47
Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Abstract
This article presents a climate classification for Slovenia for the climatological period 
1991–2020. It is based on the Köppen-Geiger classification, but this classification is 
too coarse-grained to show all the specific climatic features of Slovenia. Taking into 
account additional temperature and precipitation criteria, we divided the Slovenian 
climate into four basic types with nine subtypes: moderate Mediterranean (coastal 
and inland), moderate continental (of northeast, east and southeast, and central Slo-
venia), mountain (of higher and lower mountains) and submontane climates (very 
humid and humid).
Keywords: climate geography, climate classification, Köppen-Geiger climate classifi-
cation, climate types, Slovenia
Darko Ogrin*, Blaž Repe*, Lenart Štaut**,  
Domen Svetlin***, Matej Ogrin*
CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION OF SLOVENIA 
BASED ON DATA FROM THE PERIOD 
1991–2020 Izvirni znanstveni članek
COBISS 1.01
DOI: 10.4312/dela.59.5-89
*Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva cesta 2, 
SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
** Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Anton Melik Geo-
graphical Institute, Novi trg 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
*** Cesta Radomeljske čete 23, SI-1235 Radomlje, Slovenia
e-mail: darko.ogrin@ff.uni-lj.si, blaz.repe@ff.uni-lj.si, lenart.staut@zrc-sazu.si, domen.
svetlin@gmail.com, matej.ogrin@ff.uni-lj.si
ORCID: 0000-0002-2458-6435 (D. Ogrin), 0000-0002-5530-4840 (B. Repe), 0000-
0003-0095-3920 (L. Štaut), 0000-0002-4742-3890 (M. Ogrin)
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1 INTRODUCTION
Slovenia is small in scale geographically, but its climate is highly diverse due to its lo-
cation at mid-latitudes where the Mediterranean, the Pannonian Basin, the Alps and 
the Dinarides come together, and the varied topography associated with this junction. 
The general features of a moderate warm and humid climate are blended with the cha-
racteristics of Mediterranean, mountain and continental climates, which at the local 
level are strongly influenced by topography.
A multitude of climate regionalizations and classifications have been made at the 
global and macro levels. Classifications are mainly divided into two groups: causal 
(genetic) and consequential (effective). Among the genetic ones, which try to explain 
the causes of the formation of a certain climate, is Strahler’s classification (Strahler, 
2013). Of the genetic ones, which explain the influence of climate on natural condi-
tions, especially on natural vegetation (and also certain characteristics of the cultu-
ral use of the landscape), the most well-known in climatological circles and beyond 
is the Köppen classification (also called the Köppen-Geiger climate classification). It 
was created at the beginning of the 20th century (Köppen, 1918) and has undergone 
several additions and revisions over the century of its existence (e.g. Cui et al., 2021; 
Geiger, Pohl, 1954; Köppen, 1936; Peel et al., 2007; Strässer, 1998). These classificati-
ons provide a good insight into the global climate system and a system of larger spatial 
units, but for spatial units of Slovenian dimensions, they are not sufficiently fine-gra-
ined and do not reflect all of the important climatic features.
Over the past 100 years, several climate classifications and regionalizations have 
been developed for the territory of Slovenia. The first classification scheme of clima-
te types was created by Melik (1935). He noted that the Mediterranean, Pannonian 
and Central European Alpine climates intersect on Slovenian territory, and that the 
boundaries between particular climate types are constantly changing. Furlan (1960) 
analysed climate of Slovenia based on data for the period 1925–1956. With respect to 
temperatures, he distinguished marine, transitional and inland zones, and with respect 
to precipitation, areas with a modified Mediterranean and Central European regime. 
He did not elaborate a comprehensive classification. Ilešič (1970) analysed Slovenia 
within Yugoslavia on the basis of temperature and precipitation regimes. He distingu-
ished two main climate zones: Adriatic and moderate continental. As part of the first, 
the northern Adriatic area extends into Slovenia. In the second, within the framework 
of the western Pannonian continental zone, he divided Slovenia into two subzones: the 
true Pannonian continental zone and the transitional Pannonian-Adriatic zone.
Gams (1972) classified Slovenia into different zones based on the relationship 
between monthly temperatures and precipitation in the growing season, or moisture 
surplus and deficit, temperatures and the length of the growing season. By selecting 
these criteria, he primarily wanted to explain the differences in natural vegetation and 
the cultivation of crops. He classified the main climatic zones (littoral, central Slove-
nia and sub-Pannonian) into several climatic provinces and districts. Gams (1996) 
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
also produced a bioclimatic classification of Slovenia. Based on how arid or humid 
the climate, he distinguished two climatic zones with several subzones. He divided 
the coastal region and its hinterland into the following climate zones: the Koper li-
ttoral, the climate of the hinterland of the Gulf of Trieste, and the transitional climate 
of Brkini. He divided the climate of continental Slovenia into the very humid clima-
te of the Alpine and Dinaric mountains, the humid climate of central Slovenia, the 
moderately humid climate in the transition zone to the sub-Pannonian climate, and 
the sub-Pannonian climate with semi-arid to semi-humid summers. Both of Gams’s 
classifications are also presented in maps.
D. Ogrin (1996) classified the climate in Slovenia based on data for the period 1961–
1990. As a starting point for the classification, he used the Köppen-Geiger criteria, accor-
ding to which most of Slovenia has a moderate warm, humid climate with warm summers 
(Cfb), the highest elevation areas have a mountain climate (H), and the southwestern 
parts along the Gulf of Trieste have a moderate warm, humid climate with hot summers 
(Cfa). The basic types were then subdivided into nine subtypes based on the precipita-
tion regime, the average temperature of the coldest and warmest months, and the ratio 
between October and April temperatures. In 2009, this classification was updated based 
on data for the period 1971–2000 (Ogrin, 2009), which maintained the starting points 
and criteria of the earlier classification. It reflects well the regional responses to global 
climate change that accelerated after 1980: the spread of the moderate Mediterranean 
climate towards the interior of Slovenia, the shift of the climate of lower-elevation moun-
tain areas to higher elevations, the mitigation of the continental temperature regime due 
to the rise in winter temperatures, and as regards precipitation a shift of the moderate 
Mediterranean precipitation regime towards the eastern part of the country.
The classifications presented have in common that they are made on the basis of po-
int data from relatively sparse networks of weather stations in Slovenia, which is especi-
ally true for air temperature measurements. The boundaries between climatic units are 
largely determined subjectively, taking into account the influence of the topography on 
the spatial distribution of particular climatic elements and the researcher’s familiarity 
with local and regional climatic conditions. The spatial distribution of natural vegetati-
on and the characteristics of the cultural use of the land are also taken into account. Sin-
ce in recent years, data in a kilometre grid for the most important climatic elements have 
also become available (Dolinar, 2016), Kozjek et al. (2017) produced what they call an 
objective definition of the climatic regions of Slovenia for the period 1981–2010. Using 
factor analysis and classification based on cluster analysis, they found that the climate of 
Slovenia can be most logically and representatively classified into six zones or types: the 
littoral zone (moderate Mediterranean climate), the very wet zone of the northwestern 
part of the Alpine-Dinaric barrier (humid climate of lower mountains), the higher ele-
vation zone of the Dinarides and Alps (moderate mountain climate), the high elevation 
zone (mountain climate), the dry zone of the lowlands of eastern and central Slove-
nia (moderate continental climate) and the higher and slightly wetter region of central 
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Slovenia (moderate climate of highland areas). The spatial distribution of the climatic 
zones and types presented does not differ significantly from Ogrin’s classifications.
With the aim of determining reference climate stations that would be representati-
ve of the wider area and at the same time describe climate changes in recent decades 
as accurately as possible, Kozjek et al. (2016a; 2016b) built on the original classificati-
on by calculating the measures of variability of the most important climatic elements 
for the period 1961–2011. Taking into account all the selected measures of variability 
(trends, interyear and interday variability), they divided Slovenia into four zones that 
have similar climate characteristics. The zones were not specifically named, but they 
coincide with the Mediterranean areas, the highest parts of the Alpine-Dinaric barri-
er, the wider area of the Alpine-Dinaric barrier and the area of eastern Slovenia with 
more continental climatic features.
