones Teológicas [Theological questions] 46, no. 105:1–28. https://doi.org/10.18566/cueteo.v46n105.a01 Ratzinger, Joseph. 2014. The meaning of Sunday for prayer and the life of the Christian. In: Theology of the Liturgy. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Spanish Episcopal Conference. 1981. Sunday, the primordial feast of the Christians. Conferencia Episcopal Espańola. 22. 11. https://www.obispadoalcala.org/pdfs/Domingo_ fiesta_primordial_CEE.pdf (accessed 13. 6. 2022). Vatican Council II. 2004. Sacrosanctum Concilium. Dogmatic Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. Žalec, Bojan. 2020. Rezilienca, teologalne kreposti in odzivna Cerkev. Bogoslovni vestnik 80, no. 2:267–279. https://doi.org/10.34291/ bv2020/02/zalec Pregledni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.02) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 469—483 Besedilo prejeto/Received:05/2021; sprejeto/Accepted:09/2021 UDK/UDC: 613.81:2-184.3 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Simonic © 2022 Poljak Lukek et al., CC BY 4.0 Saša Poljak Lukek and Barbara Simonic Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery from Alcoholism1 Duhovni in verski dejavniki okrevanja po alkoholizmu Abstract: Recovery from alcoholism is a complex, dynamic, personal and social process aimed not only at abstaining from alcohol but also at improving the quality of various areas of life. In this process, individuals rely on a variety of internal and external resources. One of these is spirituality/religiosity, which contributes to the results of alcoholism treatment in various ways. In this pa­per, where we used the systematic literature review method to analyze 28 dif­ferent studies in the field of spirituality/religiosity in the recovery process from alcoholism, we present findings that indicate the role of spirituality as one of the components in this process. We shed light on several spiritual and religious factors that are, each in its specific way, important support to the individual in the process of recovery from alcoholism. Keywords: addiction, alcoholism, abstinence, relationship with God, religion, spi­rituality Povzetek: Okrevanje po alkoholizmu je kompleksen, dinamicen, oseben in socialen proces, katerega cilj ni samo abstinenca, ampak izboljšanje kvalitete življenja na razlicnih življenjskih podrocjih. V tem procesu se ljudje naslonijo na razlicne notranje in zunanje vire. Med njimi je tudi duhovnost/religioznost, ki na razlicne nacine prispeva k rezultatom zdravljenja odvisnosti od alkohola. V prispevku, v katerem smo z metodo sistematicnega pregleda literature analizirali 28 razlicnih raziskav s podrocja duhovnosti/religioznosti v procesu okrevanja od odvisnos-ti od alkohola, predstavljamo ugotovitve, ki nakazujejo, kakšna je vloga duhovnosti kot ene izmed komponent v procesu okrevanja od posledic odvis­nosti od alkohola. Izpostavljeni so razlicni duhovno-religiozni dejavniki, ki na raznolike nacine predstavljajo pomembno podporo posamezniku v procesu okrevanja od odvisnosti od alkohola. Kljucne besede: odvisnost, alkoholizem, abstinenca, odnos z Bogom, religija, duhov­ nost The results were partly obtained within the project No. J5-2570, financed by the Public Agency for Research of the Republic of Slovenia. 1. A Modern Understanding of Alcoholism Recent research in the field of addiction confirms that alcoholism is not just a mental disorder of addiction but also a chronic physical disease that damages the biological balance in the brain (Urschel 2009, 5). From the point of view of mental health, alcoholism is diagnosed as a pattern of harmful consumption of a psycho­active substance (alcohol) that causes health problems and addiction syndrome. The latter is characterized by a strong desire to drink alcoholic beverages, persis­tent consumption of alcohol despite harmful consequences, higher commitment to alcohol consumption than other activities and obligations, increased tolerance and in some cases physical disorders due to substance withdrawal (World Health Organization 2016, 289–291). Alcohol addiction is thus manifested in the specific behaviour, thinking and emotions of an individual and at the same time causes permanent changes in brain function, especially in impaired frontal lobe function and in the damaged neurotransmitter system. Although alcoholism is often described as an addictive behaviour driven by either the pursuit of pleasure or self-destructive motives, experts find that behind addic­tive behaviour there is deep and strong psychological pain (Gostecnik et al. 2010, 364–365; Khantzian 2014, 33). In understanding and dealing with alcoholism, it is thus increasingly important to understand mental development and, above all, the factors that cause and maintain psychological stress and pain in an individual during development. The disorder of self-regulation because of traumatic experience (De Bellis 2002, 164; Wright 2014, 27) or insecure attachment (Khantzian 2014, 36) and systemic adjustment of relationships to non-functional behavioural patterns are recognized as risk factors for the development of alcoholism (Vetere 2014, 62). Ina­ppropriately regulated psychological contents associated with various forms of (re­lational) trauma are thus in the background of the dynamics of alcoholism, and addiction is a way of inappropriate regulation of these internal states. 2. The Process of Recovery from Alcoholism Coping with alcoholism can be aimed at reducing the harmful effects of addiction or at maintaining abstinence (Wright 2014, 12). The recovery process can be based on the principles of non-spiritual approaches, non-religious spiritual approaches, or religious approaches (Brown et al. 2006, 655–656). All of these approaches should include medical, psychotherapeutic, and supportive interventions. Because alcoholi­sm is understood as a disease, the first step in recovery must be a medical approach (especially for patients with withdrawal symptoms and comorbid mental disorders, for example, severe depression). With medicaments, we enable the brain to regain the ability of paying attention, listening and memorizing, thus meeting basic conditi­ons for further psychotherapeutic and supportive treatment (Urschel 2009, 23, 27). When we talk about psychotherapeutic support in the recovery process, the importance of re-establishing relationships is increasingly emphasized (Khantzian Saša Poljak Lukek et al. - Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery... 2014, 53; Vetere 2014, 63). In this phase, the recovery process should therefore be focused primarily on building attachment, forming reliable interpersonal rela­tionships and reorganizing traumatic relational experiences (Wright 2014, 17). New experiences in relationships enable new mechanisms of self-regulation (Khantzian 2014, 63) and thus one’s autonomy and free and secure attachment to another person. Through interpretation, understanding, and explanation, conscious, verbal information is reorganized, and through the experience of this subjective enviro­nment the implicit relational knowing changes (Stern et al. 2010, 14). In the rela­tional context, recovery from addiction is supposed to represent a new satisfaction of basic relational needs, where the way of connecting and establishing the basic elements of attachment in relationships is key. The satisfied need for significance and recognition is especially important since it is supposed to help the recovering individual to regain a sense of trust in relationships and the ability to re-attach to a person (which replaces attachment to the substance) (Khantzian 2014, 63). 3. The Importance of Spirituality in Recovery after Alcoholism When we talk about the spiritual or religious approach in the treatment of addicti­on, we have in mind various support interventions that include these two dimensi­ons (Brown et al. 2006, 656). These are two different, but inevitably connected and overlapping constructs. Spirituality is usually understood more broadly than religio­sity and defines a personal and internalized sense of the transcendent, the sacred, where the individual establishes a deep and personal relationship with God or the transcendent being. Religiosity, on the other hand, is seen as a more external and organized expression of spirituality, also including an institutional and community dimension, spiritual life according to institutional rules and belief according to the value system of a particular religion (Bent-Goodley and Fowler 2006, 283). Religi­osity can thus be understood as an expression of a spiritual relationship in certain forms, ways, beliefs, and practices that develop within a community with others who share the same experiences with transcendent reality (Hodge 2011, 22). In principle, we can say that spirituality can exist without religiosity, while religiosity is empty if it does not include spirituality (Brown et al. 2006, 654). There are various ways in which spirituality and religiosity are linked to alcohol abuse and the recovery process. Spirituality and religiosity can help deal with stress (Pargament et al. 2001, 64), as religious coping can reduce or accelerate the effects of stressful events, depending on how it is involved in the process. Se­condly, spirituality and religiosity can promote healthy behaviours and emotions, e.g. higher levels of spirituality and religiosity are associated with lower indicators of depression (Chatters et al. 2008, 958). Some religions explicitly forbid the con­sumption of alcohol, and almost all of them claim that alcohol abuse is a mistake (sin). Active and spiritually marked behaviours appear to promote self-esteem and create positive emotions such as being loved and forgiven (2000, 335). Final­ly, spiritual and religious behaviour typically involves rather intense formal and informal social activities (e.g., inclusion in various groups) that are known to re­duce stress and have a positive effect on psychological health (Miller and Saunders 2011, 2–3). From this point of view, spirituality is an important factor in the pro­cess of recovery from alcoholism (Jerebic and Jerebic 2012, 307). Support groups for the treatment of alcoholism (e.g. Alcoholics Anonymous ­AA) highlight the basic principles of self-help with which a person can find ways to maintain abstinence and offer a new social network in which individuals can try new ways to meet their relational needs (Urschel 2009, 110). In support gro­ups with a spiritual or religious component, a person satisfies the need for reco­gnition and the need to be with people they perceive as similar and sharing the same experience (Erskine 1998, 239). In addition, engaging in religious rites and cultivating a genuine spiritual relationship with God or another transcendent be­ing during recovery can also alter attachment patterns (Kerlin 2017, 405) as a person in their vulnerability regains the experience of safe shelter and distress regulation when the contact is broken. Expressing gratitude through prayer and affection through religious rituals enables the individual in the recovery process to awaken spiritually and to reach a new state of consciousness, characterized by faith in the transcendent and joy of life (Dermatis and Galanter 2016, 511). Spiri­tuality thus plays an important role in recovery from addiction, as it is associated with a more optimistic view of the world and stronger social support, which allows for healing and changing one’s behavioural patterns (Pardini et al. 2000, 352). In a personal relationship with God, a person in the process of recovery can experience new dimensions of understanding themselves, relationships, and the world. The spiritual identity of the individual, as an explicit and implicit expression of the relationship to God (Davis, Granqvist and Sharp 2018, 8), is important in the recovery process as it gives the individual a sense of confidence, efficiency, control and value. A relationship with a God who does not judge or disgrace and where there is always a place for human vulnerability can offer a new experience of se­curity (Kirkpatrick 2005, 61) that replaces meeting security needs with addictive behaviour. Thus, by changing the attitude toward God, when in moments of vul­nerability a person experiences its importance for living, they form or change the explicit perception of spirituality as well as the inner implicit attitude towards God, thus creating support in coping with challenges in the process of recovery. 4. The Purpose of the Study Most studies on alcoholism, focusing on its aetiology and treatment, rely mainly on the medical model of understanding. Therefore, little research would focus on the qualities of alcoholics who have opted for sobriety. The recovery process is based not so much on medical or biological predispositions, but on how an individual seeks meaning and purpose, the ability to make moral decisions, the decision to know and work on oneself, and the ability to be creative. Recovery from alcohol­ism is an internal phenomenon, it is a ,success story‘ that can only be told from Saša Poljak Lukek et al. - Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery... within. Of course, alcoholics often opt for abstinence due to external pressures from family or society. This decision, however, must also become internal; a trans-formative process must evolve in which the alcoholic discovers the internal fac­tors, including spirituality, that lead to change (Wismer Bowden 1998, 337–338). In this regard, the purpose of this paper is to present a systematic overview of the findings of recent scientific studies that have examined the role of spirituality in the process of recovery from alcoholism. Based on the analysis, we want to pres­ent the role of spirituality as one of the components in the process of recovery. 