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THE ACUTE EFFECT OF MENTAL FATIGUE ON STRENGTH 
ENDURANCE IN YOUNG KICKBOXERS
Esra KÜRKCÜ AKGÖNÜL1, Gökmen ÖZEN2
1Dokuz Eylul University, Physical Education and Sport, Izmir, Türkiye
2 Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Physical Education and Sport, Çanakkale, 
Türkiye 
Corresponding Author:
Gökmen ÖZEN
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Physical Education and Sport, Çanakkale, 
Türkiye
Phone: +905056466329
E-mail: gokmenozen44@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to examine the acute effects of Mental Fatigue (MF) on 
strength endurance in well-trained young kickboxers. A total of 17 female/male athletes 
(age: 15.76±1.44 years; height: 167.06±8.63 cm; body weight: 62.03±10.63 kg) par-
ticipated. The Repeated Measurement Design was used. Accordingly, the participants 
had 3 sessions; pre-preparation, control, and mental fatigue. In the pre-preparation 
session, demographic information and one repetition maximum (1RM) for bench press 
(BP) and squat (SQ) exercises were taken. The athletes’ strength endurance was perfor-
med until 60% of 1RM exhaustion; the number of repetitions (NOR) and movement time 
(MT) were recorded. In the MF session, the participants were subjected to a 30-minute 
Stroop task before the strength test. In order to determine the differences in NOR and 
MT between the sessions and the differences in measurements according to gender, 
the Paired sample t-test was used. The presence of MF significantly reduced SQ-NOR 
by 34.5%, SQ-MT by 36.88%, BP-NOR by 22.71%, and BP-MT by 28.27% (p<0.05). 
Based on gender, MF had a significant negative effect on SQ-NOR, SQ-MT, and BP-MT 
in women and men and on BP-NOR only in women athletes (p<0.05). As a result of 
the research, 30-min MF application negatively affects the lower and upper extremity 
strength endurance performance in young kickboxers. In this respect, young kickboxers 
should avoid activities that will cause mental fatigue such as using digital screens or 
Original scientific article DOI: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2024.472
received: 2024-10-28 UDC: 796.012.12:796.835
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solving questions or puzzles for social media purposes for 30 min or more before train-
ing and competition, which will prevent possible muscular performance loss.
Keywords: endurance, kickboxing, mental fatigue, strength, young athlete
AKUTNI UČINEK DUŠEVNE UTRUJENOSTI NA 
VZDRŽLJIVOST MOČI PRI MLADIH KIKBOKSERJIH
IZVLEČEK
Študija je bila izvedena zaradi proučitve akutnih učinkov mentalne utrujenosti (MF) 
na vzdržljivost moči pri dobro treniranih mladih kikbokserjih. Sodelovalo je 17 šport-
nic in športnikov (starost: 15,76 ± 1,44 leta; višina: 167,06 ± 8,63 cm; telesna teža: 
62,03 ± 10,63 kg). Uporabljena je bila metoda ponovljenih meritev. V skladu s tem so 
udeleženci opravili tri treninge: predpripravo, kontrolo in psihično utrujenost. V pre-
dpripravi so bili zbrani demografski podatki in največja mogoča hitrost ene ponovitve 
(1RM) pri vajah z dvigom na klop (BP) in sklece (SQ). Športniki so vzdržljivost moči 
izvajali do 60-odstotne izčrpanosti 1RM, beležili so število ponovitev (NOR) in čas gi-
banja (MT). V seji MF so udeleženci pred testom moči opravili 30-minutno Stroopovo 
nalogo. Za ugotavljanje razlik v NOR in MT med sejami in razlik v meritvah glede na 
spol je bil uporabljen t-test za parne vzorce. Uporaba MF je pomembno zmanjšala 
SQ-NOR za 34,5 %, SQ-MT za 36,88 %, BP-NOR za 22,71 % in BP-MT za 28,27 % 
(p<0,05). Glede na spol je MF pomembno negativno vplivala na SQ-NOR, SQ-MT in 
BP-MT pri ženskah in moških in na BP-NOR samo pri športnicah (p<0,05). Rezultat 
raziskave je, da 30-minutna uporaba MF negativno vpliva na vzdržljivostno zmoglji-
vost moči spodnjih in zgornjih okončin pri mladih kikbokserjih. V zvezi s tem se morajo 
mladi kikbokserji 30 minut ali več pred treningom in tekmovanjem izogibati dejavnos-
tim, ki povzročajo duševno utrujenost, kot so uporaba digitalnih zaslonov ali reševanje 
vprašanj ali ugank v okviru družbenih omrežij, kar prepreči morebitno izgubo mišične 
zmogljivosti.