The year 2020 marked the end of the standard climatological period 1991–2020, 
which dictates the creation of a climate classification for this time. This is all the more 
indicated since it is widely known and thoroughly supported in the literature that the 
climate at all spatial levels, including in Slovenia (Bertalanič et al., 2010; Climate chan-
ge..., 2021; Dolinar, Vertačnik, 2010; Ogrin, 2003; 2014; 2015; Vertačnik et al., 2013), has 
been changing very rapidly in recent decades. Due to changes in the values of climate 
elements and the boundaries between climatic types and subtypes, climate classifica-
tions created on the basis of data for previous periods are of limited usefulness. The 
main purpose of this paper is therefore to show the characteristics of climatic types in 
Slovenia and the characteristics of their spatial distribution for the period 1991–2020. 
In addition to point data, we also used data in the spatial grid since these are available. 
In their processing, spatial interpolation and displays, we used GIS tools (ArcGIS Pro 
3.1 and QGIS software tools). In order to maintain basic comparability with the last two 
classifications that were created at the Department of Geography of the Faculty of Arts 
of the University of Ljubljana for the period 1961–1990 (Ogrin, 1996) and 1971–2000 
(Ogrin, 2009), we proceeded from the same methodological starting points. However, a 
full comparison is not possible because in the previous classifications we used control-
led but not homogenized point data, and the spatial interpolation of point data and the 
boundaries between individual climate types were determined by expert assessment.
2 METHODS
Point (62 temperature stations, 174 precipitation stations) and spatial data for the 
period 1991–2020 were obtained from the Slovenian Environment Agency (ARSO). 
The data were first checked and homogenized at ARSO using modern software tools, 
and changes that were not the result of climatic events were removed (Vertačnik et al., 
2016). The homogenized data formed the basis for conversion into a kilometre grid. 
The optimal spatial interpolation method, which takes into account the dependence 
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
of the climatic variable on geographical factors, was used to calculate the values of the 
climatic variables in the grid. At each grid point, the value of the variable was calcu-
lated on the basis of the values at the surrounding meteorological stations (including 
stations near the border in Italy, Austria and Croatia), elevation, geographic longitude 
and latitude of the grid point, and in some cases also other derived geographical va-
riables (e.g. relative elevation of the orographic barrier to the northeast for precipita-
tion). Due to the smaller number of meteorological stations, the data are less reliable 
for areas with an elevation above 1000 m (Dolinar, 2016; Kozjek et al., 2017).
The starting point for the climate classification of Slovenia was the Köppen-Geiger 
definition of climate types and their criteria (Peel et al., 2007). According to Köppen, 
each climate is defined by a certain value of average monthly and annual temperatures 
and precipitation. In mapping particular temperature thresholds or climate classes and 
types, we relied on the location of isotherms derived from the Köppen classification: 
the January isotherm of –3 °C (boundary between moderate warm and humid climates 
and snow-forest climates), the July isotherm of 22 °C (boundary between climates with 
hot or warm summers), and the July isotherm of 10 °C (boundary between snow-forest 
and snow climates). The interpolation of climate variables and all further calculation 
operations, as well as the Köppen climate classification of Slovenia itself, were carried 
out in the R programming language, and the maps were drawn with the QGIS program. 
Since the Köppen-Geiger classification is too coarse-grained to show all the specific 
climatic features of Slovenia, we took additional temperature criteria into account: Ja-
nuary isotherms of 0 and 3 °C, July isotherms of 15 and 20 °C, and the average annual 
temperature amplitude. If the average annual temperature amplitude is above 20 °C, this 
is an indicator of the continental character of the temperature regime, if it is below 15 °C 
it indicates marine characteristics, and if it is between 15 and 20 °C, it is a transitional 
temperature regime (Supan, 1921, p. 110; Šegota, Filipčić, 1996, p. 71). The values were 
calculated from the kilometre grid of temperature data, and the vertical temperature 
gradients and average heights of particular isotherms were calculated using a digital 
elevation model (GURS, 2021). In defining the continental character of the temperatu-
re regime, we also looked at a comparison of average April and October temperatures 
(Tokt. > Tapr.: marine features of the temperature regime; Tokt. < Tapr.: continental fe-
atures of the precipitation regime). Higher temperatures in October compared to April 
are considered to be the result of the influence of a warm sea and sea air masses, as the 
sea cools down more slowly in autumn and warms up more slowly in spring. Therefore, 
in areas far from the sea, April is generally warmer than October.
Previous classifications of the Slovenian climate, especially the classification by 
Kozjek et al. (2016a; 2016b; 2017), indicated the great importance of precipitation and 
related humidity conditions. To make it easier to differentiate Slovenia with regard to 
this factor, together with the amount of precipitation, we also took into account Lang’s 
rain factor, which includes the average annual amount of precipitation and the avera-
ge annual air temperature and climate elements according to the degree of humidity 
or aridity (Žiberna, 1992, p. 76):
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   L – Lang’s rain factor
   RRl – average annual amount of precipitation
   Te –average annual air temperature
In determining the degree of humidity or aridity of the climate, we took into acco-
unt the standard division into classes (Žiberna, 1992, p. 76):
L
0–40  arid climate
41–60 semi-arid climate
61–100 semi-humid climate
101–160 humid climate
above 160 perhumid climate
In defining the precipitation regime, we started from Köppen’s criteria, which we 
slightly adapted for the needs of Slovenia, denoting with w‘ the precipitation regime 
with peak precipitation in one of the autumn months and the least precipitation in 
one of the winter months (sometimes in March or in one of the summer months), 
and with x‘ the regime with peak precipitation in one of the summer months (in 
some places also in May) and the least precipitation in one of the winter months. 
The precipitation regime was further defined using the Mediterranean precipitation 
index (Koppany, Unger, 1992), which compares the average amount in October and 
November (peak precipitation in the Mediterranean precipitation regime) with the 
amount of rainfall in May and June (peak rainfall in the continental precipitation 
regime) and the annual amount of precipitation. Positive values of the index indica-
te Mediterranean features of the precipitation regime, while negative values indicate 
continental features. Since in Slovenia the autumn peak of precipitation also occurs in 
September, and the summer peak also occurs in July, we modified the index slightly:
MI – Mediterranean precipitation index
Psep–nov – amount of precipitation in the period September-November
Pmay–july – amount of precipitation in the period May-July
Pl – average annual precipitation
The continental or marine (Mediterranean) character of the precipitation regime was 
also determined by comparing the amount of precipitation in the warmer half of the 
year (April–September) and the colder half of the year (October–March). A larger pro-
portion of precipitation in the warmer half of the year indicates a continental character 
of the precipitation regime, while in the colder half it is marine (Mediterranean).
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Since Köppen was also a phytogeographer, he chose the threshold values between 
particular climate classes and types in such a way that he could also at least approxi-
mately determine the main vegetation types coinciding with them. For the needs of a 
more detailed climate classification of Slovenia, we also extended this starting point 
to some characteristics of the cultural landscape, which depend in large extent on 
thermal conditions (olive growing and viticulture region). We adapted the original 
Köppen terms for particular climate types to Slovenian conditions.
3 RESULTS
3.1 Köppen-Geiger climatic classification of Slovenia 1991–2020
Three climate classes in the Köppen-Geiger system are represented in Slovenia:
• C (moderate warm climate): average temperature of the coldest month (usually 
February in the mountains and January in the lowlands) above –3 °C, at least 
one month with an average temperature above 10 °C;
• D (snow-forest climate): average temperature of the coldest month below –3 
°C, average temperature of the warmest month (July in the lowlands, usually 
August in the mountains) above 10 °C;
• E (snow climate): average temperature of the warmest month below 10 °C.
D and E climate classes in Slovenia are limited to mountain areas, all of the rest of 
Slovenia is in class C.
By taking into account additional criteria, we can distinguish six basic climate 
types in Slovenia with greater spatial extent, and another six with smaller spatial re-
presentation. We added the following to the basic types (Figure 1):
• ET; mountain tundra climate:
- average temperature of the warmest month between 0 and 10 °C;
- this climate covers 0.2% of Slovenia, in the high mountain areas of the Julian 
and Kamnik-Savinja Alps at elevations of about 2200 m.
• Dfcw‘ (Dfbw‘, Cfcw‘); snow-forest humid climate with warm or cold su-
mmers and peak precipitation in one of the autumn months (moderate warm 
humid climate with cool summers and peak precipitation in autumn):
- there is no dry period – the average rainfall of the driest month in the warmer 
half of the year is over 40 mm;
- average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C, and at least four 
months with an average temperature above 10 °C (warm summer);
- one to four months with an average temperature above 10 °C, the coldest 
month above –3 °C (cold summer);
- the month with the most precipitation in autumn, with the least precipitation 
in winter;
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- this climate covers 5.1% of Slovenia, represented in the Julian Alps, the Ka-
rawanks and the Kamnik-Savinja Alps including mountain valleys, and outsi-
de the Alpine regions on the Menina planina Plateau, on some peaks of the 
western Prealps and on Mt. Snežnik and Trnovski gozd Plateau (Golak Peaks).