5. Method 5.1 Systematic Literature Review For the research method, we used the systematic literature review method, which is similar to meta-analysis. It can be described as a method that compares the results of qualitative and quantitative studies, using a qualitative approach (Snyder 2019, 335). It provides an objective and systematic overview of the field and offers a good insi­ght into a particular scientific field by identifying, critically evaluating and integrating findings of important qualitative studies addressing a specific research topic (Cooper 2003, 5). The method needs to be based on the preparation of a detailed analysis protocol, and the research material consists of relevant studies that comply with pre­defined criteria for inclusion in and exclusion from the analysis (Ressing, Blettner and Klug 2009, 457). The result is a comprehensive and systematic review of the results of a large number of already published quantitative and qualitative research in a par­ticular field. By integrating the findings and perspectives derived from the various empirical findings of these studies, we obtain answers to research questions in a way that no single study can (Snyder 2019, 333). In our study, by a systematic literature re­view we identified, summarized, and synthesized achievable research that addressed various aspects and the role of spirituality in the process of recovery from alcoholism. 5.2 Procedure For this study, we searched for scientific articles of qualitative and quantitative stud­ies on two online bases of articles, Scopus and Web of Science. To capture the ar­ticles, we selected the period from January 2000 to December 2021. We searched the databases for results under the search terms ‚alcoholism‘, ‚recovery‘, ‚spirituality‘ and ‚religion‘, which were found in the title, summary or keywords. The following criteria were considered in identifying relevant studies: – The full article presented an original study (quantitative or qualitative) in En­glish and was published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal between January 2000 and December 2021. – The content of the article referred (also) to aspects of spirituality/religiosity in the process of recovery from alcoholism (even if the article dealt with the pro­cess of recovery from abuse of other substances and addictions, we focused only on the part that was related to recovery from alcoholism). – The research sample consisted (also) of individuals with the experience of al­cohol addiction and were currently or in the past involved in the process of recovery from alcoholism. Articles were first evaluated based on their title and abstract. In articles that were not excluded we then looked at the full text that seemed relevant. By the set criteria, we designed the final selection of articles, which we analyzed in detail in accordance with the purpose of our research. The entire process of finding and selecting articles is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Process of obtaining and selecting studies. 6. Results Table 1 presents the main features of the included studies. Of the 28 studies in­cluded, 21 were quantitative and 7 used qualitative research approaches. Survey (authors, year) and type of survey Sample Research approach and method of data collection Andó et al. (2016) Quantitative research Adults involved in addiction treatment programs (N=169) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Atkins and Hawdon (2007) Quantitative research Participants in addiction treat­ment support groups (N=924) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Blakeney, Blakeney and Helmut (2005) Qualitative research Chronic addicts who have entered the recovery process in the Jewi­sh community (N=29) Phenomenological content analysis (semi-structured interviews) Brown et al. (2007) Quantitative research Participants in the program of recovery from alcoholism (N=26) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Brown et al. (2013) Quantitative research Adults cured of addiction (N=91) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Doty-Sweetnam and Morrissette (2018) Qualitative research Women in the process of recove­ring from alcoholism with at least 5 years of abstinence (N=7) The phenomenological me­thod with content analysis (interviews) Galanter, Dermatis and Santucci (2012) Quantitative research Young participants of AA groups (N=266) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Galanter et al. (2013) Quantitative research Adult participants (physicians) who were AA members (N=144) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Galanter et al. (2020) Quantitative research Participants of the Narcotic Anonymus program (N=450) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Jackson and Cook (2005) Qualitative research Members of a spiritual group in the community recovery program for people with alcohol problems (N = 5) Content thematic analysis (analysis of topics that emer­ged at the meetings) Saša Poljak Lukek et al. - Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery... Survey (authors, year) and type of survey Sample Research approach and method of data collection Kelly and Eddie (2020) Quantitative research Adults (USA national sample) (N=2002) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Kerlin (2017) Quantitative research Women involved in integrative institutional treatment of addicti­on (N=95) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Lewis and Allen (2017) Qualitative research 50+ years old Alaskan natives involved in the People Awakening project (N=10) Thematic analysis (interviews) Mason et al. (2009) Quantitative research Men involved in a substance abuse rehabilitation program (N=77) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Medlock et al. (2017) Quantitative research Adults diagnosed with a serious addiction disorder (N=131) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Miller and Saunders (2011) Quantitative research Persons in the process of group and individual therapy (N=55) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Murray, Goggin and Malcarne (2006) Quantitative research Members of AA (N=144) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Necula, Baciu and Punga (2019) Qualitative research Participants in the alcoholism treatment program organized by the Blue Cross Association from Romania (N=over 700) Triangulation of methods (direct observation, analysis of daily reports and interviews with users of the recovery program) Panati et al. (2020) Quantitative research Adults diagnosed with alcohol addiction syndrome (N=50) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Pardini et al. (2000) Quantitative research Adults cured of alcohol and/or other drug addiction (N=236) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Piderman et al. (2007) Quantitative research Adults in the process of treating alcohol addiction (N=74) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Piderman et al. (2008) Quantitative research Adults who have completed an alcohol addiction treatment program (N=74) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Polcin and Zemore (2004) Quantitative research Participants in AA groups and other treatment programs (N=200) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Robinson et al. (2007) Quantitative research Adults cured of alcohol addiction (N=123) Statistical analysis (descriptive longitudinal study) (questionnaires) Selvam (2015) Qualitative research Participants (a man and a woman) with experience of alcohol abuse included in a program where elements of Christian contempla­tion were practised (N=2) Case study (interview and questionnaires) Wade (2013) Qualitative research Alcoholics in the process of reco­very in AA (N=12) Phenomenological method (interviews) Webb et al. (2006) Quantitative research Adults with alcohol addiction included in a community treat­ment program (N=157) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Yeterian, Bursik and Kelly (2015) Quantitative research Adolescents one year after the end of treatment (N = 127) Statistical analysis (questionnaires) Notes: AA -Alcoholics Anonymous. In articles that included different types of addiction in the research, we analyzed only data related to alcohol addiction. Table 1: Included studies and their characteristics. Research mostly emphasizes that various spiritual variables develop and func­tion in the recovery process and that this spiritual development is associated with achieving better results in the process of recovery from alcoholism. With the ex­ception of two studies (Atkins and Hawdon 2007; Yeterian, Bursik and Kelly 2015) that did not confirm that the spiritual/religious dimensions increase an individu­al’s ability to maintain abstinence, studies highlight some important aspects of spirituality. These are related to lower levels of craving for alcohol, one remains sober more easily and with higher certainty, and better recovers psychologically. The findings of research on the role of spirituality as one of the components in the process of recovery from alcoholism can be summarized in the following top­ics: the level of spirituality, spiritual practice, religious coping, spiritual growth and personal relationship with God. 6.1 Level of Spirituality/Religiosity The research results show a positive correlation between higher levels of spiritua­lity/religiosity and positive aspects in the recovery process, which also contribute to a higher ability to maintain abstinence. A higher level of spirituality is associa­ted with a higher level of self-confident decisiveness to maintain sobriety (Brown et al. 2013). Spirituality and religiosity are associated with a more optimistic life orientation, greater perception of social support, higher resilience to stress and lower levels of anxiety, which contributes to a more successful coping with addic­tion (Pardini et al. 2000). When a higher level of spirituality in the recovery pro­cess is also associated with a person’s self-efficacy, i.e. a proactive attitude that leads to change, the desire for alcohol decreases (Mason et al. 2009; Piderman et al. 2007). A higher level of spirituality is also associated with less negative affect, more social and positive behaviour, and more appropriate self-care (Panati et al. 2020), thereby increasing the power to abstain from alcohol. In general, spiritually/religiously-oriented individuals are expected to have a lower propensity to consume alcohol and other substances, and strengthening spirituality/religiosity provides a stronger commitment to maintaining abstinence during recovery. Developing spiritual and religious beliefs in the recovery process in addicts is also therapeutic and increases the chances of treatment success (Ne­cula, Baciu and Punga 2019). Research confirms that in recovery programs that include spiritual growth, the level of spirituality and faith increases, which helps to maintain sobriety (Brown et al. 2007), as the symptoms of anxiety decrease in relation to a higher level of spirituality (Andó et al. 2016). Spirituality is said to be more important in the recovery process for individuals who have completed for­mal treatment than for those who have recovered without it. In addition, higher levels of spirituality/religiosity are expected to contribute differently to major changes according to certain characteristics (e.g. they have shown more signifi­cance in African Americans than Caucasians and in women compared to men in the recovery process) (Kelly and Eddie 2020). Saša Poljak Lukek et al. - Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery... 6.2 Spiritual Practice Some research has focused on general or specific aspects of spiritual/religious practice associated with the recovery process. In general, personal spiritual prac­tices increase the possibility of maintaining abstinence (Piderman et al. 2007; 2008). Promoting spirituality through reading spiritual texts, discussions, listen­ing to others, and participating in conversations about spirituality is an important factor in achieving sobriety (Brown et al. 2007). Christian contemplative practice, which promotes spiritual growth through strengthening self-awareness, self-reg­ulation, humility, forgiveness, social responsibility and intelligence, also has the potential to lower cravings for alcohol (Selvam 2015). Prayer and attending church/ Mass, which enable a personal relationship with God while also providing a sup­port network outside the ,drinking company‘ (non-drinking social environment), are important factors in motivating sobriety (Lewis and Allen 2017). Attending Mass (and sacramental practice) can promote the complex recovery process, as there one can listen to God’s word and pray with others, thus establishing a sense of community, which also promotes recovery by lowering the feelings of loneli­ness and alienation (Wade 2013). 6.3 Spirituality as a Way of Coping with Stress (Religious Coping) Some studies have focused on examining the relationship between the role of spirituality/religiosity as a mechanism for coping with stress and the aspects of the recovery process. They find that various interventions in the recovery process deepen many positive dimensions of spirituality and religiosity, including positive religious coping (Robinson et al. 2007). They confirm that positive religious co­ping (incorporating spiritual/religious aspects of coping with stress, which stems from a sense of positive connection and collaborative relationship with God, from which one draws strength to face one’s trials) is associated with higher success in the recovery process (Polcin and Zemore 2004). For example, this way of religious coping is associated with a lower level of alcohol consumption before entering the recovery process and a tendency to stronger mutual support of participants in the recovery process, which is reflected in a lower desire for substance and ab­stinence that is more reliable after dismissal (Medlock et al. 2017). 