Ključne besede: vzdržljivost, kikboksing, psihična utrujenost, moč, mladi športnik
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INTRODUCTION
Mental Fatigue (MF), a psychobiological condition, occurs due to prolon-
ged intense cognitive activities with behavioral and physiological symptoms 
(Job & Dalziel, 2000); it causes a lack of energy (Boksem & Tops, 2008) and 
decreased motivation (Boksem, Meijman, & Lorist, 2006). MF can also al-
ter brain activity (Wascher et al., 2014; Cook, O’Connor, Lange, & Steffener, 
2007; Hopstaken, van der Linden, Bakker, & Kompier, 2015). Therefore, MF 
negatively affects cognitive functioning and performance (Marcora, Staiano 
& Manning, 2009; Möckel, Beste, & Wascher, 2015; Wascher et al., 2014). 
Although the factors affecting performance in sports vary for each branch, 
they can be generally divided into three categories: physical, cognitive, and 
psychological. Although performance can be maintained simultaneously with 
these factors during exercise, athletes struggle separately with each factor that 
will negatively affect their performance (Aras, Yiğit, Kayam, Arslan, & Akça, 
2020). With the long duration of this struggle, it can be said that sporting acti-
vities cause both physical and MF in the body. Sievertsen, Gino, and Piovesan 
(2016) found that training activities reduce cognitive test performance by 0.9% 
for each hour of the day; additionally, they reported that a 20-30-min break 
increased it by 1.7%. According to the literature, it can be said that the length 
of educational activities at school, the frequency of breaks, and the length of 
breaks are all related to MF. Sports competitions, intense physical training, and 
the stress of the intense exam period can cause various psychological stresses 
such as the need to focus for a long time, the need to maintain the level of per-
ception, and difficulty making decisions under the pressure of the opponent, as 
well as physical strain in athletes (Kızıltoprak, 2019). Combat sports such as 
kickboxing especially require superior attention and concentration, so the co-
gnitive robustness and readiness of athletes can directly affect performance ma-
nagement. In addition, if the athlete is at an elite-level status, it is thought that 
mental fatigue may cause a decrease in the maximum performance (Knicker, 
Renshaw, Oldham, & Cairns, 2011).
Fatigue is not only caused by the neuromuscular system (Van Cutsem, 
De Pauw, Marcora, Meeusen & Roelands, 2017a), but also by mental causes 
(Sharon & Denise, 2003). Therefore, the concept of fatigue can be defined 
as physical fatigue when it affects the strength capacity of the muscle after a 
physical task and MF when it increases the level of burnout after performing 
a cognitive task for a certain period of time. Although physical fatigue and 
MF may seem different, they are mechanisms that affect each other and any 
disruption in the mechanism may affect the effort spent on contraction and the 
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perceived level of difficulty (Chaudhuri & Behan, 2004). In this respect, in 
order to ensure continuity in strength, athletes should be able to cope with both 
MF and physical fatigue.
It is noteworthy that there are few MF studies in the literature covering 
the effect on sportive performance, and when the studies are examined, it can 
be seen that prolonged cognitive efforts have a negative effect on attention, 
movement tracking, and cognitive control (Boksem & Tops, 2008). In addi-
tion, scientific research reported that the level of MF is directly proportional 
to the duration of the cognitive task performed and it can be said that athletes 
who are exposed to cognitive tasks for a long time have more MF. The relati-
onship between MF and athletic performance was first mentioned by Angelo 
Mosso in 1891, who reported that MF decreases muscle strength (Giulio et al., 
2006). During some mental tests (Stroop, etc.), the anterior supplementary mo-
tor area and anterior cingulate cortex (ASC) were found to be activated in the 
brain (Mostofsky & Simmonds, 2008); activation of these areas was associated 
with the degree of rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (De Morree, Klein, & 
Marcora, 2012). Therefore, MF is considered one of the important determinants 
of performance in sports and exercise. 