• Dfcx‘ (Dfbx‘, Cfcx‘); snow-forest humid climate with warm or cold summers 
and peak precipitation in one of the summer months or May (moderate warm 
humid climate with cold summers and peak precipitation in summer or May):
- as for Dfcw‘ (Dfbw‘, Cfcw‘), except that peak precipitation is in one of the 
summer months and in some places 
- in May, lowest amount of precipitation in winter;
- this climate covers 0.5% of Slovenia and is found on Pohorje, Košenjak, Stroj-
na and Uršlja Gora.
Climate types ET and Dfcw‘ and Dfcx‘ with associated types of smaller extent, whi-
ch taken together cover only 5.8% of the surface of Slovenia, can be grouped into a 
mosaic represented by a mountain climate based on versions of the Köppen-Geiger 
classification (e.g. Ahrens, 2005; Henderson-Sellers, 1999) which introduce a special 
class H for higher-elevation areas of our planet, where climate changes rapidly with 
altitude and the demarcation between climate types is difficult.
• Cfaw‘; moderate warm humid climate with hot summers and peak precipita-
tion in one of the autumn months:
- no dry period, average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C;
- peak precipitation in autumn, month with the least precipitation in winter, in 
some places summer (Cfas‘);
- this climate covers 2.8% Slovenia, found in Slovenian Istria, the northwestern 
part of the Karst, the Vipava Valley, the Gorizia Hills, and the Soča Valley as 
far as Kanal.
• Cfbw‘; moderate warm humid climate with warm summers and peak preci-
pitation in one of the autumn months:
- no dry period, average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C, at 
least four months with an average temperature above 10 °C;
- peak precipitation in autumn, month with the least precipitation in winter 
(rarely March), in some places in southern Slovenia also summer (Cfbs‘);
- this climate covers most of Slovenia (66.6 %) apart from mountain areas, lower-
-lying parts of regions near the Mediterranean and northeastern Slovenia.
• Cfbx‘; moderate warm humid climate with warm summers and peak precipi-
tation in one of the summer months or May:
- peak precipitation in summer (in some places in late spring, May), least pre-
cipitation in winter;
- this climate covers just under a quarter of Slovenia (24.8 %) and can be found 
in northeastern Slovenia east of Peca, Golte and Dobrovlje and north of the 
Sava Hills, Boč and Haloze.
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 1: Köppen-Geiger climatic classification of Slovenia for the period 1991–2020.
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3.2 Temperature regime
The classification of the Slovenian climate based on the Köppen criteria results in a 
picture that is too coarse-grained and does not adequately reflect all the special fea-
tures of the Slovenian climate. In order to further analyse the extensive area with Cfb 
climate, we have also considered the characteristics of the temperature regime based 
on January isotherms of 0 and 3 °C and July isotherms of 20 and 22 °C. Using the 
average annual temperature amplitude and the ratio between the average April 
and October temperatures, we wanted to demarcate the areas of Slovenia having 
continental features of the temperature regime from the areas where the influence of 
the sea is greater. Considering the range of the average annual temperature amplitude 
(between 16 and 22 °C), we can conclude that the temperature regime in Slovenia 
does not have distinct continental or marine features, but represents a transition zone. 
The lower-lying areas in the north, east and southeast of Slovenia, the low-lying Do-
lenjska Karst and the Ljubljana Basin have an average annual temperature amplitude 
of more than 20 °C and thus a moderate continental temperature regime. In terms of 
the highest average annual temperature amplitude (more than 21 °C), the lowlands in 
the northeast of Slovenia, the lower part of the Mežica and Mislinja valleys, and the 
Drava Valley between Dravograd and Radlje ob Drava stand out. The most marine 
features, if we exclude the hilly and mountainous areas, where the amplitude is lower 
due to the higher altitude (Kredarica, 15.4 °C; Rogla, 16.5 °C; Krvavec, 16.7 °C), are 
seen in slightly higher lying areas in the hinterland of the Gulf of Trieste, where the 
average annual temperature amplitude is less than 18 °C (Figure 2, Table 1). In most 
of Slovenia, the amplitude is between 18 and 20 °C.
That the lower-lying areas in the east of Slovenia and parts of the Ljubljana Basin 
have moderate features of a continental temperature regime can also be concluded 
from the higher average temperatures in April compared to October. In continental 
areas, the air warms up faster in spring (and cools down faster in autumn) compared 
to areas near the sea or under the greater influence of sea air masses, because the sea 
has a mitigating effect on the warming or cooling of the atmosphere. In the east of 
Slovenia, April temperatures are up to 0.8 °C higher than October temperatures, and 
in western and central Slovenia, October temperatures are higher than April ones 
by up to 2 °C, mostly in the mountains (Table 1, Figure 3). The colder spring in the 
mountains is also the result of weaker warming of the upper layers of the atmosphere 
compared to autumn.
The area of Slovenia that shows continental features of the temperature regime in 
terms of the average annual temperature amplitude (Figure 2, Table 1) overlaps well 
with the area that has higher temperatures in April than in October (Figure 3). The 
overlapping is strong in the lower-lying regions in the east of Slovenia, and somewhat 
less in the Ljubljana Basin.
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 2: Average annual temperature amplitude 1991–2020.
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Table 1: Difference between average April and October temperatures (D) and average 
annual temperature amplitude (A) in the period 1991–2020.
Meteorological station D (°C) A (°C) Meteorological station D (°C) A (°C)
Krvavec −2.7 16.7 Miklavž na Gorjancih −1.2 18.3
Jezersko −0.7 18.7 Trojane-Limovce −0.5 19.2
Planina pod Golico −1.3 17.9 Gornji Grad −0.3 19.1
Rateče −0.5 19.8 Malkovec 0.1 19.8
Kredarica −2.2 15.4 Airport J.P. Brnik 0.0 20.4
Rudno polje −2.3 18.1 Ljubljana-Bežigrad −0.1 20.8
Bohinjska Češnjica −0.8 19.4 Vrhnika −0.6 19.7
Vogel −2.2 17.1 Kranj 0.3 21.0
Zgornja Sorica −1.0 17.8 Lesce-airport 0.0 20.4
Krn −1.0 17.9 Ravne na Koroškem 0.6 22.0
Tolmin-Volče −0.4 19.2 Šmartno pri Sl. Gradcu 0.0 20.9
Vojsko −0.9 18.6 Velenje 0.1 20.1
Vedrijan −1.1 18.5 Celje-Medlog 0.1 20.2
Bilje −0.8 19.0 Slovenske Konjice 0.0 19.5
Podnanos −1.3 18.6 Črnomelj-Dobliče 0.3 20.4
Godnje −1.0 19.0 Metlika 0.4 20.4
Ilirska Bistrica −0.7 18.3 Novo mesto 0.5 20.4
Kubed −1.4 18.2 Cerklje-airport 0.4 20.9
Portorož-airport −1.5 18.4 Trebnje 0.1 20.3
Babno Polje −1.1 19.4 Bizeljsko 0.6 20.8
Kočevje −0.5 19.1 Rogaška Slatina 0.4 19.8
Nova vas-Bloke −1.1 19.2 Airport E.R. Maribor 0.3 21.0
Postojna −1.1 18.8 Polički vrh 0.6 21.0
Logatec −0.9 19.5 Jeruzalem 0.1 20.2
Litija −0.3 19.4 M. Sobota-Rakičan 0.8 21.1
Rogla −2.0 16.5 Ptuj 0.4 20.4
Sevno −0.2 19.4 Maribor-Vrbanski plato 0.3 20.3
Lisca −0.8 18.6 Lendava 0.7 21.2
Note: D > 0 – April warmer than October.
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 3: Marine or continental character of the temperature regime based on a 
comparison of average April and October temperatures (1991–2020).
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Figure 4: Mediterranean precipitation index (MI) in Slovenia (1991−2020).
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 5: Proportion of precipitation in the warmer half of the year (1991–2020).