6.4 Spiritual Growth Research that has examined the progress of persons in the area of spirituality in the recovery process, without exception points to the fact that the dimensions of spirituality and religiosity in people in the recovery process are strengthened. Higher levels of spirituality are also associated with greater success in maintaining sobriety. Spiritual growth in the recovery process is often the result of interventi­ons that specific recovery programs include in the recovery process (e.g. spiritual content in discussion groups, discussions, reading texts with spiritual/religious content) (Brown et al. 2007), as well as relationships with other persons (friends, relatives) that encourage spiritual growth (Doty-Sweetnam and Morrissette 2018). Thus, in the process of recovery, a kind of spiritual awakening occurs (Galanter, Dermatis and Santucci 2012). Participants experience God’s presence on a perso­nal level and as a result, their sense of connection with God deepens (Galanter et al. 2013), their daily spiritual experience increases, they experience a deeper me­aning of life (Robinson et al. 2007) and feel higher existential well-being in general (Miller and Saunders 2011). In recovered participants, we may find that spiritual growth they experience in the recovery process increases their optimistic life ori­entation and openness to social contacts and resilience to stress, while it lowers anxiety (Pardini et al. 2000) and depression (Galanter et al. 2020). An important dimension of spiritual growth in the recovery process is also the achievement of forgiveness (to self and others), which is a noteworthy component of successful recovery, as it allows one to overcome unresolved aspects that may drive alcohol abuse (Webb et al. 2006). All of the listed dimensions of spiritual growth in the recovery process are associated with a lower craving for alcohol. 6.5 Personal Relationship with God The dimension that emerges from research and explains how spirituality and reli­giosity help in the recovery process and support the maintenance of abstinence, is an aspect of experiencing a relationship with God on a deeper, personal level. It is important to experience God’s genuine presence, also reflected in a secure attachment to God, which is associated with less craving for alcohol and main­taining sobriety (Galanter et al. 2013; Kerlin 2017). Persons in the healing process deepen their personal relationship with God, where they experience God as a per­sonal saviour who has helped them survive all the dangers of addiction and stop drinking. For them, the decision to stop drinking and to recover equals a crucial moment of change in their lives, and they believe that they would not be able to persevere on this path and would start drinking again if they did not experience support and salvation from God (Lewis and Allen 2017). This personal and sav­ing relationship with God is also the result of spiritual awakening (Galanter et al. 2013), and they experience it as mentally ‚hearing‘ how God speaks inside them (2020). Many experience their addiction to alcohol as something they have re­placed God with, and feel that intense hunger and thirst for God lie behind their addiction. Because of drinking, they faced inferiority and feelings of loneliness and alienation, which, however, diminished in their personal relationship with Jesus in the Eucharist, where they felt accepted by Jesus even though they were sinners. They experienced his mercy and forgiveness -and without a sense that one has been forgiven, there is no recovery. The Eucharist ensures the true presence of Jesus and thus a relationship in which one can be felt, restructure one’s existing life and observe new things in real life, as well as to continue sobriety. The Eucharist means to unite with Christ, who is life, and to go with him through the process of recovery, which is death and resurrection. During these experiences, as well as in belonging to the Church and community, they felt safe, and above all, they were inspired by the view of death and resurrection, which is an important parallel to the recovery process (Wade 2013). For persons in the process of recovery, a per­ Saša Poljak Lukek et al. - Spiritual and Religious Factors of Recovery... sonal relationship with God thus represents an internal point from which control over alcohol abuse can take place (a decision to quit, a decision to remain sober) (Murray, Goggin and Malcarne 2006). 7. Discussion Using the method of a systematic literature review, we identified five areas that cover the results of research in the field of spirituality and recovery from alcoho­lism. These are: level of spirituality, spiritual practice, religious coping, spiritual growth and personal relationship with God. It turned out that these are the main areas through which we can explain the importance of spirituality for the process of recovery from alcoholism. Spirituality or religious practices, which an individual develops as part of their experience and behaviour, contribute to a more successful coping in the process of recovery from addiction and also from the consequences of addiction. Spiritu­ality and religiosity often help people find meaning and purpose in their lives, especially in stressful and traumatic situations (Hill and Pargament 2003, 64–65; Peres et al. 2007, 346), and also contribute to faster post-traumatic growth after difficult experiences (Calhoun et al. 2000, 522), as well as in recovery from addic­tion (Kerlin 2017, 398). In coping with difficulties, the spiritual dimension is often one that helps to understand the seemingly incomprehensible and achieve control over something that is difficult to manage at first glance (Erzar 2021, 928–929), which also seems challenging in the process of recovery from alcoholism. Based on the results of the research, we can conclude that aspects of spirituality and religiosity enable an individual to divert attention from addiction, learn new strat­egies for satisfying basic relational needs, new strategies for coping with stress and finding new meaning in life. What is important here is that spiritual or religious coping with stress is based on a strong and secure relationship with God (or other transcendent being) from which a person draws a sense of certainty and trust. Research, too, shows that a personal relationship with God is an important factor in successful coping with addiction, especially in maintaining abstinence. For many religious people, God (or other transcendent being) is not an abstract or distant being, but an important person who has an important place in their intimate world. Many theorists and researchers of the relational psychology of religion find that the intrapsychic ima­ge of God has the psychic energy and dynamics of a living person. God is a psychic reality whom one feels as real, alive, someone it is possible to be in a real and living relationship with. (Belford Ulanov 2001, 17–22) Even in moments of stress and vulnerability, it is a relationship that calms, offers refuge and comfort (Beck and McDonald 2004, 93). Namely, when we face emotional turmoil, feelings of loneliness, guilt, and anxiety, and we are vulnerable, secure and trusting relation­ships are of paramount importance (Johnson, Makinen and Millikin 2001, 146). Providing a sense of security when we are vulnerable is also said to be one of the main functions of religion (Durkheim 1965, 419–421). It is in times of trouble and crisis that people feel vulnerable and fragile, which is awakened in the process of recovery from alcoholism, that they turn to God (or another transcendent being) and seek protection, security and comfort (Rowat and Kirkpatrick 2002, 638–639). Such a relationship with a transcendent being provides people with security and confidence to function more easily in daily life and helps them cope more easily with trials and tribulations. In this light, spirituality also opens up the possibility of post-traumatic growth after coping with the consequences of addiction. Due to the distress caused by facing addiction and its consequences, people in their vulnerability find and es­tablish contact with God in a new way. They often experience a spiritual awaken­ing, which promotes the process of recovery from alcoholism, by establishing contact with a higher power through prayer and meditation, which are the cor­nerstones of recovery support programs (Kerlin 2017, 405–406). The presented study is thus a starting point for further research into the im­portance of spirituality in the process of recovery from alcoholism. Above all, it focuses on the importance of an individual’s spirituality as a significant aspect of coping with addiction. Here we recognize the need for further research that would shed even more light on aspects of the experience of those recovering from alco­holism. There is especially a need for additional qualitative research, which would provide in-depth insight into how spiritual dimensions enter this structure of ex­perience and what is their role and contribution in the process of recovery from alcoholism. 8. Conclusion The nature of the process of recovery from alcoholism is extremely complex: it is a continuous and multifaceted life change that allows a person to first recover and then eventually maintain sobriety (Pouille et al. 2020, 2; Wade 2013, 1138). It is a distinctly personal process, and abstinence being only one aspect of it; in this process, the individual embarks on a path of deeper transformation and per­sonal growth, part of which is spiritual growth. Spirituality in recovery can be un­derstood as a relationship with someone/something with meaning transcending the individual. The findings suggest that substances are of particular importance to the addict (McCauley and Reich 2008, 25). Addicts develop a deep emotional attachment to a substance and can give it very personal meaning. It, therefore, seems reasonable to think that only something with similar depth and greater personal significance, both spiritual and emotional, can transcend and change this attachment. 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ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 51 Mari Jože Osredkar Teologija odnosaIn beseda je clovek postala Odnos je nekaj duhovnega, nekaj, kar se ne vidi, nekaj cesar cloveški cuti ne zazna­jo neposredno. Pa vendar je odnos za posameznikovo življenje nekaj eksistencialno pomembnega. Je pravzaprav naš življenjski prostor: »v njem živimo, se gibljemoin smo«. Še vec, odnos je kljuc za razumevanja vere in Boga. Ljubljana: Brat Francišek in Teološka fakulteta, 2016. 148 str. ISBN 978-961-6844-50-5. 12€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Izvirni znanstveni clanek/Article (1.01) Bogoslovni vestnik/Theological Quarterly 82 (2022) 2, 485—499 Besedilo prejeto/Received:01/2022; sprejeto/Accepted:05/2022 UDK/UDC: 314.04:27-426 DOI: 10.34291/BV2022/02/Kezman © 2022 Kežman et al., CC BY 4.0 Mihaela Kežman, Jana Goriup in Mitja Gorenak1 Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami The Importance of Passing on Values between Generations Povzetek: Demografske spremembe vplivajo tudi na sodobno družino. Ta se na­mrec spreminja. Medgeneracijsko sodelovanje kot del skupnega bivanja ni vec samoumevno. Zdi se, da se vrednote družinskega življenja v procesih, ki jih družina doživlja v postmoderni družbi, nekako izgubljajo. Slednje nas je vodilo v raziskovanje, kako se vrednote prenašajo skozi medgeneracijski odnos starih staršev in njihovih vnukov. S tehniko anketnega vprašalnika smo na vzorcu 405 starih staršev v starosti od 65 do vkljucno 75 let ugotavljali, katere vrednote so obema populacijama pomembne in katere ter v kolikšni meri lahko stari starši prenašajo na svoje vnuke. Uporabljen instrumentarij je bil zasnovan na podla­gi Muskove lestvice vrednot (MLV). Na osnovi dobljenih empiricnih podatkov smo ugotovili, da so vrednote, ki so osebno pomembne starim staršem, po­membne tudi za prenos na njihove vnuke. Vera se je izkazala kot najpomemb­nejša vrednota (vrednost korelacije 0,812), saj jo stari starši, ki jim je ta vredno­ta pomembna, prenašajo tudi na svoje vnuke. Odkrili smo tudi nekatere razlike glede na spol starih staršev, medtem ko pri vecini vrednot, ki smo jih razisko­vali, vpliva starosti nismo zaznali. Raziskava je gotovo spodbuda za nadaljnje raziskovanje – posebej v casu krize, ko je družina toliko bolj pomembna in vre­dnote še toliko bolj nujne. Kljucne besede: vrednote, stari starši, vnuki, družina, vera Abstract: Demographic changes that we are seeing happen have a significant in­fluence of families. Intergenerational cooperation is no longer seen as some­thing that we can take for granted based purely on the fact that various gen­erations live together. Based on all of this it seems that values are losing their power. This has led us to research the area of values, in particular, we were interested in how values are being transmitted from grandparents to grand­children through intergenerational relations. We have used a paper-pencil sur­vey where we gathered responses from 405 respondents, aged between 65 and 75 years of age inclusive, asking them how important selected values are for their personal and how important do they see these same values for being Korespondencni avtor. transmitted to their grandchildren. We have found out that those values that are important for grandparents themselves are also important to be transmit­ted to their grandchildren. For this purpose, we have used a pre-existing ques­tionnaire based on Musek value survey (MLV). Another interesting discovery of our research is also that the value of faith (correlation value 0,812) has proven to be the most important value for transmission to their grandchildren based on the views of grandparents. Our research also identified certain dif­ferences when it comes to the gender of grandparents and age of grandparents in relation to the transmission of values. Results of the survey can be directly used or can be used for further research purposes especially now when in times of crisis family is a value, we all must foster as necessary. Keywords: values, grandparents, grandchildren, family, faith 1. Uvod Podaljševanje življenjske dobe in intenziven porast starejšega prebivalstva ne spre­minja samo starostne strukture prebivalstva, temvec tudi oblike in vsebine dru­žinskega življenja ter družinskih vlog (Coale in Hoover 2015, 9–18; Goriup in Lahe 2018, 32; Samir in Lutz 2017, 18–192; Pol 2017, 3–15; Vaupel, Villavicencio in Bergeron-Boucher 2021). Temeljna znacilnost demografske prihodnosti evropske (tudi slovenske) družbe je torej staranje. Vsak clovek doživlja staranje in starost drugace. Vsak ima svoje znacilnosti, ki jih je treba spoštovati, vsak tudi posebne potrebe, ki morajo biti zadovoljene, ce želimo govoriti o kakovosti življenja v sta­rosti (Filej in Kaucic 2019, 556). Pri trenutnem staranju prebivalstva so že vidne posledice demografske dinamike (Reynaud in Miccoli 2019, 8–9), ki je zaznavna ne le pri starejših, temvec tudi pri mladih. V preteklosti so bili starejši mlajšim generacijam glavni vir znanja, vešcin in informacij za vsakdanje življenje in delo, kar je gotovo neposredno povezano z vrednotami. Bistvena sestavina doživljanja smisla starosti je prav prenašanje spoznanj in izkušenj mlajšim generacijam. Ge-neracije so v zadnjem stoletju dosegle velik izjemno velik razvoj znanja na mate­rialno-tehnicnem in naravoslovnem podrocju, medtem ko sta znanje in možnost za kakovost osebnostnega razvoja in medcloveškega sožitja delno zaostala – prav to pa je odlocilnega pomena za kakovostno staranje in solidarno sožitje med ge­neracijami. Starejši in nemocni ljudje so v današnji družbi pogosto marginalizirani. V takih družbenih razmerah tudi sami starejši starosti ne sprejemajo in specificnih možnosti, ki jih ponuja tretje življenjsko obdobje vse do konca življenja, ne vidi­jo (Goriup in Lahe 2018, 164–165). Družbeni prehodi od ene generacije k drugi že od nekdaj omogocajo prenašanje dedišcine na mlajše. V sodobnih družbah, družinah so se medgeneracijska razmerja bistveno spremenila, vsaka generacija življenje in življenjske izzive doživlja na svoj nacin (Kump in Jelenc Krašovec 2013, 11). Prenašajo se ne le znanja, temvec stari starši na svoje vnuke prenašajo tudi svoje poglede, razmišljanja in vrednote. Mihaela Kežman idr. - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami Prav slednje nas je vodilo v raziskovanje podrocja prenosa vrednot med gene-racijo starih staršev in generacijo vnukov, ki se v okolišcinah, v katerih smo se kot družba znašli, kaže zelo pomembno – posebej v casu, ko pogosto slišimo, da je družina v krizi in da se odnosi v družinah spreminjajo in krhajo. 