Several tests in literature, such as time-clamped self-paced running and 
cycling protocols and the yo-yo intermittent recovery test, have shown that MF 
reduces endurance performance. These tests can be characterized by an increa-
se in the time to completion, a decrease in self-selected power output/speed, or 
a decrease in the time to exhaustion (Van Cutsem, Marcora, De Pauw, Bailey, 
Meeusen & Roelands, 2017b). In studies on the effect of MF on athletic perfor-
mance, it has been reported that MF negatively affects endurance performance; 
high-level athletes are more resistant to MF (Martin et al., 2016). Although dif-
ferent results are obtained in the literature depending on the level of the athlete, 
all the results show that MF causes more performance decline in recreational 
athletes. Although these results show that competitive athletes are less affected 
by MF, considering that success at this level is achieved based on very small 
differences, it is a significant possibility that the stress of athletes who train at a 
high level may cause MF, which could negatively affect performance (Russell, 
Jenkins, Smith, Halson, & Kelly, 2019). 
Kickboxing (KBX) is a sport discipline that includes both punching and 
kicking movements and their combinations (Cynarski & Zieminski, 2010). 
KBX athletes need the highest level of strength ability among the motoric cha-
racteristics. Strength is an important motoric feature in sportive performance 
in all branches (Atıs, Yerlikaya, Can, & Atlı, 2023) and the long duration of 
competitions in KBX also requires endurance ability. In order for the athlete to 
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be superior to his/her opponent, superior strength and endurance are required; 
at the same time, it can be said that he/she should have superior mental perfor-
mance in order to react to the punches and kicks from the opponent at the right 
moment. Practices related to this are an important element in the physical and 
mental development of the athlete and can be effective in building strength and 
defense stability. In addition, athletes must have a high level of endurance, both 
physically and mentally.
Recently, MF has become a popular topic and this study was planned be-
cause of the lack of studies on this concept and the results on the effect of this 
concept on performance in strength and combat sports. It is also a matter of 
interest how much the performances of elite level KBX athletes are affected by 
the MF that may occur due to the stress experienced in daily life, social life, 
educational life, and as a result of continuous training. Therefore, the aim of the 
study was to investigate the effect of MF on lower and upper extremity strength 
endurance in elite-level young kickboxing athletes. 
METHOD
Study Design and Participants
Licensed athletes who have been training regularly for 5 days a week for 
at least two years, aged 14-18, 9 females and 8 males totaling 17 kickboxing 
athletes (age: 15.76 ± 1.44 years; height: 167.06 ± 8.63 cm; body weight: 62.03 
± 10.63 kg) were included in this study. Participants who were on regular medi-
cation, had a health problem in the last 6 months, or were injured were excluded 
from the study. Their parents read and signed the informed consent form on 
behalf of all the participants. The tests performed in the sessions were con-
ducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and 
permission was obtained from the Çanakkale University School of Graduate 
Studies Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee (09.05.2024 date 
and 07/37 number). The participants were instructed to avoid caffeine, alcohol 
consumption, and high-intensity exercise in the 24 hours before the tests. The 
use of sports supplements was restricted during the tests. Descriptive statistics 
of the participants’ body weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) data are 
presented in Table 1.
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the physical properties data of the participants
Variables N Mean Sd Min Max
Age (year) 17 15.76 1.44 14.00 18.00
Height (cm) 17 167.06 8.63 155.00 185.00
Body weight (kg) 17 62.02 10.63 44.00 89.00
BMI (kg/m2) 17 22.10 2.32 17.85 26.49
Sd: Standard deviation, Min: Minimum; Max: Maximum
Procedures
In the study, which used a control group experimental research design, the 
participants were tested in the same order during the experimental tests (Control 
and Mental Fatigue sessions). In the study, the protocols were performed in the 
same way in all sessions and the tests were carried out between 16.00 and 19.00 
in the evening, during the athletes’ usual training hours. A total of three sessi-
ons were carried out: Preparation (PRE), Control (CON), and Mental Fatigue 
(MF). Three-day wash-out periods was given between the sessions. In all ses-
sions, general warm-up, testing, and cool-down were performed respectively. 