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3.3 Precipitation regime
Along with the Köppen criteria for the spatial differentiation of the precipitation re-
gime in Slovenia, we also took into account the Mediterranean precipitation index 
(MI) and the ratio between the amount of precipitation in the warmer and colder hal-
ves of the year. These give a similar spatial picture. Northeastern Slovenia has the most 
continental features (the share of precipitation in the warmer half of the year is over 
60%, negative MI values, which means that peak summer precipitation is greater than 
that of autumn) (Figures 4 and 5). Towards the west and southwest, the proportion of 
precipitation in the warmer half of the year decreases, and the main peak precipitati-
on shifts to the autumn months.
Slovenia is also a transition zone between moderate Mediterranean (marine) and 
moderate continental features with respect to the precipitation regime. Western, so-
uthern and central Slovenia have moderate Mediterranean features of the precipitati-
on regime with a peak in the autumn months and the least rainfall in the second half 
of winter, including March, and July and August. The northeastern part, however, 
has moderate continental features with peak precipitation in summer and minimum 
precipitation in winter. The MI changes from positive to negative values going in this 
direction. It is highest in western Slovenia, where it is between 15 and 18 (Dražgoše 
17.5; Bovec 16.2; Vogel 15.7; Strunjan 15.4; Seča 15.2), and the lowest in the extre-
me northeast between –5 and –8 (Šentilj in the Slovenian Hills –5.4; Mačkovci –5.6; 
Cankova –6.1; Podgorje in the Slovenian Hills –6.2; Jeruzalem –6.9; Martinje –7.1). 
For Europe, for which Koppany and Unger (1992) calculated the MI for the period 
1901–1950, these values ranged between 22 and –16. The difference between the sha-
re of precipitation in the warmer and colder halves of the year between western and 
southwestern and northeastern Slovenia is also not extreme. The highest percentages 
of precipitation in the warmer half of the year in northern and northeastern Slovenia 
are mostly between 60 and 65% while the highest percentages in the colder half in the 
southern and southwestern parts of the country are between 51 and 57%.
The precipitation regime is highly variable from year to year and from period to 
period and we cannot rely on with certainty the peaks or minimums as determined 
by the averages. The average annual and seasonal variability of precipitation is betwe-
en 20 and 30%, and the usual monthly averages can be exceeded by even more than 
100% or (even in the wettest months on average) there may be virtually no precipita-
tion. The Mediterranean precipitation index enables the calculation of the theoretical 
boundary between moderate Mediterranean and moderate continental precipitati-
on regimes (MI = 0.0). According to data for the period 1961–1990, this boundary 
ran along the line Solčava–Ljubljana–Suha Krajina–Gorjanci (Ogrin, 1996), in the 
period 1971–2000 it moved east to the line Strojna-western Celje Basin-Suha Kraji-
na-Gorjanci (Ogrin, 2009), and for the period 1991–2020 it ran from Mežica along 
the Vitanje Lowlands to Slovenske Konjice and beneath under Boč and Haloze to 
the border with Croatia. This means that the area with peak precipitation in autumn 
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has expanded towards the east of Slovenia, and the area with peak precipitation in 
summer has shrunk significantly in the last 60 years. At the same time, the summer 
precipitation peak weakened in the northeast of Slovenia at the expense of an increase 
in autumn precipitation. It is also noticeable that autumn peak precipitation in the 
western parts of Slovenia mostly occurs in November or October, while towards the 
east and northeast it is more frequent in September or in some places in October, i.e. 
the autumn and summer peaks are becoming more and more equal. 
Table 2: Mediterranean precipitation index (MI) and the proportion of precipitation in the 
warmer half of the year (DT) at selected precipitation stations in Slovenia in the period 
1991–2020.
Precipitation station MI DT (%) Precipitation station MI DT (%)
Ambrož po Krvavcem 3.9 55 Brod v Podbočju 4.2 55
Zgornje Jezersko 7.2 52 Moravče 3.3 57
Planina pod Golico 7.2 54 Gornji Grad 5.7 54
Rateče 7.9 54 Airport J.P. Brnik 5.6 54
Kredarica 4.9 57 Ljubljana-Bežigrad 3.1 56
Zgornja Radovna 10.4 51 Vrhnika 7.5 50
Bohinjska Bistrica 13.3 48 Škofja loka 8.9 50
Vogel 15.7 46 Javorniški rovt 7.6 54
Zgornja Sorica 11.2 47 Črnomelj-Dobliče 7.9 52
Kneške Ravne 12.0 46 Metlika 5.9 55
Tolmin-Volče 11.1 47 Novo mesto 5.4 56
Vojsko 12.2 46 Cerklje-airport 3.4 58
Vedrijan 10.1 51 Mokronog 2.6 57
Bilje 11.9 50 Bizeljsko 3.0 55
Razdrto 9.5 48 Velenje 0.4 59
Godnje 11.2 48 Celje-Medlog 0.5 59
Ilirska Bistrica 13.7 46 Slovenske Konjice 0.6 60
Movraž 6.7 48 Rogaška Slatina 0.5 58
Portorož-airport 14.8 49 Ravne na Koroškem −3.2 63
Babno Polje 12.6 47 Šmartno pri Sl. Gradcu −2.3 62
Kočevje 7.4 52 Ribnica na Pohorju −2.6 61
Nova vas-Bloke 7.9 52 Airport E.R. Maribor −2.7 62
Planina-Rakek 11.6 47 Polički vrh −3.8 63
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Precipitation station MI DT (%) Precipitation station MI DT (%)
Logatec 10.8 47 Jeruzalem −6.9 61
Litija 4.3 57 M. Sobota-Rakičan −4.8 64
Malkovec 2.8 57 Ptuj −1.9 60
Sevno 3.6 56 Maribor-Vrbanski plato −1.7 62
Lisca 1.8 59 Lendava −1.8 60
3.4 Humidity of the climate
On average, about 1450 mm of precipitation falls in Slovenia annually, which makes it 
one of the wettest countries in Europe, but precipitation is spatially very unevenly di-
stributed. Most of it falls on the Alpine-Dinaric barrier, more than 2000 mm annually, 
and in the wettest part of the Julian Alps, more than 3200 mm. From the Alps and the 
High Dinaric Plateaus, precipitation decreases towards the southwest and northeast. 
Along the sea it is between 900 and 1000 mm (Strunjan 947 mm; Portorož Airport 
958 mm; Koper 989 mm), and in Prekmurje less than 850 mm (Kobilje 772 mm; Len-
dava 790 mm; Murska Sobota 812 mm; Cankova 830 mm).
Large regional differences in the wetness and humidity of the climate are therefore 
one of the most important factors in the climate classification of Slovenia. Spatial 
differences in climate humidity were determined using Lang’s rain factor. According 
to this indicator, the Alpine-Dinaric barrier has a perhumid climate. Slovenian Istria, 
northeastern Slovenia, the Krško-Brežice Plain with the lower Krka Valley and some 
smaller areas in the east of Slovenia have a semi-humid climate, while the rest of Slo-
venia has a humid climate (Figure 6).
Table 3: Lang’s rain factor (L) at selected meteorological stations in Slovenia in the period 
1991−2020.
Meteorological station L Meteorological station L
Krvavec 519 Miklavž na Gorjancih 130
Jezersko 276 Trojane-Limovce 136
Planina pod Golico 254 Gornji Grad 154
Rateče 220 Malkovec 97
Bovec-airport 236 Airport J.P. Brnik 136
Rudno polje 444 Ljubljana-Bežigrad 110
Bohinjska Češnjica 215 Vrhnika 144
Vogel 715 Kranj 125
Zgornja Sorica 258 Lesce-airport 135
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Meteorological station L Meteorological station L
Krn 299 Ravne na Koroškem 108
Tolmin-Volče 173 Šmartno pri Sl. Gradcu 126
Vojsko 342 Velenje 98
Vedrijan 104 Celje-Medlog 103
Bilje 106 Slovenske Konjice 89
Podnanos 115 Črnomelj-Dobliče 109
Godnje 111 Metlika 92
Ilirska Bistrica 133 Novo mesto 101
Kubed 101 Cerklje-airport 97
Portorož-airport 66 Trebnje 108
Babno Polje 230 Bizeljsko 87
Kočevje 158 Rogaška Slatina 92
Nova vas-Bloke 198 Airport E.R. Maribor 84
Postojna 195 Polički vrh 97
Logatec 203 Jeruzalem 72
Litija 109 Murska Sobota-Rakičan 73
Rogla 295 Ptuj 82
Sevno 114 Maribor-Vrbanski plato 89
Lisca 140 Lendava 66
3.5 Climate types in Slovenia for the period 1991−2020
Previous climate classifications (e.g. Kozjek et al., 2017; Melik, 1935; Ogrin, 1996; 
2009) highlight the fact that mountain, Mediterranean and continental climates come 
into contact and intermingle on the territory of Slovenia. Climatic contact and tran-
sition represent a challenge for climate classifications: the identified climate types are 
atypical as compared to true continental, Mediterranean or mountain climates. This 
is why we characterize them as “moderate” or add the prefix “sub”, or “peri” to the 
type (e.g. moderate continental, sub-Mediterranean, submontane, peri-Pannonian). 