2. Teoreticna izhodišca 2.1 Družina kot osnovna celica družbe Družina je vrednota (Musek 1995, 207), uvršcena v sam vrh na lestvici vrednot (Po-tocnik 2009, 261), in še vedno osnovna družbena enota. Družina niso zgolj posa­mezniki, ki jo sestavljajo, ampak veliko vec (Chambers in Gracia 2021). Družine uživajo tudi številne pravice in privilegije, tako formalne kot neformalne, ki drugim niso zagotovljene (Powel 2014, 2). V širšem smislu je osnovna in najpomembnejša eksistencialna celica, znotraj katere se oblikujejo najpomembnejši socialni odno­si – tako v jedrni družini kot tudi skozi odnose z drugimi clani razširjene družine (Chambers in Gracia 2021). Pearce, Hayward, Chassin in Curran (2018, 592) ugo­tavljajo, da so družinski clani lahko med seboj povezani po krvnem sorodstvu, po zakonski zvezi ali glede na drugo trajno vez (skrbništvo, posvojitev ali sobivanje). V preteklosti je bila funkcija (jedrne) družine zlasti vzgoja in socializacija otrok ter skrb za materialno in custveno stabilnost njenih (odraslih) clanov. Pozneje se je temeljna funkcija družine iz strukturne enote družbene organizacije spremenila; te spremembe so posledica prilagajanja posameznikov – in družinskih clanov – spreminjajocim se gospodarskim, demografskim, tehnološkim in kulturnim raz­meram (Furstenberg 2014, 12). Razlicni clani imajo v družini razlicne vloge, ena pomembnejših pa je – po mnenju Goriupove in Lahetove (2018, 105–106) – prav vloga starih staršev, saj ti preko svojih otrok z vnuki vzpostavljajo povezavo med preteklostjo in prihodnostjo. Na ta nacin uresnicujejo ne le medgeneracijsko so-žitje, temvec tudi prenos vrednot. 2.2 Vloga starih staršev v sodobni razširjeni družini Razširjene družine so sestavljene iz vec generacij in lahko vkljucujejo biološke star-še in njihove otroke ter stare starše, tete, strice in (druge) sorodnike. Razširjena družina ima osrednjo vlogo (LaFave in Thomas 2017, 52), saj so njeni clani otro­kova opora in zavetje, ga razvajajo – so pa tudi osebe, na katere se otrok obraca po pomoc (Gurtler 2013, 7). Goriupova in Lahetova (2018, 106) trdita, da je zelo pomemben tudi emocionalni vidik vloge starih staršev, saj ti v družinskem življe­nju (ponovno) postajajo nepogrešljiv clen. Vecgeneracijska sobivanja povecujejo odpornost in sposobnost družine zadovoljevati potrebe vseh družinskih clanov – kljub vec dejavnikom tveganja, ki vkljucujejo zapletena razmerja in pogosto tudi generacijski konflikt (Papic 2017, 75). Cas, ki ga vnuki preživijo s svojimi starimi starši, je neprecenljiv. Odnos med njimi je namrec edinstven in drug drugega lahko naucijo marsikaj. Dovolj varni medosebni odnosi, da se clovek v ranljivosti in ne­popolnosti lahko razkrije, z njima sooci ter išce nove in bolj ucinkovite življenjske poti in drže, so namrec pomembni (Simoncic 2018, 217). V sodobni postmoderni družbi je razširjenih družin, ki živijo v istem gospodinj­stvu ali vsaj bližnji soseski, vse manj. Prostorska locenost nuklearne družine (star­ši in otroci) od razširjene (s starimi starši) zmanjšuje priložnosti za ustaljene med-generacijske transferje. Zaradi takšne locenosti postajajo tako mladi kot starejši bolj ranljivi. Vse vec vnukov ima s starimi starši stike redko. Pa bi jim ti z vsemi izkušnjami in modrostjo lahko nudili oporo pri odrašcanju, ucenju in razumevanju nepredvidljive postmoderne družbene realnosti. Obenem pa so zaradi omejenih stikov z vnuki tudi stari starši prikrajšani za pripadnost, neposredno seznanjanje s sodobnimi družbenimi dogajanji in novimi tehnologijami. Vse to jim vnuki, ce ži­vijo dovolj blizu, lahko nudijo. Tako (lahko) oboji, stari starši in vnuki, izgubljajo medsebojno podporo. 2.3 Družbena vloga starih staršev Klasicna podoba starih staršev obicajno slika potrpežljive, ljubece in modre ljudi, ki imajo svoje vnuke (brezpogojno) radi in ki svojim otrokom – tudi že staršem – priskocijo na pomoc vedno, ko jih ti potrebujejo. To je vsekakor idealizirana podoba. Vlogi stare mame (babice, ome, none) in starega oceta (dedka, nona, opa) nista zgolj zgodovinski stalnici, saj ju vsaka družba in generacija razume, pa tudi interpretira drugace. Obe vlogi sta tesno povezani z družbenim dojemanjem starosti in pricakovanjem glede obeh vlog v doloceni kulturi, casovnem obdobju in družbenem prostoru. Knudsen (2012, 232–237) opaža, da so babice pri skrbi za stike s širšo družino tradicionalno spretnejše – s svojo žensko in materinsko intuicijo lažje poišcejo ustrezne nacine, kako se vkljuciti v pomoc mladi družini. Vendar je prednost tako za dedka kot babico, ce to vlogo opravljata skupaj. Po drugi strani avtor izpostavlja, da se tudi moški v vlogi dedkov pravzaprav znajdejo dobro. Morda bodo vnuki preko tega ucenja sami nekoc dobro odigrali ravno te naucene vloge. Kajti, kot pravi Nežic Glavica (2019, 201), izkustveno ucenje omo­goca poglobljen odnos, ki nagovarja na eksistencialni ravni – in tako spodbuja k samorefleksiji in osebni rasti. Druženje starih staršev in vnukov je v (sodobnih) družinah nedvomno pomem­ben vidik medgeneracijske solidarnosti. S tem namrec poteka tako imenovana medgeneracijska vzgoja (Andoljšek Mravljak in Ramovš 2017, 54). Pri tem pou­darjamo, da so – ne glede na norme oziroma zakonske opredelitve v družbi – ve­liko pomembnejša pricakovanja in vrednote, na katerih temeljijo medgeneracijski odnosi v vsaki posamezni družini. V mnogo družinah so stari starši tudi zaradi dolgega delovnika staršev zelo pomembni pri (so)vzgoji otrok – in neprecenljivi zaradi svojih izkušenj ter življenjske opore. V primeru neustreznosti vzgoje ali pri­sotnosti nasilja ter prepogoste fizicne ali custvene odsotnosti staršev pa so veckrat celo tisti, h katerim se vnuki zatekajo. Tako lahko stari starši vcasih postanejo na­domestni starši – zatocišce, kjer vnuki dobijo obcutek varnosti in ljubljenosti. Vnu­ki zato potrebujejo stare starše skoraj tako kot starše. Starši jim dajejo ocetovsko in materinsko oskrbo, brez njih bi bilo življenje težavnejše in revnejše. Stari starši Mihaela Kežman idr. - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami pa nudijo vnukom pomoc v stiski, tudi npr. denarni ali zdravstveni. Nudijo jim tudi lastne izkušnje in omogocajo dogodivšcine. Ce želijo ustvariti kvalitetne medse­bojne odnose, jih morajo (znati) zgraditi (Gurtler 2013, 5–7). Takšno druženje pri­naša kreativno preživljanje casa, saj temelji na medgeneracijskem sodelovanju ter prenosu vrednot z mlajših na starejše in obratno. Buchanan in Rotkirch (2018) porocata o raziskavi na vec kot 1500 otrocih, starih med 11 in 16 let, ki je pokaza-la, da so imeli stari starši, ki se z vnuki ukvarjajo pogosto, manj custvenih in ve­denjskih težav in da tesne vezi med starimi starši in vnuki pri slednjih pomenijo manj custvenih in vedenjskih težav ter manj težav z vrstniki. Ti odnosi so tudi po­magali zmanjšati škodljive vplive razlicnih izkušenj – npr. locitev staršev in vrstniško nadlegovanje. Pomen tradicionalnih oblik pripadnosti je tudi danes pomemben. Kljub indivi­dualisticni naravi sodobnih družb namrec posameznikova identiteta ni nekaj pov­sem poljubnega. Je posledica procesov socializacije, ki jim je posameznik podrejen in preko katerih so mu posredovane vrednote, moralne norme, mišljenjski in ve­denjski vzorci skupnosti. Pri tem imajo globoko zakoreninjeni elementi kulture, ki so povezani z religijo dolocenega okolja in z zgodovinskim spominom posamezne nacionalne skupnosti, zelo veliko vlogo (Golob idr. 2020, 174). 2.4 Vrednote starih staršev so pomembne Za psihologijo in sociologijo so vrednote del osebnosti. Slovar slovenskega knji­žnega jezika – SSKJ (s.v. »vrednôta«) vrednôto opredeljuje kot nekaj, »cemur pri­znava kdo veliko nacelno vrednost in mu zato daje prednost: doživljati, ohranjati, priznavati vrednote; družbene, osebne vrednote; estetske, moralne vrednote; ljubezen, resnica, svoboda in druge vrednote«. Köthemann (2014, 9) navaja, da je definicijo in strukturo vrednot že leta 1951 oblikoval Kluckhohn (1962). Zanj vrednota pomeni kodo ali standard, obstojen skozi cas, ki organizira sistem delo­vanja kot koncept pojmovanja, ki je, eksplicitno ali implicitno, želeno znacilen za posameznika ali skupine in ki vpliva na izbiro razpoložljivih nacinov, sredstev ter zakljuckov vedęnja in delovanja. Isti avtor vrednote torej razume kot idejo (za)že­lenega. Milton Rokeach (1973, 5) idejo Kluckhohna (1962) nadgrajuje – vrednote opredeljuje kot »trajna prepricanja, da je dolocen nacin obnašanja oziroma stanje obstoja na osebni ali družbeni ravni bolj sprejet kot nasprotni, oziroma obratni nacin obnašanja ali stanje obstoja« (Rokeach 1973, 5). Tudi Reich in Adcock (1976, 18) vrednote razumeta kot prepricanja, ki sprožijo reakcijo posameznika glede na njegova stališca. Med slovenskimi avtorji je podrocje vrednot raziskoval Musek (1995; 2000; 2015), ki jih je opredelil kot »motivacijski cilj najvišjega hierarhicnega reda«. Vre­dnote je klasificiral, jih razdelil na dionizicne in apolonske, te pa na hedonske – cutne, zdravstvene, varnostne (veselje, zabava, vznemirljivo življenje, udobje, uži­vanje, zdravje in varnost), potencne – statusne in patriotske (moc, ugled, slava, denar, politicni uspeh, ljubezen do domovine, narodnostni ponos), moralne – so-cialne, societalne in tradicionalne (ljubezen, družinska sreca, razumevanje s par-tnerjem, mir, sloga, enakost, poštenost in delavnost) in naposled izpolnitvene – spoznavne, kulturne, estetske, aktualizacijske in verske (resnica, modrost, lepota, narava, umetnost, kultura, samoizpolnjevanje, vera in upanje) (2015, 30). Defini­cije vrednot so torej razlicne, imajo pa skupne znacilnosti, ki jih Rokeach (1973, 3) opredeljuje s petimi kljucnimi lastnostmi: »posameznik ima relativno majhno šte­vilo vrednot; vsi posamezniki imajo iste vrednote, le njihov pomen je razlicno mo­can; vrednote so povezane v vrednotne sisteme; korenine vrednot lahko izsledimo v družbi, kulturi, institucijah ter osebnosti in posledice delovanja vrednot bodo vidne v vseh raziskovalnih fenomenih, ki jih bodo raziskovali«. Rokeach (34) izpo­stavlja še, da so splošne vrednote odraz osebnih, saj osebne vrednote vodijo v družbene vrednote, te pa v splošne vrednote. Vrednote se spreminjajo, saj doživljamo premik od dionizicnih k apolonskim vrednotam kot nekaj skoraj ,naravnega‘ (Musek, Lešnik Musek in Musek Lešnik 1993, 34). Kljub temu so rezultati raziskave pokazali, da s starostjo relativno upa­da pomen hedonskih in potencnih vrednot – ob tem pa ne upada pomen moralnih vrednot in narašca pomen izpolnitvenih vrednot. Zato naj bi bile generacijske raz-like v vrednotah posledica intraindividualnih sprememb (ki imajo dolocene zako­nitosti) v vrednostnem razvoju posameznikov (25–26). Vera ima mesto tako v zasebnem kot tudi javnem prostoru sodobnih evropskih družb, vsekakor pa številnim ljudem osmišlja in napolnjuje sicer pogosto prazna vsakodnevna življenja (Ruparcic 2022, 83). Igra dragoceno vlogo pri ohranjanju odnosov skozi razlicne vrste izzivov, vkljucno z izrazito neugodnimi okolišcinami in obdobji velikega dvoma (McKaughan 2018, 195). Vera kot odnosna resnicnost je nekaj živega, dogajajocega se, zato so njen sestavni del rast, zorenje – seveda lah­ko tudi slabljenje in izginjanje (Turnšek 2021, 982). Filejeva in Kaucic (2019, 566) trdita, da je za starejše duhovni dejavnik najpomembnejši dejavnik, ki vpliva na kakovost življenja. Iz tega lahko sklepamo, da je duhovni vidik gotovo pomemben tudi za prenos vrednot na vnuke. Tudi Musek, Lešnik Musek in Musek Lešnik trdijo, da s starostjo narašca zlasti pomen vrednot, kot so spoštovanje družbenih nacel, varnost in vera (1993, 29) – ceprav Potocnik (2008, 335) ugotavlja, da vera v dru­žini izgublja pomen. Vera je osebnostno dogajanje (Turnšek 2021, 984); mocno je povezana tudi z duhovnostjo, katere namen je, da clovek v življenju najde pomen in smisel ter se cuti celega in povezanega (Perko in Cotar Konrad 2018, 261). Na podlagi teoreticnega pregleda smo za potrebe raziskave postavili sledece raziskovalne hipoteze: H 1: Dojemanje osebnega pomena vrednot ima mocno pozitivno korelacijo z dojemanjem pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke. H 2: Najvecjo pozitivno korelacijo dojemanja osebnega pomena vrednot z dojemanjem pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke ima vrednota vera. H 3: Ženske statisticno znacilno višje ocenjujejo pomen prenosa vrednot na vnuke kot moški. H 4: Starejši anketiranci statisticno znacilno višje ocenjujejo pomen prenosa vrednot na vnuke kot mlajši anketiranci. Mihaela Kežman idr. - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami 3. Metodološki pristop V empiricnem delu raziskovanja smo za obvladljivost kolicine podatkov in zago­tavljanje reprezentativnosti vzorca glede na celotno populacijo vzorec zamejili tako, da smo vanj zajeli starejše odrasle v starostni skupini od 65 do vkljucno 75 let, ki imajo vsaj enega vnuka ali vnukinjo. V nadaljevanju predstavljamo zasnovo anketnega vprašalnika, potek raziskave ter vzorcenje, karakteristike in zaneslji­ vost vzorca. 