A bench press (BP) test was used to assess the upper body strength and a squat 
(SQ) test was used to assess the lower body strength. During the sessions, 10 
min rest was given between the upper and lower body strength tests. In the 
PRE session, demographic information was obtained, body weight and height 
measurements were taken, the Stroop test was performed and the 1RM values 
of the participants were determined. In the CON session, the total number of 
repetitions (NOR) and the movement time (MT) in seconds were recorded until 
the participants were exhausted at 60% of the 1RM value. In the MF session, 
the NOR and MT of the participants at 60% of the 1RM BP-SQ value were re-
corded after a 30-min Stroop test. The athletes were required to follow the same 
dietary regime for 24 hours before each test day and to avoid caffeine, alcohol 
consumption and vigorous exercise.
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Figure 1. Application Flow Chart
One-repetition Maximum (1RM) Test
After requesting the demographic information of the participants and recor-
ding their body height and weight, the 1RM test was performed to determine 
the maximal weight they could lift in one repetition in order to determine the 
weights to be used in the strength assessments. In the tests performed separately 
for BP and SQ movements, the specified protocol was followed: 
The 1RM test is recognized as the gold standard for assessing muscle 
strength under non-laboratory conditions (Levinger et al., 2009). The initial 
warm-up for the strength endurance test was performed as 8-10 repetitions at 
50% of the 1RM determined in the preparation phase, followed by 3-5 repeti-
tions at 75% of the 1RM. Participants then completed one repetition at 95% of 
the 1RM with a constant movement tempo of 3s eccentric / 3s concentric. After 
each trial, the weight was increased by 2.5-10 kg until the 1RM was reached, 
depending on whether the participants successfully lifted the weight. 5-min rest 
intervals were adopted between the 1RM strength trials to recover well.  
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Strength Endurance Test
In the CON and MF sessions, a strength endurance test was performed to 
assess the strength endurance of the participants. The athletes first performed a 
general warm-up at a heart rate of 130 for 5 min, followed by a special warm-
-up with 15 repetitions at 20%, 10 repetitions at 40%, 5 repetitions at 60%, 
and 3 repetitions at 80% of the 1RM at a movement tempo of 3s eccentric / 3s 
concentric. The concentric phase was performed at the highest possible speed 
in each repetition (Wilk, Golas, Krzysztofik, Nawrocka, & Zajac, 2019). All the 
repetitions were performed without jumping, concentric, and without pausing. 
During all the sessions, the following parameters were recorded:
1. Number of repetitions of Squat (SQ-NOR)
2. Movement time of Squat (SQ-MT)
3. Number of repetitions of Bench Press (BP-NOR)
4. Movement time of Bench Press (BP-MT)
Mental Fatigue Test (Stroop Test)
The Stroop test is a type of neuro-psychological test that evaluates the func-
tion of the prefrontal region of the brain (Stroop, 1935). The Stroop test consists 
of three different parts: control, congruent, and incongruent trials. The Stroop 
task was assessed using the Inquisit Lab 6 program. Participants sitting in front 
of the computer were asked to press the “D”, “F”, “J”, or “K” buttons, which 
were color-matched and written as a note on the screen, in order to give the 
fastest possible response. The word that appears on the computer screen is in 
color and states the name of four basic colors; blue, red, yellow, and green; 
this has to be answered correctly and as soon as possible with the help of the 
pre-determined keys. The Stroop test included incongruent trials, in which a 
colored word image was presented in a different color than that of the word 
(e.g., the word “red” was shown in black), congruent trials, in which words 
were presented printed in the same ink color as that of the word (e.g., the word 
“red” was shown in red), and control trials consisting of colored shapes. In this 
task, stimuli did not disappear from the screen until a response was made and 
a 500 ms interval was given between one stimulus and the next. When the par-
ticipants answered correctly, the stimuli disappeared and a new stimulus appe-
ared; however, when participants answered incorrectly, an “X” mark appeared 
on the screen and was immediately followed by a new stimulus (Faria, Frois, 
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Fortes, Bertola, & Albuquerque, 2024). If the word does not match the color, 
the time to answer is much longer than in the normal situation. The total time, 
reaction time, and error rates were recorded after 30 minutes of testing. For an 
acceptable response, responses given within 200 and 2000 ms after stimulus 
presentation were considered correct. Responses that were not within the time 
interval and responses given by pressing the wrong color button were conside-
red incorrect.