In general, as we move away from the Alpine-Dinaric barrier towards the east and 
northeast of the country, continental climate characteristics become stronger, while 
towards the southwest Mediterranean climate characteristics are more in evidence, 
and with increasing elevation in the Alpine, pre-Alpine and Dinaric Karst regions, the 
climate takes on the characteristics of a mountain climate. The boundaries between 
types and subtypes of climates on maps must therefore be understood as transition 
zones, and not in the sense of sharp dividing lines.
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Figure 6: Humidity of the climate based on Lang’s rain factor (1991−2020).
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 7: Climate types in Slovenia 1991–2020.
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Taking into account the starting points and criteria presented in the previous secti-
ons, we distinguished four basic types of climate: moderate Mediterranean, moderate 
continental, mountain and submontane climate. In the second step, we divided these 
into nine subtypes: moderate Mediterranean into coastal and inland: moderate conti-
nental into moderate continental of northeastern, of eastern and southeastern, and of 
central Slovenia; mountain climate into higher mountain climate, lower mountain cli-
mate; and submontane into very humid and humid submontane climates (Figure 7).
Moderate Mediterranean climate
Due to the openness of the land towards the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean, a 
moderate Mediterranean climate occurs in the areas to the south and southwest of the 
Alpine-Dinaric barrier, which have the greatest number of clear days in Slovenia. Due 
to the influence of the sea, average temperatures are the highest in Slovenia, especi-
ally in autumn and winter. In the coldest month, on average, they do not drop below 
freezing, while in the warmest they are above 20 °C. The average annual temperature 
amplitude is less than 20 °C, as the influence of the sea mitigates the cold in winter and 
the heat in summer. The precipitation regime is moderate Mediterranean with peak 
precipitation in the autumn months. Snow cover is rare. 
Bora wind is frequent in the colder half of the year and jugo wind blows before the 
weather deteriorates, especially in the colder half of the year. The occurrence of local 
thermal winds during anticyclonic weather is also noteworthy: during the day the sea 
breeze (maestral) and at night the land breeze (burin) which is less pronounced than 
the sea breeze along the Slovenian coast. From the coast towards the Alpine-Dinaric 
barrier, temperatures decrease and precipitation increases, which is the basis for di-
viding the moderate Mediterranean climate into warmer and less humid coastal and 
slightly cooler and more humid inland. During the transition from winter to spring 
and in July and August, there is usually a drought, which is more pronounced in karst 
areas due to surface features.
Areas of Slovenia with a moderate Mediterranean climate are dominated by a cul-
tural landscape. The climate overlaps with the Littoral wine-growing region, and areas 
with a coastal climate, where January temperatures are above 3 °C and July tempera-
tures above 22 °C, overlap with the area of olive cultivation (olive-growing climate). 
As a result, the natural vegetation is greatly altered. The climatic conditions suit the 
heat-tolerant and drought-resistant deciduous forests typical of the Mediterranean 
fringes. The most widespread are moderately heat-loving and deciduous associati-
ons dominated by downy oak (Quercus pubescens), hop-hornbeam (Ostrya carpini-
folia) and flowering ash (Fraxinus ornus). The most common forest associations are 
the association of hop-hornbeam and downy oak (Ostryo-Quercetum pubescentis) 
and the association of hop-hornbeam and autumn moorgrass (Sesleria autumnalis-
-Ostryetum) (Repe, 2012). On warmer sites, they are joined by the oriental hornbeam 
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
(Carpinetum orientalis) and Montpellier maple (Acer monspessulanum). On the war-
mest sites in Slovenia (the Karst Rim, the southern slopes of Nanos), with warm soil 
conditions, fragments of evergreen maquis (Ostryo-Quercetum ilicis) are also preser-
ved, consisting of evergreen Mediterranean trees and shrubs, such as holm oak (Qu-
ercus ilex), green olive (Phillyrea latifolia), laurel (Laurus nobilis). Other heat-loving 
deciduous species also appear in between, e.g. Jersualem thorn (Paliurus spina-christi) 
and evergreen climbing plants, e.g. wild asparagus (Asparagus acutifolius) (Kaligarič, 
2004). Black pine (Pinus nigra) is anthropogenically present in this area, as a result of 
afforestation in the first half of the 20th century (Repe, 2020). There are more cultiva-
ted plants than true Mediterranean natural species: in addition to the olive tree, there 
are also fig trees, almond trees, pomegranate trees, etc.
Figure 8: Climograms for coastal (Portorož Airport) and inland (Ilirska Bistrica) moderate 
Mediterranean climate.
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Table 4: Basic characteristics of a moderate Mediterranean climate.
Moderate Mediterranean climate
- Average temperature of the coldest month above 0 °C
- Average temperature of the warmest month above 20 °C
- October warmer than April
- Average annual temperature amplitude below 20 °C
- Average annual amount of precipitation 900 to 1400 mm
- moderate Mediterranean precipitation regime (MI >10)
Coastal moderate Mediterranean climate 
(Cfaw‘ according to Köppen)
- Avg. temp. of the coldest month above 3 °C
- Avg. temp. of the warmest month above 22 
°C
- Percentage of precipitation in the colder half 
of the year 45 to 50%
- semi-humid climate (L < 99)
Inland moderate Mediterranean climate 
(Cfbw‘ according to Köppen)
- Avg. temp. of the coldest month between 0 
and 3 °C
- Avg. temp. of the warmest month between 
20 and 22 °C
- Percentage of precipitation in the colder half 
of the year generally above 50%
- Humid climate (L = 100 do 159)
Moderate continental climate
A moderate continental climate is found in lower-lying areas in northeastern, 
eastern, southeastern, and central Slovenia. It is the second warmest climate in Slo-
venia after the moderate Mediterranean climate, and is characterized by the greatest 
average annual temperature amplitude (more than 20 °C) and high summer maxi-
mum temperatures. It receives below-average annual precipitation (below 1400 
mm), most of which falls in the warmer half of the year. Northeastern Slovenia 
has the most pronounced continental climate features, where April is warmer than 
October (inland areas warm up faster in spring than areas influenced by the sea), re-
ceives the least precipitation (even under 1000 mm) and has a moderate continental 
precipitation regime. Lower-lying areas in the east and southeast of Slovenia, which 
are also open towards the Pannonian Plain, have similar temperature characteris-
tics, except that they receive more precipitation and have a moderate Mediterranean 
precipitation regime. The latter is also characteristic of the moderate continental 
climate of central Slovenia, which is even more humid due to its location near the 
Alpine-Dinaric barrier, and the greater influence of sea air masses is also evident as 
October is warmer than April.
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 9: A maquis patch in the wall above the Osp Valley (photo: D. Ogrin).
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Figure 10: Climograms for the moderate continental climate of northeastern (Murska 
Sobota), eastern and southeastern (Črnomelj-Dobliče), and central Slovenia (Kranj).
Table 5: Basic characteristics of a moderate continental climate.