3.1 Zasnova anketnega vprašalnika Vprašalnik je bil iz dveh delov: prvi del vprašalnika smo namenili raziskovanju vre­dnot, pri cemer smo uporabili Muskovo lestvico vrednot (v nadaljevanju: MLV) (Musek 2000, 29). Gre za predhodno validirano lestvico, ki je rezultat 15-letnega raziskovanja avtorja. Musek (2000) je svojo lestvico oblikoval postopno, za našo raziskavo smo tako uporabili MLV z 31 vrednotami. Najprej smo MLV uporabili za raziskavo pomembnosti vrednot za anketirance osebno, nato pa v smislu pomena za prenos na vnuke in vnukinje. Drugi del vprašalnika je bil naš lasten in je služil za zbiranje socio-demografskih in ekonomskih podatkov o starejših, vkljucenih v raz­iskavo – vendar smo se pri tem zgledovali po drugi raziskavi (Naterer idr. 2019). Tu so nas zanimali spol, starost, izobrazba, urbanizacija, oblika bivanja, ocena lastnega trenutnega zdravstvenega stanja in pa osebni mesecni neto dohodek. 3.2 Potek raziskave in zbiranje podatkov Podatke smo zbirali tako, da smo se povezali z vsemi petnajstimi vecgeneracijski-mi centri (v nadaljevanju VGC) v Sloveniji. Z vodji VGC smo se vnaprej dogovorili, kdaj bodo izvajali aktivnosti za starejše, in takrat smo se srecanj udeležili tudi mi. Udeležencem smo podali navodila in kuverte s tiskanimi vprašalniki. V navodilih smo pojasnili, kaj vsak sklop, na katerega odgovarjajo, pomeni – in dodatno poja­snili tudi, da ne gre za zbiranje osebnih podatkov, temvec zgolj za zbiranje socio­-demografskih in ekonomskih podatkov, ki jih bomo uporabili izkljucno za potrebe znanstvenoraziskovalnega dela. Prosili smo jih, da izpolnjene ankete oddajo v ku­verti v za to namenjeno škatlo. Zbiranje podatkov je bilo popolnoma anonimno, prostovoljno in je trajalo od aprila do septembra 2021. 3.3 Vzorcenje Vprašalnik je zajel vzorec anketiranih, ki je reprezentativen za uporabljeno staro­stno skupino v Sloveniji. Velikost reprezentativnega vzorca smo dolocili na pod-lagi podatkov Statisticnega urada Republike Slovenije (SURS 2021) in teoreticnih spoznanj (Kalton in Vehovar 2001). Statisticni urad Republike Slovenije vodi statistiko o demografskih podatkih pre­bivalcev Republike Slovenije, pri cemer je bil za nas pomemben delež starejših, starih od 65 in do vkljucno 75 let. V Sloveniji je bilo po podatkih Statisticnega ura­da Republike Slovenije (SURS 2021) na dan 31. 12. 2020 v tej starostni skupini 250.631 oseb. Za zagotavljanje reprezentativnosti vzorca celotne populacije (250.631 oseb v starostni skupini od 65 do vkljucno 75 let) smo izracunali mini-malno število anketnih vprašalnikov, potrebnih za doseganje reprezentativnosti na 384 anketirancev. Pri tem smo se odlocili za 95-odstotno raven zaupanja in 5-odstotno tveganje, kar se v družboslovnem raziskovanju šteje kot sprejemljivo (Cohen, Manion in Morrison 2011). Zajeli smo torej anketirance, stare od 65 do vkljucno 75 let, iz vseh statisticnih regij; pri tem je bilo vzorcenje priložnostno. S tem smo želeli zagotoviti geografsko pokritost celotne Slovenije in reprezentativ­nost po najmanj treh socio-demografskih in ekonomskih kazalnikih. Kadar namrec zagotavljamo reprezentativnost po najmanj treh socio-demografskih in ekonom­skih kazalnikih, lahko iz znacilnosti vzorca sklepamo o celotni populaciji (Hannan in Freeman 1977, 929–964). Podatke smo vnesli v racunalniške baze in jih obde­lali s pomocjo programov Excel ter SPSS for Windows. 3.4 Reprezentativnost vzorca V fazi raziskave smo zbrali vec od predvidenega (384) števila anketnih vprašalni­kov, in sicer 435. Nepopolne smo izlocili in tako dobili 405 veljavnih vprašalnikov. Ob pridobitvi 405 veljavnih vprašalnikov smo preverili reprezentativnost vzorca: tega smo v primerjavi s populacijo izracunali s pomocjo testa hi-kvadrat (x˛), ki je za spremenljivko spol pokazal vrednost 2,324 (pri stopnji prostosti df = 1) in si­gnifikanco p = 0,127. Za spremenljivko starost je test hi-kvadrat pokazal vrednost 17,331 (pri stopnji prostosti df = 10) in signifikanco p = 0,067. Pri urbanizaciji pa je test hi-kvadrat pokazal vrednost 0,892 (pri stopnji prostosti df = 1) in signifikanco p = 0,345. Vrednosti porazdelitve hi-kvadrata (x˛) pri signifikanci 0,05 (torej 5 %) so za spremenljivke z eno (1) stopnjo prostosti (spremenljivki spol in urbanizacija) 3,8415, za spremenljivke z desetimi (10) stopnjami prostosti (spremenljivka sta­rost) pa 18,307 (Košmelj in Rovan 1997, 290). Na podlagi dobljenih rezultatov lahko torej potrdimo, da je vzorec veljaven in tudi reprezentativen za celotno populacijo. 3.5 Znacilnosti vzorca Pri demografskih vprašanjih so nas zanimali spol, starost, stopnja izobrazbe, urba­nizacija, oblika bivanja, ocena zdravstvenega stanja in osebni mesecni dohodek. Rezultati analize demografskih podatkov so prikazani v Tabeli 1. Spremenljivka Število odgovorov % Spol anketiranca moški 177 43,8 ženski 227 56,2 Starost anketiranca od 65 do vkljucno 69 let 201 49,8 od 70 do vljucno 75 let 203 50,2 Kje živite? urbano okolje 229 57,1 ruralno okolje 172 42,9 Stopnja izobrazbe osnovnošolska ali manj 32 8,0 Mihaela Kežman idr. - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami poklicna srednješolska 81 20,1 srednješolska 122 30,3 višja/visoka strokovna 108 26,9 univerzitetna 50 12,4 magisterij ali doktorat 9 2,2 Osebni mesecni neto dohodek do 600 € 58 14,6 od 601 € do 900 € 172 43,2 od 901 € do 1200 € 100 25,1 nad 1201 € 68 17,1 Tabela 1: Demografija anketirancev. Iz Tabele 1 lahko razberemo, da je med vsemi anketiranci, ki so odgovorili na vprašanje, 177 (43,8 %) moških in 227 (56,2 % ) žensk. Iz Tabele 1 je tudi razvidno, da je v starostni skupini od 65 do vkljucno 69 let 201 (49,8 %) anketiranih, v staro­stni skupini od 70 do vkljucno 75 let pa 203 (50,2) anketiranih. Povprecna starost anketirancev je znašala 69,60 let. Pri stopnji izobrazbe prevladujejo anketiranci s srednješolsko izobrazbo – 122 (30,3 %), sledijo tisti z višjo ali visoko strokovno – 108 (26,9 %), s poklicno srednješolsko – 81 (20,1 %), univerzitetno – 50 (12,4 %), osnovnošolsko ali manj – 32 (8,0 %); najmanj anketiranih pa ima magisterij ali dok­torat – 9 (2,2 %). Iz Tabele 1 še lahko razberemo, da 229 (57,1 %) anketirancev živi v urbanem okolju, 172 (42,9 %) pa v ruralnem okolju. Najpogostejši osebni mesec­ni dohodek anketranih znaša med 601 € in 900 €, takšnih je 172 (43,2 %), sledijo anketirani z osebnim mesecnih dohodkom od 901 € do 1200 € (100 oz. 25,1 %), 68 (17,1 %) anketiranih ima osebni mesecni dohodek nad 1201 €, medtem ko ima najnižji osebni mesecni dohodek, torej do 600 €, 58 (14,6 %) anketiranih. 3.6 Zanesljivost merjenja Zanesljivost merjenja smo preverjali s testom Cronbach alfa, ki smo ga izvedli, še preden smo se lotili poglobljenih analiz vsebine vprašalnika. Ker je ta sestavljen iz vec razlicnih delov, smo merjenje s testom Cronbach alfa temu prilagodili. Naj­prej smo zato testirali vprašanja prvega sklopa – in sicer v kolikšni meri anketiranci ocenjujejo, da je posamezna vrednota pomembna za njih osebno. Cronbach alfa za ta sklop je 0,878, kar predstavlja visoko zanesljivost merjenja. V nadaljevanju smo testirali drugi sklop vprašalnika, kjer anketiranci ocenjujejo, v kolikšni meri je posamezna vrednota pomembna za prenos na vnuke in vnukinje. Cronbach alfa za ta sklop je 0,903, kar prav tako predstavlja izjemno visoko zanesljivost merjenja. Test Cronbach alfa smo nato izvedli še za vse postavke – znašal je 0,939, kar je zo-pet zelo visoka zanesljivost merjenja. Slednjo opredeljujemo na podlagi mnenja, da vrednost testa Cronbach alfa nad 0,800 kaže na visoko zanesljivost merjenja (Ferligoj, Leskovšek in Kogovšek 1995). 4. Analiza podatkov 4.1 Združevanje spremenljivk Zaradi velikega števila spremenljivk (31 vrednot iz MLV) smo se odlocili za zdru­ževanje vrednot v skupine, ki jih je predpostavil že Musek (2000), in s tem posta­vili nove združene spremenljivke. V prvo skupino vrednot smo pri tem združili vrednote: veselje, zabava, vznemirljivo življenje, udobje, uživanje, zdravje, varnost; te je Musek (2000) imenoval cutne, varnostne in zdravstvene vrednote (CVZ). Drugo skupino predstavljajo vrednote: moc, ugled, slava, denar, politicni uspeh, ljubezen do domovine, narodnostni ponos – po Musku (2000) statusne in patri­otske vrednote (SP). Tretjo skupino predstavljajo vrednote: ljubezen, družina oz. družinska sreca, razumevanje s partnerjem, mir, sloga, enakost, poštenost, delav­nost: te je Musek (2000) poimenoval socialne, societalne in tradicionalne vredno­te (SST). V cetrti skupini so vrednote: resnica, modrost, lepota, narava, umetnost, kultura, samoizpopolnjevanje, vera, upanje – te je Musek (2000) oznacil kot spo­znavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote (SEKAV). Združevanje zajema tako segment samoocene pomembnosti vrednot za posa­meznika kot tudi segment ocenjevanja pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke. Po združevanju smo opravili analizo združenih spremenljivk, ki je pokazala, da tudi take še vedno nimajo karakteristik normalne porazdelitve, zato v nadaljevanju za analizo uporabljamo neparametricne teste. Najprej nas je zanimalo, kolikšne so korelacije med združenimi spremenljivkami. 4.2 Analiza korelacij Rezultati analize korelacij med združenimi spremenljivkami ob uporabi Sperma­novega testa korelacij so prikazani v Tabeli 2. CVZ – prenos na vnuke SP – prenos na vnuke SST – prenos na vnuke SEKAV – prenos na vnuke CVZ – osebno pomembno 0,650** SP – osebno pomembno 0,762** SST – osebno pomembno 0,749** SEKAV – osebno pomembno 0,772** **p<0,01 Tabela 2: Korelacija združenih spremenljivk (sklopov vrednot). V Tabeli 2 lahko vidimo, da so prav vsi pari združenih spremenljivk mocno po­vezani, na kar kažejo visoke vrednosti Spermanovega koeficienta. Najvišjo stopnjo povezanosti (tj. 0,772**) izkazuje združena spremenljivka spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote (SEKAV); pri njej anketiranci najpogo­steje ocenjujejo, da so vrednote v tej združeni spremenljivki za prenos na vnuke pomembne. Najnižjo (tj. 0,650**), a še vedno precej visoko stopnjo povezanosti smo zaznali pri združeni spremenljivki cutne, varnostne in zdravstvene vrednote Mihaela Kežman idr. - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami ( CVZ), saj anketiranci to skupino vrednot pogosteje ocenjujejo kot za prenos na vnuke pomembno. Ker smo prav pri združeni spremenljivki spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote (SEKAV) ugotovili najvišjo stopnjo ko­relacije, smo se v nadaljevanju odlocili korelacije posameznih vrednot v omenje­nem sklopu analizirati podrobneje; rezultati so prikazani v Tabeli 3. Posamezne vrednote »Spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote« Spearmanov koeficient (.) vera (osebno pomembno) – vera (pomembno za prenos) 0,812** umetnost (osebno pomembno) – umetnost (pomembno za prenos) 0,707** kultura (osebno pomembno) – kultura (pomembno za prenos) 0,703** lepota (osebno pomembno) – lepota (pomembno za prenos) 0,647** narava (osebno pomembno) – narava (pomembno za prenos) 0,621** modrost (osebno pomembno) – modrost (pomembno za prenos) 0,563** resnica (osebno pomembno) – resnica (pomembno za prenos) 0,550** samoizpolnjevanje (osebno pomembno) – samozipolnjevanje (pomembno za prenos) 0,521** **p<0,01 Tabela 3: Korelacija posameznih vrednot iz sklopa SEKAV vrednot. Podrobnejša korelacija posameznih vrednot v omenjenem sklopu je pokazala, da so prav vsi pari spremenljivk mocno povezani, saj izkazujejo visoke vrednosti Spermanovega koeficienta. Najmocnejšo povezanost smo zaznali pri vrednoti vera (0,812**), sledita vrednoti umetnost (0,707**) in kultura (0,703**). Najnižjo, ven­dar še vedno mocno povezanost smo zaznali pri vrednoti samoizpolnjevanje (0,521**). V nadaljevanju nas je zanimalo tudi, kako na zaznano pomembnost prenosa posameznih skupin vrednot na vnuke anketirancev vplivajo razlicni demografski dejavniki. 4.3 Analiza demografskih razlik Z Mann-Whitneyjevim U testom in testom Kruskal-Wallis smo ugotavljali stati­sticno znacilne razilke pri dojemanju pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke glede na posamezne izbrane demografske kazalce. Najprej smo ugotavljali razlike glede na spol anketirancev. Združena spremenljivka U p Srednji rang moški ženske cutne, varnostne in zdravstvene vrednote – CVZ 17047,000 0,017 216,59 188,93 statusne in patriotske vrednote – SP 17080,500 0,024 215,34 189,08 socialne, societalne in tradicionalne vrednote – SST 17020,500 0,014 185,32 213,02 spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote – SEKAV 17680,500 0,047 188,96 212,11 Tabela 4: Mann-Whitney U test združenih spremenljivk glede na spol. Analiza statisticno znacilnih razlik glede na spol je pokazala obstoj statisticno znacilne razlike pri vseh štirih združenih spremenljivkah. Moški namrec statisticno znacilno (U = 17047,000 in p = 0,017) višje (srednji rang 216,59) ocenjujejo zdru­ženo spremenljivko cutne, varnostne in zdravstvene vrednote (CVZ) kot ženske (srednji rang 188,93). Prav tako moški statisticno znacilno (U = 17080,500 in p = 0,024) višje (srednji rang 215,34) ocenjujejo združeno spremenljivko statusne in patriotske vrednote (SP), kot to velja za ženske (srednji rang 189,08). Po drugi stra­ni pa smo ugotovili, da moški statisticno znacilno (U = 17020,500 in p = 0,014) nižje (srednji rang 185,32) ocenjujejo združeno spremenljivko Socialne, societalne in tradicionalne vrednote (SST) kot ženske (srednji rang 213,02). Podobno moški statisticno znacilno (U = 17680,500 in p = 0,047) nižje (srednji rang 188,96) oce­njujejo še združeno spremenljivko Spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote kot ženske (srednji rang 212,11). Ker nas je zanimalo, ali med anketiranci obstajajo statisticno znacilne razlike gle­de na starostni skupini, ki smo ju opredelili, smo izracunali še Mann-Whitney U Test. Združena spremenljivka U p Srednji rang Od 65 do vkljucno 69 let Od 70 do vkljucno 75 let cutne, varnostne in zdravstvene vrednote – CVZ 18360,000 0,133 209,77 192,44 statusne in patriotske vrednote – SP 17378,500 0,023 187,27 213,47 socialne, societalne in tradicionalne vrednote – SST 19757,500 0,759 199,29 202,70 spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote – SEKAV 19336,500 0,409 197,18 206,75 Tabela 5: Mann Whitney – U test združenih spremenljivk glede na starost. Tako ugotavljamo, da smo med proucevanima skupinama statisticno znacilno razliko (U = 17378,500 in p = 0,023) zaznali le pri združeni spremenljivki statusne in patriotske vrednote (SP) – starejši anketiranci (od 70 do vkljucno 75 let) pomen prenosa vrednot na vnuke namrec ocenjujejo višje (srednji rang 213,47) kot an-ketiranci starostne skupine od 65 do vkljucno 69 let (srednji rang 187,27). 