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed in SPSS 25 and a Paired Sample t-test with 
Bonferroni corrected was used to compare the number of repetitions and move-
ment time values between the trials. The normality of the data was tested using 
the Skewness-Kurtosis test and the data was found to be in a normal distributi-
on (±1.5). The significance level was accepted as p<0.05.
RESULTS
Since the Skewness-Kurtosis values of the BP and SQ test results and the 
MF test total time and reaction times were between -1.5/+1.5, it was determined 
that the data was normally distributed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Descriptive 
statistics of the demographic information of the participants are presented in 
Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the demographic information of the participants
Variables Categories N f (%) Variables Categories N f (%)
Gender
Female 9 52.9
Coach Type
Enthusiastic/
Job-maker 14 82.4
Male 8 47.1 Tame/Good-natured 3 17.6
Sports age
0-1 year 4 23.5
Branches
K1 8 47.1
2-4 year 8 47.1 Low Kick 5 29.4
≥5 year 5 29.4 Full Contact 4 23.5
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Figure 2. Reaction time of participants during the Stroop test
Figure 3. Correct rates of participants during the Stroop test
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The data indicates that 52.9% of the participants were female. 76.5% of 
them had a sports age of 2 years or more. 47.1% of them fought in the K1 
branch, 29.4% in the low kick branch, and 23.5% in the full contact branch.
The reaction times and correct rates demonstrated by the participants in the 
MF session are presented below.
The statistical data on the participants’ strength endurance number of repe-
titions (NOR) and movement time (MT) measured for SQ and BP in the CON 
and MF sessions are presented in the figure and table below.
According to the data, it was determined that the presence of MF had a si-
gnificant effect on SQ-NOR with a 34.5% decrease, on SQ-MT with 36.88%, 
on BP-NOR with 22.71% and on BP-MT with 28.27% in young kickboxers 
(p<0.05).
The statistical data on the mean number of repetitions of strength endurance 
(NOR) and movement time (MT) measured for SQ and BP in the CON and MF 
sessions of the participants, according to gender are presented in the figure and 
table below.
Figure 4. Difference between mean Squat (SQ) and Bench Press (BP) Number 
of Repetitions (NOR) and Movement Time (MT) in CON and MF Session
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Table 3. Paired sample t-test results for the mean strength endurance measured 
for SQ and BP in CON and MF sessions
Variable Session N Mean Sd % t p
SQ-NOR (rep)
CON 17 46.53 18.38
34.5 3.661 0.002*
MF 17 30.47 10.53
 SQ-MT (s)
CON 17 101.41 29.26
36.88 4.649 0.000*
MF 17 64.00 22.09
BP-NOR (rep)
CON 17 24.35 8.61
22.71 3.773 0.002*
MF 17 18.82 7.13
BP-MT (s)
CON 17 54.29 17.40
28.27 5.264 0.000*
MF 17 38.94 15.08
*p<0.05; Sd: Standard deviation; SQ: Squat; BP: Bench Press; SQ-NOR: Number of repetitions of Squat; SQ-
MT: Movement time of Squat; BP-NOR: Number of repetitions of Bench press; BP-MT: MoWvement time 
of Bench press, rep: repetition.