Moderate continental climate
- Average annual temperature above 20 °C
- Average July temperature 20 to 22 °C
- Average annual temperature 9 to 12 °C
- Average annual amount of precipitation below 1400 mm
- Over 50% of the annual amount of precipitation occurs in the warmer half of the year
Northeastern Slovenia
(Cfbx’ according to Köppen)
- April warmer than October
- Annual amount of precipitation between 
750 and 1200 mm
- Over 60% of precipitation occurs in the 
warmer half of the year
- Moderate continental precipitation regime 
(MI = 0 to –10)
- Semi-humid to humid climate
Eastern and southeastern Slovenia
(Cfbw’ according to Köppen)
- April warmer than October
- Annual amount of precipitation 1000 to 
1400 mm
- 50 to 60% of the annual amount of precipi-
tation occurs in the warmer half of the year
- Moderate Mediterranean precipitation 
regime (MI = 0 do 5)
- Semi-humid to humid climate
Moderate continental climate of central Slovenia (Cfbw’ according to Köppen)
- October warmer than April
- Annual amount of precipitation 1200 to 1400 mm
- 50 to 60% of the annual amount of precipitation occurs in the warmer half of the year
- Moderate Mediterranean precipitation regime (MI = 0 to 10) 
- Humid climate (L = 100 do 159)
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Despite the higher proportion of precipitation in the warmer half of the year, su-
mmers in northeastern, eastern and southeastern Slovenia, and partly also in central 
Slovenia on gravel and sand deposits, are susceptible to drought due to the relatively 
low amount of precipitation and high temperatures (average July temperatures are 
above 20 °C). Freezes are common in winter, and cold days also occur (daily tempe-
ratures stay below freezing). Snow cover occurs in all areas of this climate type, about 
four weeks out of the year, but snowfall is much less compared to previous decades, 
and periods with snow cover are getting shorter. Spring frosts are relatively common, 
with lowlands, basins and valleys especially susceptible. Periods of summer heat are 
often punctuated by storms (including hail and high winds) that cause major damage 
to agriculture and buildings. Lowland areas in the eastern half of Slovenia are more 
exposed to storms. In particular, the lowlands of eastern and southeastern Slovenia, 
due to their low elevation, the openness to the Pannonian Basin, and their leeward 
location with respect to southwesterly winds (Bela Krajina, Krško-Brežiško polje), are 
often the areas of greatest heat in summer, where the highest daily temperatures can 
even exceed those in the Vipava Valley and along the coast.
Due to the favourable natural conditions, areas with a moderate continental cli-
mate have a predominantly cultural landscape; this is where the largest areas of ara-
ble land in Slovenia are located, which are often exposed to drought in summer. The 
moderate continental climate of northeastern, eastern and southeastern Slovenia (it 
could also be called a Pannonian climate) roughly overlaps with the Drava Valley 
and Lower Sava Valley wine-growing regions. Due to the more favourable local cli-
matic conditions, vineyards and orchards are mostly located in sun-exposed areas 
of the thermal belt. In the plains and valleys, where there are frequent temperature 
inversions, there are mainly crop fields and meadows. Larger basins such as Ljublja-
na and Celje and the lowlands (Mura Plain, Drava – Ptuj Plain) often have morning 
fog, which is most persistent in autumn and in the first half of winter. The lowlands 
are poorly ventilated and without wind energy potential and have lower air self-
-cleaning capacities, which increases air pollution especially in the colder half of 
the year (Ogrin, Vintar Mally, 2013; Strle et al., 2020). There are no constant strong 
winds in the lowlands; only in some places in the Savinja Valley and in the lowlands 
of the eastern half of the country is there a stronger southwesterly wind before the 
weather deteriorates, while an even less frequent Foehn wind can blow from the 
southern slopes of the Karawanks, the Kamnik Savinja Alps and the Pohorje Massif, 
which can also cause damage.
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Figure 11: The sun-exposed hills of the peri-Pannonian regions in the thermal belt are less 
susceptible to spring frosts, having more sun and lower air and soil humidity, which is why 
they offer favourable conditions for the growth of grapevines. The photo shows the vineyard 
landscape of Trška Gora near Novo Mesto (photo: D. Ogrin).
With respect to vegetation, the area with a moderate continental climate can be 
divided into three parts:
a) excessively humid flat areas directly next to water bodies (wet meadows) and 
areas with high levels of groundwater (riparian forest);
b) well-drained flat areas;
c) hills and foothills.
Humid lowland areas are characterized by moisture-loving forest vegetation with 
oak (Quercus robur), black and grey alder (Alnus glutinosa and A. incana), Europe-
an ash (Fraxinus excelsior), willows (e.g. white willow, Salix alba) and poplars (black 
and white, Populus nigra and P. alba). Common associations are black alder (Alnetum 
glutinosae) and white willow (Salicetum albae). Where water does not accumulate, 
the plains were once covered with oak (Quercus petraea) and European hornbeam 
(Carpinus betulus) forests. Since it is one of the best growing areas in Slovenia, today 
these forests have been almost completely cleared. The elevated parts are overgrown 
with deciduous trees. Above the plain, oak and hornbeam are quickly replaced by be-
ech (Fagus sylvatica), which becomes the dominant species particularly on the shaded 
slopes. On silicate rocks, beech most often grows together with chestnut (Castanea sa-
tiva, the acid-loving Castaneo sativae-Fagetum association), where silver birch (Betula 
pendula) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) are also mixed in, and blueberry (Vaccinium 
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
myrtilus) in the understorey. Beech associations thrive on carbonate rocks, e.g. with 
haquetia (Hacquetio-Fagetum) or dead nettle (Lamio orvalae-Fagetum), characteristic 
of the milder form of the continental climate. A heat-loving and drought-tolerant 
association of beech and hop-hornbeam (Ostryo-Fagetum) thrives on particularly su-
nny and above-average warm and dry slopes of limestone and dolomite (Marinček, 
Čarni, 2002; Repe, 2020). With climate change, it can be expected that the latter will 
be among those that will spread the most in the future (Kutnar, Kobler, 2014; Gregor-
čič et al., 2022).
Mountain climate
With altitude, the air temperature usually decreases, the amount of precipitation in-
creases, the duration and depth of the snow cover increases, there is more wind, the 
growing season shortens, etc. Therefore, one of the main characteristics of a mountain 
climate are the altitude climatic-vegetation zones, in Slovenia mainly the mounta-
in, sub-alpine and alpine zones (there is no real nival zone). The mountain climate 
of the Alps, Pohorje and the highest areas of the Western Pre-Alpine Hills and the 
High Dinaric Plateaus is the coldest and wettest in Slovenia (and among the wettest 
in Europe), with long-lasting and deep snow cover that in average winters exceeds 
150 cm. The average temperature of the coldest month is lower than –3 °C, and the 
annual precipitation mostly above 1600 mm. Western areas with a mountain climate 
are wetter (over 2500 mm of precipitation annually) and have peak precipitation in 
late autumn, while eastern areas receive less precipitation, and the wettest part of the 
year shifts to summer. The least precipitation occurs in winter. The highly dissected 
relief of mountain areas also engenders very diverse topoclimatic conditions with a 
great variety of microclimates. Temperature conditions can be extreme in mid-mo-
untain and high-mountain frost hollows, as temperatures there can be around 30 °C 
lower than in areas outside frost hollows at the same altitude (Dovečar et al.,. 2009; 
Ogrin, Ogrin, 2005; Ogrin, 2007; Ogrin et al., 2012; Ortar, 2011; Svetlin, 2020; Trošt, 
2008). In mountain areas, in addition to the greatest amount of precipitation, we also 
observe the greatest precipitation gradients. This is especially true of some Alpine 
valleys (Ogrin, Kozamernik 2018, 2020a, 2020b). Higher areas, especially ridges and 
peaks, are the areas most exposed to the wind in Slovenia, and towards the valleys 
the ventilation quickly weakens. The valley floors are, however, better ventilated than 
the plains and basins, because with anticylonic weather, daily thermal winds occur 
regularly, which increases the self-cleaning capacity of the atmosphere. In recent de-
cades, the extent of the mountain climate in Slovenia has been decreasing due to the 
warming of the atmosphere.
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Figure 12: Climogram for the climate of higher (Kredarica) and lower (Krvavec) mountain areas.
Table 6: Basic characteristics of a mountain climate.