5. Razprava Individualni pomen vrednot za posameznika se je v preteklosti dokazoval že vec­krat (Rokeach 1973; Musek, Musek Lešnik in Lešnik Musek 1993; Gorenak 2020). V naši raziskavi smo se osredotocili na pomen konkretnega prenosa vrednot s starih staršev na vnuke. Raziskovali smo tako osebni pomen posameznih vrednot starih staršev kot njihove ocene pomembnosti prenosa teh vrednot na vnuke. Postavlje-no H 1: Dojemanje osebnega pomena vrednot ima mocno pozitivno korelacijo z dojemanjem pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke lahko na podlagi rezultatov Ta-bele 2 potrdimo. Iz Tabele 2 je še vidno, da smo pri vseh sklopih vrednot zaznali zelo visoko pozitivno korelacijo; najvišja (0,772**) je bila korelacija pri združeni spremenljivki spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote. Visoke pozitivne vrednosti korelacije med posameznimi sklopi jasno potrjujejo, Mihaela Kežman idr. - Pomen prenosa vrednot med generacijami da so tiste vrednote, ki jih stari starši ocenjuejo kot pomembne zase, tudi tiste, ki jih želijo prenesti na vnuke. Stari starši si želijo vrednote, ki so jim pomembne, prenesti tudi na vnuke ter s tem spodbujati spoštovanje in hvaležnost med ge­neracijami (Noriega in López 2020, 1130). V nadaljevanju smo postavili hipotezo H 2: Najmocnejšo pozitivno korelacijo dojemanja osebnega pomena vrednot z dojemanjem pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke ima vrednota Vera. Tudi to hipo­tezo lahko na podlagi rezultatov Tabele 3 potrdimo, saj je iz nje lahko razberemo zelo visoko vrednost Spermanovega koeficienta – najmocnejšo povezanost oseb­nih vrednot in vrednot prenosa (SEKAV vrednot) zaznali ravno pri vrednoti Vera (0,812**). Na podlagi te ugotovitve lahko trdimo, da stari starši, ki jim je vera kot osebna vrednota pomembna, želijo to vrednoto prenesti tudi na vnuke. Gutier­rez idr. (2014, 9) to trditev nadgrajujejo z lastno empiricno raziskavo, kjer še bolj specificno pojasnjujejo, zakaj pri prenosu vere najpomembnejšo vlogo igrajo ma-tere in babice. Musek (2000, 111) ugotavlja, da s starostjo pomen religioznih vre­dnot narašca. V nadaljevanju smo postavili tretjo hipotezo H 3: Ženske statisticno znacilno višje ocenjujejo pomen prenosa vrednot na vnuke kot moški. Podatki iz Tabele 4 kažejo, da so ob statisticno znacilnih razlikah ženskam (babicam) bolj kot moškim (dedkom) za prenos pomembne Socialne, societalne in tradicionalne vrednote (SST), pa tudi Spoznavne, estetske, kulturne, aktualizacijske in verske vrednote (SEKAV), medtem ko se jim zdijo Custvene, varnostne in zdravstvene vrednote (CVZ) ter Statusne in patriotske vrednote (SP) manj pomembne, kot to velja za moške (dedke). Tako lahko hipotezo H 3 zavrnemo. Delno se te ugotovi­tve ujemajo tudi z Muskovimi (2000, 149), ko pravi, da so – na splošno – ženskam pomembnejše socialne, družinske, societalne in varnostne vrednote, moškim pa so pomembnejše cutne, statusne in patriotske vrednote. Povsem na koncu smo postavili še zadnjo hipotezo H 4: Starejši anketiranci statisticno znacilno višje oce­njujejo pomen prenosa vrednot na vnuke kot mlajši anketiranci. Tabela 5 kaže, da je statisticno znacilna povezanost le pri Statusnih in patriotskih vrednotah (SP), ki so pomembnejše starejšim kot mlajšim starejšim. Tistim v starosti med 70 in 75 let so Statusne in patriotske vrednote za prenos naceloma pomembnejše. Zato lahko hipotezo 4 zavrnemo – trdimo, da starost statisticno znacilnih razlik pri oce­ni pomena prenosa vrednot na vnuke ne prinaša. Gutierrez idr. (2014, 3) pravijo, da pri veri ta razlika obstaja, saj so ugotovili, da starejši udeleženci (upokojenci) raziskave versko življenje vidijo kot za prenos pomembnejše. 6. Zakljucek Stari starši simbolizirajo družino in so vez med generacijami. Pregovor pravi, da ko umre starejši, je tako, kot da bi pogorela knjižnica – sestavljena iz razlicnih, a za življenje še kako pomembnih bogastev. Vez med vnuki in starimi starši je zelo posebna in pomembno vpliva na razvoj otrokove osebnosti, saj omogoca prenos vrednot, ki so pomembne za obe generaciji. Skozi medgeneracijske vezi lahko oboji razvijejo obojestransko dostojanstven odnos, se custveno obogatijo, razvijejo naci­ne ucenja vrednot (med katerimi izstopa vera) za življenje v zahtevni postmoderni družbi. Oblikovanje generacije vnukov poteka skozi prenašanje vzorcev obnašanja in vrednot, ki so za stare starše pomembni – in ki jih vnuki ponotranjijo ter upo­rabijo, ko se znajdejo pred pomembnimi življenjskimi odlocitvami: ob vprašanjih o samem sebi, v iskanju identitete in vkljucevanju v družbo. In ker je clovek bitje odnosa, vedno potrebuje nekoga, da lahko vidi in razume (tudi) samega sebe – zato je medgeneracijsko sožitje velikega pomena za vse, ki so vanj vpeti. Reference Andoljšek Mravljak, Veronika, in Jože Ramovš. 2017. Vzgoja – revija za ucitelje, vzgojitelje in starše. Kakovostna starost 20, št. 1:54. Buchanan, Ann, in Anna Rotkirch. 2018. Twenty­-first century grandparents: global perspecti­ves on changing roles and consequences. Contemporary Social Science 13, št. 2:131–144. Chambers, Deborah, in Pablo Gracia. 2021. A sociology of family life: Change and diversity in intimate relations. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Coale, Ansley Johnson, in Edgar M. Hoover. 2015. 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Statisticni urad. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/ Data/-/05C4002S.px (pridobljeno 17. 1. 2021). Turnšek, Marjan. 2021. Zakramentalnost in dialo­škost vere. Bogoslovni vestnik 81, št. 4:973– 989. https://doi.org/10.34291/bv2021/04/ turnsek Vaupel, James W., Francisco Villavicencio in Marie-Pier Bergeron-Boucher. 2021. Demo­graphic perspectives on the rise of longevity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Scien­ces 118, št. 9:e2019536118. ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 68 Branko Klun, Luka Trebežnik (ur.) Vracanje religije v postmodernem kontekstu Zbornik želi pokazati, da religija ni izginila iz filozofije, kot so napovedovali nekateri razsvetljenski misleci, temvec se vanjo vraca in jo na novo vznemirja. Sicer je to vracanje raznoliko in pogosto nekonvencionalno, vendar pa to ne zmanjšuje njego­vega pomena in s tem potrebe po dialogu med postmoderno filozofijo in teologijo. Ljubljana: Teološka fakulteta, 2019. 137 str. ISBN 978-961-6844-73-4, 9€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si OCENE / REVIEWS Jože Krašovec. God’s Righteousness and Justice in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2022. 479 str. ISBN 978-0­8028-8211-0. Znanstvena monografija akademika Jožeta Krašovca Božja pravicnost in pra­vica v Stari zavezi, ki je izšla pri priznani ameriški založbi Eerdmans, obravnava tematiko, ki je primarnega pomena za podrocje biblicistike in osnovnega bo­goslovja, v veliki meri pa tudi za druga podrocja humanistike – še zlasti za po­drocje etike. Avtor obravnava zelo kom­pleksno tematiko razsežnosti pravicno­sti pod dvema vidikoma – zato ima mo-nografija dva dela. V prvem delu z na­slovom „Razsežnosti Božje pravicnosti v dejanjih stvarjenja in odrešenja“ po se­manticni metodi analizira vse oblike he-brejskega korena .dq, ki v hebrejskem Svetem pismu oznacuje razlicne vidike pravicnosti na kozmološki, družbeni in osebni ravni. V tem delu avtor ugota­vlja, da Božja pravicnost v hebrejskem Svetem pismu povsod oznacuje pred­vsem Božjo zvestobo v razmerju do iz­voljenega ljudstva Izraela in vsega clo­veštva – zato pa pogosto tudi sodbo nad krivicnimi posamezniki in skupina-mi (narodi), ki zatirajo pravicne. V dru-gem delu z naslovom „Razsežnosti Bož­je pravicnosti in pravice med kaznijo in odpušcanjem“ pa avtor po intertekstu­alni metodi literarne analize relevantnih besedil iz celotnega hebrejskega Svete­ga pisma išce odgovore na vprašanje, kako Bog Svetega pisma, ki je stvarnik in rešitelj pravicnih, uporablja svojo pra­vico za kaznovanje krivicnih, kakšni so pogoji za Božje odpušcanje in spravo ter kakšno vlogo pri tem igra samožrtvova­nje pravicnih. Obširna literatura, ki jo avtor navaja, kaže na poglobljene preli­minarne študije posameznih vidikov pravicnosti v razlicnih vrstah in zvrsteh svetopisemskih besedil z namenom cim bolj ustrezno prikazati notranje poveza­ve kompleksnega razmerja pravicnosti in pravice na kozmicni, družbeni in osebni ravni – tako glede na razmerje Boga do cloveka kot na razmerje ljudi do Boga in socloveka. V obeh delih avtor po primerjalnem postopku semanticne in literarne anali­ze svetopisemskih besedil v odnosu do religij starega Bližnjega vzhoda in neka­terih poznejših vplivnih pesnikov, pisa­teljev in filozofov prihaja do zakljucka, da so v Bibliji zastopane vse tri dimen­zije pravicnosti in pravice (kozmološka, družbena in osebna) – a glede na druge anticne kozmološke in kolektivisticno usmerjene religije in kulture v svetopi­semskih upodobitvah Boga v odnosu do cloveka in obratno izrazito prevladuje osebna razsežnost pravicnosti in pravi­ce. Zato med religijami in kulturami sta­rega Egipta, Mezopotamije in Grcije ter Izraela glede možnosti oziroma nemo­žnosti odpušcanja in sprave obstajajo bistvene razlike. Za vse kozmološko in kolektivisticno usmerjene religije in kul­ture je znacilno, da cutenja in razprave o odpušcanju in spravi dejansko ne do-pušcajo – saj kozmicni red in zakoni ko­lektivisticnih družb dopušcajo le uspeh ali propad, ne dopušcajo pa možnosti rehabilitacije po neuspehu oziroma pro-padu. V ozadju teh nesvetopisemskih pogledov je ciklicno pojmovanje casa in zgodovine. Krašovec v svoje delu pokaže, da Sve-to pismo izstopa po težišcu na komple­ksnem osebnem razmerju med Bogom in clani izvoljenega ljudstva Izraela, pa tudi celotnega cloveštva. To pomeni, da Bog v vlogi stvarnika vesolja pricakova-no uveljavlja absolutno avtoriteto v vseh pogledih. Absolutno pozitivna na­rava Boga pa pomeni, da namen Božje­ga delovanja v svetu nikoli ni negativen, temvec vedno pozitiven. Od tod osre­dnje mesto Boga kot rešitelja izvoljene­ga ljudstva – in vseh zvestih v svetu sploh. Od tod tudi linearno pojmovanje casa in zgodovine v razponu med zacet­kom v stvarjenju in koncem v dopolnitvi stvarjenja. V tej teleološki naravnanosti zgodovine odrešenja ima kazen vedno vzgojni namen: da Bog nacelno po vseh krizah zaradi nezvestobe izvoljenega ljudstva in narodov izpostavlja možnost svojega brezpogojnega odpušcanja in sprave ‚zaradi svojega imena‘, se pravi zaradi svoje absolutne naravnanosti na odrešenje – in zaradi manjšine pravic- François Moog. Éducation intégrale: Les ressources éducatives du christian-isme. Pariz: Éditions Salvator, 2020. 188 str. ISBN 978-2-7067-1982-0 Avtor knjige François Moog je dokto­riral iz teologije na Pariškem katoliškem inštitut(ICP)inna Lavalovi univerziv Que-becu(UniversitéLavaldeQuébec).Jepro­nih. Vsi temeljni vidiki razmerja med ra­zlogi za kazen in odpušcanje so v dru-gem delu monografije vsestransko pri­merjalno osvetljeni z vsebinami sveto­pisemskih besedil na eni strani in zgo­dovine hermenevtike teh besedil v po­znejši literaturi, teologiji in filozofiji na drugi strani. Monografija akademika Jožeta Kra­šovca odgovarja na temeljna vprašanja vsega cloveštva glede izvora in namena vesoljstva, glede hierarhije avtoritet, glede vrednotenja clovekovega dosto­janstva, glede njegovih pravic ter mora­le in etike na osebni in družbeni ravni. S tem študija odpira prave osnove tudi za medverski in medkulturni dialog v današnjem casu. Delo je krona vseži­vljenjskega raziskovanja akademika Kra­šovca o pojmovanju pravicnosti ter na edinstven nacin povezuje poglobljeno poznavanje interpretacij v zgodovini in njihove možne aplikacije v sodobnem casu. Monografija predstavlja pomem­ben prispevek k mednarodnemu diskur­zu o navedenih vprašanjih – in je nena­zadnje promocija slovenske humanisti­ke na globalni ravni. Roman Globokar fesor na Teološki fakulteti (ICP), kjer pre­dava predmete s podrocja ekleziologije in prakticne teologije. Jetudiclanfrancoske­ga uredniškega odbora revije Lumen vitae in sourednikrevije Cahiers Internationaux de Théologie Pratique. Leta 2020 je pri založbi Salvator v Pa-rizu izšla knjiga z naslovom: Éducation intégrale (Les ressources éducatives du christianisme). Avtor izhaja iz sodobne družbe, ki jo zaznamujejo številne krize: socialna, gospodarska, ekološka, zdrav­stvena … V tem kontekstu je proces izo­braževanja postal kljucno vprašanje tako za starše, vzgojitelje, ucitelje kot za politicne, družbene in verske voditelje. Knjiga je razdeljena na pet delov. V prvem delu avtor prikazuje, kako je Cer­kev zacela govoriti o ,celostni vzgoji‘. Pojem se je najprej pojavil v drugi polo-vici 19. stoletja znotraj filozofske tradi­cije, ki je bila dalec od kršcanstva. Pod vplivom Jacquesa Maritaina je izraz do-bil svoje mesto tudi v katoliški tradiciji. François Moog se ustavlja pri Maritain-ovem pojmovanju, ki temelji na inte­gralnem humanizmu in predpostavlja doloceno vizijo cloveka, njegove pokli­canosti in svobode. Vabi nas, da se vr­nemo k pojmu osebe, ki danes ni vec samoumevna. Sprašuje se tudi o mestu vere v pro-cesu izobraževanja. V nadaljevanju sku­ša izlušciti pojem celostne vzgoje v okvi­ru II. vatikanskega koncila, ki je izraz prevzel in vzpostavil povezavo med an-tropologijo in vzgojo. Kongregacija za katoliško vzgojo je pripravila besedilo (sintezo) o tej tematiki šele leta 1977. Gre za nacin izobraževanja, ki si priza­deva preoblikovati osebo, družbo in svet, ter usposabljanje, ki vzgaja, saj osebo vodi k njeni izpolnitvi. Avtor prvo poglavje sklepa s celostno vzgojo v ka­toliških šolah (l‘école catholique). Osve­tliti želi odnos med kulturo, vero in ži­vljenjem. V drugem poglavju avtor razjasni ne­kaj temeljnih pojmov. Že naslov pomen­ljivo kaže, da je clovek izpolnjen kot