Figure 5. The difference between the mean number of repetitions (NOR) and 
movement time (MT) of Squat (SQ) and Bench Press (BP) in CON and MF ses-
sions according to gender
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Table 4. Paired sample t-test results of the strength endurance averages meas-
ured for SQ and BP in the CON and MF sessions, according to gender
Variable Gender Session N Mean Sd % t p
SQ-NOR
Female
CON 9 52.11 21.86
37.09 2.624 0.030*
MF 9 32.78 11.50
Male
CON 8 40.25 11.88
30.73 2.767 0.028*
MF 8 27.88 9.39
SQ-MT
Female
CON 9 103.78 36.82
33.08 2.720 0.026*
MF 9 69.44 21.51
Male
CON 8 98.75 19.84
41.38 3.961 0.005*
MF 8 57.88 22.49
BP-NOR
Female
CON 9 26.11 7.56
27.23 3.076 0.015*
MF 9 19.00 5.98
Male
CON 8 22.38 9.80
16.75 2.280 0.057
MF 8 18.63 8.68
BP-MT
Female
CON 9 55.22 14.89
22.53 3.714 0.006*
MF 9 42.78 13.20
Male
CON 8 53.25 20.89
34.96 3.802 0.007*
MF 8 34.63 16.76
*p<0.05; Sd: Standard deviation; SQ: Squat; BP: Bench Press; SQ-NOR: Number of repetitions of Squat; SQ-
MT: Movement time of Squat; BP-NOR: Number of repetitions of Bench press; BP-MT: Movement time of 
Bench press, CON: Control; MF: Mental Fatigue. 
According to the data, when the NOR and MT of the SQ and BP were 
analyzed on the basis of gender, it was found that MF had a significant effect on 
SQ-NOR, SQ-MT, and BP-MT in both women and men (p<0.05), while there 
was a significant decrease in BP-NOR in female athletes (p<0.05) but no signi-
ficant effect on BP-NOR in male athletes (p>0.05). The decreasing effect of MF 
caused a significantly greater decrease in female athletes than male athletes in 
NOR, while it was found that male athletes had a significantly greater decrease 
in MT than female athletes (p<0.05).
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DISCUSSION
This study examined the acute effects of MF on the strength endurance per-
formance of well-trained male and female kickboxing athletes. According to 
the results, the presence of MF significantly decreases SQ-NOR (34.5%), SQ-
MT (36.88%), BP-NOR (22.71%), and BP-MT (28.27%) in young kickboxers. 
Task duration has an important effect on the reduction of sports performan-
ce due to mental fatigue. It is known that tasks lasting less than 30 min have 
no effect on exercise performance, though they do reduce cognitive capacity 
(Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010; Graham, Sonne, & Bray, 2014). 
In this respect, 30 min of the Stroop test applied for mental fatigue in the stu-
dy decreased performance. In athletes exposed to prolonged mental fatigue, 
the ratio of perceived exertion increased (Marcora, Staiano, & Manning, 2009; 
Pageaux, 2014; Van Cutsem et al., 2017a). However, from a neurophysiologi-
cal point of view, mental fatigue negatively affects physical effort and decre-
ases motivation (Rudebeck, Walton, Smyth, Bannerman, & Rushworth, 2006; 
Walton, Kennerley, Bannerman, Phillips, & Rushworth, 2006). Therefore, it 
could be that the prolonged Stroop test applied to the athletes also affected brain 
regions related to the cognitive aspects of central motor command and deacti-
vated the facilitative system that encourages athletes to act. 
According to a study conducted by Cao et al. (2022) on basketball players, 
similar to the results of the current research, it shows that MF impairs technical 
performance such as free throw, three-point shooting, and turnovers, as well 
as mental performance such as making the first move, intuitiveness, and deci-
sion-making. It is known that MF practices have negative effects not only in 
basketball but in other branches as well. Recent studies aiming to understand 
the MF phenomenon have shown that it is detrimental to endurance skills such 
as cycling, running, yo-yo, motor skills such as accuracy, speed and finishing 
time, and decision-making skills such as making mistakes and slower reaction 
time (Van Cutsem et al., 2017b; Pageaux & Lepers, 2018; Habay et al., 2021). 
In another study, MF impairs sport-specific psychomotor performance in fo-
otball, badminton, basketball, table tennis, cricket, and other sports (Habay et 
al., 2021). 