Mountain climate
- Average temperature of the coldest month below –3 °C (January isotherm –3 °C at about 1530 m)
- October warmer than April
- Average annual temperature below 6 °C
- Average annual temperature amplitude less than18 °C
- Annual amount of precipitation more than1600 mm (Pohorje 1400 to 1600 mm)
- Perhumid climate (L >160)
Higher mountain climate
(ET according to Köppen)
- Avg. temp. of the warmest month below 10 
°C (July isotherm 10 °C at around 2200 m)
- Avg. annual temperature below 3 °C
- Annual amount of precipitation more than 
2000 mm
- Moderate Mediterranean precipitation regime 
(MI over 10)
Lower mountain climate
(Dfcw‘ (x‘), Dfbw‘ (x‘) and Cfcw‘ (x‘) according 
to Köppen)
- 1 to 4 months with an average monthly 
temperature above10 °C
- Avg. annual temp. 3 to 6 °C
- Average annual amount of precipitation 
1400 to 2000 mm
- moderate Mediterranean precipitation 
regime (MI >10); Pohorje moderate 
continental precipitation regime
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
A higher mountain climate is found along the highest ridges of the Julian and Ka-
mnik-Savinja Alps, where the average temperature of the warmest month does not 
exceed 10 °C. Thus, in the highest and coldest areas (above 2400 m, sub-snow zone), 
where the mean annual temperatures are around or slightly below 0 °C, the vegetation 
is sparse and includes typical representatives of alpine flowers such as pink cinquefoil 
(Potentilla nitida), alpine forget-me-not (Eritrichium nanum) and similar. Between 
about 2000 and 2400 m, mean annual temperatures are a degree or two higher than 
in the sub-snow zone, which is enough for the alpine zone to appear. Grasses and pe-
rennial cushion plants such a various sedges (e.g. evergreen, rusty, hardy), mountain 
aven (Dryas octopetala), etc. thrive here. Lower down, a zone of cool-loving shrubs 
begins to appear. The most common is the dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo), while 
underneath it grows the hairy alpenrose (Rhododendron hirsutum), rhododendron 
(Rhodothamnus chamaecistus) and heather (Erica carnea) (Blatnik and Repe, 2012). 
Between the alpine zone and the tree line is the subalpine zone, which includes areas 
mostly between 1500 and 2000 m. Average annual temperatures are approximately 
between 4 and 2 °C. In this zone, it is still too cold for stands of forest to appear. 
Scattered larches (Larix decidua) and spruces (Picea abies) as well as mountain ash 
(Sorbus aucuparia) begin to appear mixed in with the mountain pine. The number of 
tree species increases with decreasing altitude, until they transition into forest stands 
with lush undergrowth. In addition to the mountain pine, the alpine honeysuckle (Lo-
nicera alpigena), alpine clematis (Clematis alpina), spurge laurel (Daphne mezereum), 
etc. thrive in the shrub layer (Repe, 2017).
Lower down, below the tree line, where one to four months have an average tem-
perature above 10 °C, up to an altitude of about 1200 m, is a lower mountain clima-
te. This also extends to some mountain valleys and higher-lying karst depressions, 
where temperatures are similar to mountain ones mainly due to strong temperature 
inversions. With respect to natural vegetation, this area could be classified as a lower 
montane zone; spruce (Picea abies) is the predominant tree species, while beech (Fa-
gus sylvatica) is also common, while in lower parts of this area silver fir (Abies alba) 
and maples (e.g. the sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus) grow, and higher up larch 
(Larix decidua). Beech associations (with the three-leaved anemone (Anemono tri-
foliae-F.), large white buttercup (Ranunculo platanifoliae-F.), Homogyne sylvestris-F. 
etc.) and natural spruce forest associations (with buckthorn (Rhamno fallici), alpine 
plantain (Adenostylo glabrae-Piceetum)) etc. are common. On sun-exposed slopes be-
ech along with hop-hornbeam grows (Repe, 2019). In the past, in many places in the 
mountains a cultural landscape of mountain pastures could be seen up to the tree 
line, as the wet summers enable the lush growth of grass. In many places, this process 
anthropogenically lowered the natural tree line, which has been gradually rising in 
recent decades due to the abandonment of grazing as well as climate change.
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Figure 13: Upper tree line on the southern slope of Golica (photo: D. Ogrin).
Submontane climate
The foothills of the Alps and most of the pre-Alpine hills and the Dinaric karst plate-
aus and hills have a submontane climate. This is a transitional climate between mo-
untain and moderate continental on the eastern side, and mountain and moderate 
Mediterranean on the southwestern side of the Alpine-Dinaric barrier. Average Janu-
ary temperatures are mostly between 0 and –3 °C and July temperatures between 16 
and 20 °C. Due to the location in the area of the Alpine-Dinaric barrier, the climate is 
wetter than average, with the least precipitation in winter. Snow cover is less reliable 
than in mountain climates due to lower elevations and higher temperatures. Precipi-
tation and temperature conditions are the basis for dividing the submontane climate 
into very humid, found in the central, highest, coldest and wettest part of the barrier, 
and humid, found in the lower and slightly warmer areas on the continental and co-
astal sides of the barrier at the edge.
Due to the less favourable climatic, relief and soil conditions, areas of Slovenia with 
a submontane or lower mountain climate have a lot of forest. The entire area is notice-
ably dominated by beech forests, which on carbonate rocks typically form distinctive 
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
climate- and altitude-dependent belts. At the lowest altitudes, the already mentioned 
beech associations with haquetia and dead nettle occur. As the altitude increases, the 
proportion of conifers begins to increase, primarily fir (Abies alba), and higher still 
spruce (Picea abies). Thus, the high Dinaric karst plateaus are completely dominated 
by fir-beech forests (an association of beech and blue-eyed-Mary, Omphalodo-Fage-
tum), which gives way to an association with three-leaved anemone (Anemono trifoli-
ae-Fagetum) in the direction of the Alps. In frost hollows of the Dinaric Karst, beech 
is first replaced by spruce and then dwarf mountain pine. Beech forests with hop-hor-
nbeam (Ostryo-Fagetum) grow on sun-exposed slopes. On silicate rocks, acid-loving 
beech forests with chestnut and deer fern (Blechno-Fagetum) thrive where spruce, fir 
and red pine are abundantly mixed in (Gregorčič et al., 2022; Marinček, Čarni, 2002; 
Repe, 2020).
In areas with a submontane climate with favourable relief, soil and local climatic 
conditions, the natural landscape has been transformed by agriculture. In the lower 
elevated parts, there is a warm belt, which is conducive to growing fruit trees due to 
the lower risk of frost and less humid nights. Higher up, forests of the species alre-
ady mentioned predominate, interspersed with meadows, which the relatively humid 
summers suit. The high moisture of the Western Pre-Alpine Hills, especially in au-
tumn, is often reflected in extreme precipitation events, which can cause abundant 
torrential floods, and less destructive karst flooding in karst poljes. In Dinaric Karst 
areas in this type of climate, pronounced temperature inversions occur on the karst 
poljes, depressions. and other depressed landforms. For example, on clear mornings, 
the karst poljes often become true frost hollows, and the settlements in these places 
are the coldest populated areas in Slovenia (e.g. Babno Polje, Rakitna, Retje, Travnik) 
(Ogrin et al., 2006).
The occurrence of temperature inversions in populated karst poljes and depressi-
ons is also associated with the low self-cleaning capabilities of the air and increased 
pollution as a result of local emissions from households and traffic, especially in the 
colder half of the year (Glojek et al., 2018; 2020; 2022). Higher areas with this type of 
climate are moderately ventilated, but the lowlands lack any pronounced winds, with 
the exception of valleys in Alpine and pre-Alpine areas, where daily thermals occur 
with anticyclonal weather (katabatic and anabatic wind).
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Figure 14: Climogram for very humid (Babno Polje) and humid (Lisca) submontane climate.
Table 7: Basic characteristics of a submontane climate.
Submontane climate (Cfbw’ and Cfbx’ according to Köppen)
- Average January temperature 0 to –3 °C, average July temperature 16 to 20 °C, average annu-
al temperature 6 to 9 °C
- Average annual temperature amplitude 18 to 20 °C
- October warmer than April
- Annual amount of precipitation more than 1400 mm
- Moderate Mediterranean precipitation regime (except for Pohorje and Kozjak with Košen-
jak)
Very humid submontane climate
- Perhumid climate (L >160)
Humid submontaneclimate
- Humid climate (L = 100 to 159)
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Figure 15: A high amount of precipitation falls in mountain areas, including in Bohinj. The 
umbrella is therefore one of the symbols of these places (photo: D. Ogrin).
4 DISCUSSION
The climate classification of Slovenia for the period 1991–2020 is partly based on 
different criteria than all the previous ones, so a direct comparison with previous 
classifications is not possible. Although it partially preserves the naming of certain 
climate types, e.g. moderate continental climate, climate of lower and higher mounta-
ins, coastal and inland moderate Mediterranean climate, the criteria differ from past 
studies, which is a consequence of the general warming of the atmosphere and climate 
change. At the same time, it also eliminates certain climate types (e.g. the moderate 
continental climate of western and southern Slovenia and the climate of the lower 
mountains and intervening basins and valleys of northern Slovenia) and introduces 
new ones. The method on which the classification is based is also not comparable 
to climate classifications in neighbouring countries, as its purpose is to identify the 
climatic types of Slovenia by describing their characteristics and finding differences 
and similarities between Slovenian regions. Four large geographical units come to-
gether on the territory of Slovenia (Ogrin, Plut, 2009), which in turn leads to the great 
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geographical diversity of Slovenian landscapes; this is also reflected in high abiotic 
diversity (geodiversity), in which climate types can also be included. Climate types are 
the result of established weather processes and their properties, which are the result 
of the action of other abiotic and biotic factors (geological composition, relief, water 
bodies, vegetation) and at the same time also influence and shape them.