oseba. V podpoglavjih razmišljanje vodi od narave k cloveku in razumevanju pojma osebe. Nato skuša osvetliti sta­nje cloveka kot bitja, ki je poklicano v odnos z Bogom. V sklepnem delu dru­gega poglavja dostojanstvo osebe po­veže s kulturo. Tretje poglavje podcrtuje povezanost med kulturo, vero in življenjem, ki je osrednja os katoliškega izobraževanja. V tem poglavju je bistvena ugotovitev, da je kršcanska vera vir za kulturo in ži­vljenje. Pri tem izpostavlja mesto evan­gelija v vzgojnem procesu – tako se obli­kuje vera, ki cloveka ,potisne‘ v dejavno življenje. Božja pedagogika postaja ,nor-ma‘ za katoliško izobraževanje. V zadnjem poglavju se avtor osredi­nja na domace okolje – katoliški šolski sistem v Franciji. V uvodu predstavlja poseben družbeni in pravni okvir kato­liškega šolstva v Franciji kot priložnost – avtor želi predstaviti katoliško šolo kot prostor, primeren za projekt integralne­ga izobraževanja. Odlocilno znacilnost katoliške šole vidi v izobraževalni sku­pnosti. V tem sklopu se mu zdi pomem­bo tudi izobraževanje vzgojiteljev, ki so nosilci in posredovalci vrednot. Ob branju knjige o celostni vzgoji nas preseneca, da je uspeh katoliškega izo­braževanja nesporen – kar je za sekula­rizirano (francosko) družbo presenetlji­vo. Hkrati pa gre za dejstvo, ki Cerkev obvezuje, da pomen svojega poslanstva na podrocju vzgoje poglobi. Tudi peda­goško delo (posredovanje znanja) se so-oca s težavami, ki so posledice kriz na podrocju antropologije, kulture in eko­logije. Prav zato ima Cerkev s svojo me-todološko in didakticno metodo prilo­žnost, da naredi korak naprej. Avtor citira francoskega sociologa in filozofa Edgarja Morina, ki je zapisal, da je zaradi narašcajocega individualizma, omajane avtoritete, razdrobljenega znanja, pospešenega razvoja tehnologi­je, zmanjševanja temeljnih razlik (moški in ženske, clovek in žival, clovek in ro­bot) temeljna naloga »nauciti se, kaj po­meni biti clovek«. Prav zaradi vseh na­štetih sprememb je ta naloga težja in zahtevnejša. Pomembno pa je tudi dej­stvo, da izobraževanje ne reproducira samo tega, kar je bilo, ampak ustvarja kulturo in gradi ljudi – ustvarja civiliza­cijo. Ko govorimo o celostnem izobra­ževanju, ne gledamo samo v preteklost, temvec tudi v sedanjost, ki je poroštvo za prihodnost. S tem prepricanjem François Moog predlaga proucitev katoliškega predloga ,celostne vzgoje‘. Sprašuje se, kateri so viri kršcanstva, ki bodo v sedanjem družbenem in kulturnem kontekstu Siv Ellen Kraft, Bjřrn Ola Tafjord, Ar-kotong Longkumer, Gregory D. Alles in Greg Johnson. Indigenous Religion(s): Local Grounds, Global Networks. Abing-don, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2020. 196 str. ISBN 9780367898588. Monografija Indigenous Religion(s): Local Grounds, Global Networks je re-zultat projektnega sodelovanja petih profesorjev religiologije iz Norveške, Škotske in Združenih držav Amerike. Na 190 straneh odgovarjajo na vprašanje, kako se domorodna religioznost konkre­tno izraža v današnjem svetu, natanc­neje na ozemlju Sápmi, Talamance, Ha-vajev, Nagalandije in Gujarata. Domo­rodna religija je vec kot le veroizpoved omogocili prenovo vzgojnih nacel, praks, sistemov, ki bi lahko spremljali cloveštvo v sodobni kulturni in družbe­ni preobrazbi. François Moog prepricljivo pokaže, da kršcansko izrocilo ponuja veliko vec kot le vzgojna nacela. V casu kriz je vir, ki varuje skrivnost osebe, spremlja nje-no rast in spodbuja nastanek novih umetnosti življenja. Cerkev ostaja zave­zana vzgoji in želi biti ‚dostopna‘ za vse. Knjiga nam tako kaže, da celostna vzgo­ja presega polje golega izobraževanja – slednje je le njen sestavni del. Knjiga je aktualna za vse, ki delajo na podrocju izobraževanja, saj prinaša ,spomin‘ iz preteklosti in daje smernice za ,priho­dnost‘. Andrej Šegula – predstavlja identiteto vsakega domo­rodnega naroda in je s svojimi animistic­nimi prvinami neizbežno povezana s stvarstvom. Delo je razdeljeno na pet poglavij. Prvo od petih z naslovom „Translating Indigeneities“ avtorja Bjřrna Oleja Taf­jorda govori o dojemanju razlicnih do-morodnih verskih praks, vse od Trřmsa (Norveška) pa do Talamance (Kostari­ka). Avtor po osebni izkušnji s Sámiji in Bribriji opisuje stik s pojmom domoro­dnosti in mesto domorodne verske pra­kse v kulturni identiteti naroda. S poja­vom domorodnega aktivizma in zahtevo po pravicah je domorodnost zacela pri­dobivati svoj glas. Po drugi strani jo je popularni družbeni sistem oskrunil. Pri tem se odpira vprašanje, kako domoro­dnost in njeno versko prakso prikazati in razložiti današnjemu svetu brez izgu-be domorodne identitete. Tafjord pou­darja, da je kljuc do pravilnega pristopa k domorodnosti na kateremkoli aka-demsko-raziskovalnem podrocju prav domorodna izvirnost kulture in religije, v odnosu do katere moramo ostajati trajnostno obcutljivi. Namen avtorice Siv Ellen Kraft je od blizu prikazati domorodni aktivizem, na­tancneje sámijski aktivizem v 20. in 21. stoletju. Drugo poglavje tako uvaja zgodba o protestu proti gradnji hidroe­lektrarne v norveški Alti, ki je pritegnil pozornost tako skandinavske kot sve­tovne (zlasti domorodne) javnosti: da­nes velja v domorodnem aktivizmu zaenega pionirskih dogodkov. Še vec, gre za dogodek, ki je sprožil ti. sámijsko po­mlad -petje joika (obredna sámijska pesem), izobešanje sámijske zastave, nošenje gáktija (tradicionalnega sámij­skega oblacila) in (predvsem presene­tljivo) obuditev sámijskega šamanizma -vse to je vodilo do preoblikovanja ko­lektivne narodne zavesti Sámijev. Leta 2017 so Sámiji podoben aktivizem po­novili v rezervatu ameriških staroselcev, imenovanem Stojeca skala (Standing Rock), ob protestu proti gradnji naftne­ga plinovoda. Primerjava obeh dogod­kov prinaša sintezo, v kateri avtorica ugotavlja, da je prav domorodna verska praksa (v tem primeru šamanizem) ti-sta, ki ima sposobnost medsebojno po­vezovati celo najbolj oddaljene domo­rodne kulture. Arkotong Longkumer nas s tretjim poglavjem, naslovljenim „Indigenous Futures“, popelje v Nagaladijo. Ljudstvo Naga je ena od etnicnih manjšin, ki pre­biva v Indiji in Mjanmaru. Klic po samo­stojnosti se je zacel že leta 1947, ko je Indija postala neodvisna – a Nagalandi­ja del Indije ostaja vse do danes. Avtor tako v podpoglavjih išce utemeljitve za morebitno bodoco suverenost Nagaj­cev. Prvo in obenem najpomembnejšo tocko predstavlja religija: kljub temu, da se 95 % prebivalcev izreka za kršcanske baptiste, je domorodna verska praksa še vedno mocno prisotna: kot arasent­zurji (dobesedno Božji ljudje) prebivalci doživljajo videnja, zamaknjenja, imajo moc ozdravljati ipd. Znotraj domorodne verske prakse so najpomembnejša t. i. prerokovanja o zedinjenju Nagajcev v en narod, neodvisen od Indije, kar sim-bolizira upanje. Kakor ostaja odprta pri­hodnost Nagajcev, zakljucuje Langku-mer, tako ostaja odprta prihodnost vseh domorodnih ljudstev – in ceprav v vec primerih zanemarljiv clen, je prav do-morodna verska praksa lahko kljuc do uspeha. Cetrto poglavje „Imagining Global Adivisi-ness“ Gregorya D. Allesa odpira vprašanje lokalne in globalne domoro­dnosti. Izraz Adivasis oznacuje prvotne naseljence Indije: njihovo zgodovino, življenje in pravice. Kot versko udejstvo­vanje pa adivasi pomeni tako biti kot pripadati. Avtor v središce postavlja verski praznik adivasi, ki ne predstavlja le lokalnega dogodka, temvec ima glo­balno razsežnost: pomeni namrec, da indijska država, ki staroselcev še zdalec ne obravnava enakopravno, domoro­dna ljudstva, njihove pravice, kulturo in versko življenje priznava. Ponos in edi­nost, ki ga omenjeni praznik prinaša, je pot do zagotovitve obstanka ljudstva, zakljucuje Alles. Zadnje, peto poglavje Grega Johan-sona z naslovom „Engaged Indigeniety“ govori o havajskih domorodcih in kon­fliktu TNT (Thirty Meter Telescope) na obmocju vulkana Mauna Kea. Ta kon­flikt, ki je dosegel vrh leta 2019, je sicer poskrbel za prebujenje domorodne ver­ske prakse: Mauna Kea pri mnogih ha-vajskih plemenih namrec velja za sveto goro. Boj za nedotakljivost vulkana je pripeljal do enkratnega dogodka – zdru­ženja razlicnih havajskih domorodnih verskih praks (indigenous religions)v eno samo (indigenous religion). V edi­nosti so z jasnim versko obarvanim spo-rocilom izrazili svojo domorodnost, ki je iz lokalnega okolja prerasla v globalno. Gradnja TNT je res propadla, staroselski religijski fenomen pa s krepitvijo havaj­ske domorodne kulture ostaja prisoten. Obravnavana knjiga s predstavljenimi prispevki ni le še ena od mnogih, ki od-nos narod -kultura -religija obravna­vajo teoreticno, temvec prav nasprotno – s študijskimi primeri petih skupnosti kaže raznolikost domorodnosti na lokal­ni ravni in njihovo enost na globalni, vse to utemeljeno v eni tocki: domorodni religiji. Liza Primc POROCILO / REPORT Mednarodna konferenca o katehumenatu Pariz, Katoliški inštitut, 5.–7. maj 2022 Od 5. do 7. maja 2022 se je v Parizu na Katoliškem inštitutu odvijala mednarodna konferenca o katehumenatu z naslovom „Uvajanje v kršcansko življenje – kakšna je prihodnost?“ („L‘initiation ŕ la vie chrétienne : quel avenir?“). Konferenca se je izvajala hibridno: v dvorani nas je bilo navzocih 85, po aplikaciji Zoom pa še okrog 200 udeležencev iz razlicnih držav: Francije, Belgije, Kanade, Amerike ipd. Že koncilski ocetje so na II. vatikanskem koncilu pozvali k obnovi katehumenata odraslih v vec stopnjah in k reviziji obreda krsta odraslih. Obrednik z naslovom „Ordo initiationis christianae adultorum“ (OICA) je papež Pavel VI. razglasil 6. ja­nuarja 1972. Gre za obred, temeljec na preizkušeni liturgicni praksi, ki pa je izgi­nila že v pozni antiki. Obred je bil postopoma prilagojen razlicnim jezikom in kul­turam. Ta prilagajanja so v razlicnih državah privedla do razlicnih izvedb in praks. Od leta 1977 Katoliška cerkev katehumenat obravnava tudi kot navdih za katehe­zo. Obrednik OICA je zato postal referencni katehetski dokument – od katehume­na se namrec zahteva, da svoje misijonarsko spreobrnjenje okrepi. Petdesetletni-ca obrednika OICA je bila tako priložnost za razmislek o obredu krsta odraslih in o procesu kršcanske iniciacije nasploh. Predavatelji so v predavanjih skušali odgo­voriti na naslednja vprašanja: Kako je z novostjo obreda krsta odraslih, z razlicnimi prilagoditvami, kako so sprejete? Kako lahko kršcansko iniciacijo vidimo z ekumen­skega vidika? Pod kakšnimi pogoji je mogoce ponovno prouciti pojem kršcanske iniciacije ob upoštevanju njenega razvoja in sedanjega konteksta? Mednarodna konferenca je poskušala odgovoriti na ta vprašanja v treh korakih: s pregledom zgodovine OICA in praks kršcanske iniciacije (Od kod prihajamo?), s pregledom sedanjega stanja in njegovih izzivov (Kje smo?) ter z odpiranjem mož­nosti za prihodnost (Kam gremo?). Prvi dan konference je bil namenjen pogledu v preteklost. Predavatelji in tema­tike so bili naslednji: David Pitt je spregovoril o nastanku in uredniškem delu OICA; Maxwell Johnoson o zgodovinskih, liturgicnih in teoloških raziskavah uvajanja v kršcanstvo po II. vatikanskem koncilu; Roland Lacroix o prilagoditvi obrednika za francosko govorece skupnosti; Philippe Portier o velikem razvoju katolištva v zad­njih 50 letih; Marco Gallo je poskušal odgovoriti na vprašanje, kako je katehume­nat postal navdih za katekizem v casu od koncila do zadnje izdaje „Pravilnika za vzgojo“ leta 2020. Drugo dopoldne je bilo namenjeno delavnicam, delu po skupinah. Tematsko so se dotikale naslednjih podrocij: kdo in kakšni so nosilci pastorale katehumenata; pomen spremljevalcev in razlocevanja; prepoznavanje navzocnosti Boga v cloveški krhkosti; obred krsta kot priložnost za evangelizacijo; Cerkev kot kraj sprejetosti; katehumenat kot kateheza in mistagogija. V nadaljevanju so predavatelji analizi­rali današnjo situacijo: Marie-Josée Poiré in Isaďa Gazzola sta predstavila trenutno stanje in prilagoditve obrednika OICA v razlicnih izdajah. Bruce Morrill je predsta­vil, kako obred uvajanja v kršcanstvo za odrasle vpliva na liturgicno in zakramen­talno teologijo. Sklep dneva je bila okrogla miza, na kateri so sodelovali: Job de Telmessos kot predstavnik Pravoslavne cerkve, Nicolas Cochand kot predstavnik Združene protestantske cerkve Francije in Cécile E´on kot predstavnica Katoliške cerkve. Predstavili so razlicne poglede na situacijo krstne pastorale in njen eku­menski vidik. Posebej zanimiva je bila informacija, da v eni od svojih župnij v Fran-ciji protestanti katehumene pripravljajo na prejem zakramenta svetega krsta sku­paj s katolicani. Tudi tretji dan se je ob pogledu v prihodnost zacel z delavnicami. Odprtih je bilo vec vprašanj: problematika formacije za podrocje spremljanja katehumenov (od laikov, duhovnikov, vse do škofov); vprašanje vkljucevanja novokršcencev v doma-ca obcestva; odprtost za nove oblike tako formalnega kot neformalnega pastoral-nega delovanja; mesto Svetega pisma v življenju novokršcencev; pokrstna kate­heza, ki vkljucuje tako kerigmaticne kot mistagoške elemente kateheze. Prav tako pa je bilo izpostavljeno vprašanje spremljanja po sprejemu zakramenta svetega krsta. V popoldanskem delu so spregovorili: Marie-Jo Thiel, ki se sprašuje, v kakš-no Cerkev novokršcenci vstopajo in katera so za današnji cas bistvena ekleziološ­ka vprašanja; Andrea Grillo o vprašanju iniciacijskih praks ter pojavu ekskultura­cije. Na koncu je Paul Turner spregovoril o sicer kršcenih, a ne katehiziranih, ne v polnosti uvedenih kristjanih. Zastavil si je še sklepno vprašanje, kakšno mesto imajo kršceni v obredu kršcanskega uvajanja odraslih. Vsebina mednarodne konference o katehumenatu je nadaljevanje raziskovan­ja katehetskih praks, ki se je zacelo leta 2010 s prvo konferenco, ki je bila v Parizu. Veliki teologi, kot sta Jean Daniéulou in Joseph Alois Ratzinger, sta namrec že zelo zgodaj razumela, da se bo praksa krsta pocasi spreminjala (od kršcevanja otrok k vedno vecjemu številu krsta odraslih). Drugi mejnik je bil kongres v Santiagu de Chile leta 2014, kjer so ugotavljali, da se katehumenat razume kot nov navdih za pastoralno delo – zlasti kot metafora za razmišljanje o novih misijonarskih in pe­dagoških dinamikah kateheze. Ob aktualizaciji obrednika OICA lahko dobimo v kontekstu postmoderne kulture obcutek paradoksa, saj ponovno uvaja tradicijo, medtem ko sodobni utrip, cas in svet išcejo avtonomijo in novost. Na konferenci v Parizu 2016 je bilo poudarjeno, da gre za razvoj uvajanja v kršcanstvo v smeri razumevanja, da se je Božja beseda utelesila. Profesor dr. Joël Molinario je v sklepnem delu izpostavil vprašanja, ki so se na tej konferenci pojavila. Gre za spoznanje, ki ni novo, je pa obsežno: katehumenat in ves kontekst uvajanja – v liturgicnem, katehetskem in teološkem pogledu – je dejansko delo II. vatikanskega koncila. Najprej je to ekumensko vprašanje, ki se je pojavilo kot dokaz z delitvijo katehetskih praks in krstnih liturgij; z delitvijo je pri­šlo do težav, ki jih je bilo treba premagati. V povzetku poudarja štiri vidike: 1. Eku­menizem: nedavni „Ekumenski vademekum“, ki ga je izdal Papeški svet za pospe­ševanje edinosti kristjanov, v tocki 25 navaja, da je vsak ekumenizem krstni. Ce je vsak ekumenizem krstni, potem lahko trdimo, da nas na ekumensko pot usmerja prav vsako krstno vprašanje. To velja še toliko bolj, ker OICA uporablja zakramen­talnost izven neosholasticnih kategorij. Kršcanska (torej ne le katoliška) iniciacija odraslih je zato priložnost za ekumensko gibanje, ki si prizadeva za zakramentalno vez edinosti. Nedvomno lahko pojem katehetskega navdiha razumemo kot skupno podrocje delovanja. 