In another study conducted by Coutinho et al. (2017) on football players, 
they reported that MF impairs physical and tactical performance, negatively 
affects the athletes’ ability to use environmental information and the players’ 
positioning. Smith et al. (2016) found a decrease in distance traveled on the yo-
-yo test and technical performance following mental fatigue from a 30-minute 
incongruent Stroop test in football players. In a study by Pageaux and Lepers 
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Esra KÜRKCÜ AKGÖNÜL, Gökmen ÖZEN: THE ACUTE EFFECT OF MENTAL FATIGUE ON STRENGTH ENDURANCE ..., 149–170
(2016) on active adolescent endurance athletes investigating the effects of MF 
on cognitive and aerobic performance, it was found that a 30-minute Stroop 
test negatively affected the maximum oxygen intake and running speed; the 
rating of the perceived exertion level is also high. As a result, they reported 
that mental fatigue impairs aerobic and cognitive performance in active male 
endurance athletes. In the literature, as a result of the negative consequences 
of MF applications on the endurance performance of athletes in all branches, a 
negative effect on kickboxing athletes is expected. 
While there are studies that show a decrease in sports performance after 
MF application, there are also studies that show no effect, though they are very 
few in number. However, Vrijkotte et al. (2018) showed that mental fatigue has 
a negative impact on cycling performance. In the study conducted by Silva-
Cavalcante et al. (2018) with 8 recreational male road cyclists, after 90 minutes 
of AX-CPT testing, they found no effect on the visual analogue scale, RPE, 
5-second maximal voluntary contraction with 30-second rests in the quadriceps 
muscle, electrical muscle stimulation and 4 km time trial cycling performance. 
Proost et al. (2023) reported that MF did not affect RPE or movement-rela-
ted cortical potential (MRCP) during leg extension. The researchers reported 
that this situation could be related to the lack of performance output; also, the 
increase in alpha power in the experimental group may be linked to a focused 
internal attention mechanism to reduce the feeling of fatigue. Similarly, Filipas, 
Mottola, Tagliabue, and La Torre (2018) reported that 60 minutes of Stroop or 
solving math problems had no effect on heart rate (HR), rating of perceived 
exertion (RPE), and 1500-meter rowing performance in young rowers. In line 
with these results, although the presence of MF does not affect sports perfor-
mance, when the studies are taken as a whole, it can be inferred that mental 
fatigue negatively affects sports performance in general and it can be said that 
the possibility of negative results is higher. If a more detailed inference needs 
to be made, it is thought that the results may differ in terms of test type, appli-
cation time, the athletic level of the athletes, and the measured characteristics 
(endurance, speed, etc.).  
In the current study, when the effect of MF on sports performance was exa-
mined on a gender basis, it was observed that it had a negative effect on both 
genders. Contrary to this result, Pereira et al. (2015) found in their study that 
elderly women fatigued the upper extremity more with incremental mental ac-
tivity applied during continuous postural contractions; they emphasized that 
women are more sensitive than men. In line with the different results in the 
literature, it is thought that the effects of mental practices on a gender basis ca-
nnot be predicted. However, considering that women are more psychologically 
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sensitive, it is estimated that the performance of female athletes may deteriorate 
more than male athletes during long-term mental practices for long-distance 
athletes. However, this needs to be proven by scientific studies.
The duration of the activity that causes mental fatigue has a significant im-
pact on the deterioration of sports performance. When the studies conducted in 
this context are examined, Smith, Marcora, and Coutts (2015) examined the ef-
fect of the AX-CPT test applied for 90 min on intermittent running performance 
and reported that the athletes’ perceived difficulty level was high, running speed 
and oxygen consumption significantly decreased, and this negative effect of 
cognitive fatigue was mediated by the perception of high effort. In the study 
conducted by Terentjeviene et al. (2018) on 30 healthy adult male athletes, 
it was reported that after 120 minutes of Go / No Go, there was a decrease in 
motivation and hand grip strength, and an increase in reaction time, perceived 
workload and frontal cortex activity. Le Mansec, Pageaux, Nordez, Dorel, and 
Jubeau (2018) reported that 90 minutes of AX-CPT application resulted in a 
decrease in ball speed and total score, an increase in the number of errors, an 
increase in RPE, and a decrease in the rate of hitting the target in 22 experi-
enced male table tennis athletes. Contrary to these results, Rozand, Pageaux, 
Marcora, Papaxanthis, and Lepers (2014), supporting the thesis on the effect 
of practice time on performance, reported that the 27-minute Stroop test did 
not affect isokinetic strength, RPE, HR, and voluntary maximum contraction 
in adult men. In line with the results obtained, it can be said that mental fatigue 
does not occur following periods under 30 minutes, regardless of the test type, 
measured feature, and sport branch.