The largest share of Slovenian territory is in the submontane climate type (46.4%), 
followed by moderate continental (40%), moderate Mediterranean (7.1%) and mou-
ntain climate (6.5%). The dominance of the submontane climate overlaps in large de-
gree with the Pre-Alpine and Dinaric Karst regions, with the exception of the Ljubljana 
Basin and the lower parts of the Dinaric Karst regions. At the same time, it indicates 
the transition of climatic characteristics between mountain, moderate Mediterranean 
and moderate continental areas. The second most dominant climate type, the moderate 
continental climate, also indicates a transition between the mountain and submontane 
areas of Slovenia and the distinctly continental areas east of it. This climate type is also 
present in Croatia (Zaninović et al., 2008), in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and..., 
2023) and in Serbia (Republički hidrometeorološki..., 2023). The moderate Mediterra-
nean climate is the result of a transition between the Mediterranean regions south of 
Slovenia and the regions in its interior. An understandable consequence of the marked 
transitional nature of Slovenia’s climate is also seen in the fact that the mountain climate, 
which is not a transitional type, covers the smallest area of the climate types.
With regard to subtypes, the largest share of Slovenia (30%) has a very humid submo-
ntane climate. It is the only subtype that covers more than 20% of the area. It is followed 
by the moderate continental climate of northeastern Slovenia (19%) and the humid sub-
montane climate (17%). More than 10% of the territory of Slovenia has the moderate 
continental climate of eastern and southeastern Slovenia (14%). Less than 10% has the 
moderate continental climate of central Slovenia (7%), either mountain (6.5 and 0.5%) or 
moderate Mediterranean (4.7 and 2.7%) subtypes of climate, respectively (Table 8). The 
smallest share has a higher mountain climate, which occupies only 0.5% of the surface 
of Slovenia, coinciding roughly with the territory above an elevation of about 2200 m.
With respect to population density by climate subtypes and types, the moderate 
continental type greatly stands out: almost three-quarters of the population of Slovenia 
(74.6%) live in areas with this climate type. Within this type, the moderate continen-
tal climate of central Slovenia is most prominent, where 31% of the population live (a 
density of 421 inhabitants/km2). A little over one-sixth (16.1%) of the population lives 
in areas with a submontane climate, and a little over a tenth (9.5%) in areas with a mo-
derate Mediterranean climate, of which only a little under 3% live in the areas with the 
inland subtype. The contact of sea and land and the attractive climate of the coastal zone 
are the reason for the second highest population density among the climatic subtypes 
in Slovenia, which amounts to 277 inhabitants/km2. The area with a mountain climate 
area is practically devoid of population, as only 1‰ of Slovenia’s population live here, 
and there are no inhabitants in areas with a higher mountain climate.
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
Table 8: Spatial and demographic representation of climate types in Slovenia.
Climate type Average
el. (m)
Area 
(km2)
Share of 
area (%)
No. of 
inhabitants
Share of 
pop.
Pop. 
density
(inh./
km2)
Moderate continental 327 8111 40.0 1,516,291 74.4 187
Moderate continental
of northeastern Slovenia
311 3824 18.9 511,722 25.1 134
Moderate continental 
of eastern and 
southeastern Slovenia
285 2786 13.7 372,479 18.3 134
Moderate continental of 
central Slovenia
384 1501 7.4 632,090 31 421
Moderate 
Mediterranean
245 1441 7.1 193,194 9.4 134
Coastal moderate 
Mediterranean
123 488 2.4 134,973 6.6 277
Inland moderate 
Mediterranean
367 953 4.7 58,221 2.9 61
Mountain climate 1734 1314 6.5 2516 0.1 1.9
Higher mountain 2096 102 0.5 0 0 0
Lower mountain 1372 1212 6.0 2516 0.1 2
Submontane climate 635 9404 46.4 327,114 16.1 35
Very humid 
submontane
788 6015 29.7 168,537 8.3 28
Humid submontane 517 3389 16.7 158,577 7.8 47
Demographic data are from 2016 (SURS, 2016).
5 CONCLUSION
From the 1930s to the end of the century, geographers prepared six climate classificati-
ons for the area of Slovenia. These have been methodologically improved and updated 
and also covered other time periods, but the trend of global warming was not taken 
into account. In 2009, Ogrin’s classification was updated based on data for the period 
1971–2000 (Ogrin, 2009), which preserved the criteria of the previous classification (D. 
Ogrin, 1996). Global warming is already reflected in this classification, as for example 
the spread of the moderate Mediterranean climate towards the interior of Slovenia, the 
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shift of the climate of lower mountains to higher altitudes, the mitigation of the con-
tinental temperature regime due to the rise in winter temperatures, and in the case of 
precipitation, the shift of a moderate Mediterranean precipitation regime towards the 
east of the country. In 2017, a climate classification for the period 1981–2010 was pre-
pared by meteorologists (Kozjek et al., 2017) using factor analysis and cluster analysis, 
and it was updated by calculating the measures of variability of the most important 
climatic elements for the period 1961–2011. In our research, we prepared a revised 
climate classification based on Ogrin’s earlier classification that includes the last com-
pleted 30-year reference period (1991–2020), and methodologically improved it. The 
improved methodology, compared to Ogrin’s previous classification, takes into account 
Lang’s precipitation factor in describing humidity conditions, we have adapted Köppen’s 
criteria of the precipitation regime and the Mediterranean index of precipitation, and 
we have also included differences in humidity between the warmer and colder halves of 
the year. The classification is also based on a higher density of point data, on data in a 
kilometre grid and more objective spatial interpolation.
More recent data reflect the current climate conditions resulting from climate 
change, which is manifested in positive temperature deviations in certain areas from 
the values that we have been used to. Changes are also evident in some other criteria, 
e.g. in terms of annual temperature amplitudes and the Mediterranean index. It turns 
out that the new classification cannot be based only on the expansion or contraction 
of existing climate types, but it is also necessary to introduce a new climate type, and 
some established climate types have disappeared. Greater spatial density of input data 
and more objective spatial interpolation also enable more precise demarcation of cli-
mate types, which, even after a basic generalization, still appear in less regular or more 
complex spatial forms (polygons). The main modifiers of climate and climate types 
in Slovenia remain altitude, relief and distance from the Adriatic Sea; geographical 
location in relation to the most frequent winds must also be considered.
Our research also confirmed the strongly transitional character of Slovenia’s clima-
te, as well as the high climatic variety, which is the result of the variability of the main 
climate modifiers. With the exception of the mountain climate, all climate types in 
Slovenia are transitional climate types; the area of the mountain climate covers only 
6.5% of Slovenia‘s territory and is inhabited by only 1‰ of the population. The most 
spatially extensive climate type is the submontane climate, which covers 46% of Slo-
venia, and the most populated area is the moderate continental climate (75% of the 
population, 421 inhabitants/km2), which prevails in the largest and thus most densely 
populated lowlands of inner Slovenia. In terms of population density, the area covered 
by the coastal moderate Mediterranean climate stands out (277 preb./km2), more a 
result of the proximity of the sea than the favourable climate.
In our research we analysed the climate conditions for the last 30-year reference peri-
od, which provides the basis for a new interpretation of climate conditions in Slovenia, 
for which we must be aware that the dynamics of climate change dictate the adaptation 
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Climate classification of Slovenia based on data from the period 1991–2020
of climate classifications faster than was necessary throughout most of the 20th century. 
Although the purpose of our research was not to compare the climate types of older 
classifications with the current ones, by analysing and processing the data of the last 
reference period, we obtained a good basis for the preparation of such studies.
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank Renato Bertalanič from the Ministry of the Environment 
and Spatial Planning, ARSO, for his selfless help in preparing and obtaining climate data 
for the period 1991–2020.
The research was partly carried out within the framework of the research program 
Sustainable regional development of Slovenia (P6–0229), which is co-financed by Slove-
nian Research and Innovation Agency. 
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