2. Pluralnost: na naštetih konferencah se je pokazala razno­likost oblik kršcanske iniciacije v zgodovini. Razumevanje OICA in raznolikost izva­janja zakramentov. Obred krsta daje upanje tudi v državah, ki jim grozi tako ime­novana ekskulturacija. In pricujoca kršcanska iniciacija kljub vsem negativnim tren­dom daje neko upanje. 3. Kršcanska iniciacija v življenje Cerkve doživlja svojo krhkost zlasti danes, ko se kaže toliko prizadetosti, ranljivosti, pa tudi nostalgicno­sti: kriza katolištva, kriza duhovnih poklicev, kriza prenosa vere, zlorabe mladole­tnikov itd. Vse to odpira vec razlicnih pogledov in razumevanja: temeljni je v spre­jemanju dejstev, drugi je v vseh možnih alternativnih oblikah: napad, nestrinjanje ipd. Pricevanja katehumenov nas lahko veliko naucijo. Ceprav rane Cerkve vidijo, na naša vrata trkajo. So nekakšna znamenja, da je za nov odnos evangelija do postmoderne družbe znacilno kršcansko spreobrnjenje. Socutna oseba (katehu-men) se namrec odloci postati kristjan zaradi odlocilnega srecanja z Jezusom. Bog je Bog tukaj in zdaj – in katehumen ga želi sprejeti kljub vsemu. 4. Izziv, ki ostaja, je prenos vere, posredovanje vere. Gre za dojemanje zgodovinskosti vere v Kristu­sa, pa tudi zgodovinskosti velikonocne skrivnosti s pojavom Razodetja v zgodovini vsakega posameznika. In tako se Kristus uteleša tudi danes. K boljšemu razumevanju konteksta te mednarodne konference lahko pripomo-re dejstvo, da je letos (2022) ob velikonocnih praznikih prejelo zakramente kršcan­skega uvajanja odraslih (krst, birma in evharistija) 4278 odraslih. Letošnje številose je v primerjavi z veliko nocjo leta 2021 povecalo za približno 14 %. Število od­raslih, ki so sprejeli zakrament svetega krsta, se je v zadnjih petih letih gibalo oko­li dobrih 4000. Tri cetrtine letošnjih kršcenih je mlajših od 40 let. Še najbolj pa se je povecal delež mladih od 18 do 25 leta, ki predstavljajo skoraj tretjino katehu­menov (28 %). Njihovo število se je v enem letu povecalo za 30 %. Naslednja mednarodna konferenca je nacrtovana za leto 2023. Andrej Šegula ZNANSTVENA KNJIŽNICA 70 Simon Malmenvall Kultura Kijevske Rusije in kršcanska zgodovinska zavest Monografija spada v okvir kulturno-idejne zgodovine in historicne teologije. Gre za prvo celovito osvetlitev oblikovanja kršcanske kulture Kijevske Rusije (najsta­rejše vzhodnoslovanske državne tvorbe, ki je obstajala med 10. in 13. stoletjem) v slovenskemu znanstvenemu prostoru. Pri tem je posebna pozornost namenjena proucitvi zgodovinske zavesti (kot zgodovine odrešenja) takratne staroruske po­svetne in cerkvene elite v casu neposredno po uradnem sprejetju kršcanske vere. Poglavitni del monografije se posveca štirim zgodovinsko-religijskim narativnim virom, sestavljenim med sredino 11. in sredino 12. stoletja: pridigi Beseda o po­stavi in milosti, letopisu Pripoved o minulih letih, hagiografiji Branje o Borisu inGlebu in potopisu Življenje in romanje Danijela. Ljubljana: TEOF, 2019. 313 str. ISBN 978-961-6844-82-6, 11€. Knjigo lahko narocite na naslovu: TEOF-ZALOŽBA, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana; e-naslov: zalozba@teof.uni-lj.si Navodila sodelavcem Navodila sodelavcem Rokopis znanstvenega ali strokovnega clanka, ki ga avtor/ica pošlje na naslov Bo-goslovnega vestnika, je besedilo, ki še ni bilo objavljeno drugod niti ni drugod v recenzijskem postopku. Rokopis je treba poslati v pisni in v elektronski obliki. Ele­ktronska oblika naj obsega le osnovne programske definicije (urejevalnik besedila Word s standardno obliko pisave brez dodatnih slogovnih dolocil). Pisna oblika ro­kopisa naj ima velikost crk 12 pt (Times), razmik med vrsticami 1,5, opombe 10 pt. Zaradi anonimnega recenzijskega postopka mora imeti vsak rokopis prijavo ozi­roma spremni list, na katerem avtor/ica navede svoje ime in priimek, naslov clanka, svoje kljucne biografske podatke (akademski naziv, podrocje dela, poslovni naslov in/oziroma naslov, na katerem prejema pošto, elektronski naslov itd.) in izjavo, da besedilo še ni bilo objavljeno in da še ni v recenzijskem postopku. Obrazec prijave je na spletni strani revije (http://www.teof.uni-lj.si/bv.html). Na drugi strani, ki je prva stran besedila, pa naj navede samo naslov clanka brez imena avtorja. Rokopis znanstvenega clanka ima povzetek in kljucne besede, in sicer na poseb­ni strani (listu). Povzetek naj obsega do 160 besed oziroma do 800 znakov. Povzetek obsega natancno opredelitev teme clanka, metodologijo in zakljucke. Obseg rokopisaizvirnega znanstvenegaclanka najpraviloma nepresegadolžineene avtorske pole (30.000 znakov); pregledni clanki in predhodne objave naj ne obsegajo vec kot 20.000 znakov, porocila ne vec kot 10.000 znakov, ocene knjig ne vec kot 8.000 znakov. Za obsežnejša besedila naj se avtor dogovori z urednikom. Besedila daljša od 8.000 znakov morajo vsebovati podnaslove. Tabele in slike morajo biti izpisane na po­sebnem listu papirja, v besedilu clanka mora biti oznaceno mesto, kam sodijo. Naslov clanka mora biti jasen, poveden in ne daljši od 100 znakov. Na koncu clanka pripravimo seznam referenc oz. literature. Knjižna dela nava­jamo v obliki: Priimek, Ime. Letnica. Naslov. Kraj: Založba. Npr.: Janžekovic, Janez. 1976. Kršcanstvo in marksizem: od polemike do razgovora. Celje: Mohorjeva druž­ba. Clanke iz revij navajamo v obliki: Priimek, Ime. Letnica. Naslov clanka. Ime publikacije letnik:prva-zadnja stran. Npr.: Krašovec, Jože. 1991. Filozofsko-teološki razlogi za odpušcanje. Bogoslovni vestnik 51:270-285. Pri referencah z interneta navedemo spletni naslov z datumom pridobitve dokumenta. Ce je bil dokument objavljen v periodicni publikaciji, to oznacimo za naslovom dokumenta. Priimek, Ime. Letnica. Naslov. Ime publikacije, dan. mesec. URL (pridobljeno datum. mesec leto). Npr.: Rebula, Alojz. 2006. Rekatolizacija ali recivilizacija? Družina, 7. aprila. Http://www.druzina.si/ICD/spletnastran.nsf/ (pridobljeno 16. oktobra 2006). V besedilu navajamo citate po sistemu avtor-letnica. Priimek avtorja, letnico izida citiranega dela in stran zapišemo za citatom v obliki (priimek letnica, stran). Npr. (Janžekovic 1976, 12). Na isti nacin navajamo tudi citate iz periodicnih publi­kacij in s spletnih strani. Ce sta avtorja dva, navedek zapišemo v obliki (Priimek in Priimek letnica, stran). Npr. (Rode in Stres 1977, 33). Pri vec kot treh avtorjih upo­rabimo obliko (Priimek idr. letnica, stran) ali (Priimek et al. letnica, stran). Npr. (Lenzenweger et al. 1999, 51). Ce avtor dela ni naveden, namesto priimka upora­bimo naslov, lahko tudi skrajšanega, npr. (Devetdnevnica k casti milostne Matere Božje 1916, 5). Ce priimek navedemo že v citatu, ga v navedku izpustimo in nave- demo samo letnico in stran. Npr.: »Kakor je zapisal Anton Strle (1988, 67) [...]. Ce v istem oklepaju navajamo vec del, locujemo eno od drugega s podpicji. Npr. (Pascal 1986, 16; Frankl 1993, 73). Ce citiramo v istem odstavku isto delo, navedemo referenco v celoti samo pr­vic, v nadaljevanju v oklepajih navedemo samo številko strani. Okrajšave »Prim.« ne uporabljamo. Po ustaljeni navadi v besedilu navajamo Sveto pismo, anticne in srednjeveške avtorje, koncilske in druge cerkvene dokumente, Zakonik cerkvene­ga prava (ZCP), Katekizem katoliške Cerkve (KKC) in druge dokumente, ki jih obrav­navamo kot vire. Natancnejša navodila za citiranje so na spletnem naslovu http:// www.teof.uni-lj.si/obrazci/citiranje.doc. Uporaba kratic znanih casopisov, periodicnih publikacij, najbolj citiranih del, leksikonov in zbirk mora ustrezati mednarodnemu seznamu (splošni seznam: List of serial title word abbreviations, COBISS.SI-ID: 61626368, dostopen v NUK-u; za teologijo: Internationales Abkürzungsverzeichnis für Theologie und Grenzgebiete, W. de Gruyter, Berlin 1992); kratice domacih del, zbirk in leksikonov se uporablja­jo, ce so splošno znane in priznane, na primer »BV« za Bogoslovni vestnik. Kratice revij/casopisov so v ležeci pisavi (kurzivi), kratice zbornikov, leksikonov ali mono-grafij so v pokoncni pisavi. Pravila glede precrkovanja (transliteracije) iz gršcine in hebrejšcine so dostopna v uredništvu. Objave v Bogoslovnem vestniku se ne honorirajo. Uredništvo zavrnjenih roko­pisov ne vraca. Bogoslovni vestnik Theological Quarterly EPHEMERIDES THEOLOGICAE Izdajatelj in založnik / Edited and published by Teološka fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani Naslov / Address Bogoslovni vestnik, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana ISSN 0006-5722 1581-2987 (e-oblika) Spletni naslov / E-address http://www.teof.uni-lj.si/bv.html Glavni in odgovorni urednik / Editor in chief Robert Petkovšek E-pošta / E-mail bogoslovni.vestnik@teof.uni-lj.si Namestnik gl. urednika / Associate Editor Vojko Strahovnik Uredniški svet / Editorial Council Jože Bajzek (Rim), Metod Benedik, Erwin Dirscherl (Regensburg), Emmanuel Falque (Pariz), Vincent Holzer (Pariz), Janez Juhant, Gusztáv Kovács (Pécs), Jože Krašovec, Nenad Malovic (Zagreb), Zorica Maros (Sarajevo), Sigrid Müller (Dunaj), Mladen Parlov (Split), Didier Pollefeyt (Leuven), Vladislav Puzovic (Beograd), Miran Sajovic (Rim), Walter Schaupp (Gradec), Józef Stala (Krakov), Anton Stres, Grzegorz Szamocki(Gdansk), Ed Udovic (Chicago), Michal Valco (Žilina), Rafko Valencic, Vladimir Vukašinovic (Beograd), Karel Woschitz (Gradec) Pomocniki gl. urednika (uredniški odbor) / Irena Avsenik Nabergoj, Roman Globokar, Slavko Krajnc, Simon Editorial Board Malmenvall, Jožef Muhovic, Mari Jože Osredkar, Maria Carmela Palmisano, Barbara Simonic, Stanislav Slatinek, Vojko Strahovnik, Miha Šimac, Miran Špelic, Marjan Turnšek, Janez Vodicar Tehnicni pomocniki gl. ur. / Tech. Assistant Editors Liza Primc, Aljaž Krajnc, Jonas Miklavcic in Rok Gregorcic Lektoriranje / Language-editing Domen Krvina Prevodi / Translations Simon Malmenvall Oblikovanje / Cover design Lucijan Bratuš Prelom / Computer typesetting Jernej Dolšak Tisk / Printed by KOTIS d. o. o., Grobelno Za založbo / Chief publisher Janez Vodicar Izvlecke prispevkov v tej reviji objavljajo / Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Digitale Bibliothek; Canon Law Ab-Abstracts of this review are included in stracts; Elenchus Bibliographicus Biblicus; Web of Science (Wos): Core colection: the Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI); ERIH PLUS; dLib; IBZ Online; MIAR; MLA International Bibliography; Periodica de re Canonica; Religious & Theological Abstracts; Scopus (h) Letna narocnina / Annual subscription za Slovenijo: 28 EUR za tujino: Evropa 40 EUR; ostalo 57 USD (navadno), 66 USD (prednostno); naslov: Univerza v Ljubljani, Teološka fakulteta, Poljanska c. 4, 1000 Ljubljana Transakcijski racun / Bank account IBAN SI56 0110 0603 0707 798 Swift Code: BSLJSI2X Revijo sofinancira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republi­ke Slovenije. Clanki v reviji Bogoslovni vestnik, razen ce ni drugace navedeno, so objavljeni pod pogoji licence Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0 International). Impressum Bogoslovni vestnik (Theological Quarterly, Ephemerides Theologicae) je znanstvena revija z recenzijo. V razvid medijev, ki ga vodi Ministrstvo za kulturo RS, je vpisana pod zaporedno številko 565. Izhaja štirikrat na leto. Bogoslovni vestnik je glasilo Teološke fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Vsebuje izvirne in pregledne znanstvene clanke in prispevke s podrocja teologije in drugih ved, ki so sorodne teologiji. Objavlja v latinskem, angleškem, francoskem, nemškem in v italijanskem jeziku. Rokopis, ki ga sodelavec pošlje na naslov Bogoslovnega vestnika, je besedilo, ki istocasno ali prej ni bilo poslano na noben drug naslov in bo v v Bogoslovnem vestniku objavljeno prvic. Podrobnejša navodila so v prvi številki vsakega letnika. Prispevki v Bogoslovnem vestniku se ne honorirajo. Clanki so objavljeni na spletni strani s casovnim presledkom enega leta. Rokopise je treba poslati na naslov: Bogoslovni vestnik, Poljanska 4, 1000 Ljubljana (elektronski naslov: bo­goslovni.vestnik@teof.uni-lj.si). MAGNA CHARTA FACULTATIS THEOLOGICAE LABACENSIS Teološka fakulteta, ki ima korenine v srednjeveških samostanskih in katedralnih sholah in najodlicnejše mesto na prvih univerzah, je tudi ena od petih ustanovnih fakultet Univerze v Ljubljani. Njeni predhodniki so bili jezuitski kolegij, ki je deloval v Ljubljani v letih od 1601 do 1773, vrsta drugih redovnih visokih šol in škofijske teološke šole. Kakor ob svojih zacetkih želi Teološka fakulteta tudi na pragu 3. tisocletja ob nenehni skrbi za prvovrstno kvaliteto pedagoškega in raziskovalnega dela razvijati svoj govor o Bogu in o cloveku, o božjem uclovecenju in o clovekovem pobožanstvenju, o stvarstvu in o clovekovem poseganju vanj, o zacetkih vsega in o koncnem smislu, o Cerkvi in o življenju v njej. Opirajoc se na Sveto pismo in na izrocilo in ob upoštevanju dometa clovekove misli, usposablja svoje študente za jasen premislek o témah presežnosti in tukajšnjosti, vere in razodetja, kanonskega prava, morale in vzgoje. Kot katoliška fakulteta v zvestobi kulturnemu krogu, iz katerega je izšla, sledi avtoriteti cerkvenega uciteljstva in skrbi za intelektualno pripravo kandidatov na duhovništvo in za duhovno rast laiških sodelavcev v Cerkvi in v širši družbi.