From another perspective, just as cognitive practices have a negative effect 
on sports performance, it has been revealed in studies in the literature that sports 
loads also have a negative effect on mental performance. Mancı et al. (2023) 
revealed that elite basketball players showed better cognitive performance than 
amateur players after 4 sets of 30s sprint intervals. As a result of the negative 
effects of applications in both directions, it can be concluded that cognitive 
and physical performance cannot be considered separately from each other. 
In this sense, both the mental and the physical aspects must be well supported 
in all planning and programs for sports performance. It is known that there 
is a negative relationship between the long-term use of technological devices 
and executive functions (Warsaw et al., 2021). Social media use requires con-
stant attention as it involves listening, writing, and reading; therefore, spending 
long periods of time on smartphones can also cause mental fatigue (Russell 
et al., 2019; Fortes et al., 2020). When the studies on the subject are exami-
ned, using social media before a sports performance for at least 30 minutes 
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Esra KÜRKCÜ AKGÖNÜL, Gökmen ÖZEN: THE ACUTE EFFECT OF MENTAL FATIGUE ON STRENGTH ENDURANCE ..., 149–170
impairs the decision-making skills in professional football players (Fortes et al., 
2020). It has also been reported that smartphone use before training sessions in 
football negatively affects both technical and endurance performance (Greco, 
Tambolini, Ambruosi, & Fischetti, 2017). In line with these results, athletes 
need to be able to manage their self-control mechanisms regarding the use of 
technological devices just before training or competition in order to prevent 
mental fatigue. If coaches and parents pay attention to this issue, it will allow 
the factors that negatively affect the athletes’ sports performance to be reduced 
and the performance to be kept at an optimum level. In terms of the negative 
effects of long-term cognitive activities, 20 mg dopamine (DA) and 8 mg nora-
drenaline (NA) supplementation applied before the MF delays the onset of the 
MF and improves cognitive performance (Arenales Arauz et al., 2024). In this 
context, both athletes and individuals with cognitive tasks can minimize the 
negative effects of cognitive fatigue by taking DA and NA supplements. The 
use of NA and DA may help increase endurance performance in order to make 
long-term performance outputs more efficient.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of this study, it has been revealed that mental fatigue 
negatively affects the strength endurance of kickboxers, one of the strength 
sports. Many coaches and sports trainers attach importance to the training pro-
cess for performance development; however, when acute studies are examined, 
factors that negatively affect performance should also be taken into considera-
tion. Mental fatigue emerges as an acute factor that negatively affects perfor-
mance, and when looking at studies in the literature, it is known that mental 
fatigue negatively affects performance in many branches. In this respect, before 
training or competition, regardless of whether you are a woman or a man, it is 
necessary to avoid activities that may cause mental fatigue. It is essential for 
coaches and sports trainers to pay attention to this situation when creating and 
implementing programs.
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 2
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
While there have been efforts to increase exercise and sports performance 
for a long time, studies continue to identify factors that negatively affect perfor-
mance and precautions that can be taken. Mental fatigue and what to do about 
it is one of them. This study was conducted on kickboxing athletes and their 
muscular endurance performance was examined. 
– This study was conducted on young individuals. Wascher and Getzmann 
(2014) found that performance declined in the older participants but not in the 
young after an 80-min task, so the results of this study may vary for older indi-
viduals. Therefore, future studies should be conducted separately with adults. 
– Gender is also an important factor in MF. Therefore, gender compari-
sons can be made in studies examining the effects of MF applications on sports 
performance.
– Applications that may cause MF before exercise may negatively affect 
performance; Therefore, coaches and athletes should avoid such practices just 
before training and competition. Appropriate methods and techniques can be 
developed for athletes who cannot achieve self-control in this regard.
– The effect of MF on sports performance may vary depending on the sports 
level of the athletes; it is thought that high-level athletes have better cognitive 
control and their responses to cognitive tasks may be better. Therefore, research 
should be conducted separately on amateur and professional athletes.
Notes: This study was presented as an oral presentation at the internati-
onal congress “2nd International Asklepios Congress on Medicine, Nursing, 
Midwifery, and Health Sciences” held on 14-16 August 2024.
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