R. LI et al.: EFFECTS OF HEAT INPUTS ON THE STRUCTURE OF Ni-BASED AMORPHOUS COMPOSITE ...
521–526
EFFECTS OF HEAT INPUTS ON THE STRUCTURE OF Ni-BASED
AMORPHOUS COMPOSITE COATINGS APPLIED WITH LASER
CLADDING
VPLIV VNOSA TOPLOTE NA STRUKTURO KOMPOZITNE
PREVLEKE NA OSNOVI Ni, IZDELANE Z LASERSKIM
POSTOPKOM
Ruifeng Li
1,*
, Zhaohui Chen
1
, Jiayang Gu
2
, Yuxin Wang
1
, Mingfang Wu
1
,
Yingtao Tian
3
1
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212003, China
2
Marine Equipment and Technology Institute, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212003, China
3
Department of Engineering, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, Lancaster, LA1 4YW, UK
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2018-11-09; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2019-01-30
doi: 10.17222/mit.2018.241
In this paper, Ni-based amorphous composite coatings were fabricated under different heat inputs on a mild-steel substrate using
laser cladding with coaxial powder feeding. The microstructure of the coating was studied using a scanning electron microscope
(SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The effects of the heat inputs on the amor-
phous-phase forming ability of the Ni-based alloy was investigated systematically with experimental and numerical simulation
methods. The results show that there was no amorphous phase in the coating when the heat input was 131.3 J/mm. The
amorphous-phase fraction increased with a decrease in the laser-cladding heat inputs from 81.3 J/mm to 50.0 J/mm. Then a 3D
thermal finite-element (FE) model was built to simulate the temperature field of coaxial laser cladding at different heat inputs
using the element birth and death technique. Detailed 3D transient thermal analyses were performed on temperature-dependent
material properties. The proposed model was validated with the experimental results. It was found that a decrease in the heat
input leads to a lower high-temperature residence time and a higher cooling rate of the melted pool. Consequently, a low heat
input can be considered as a necessary condition for the formation of the amorphous phase during the laser-cladding process.
Keywords: laser cladding, amorphous, microstructure, heat input, simulation
Avtorji opisujejo izdelavo amorfne kompozitne prevleke na osnovi Ni s postopkom laserske obdelave z isto~asnim
(koaksialnim) nanosom kompozitnega prahu na malo legirano jeklo. Nastalo mikrostrukturo prevleke so analizirali s pomo~jo
opazovanja pod vrsti~nim (SEM) in presevnim elektronskim mikroskopom (TEM) ter z rentgensko difrakcijo (XRD). Vpliv
vnosa toplote na sposobnost tvorjenja amorfne mikrostrukture Ni zlitine so sistemati~no raziskovali z eksperimentalnimi in
simulacijskimi metodami. Rezultati raziskav so pokazali, da ni pri{lo do nastanka amorfne faze v prevleki, ~e je bil vnos toplote
131,3 J/mm. Dele` amorfne faze je narasel, ~e so zmanj{ali vnos laserske toplote (energije) z 81,3 J/mm na 50,0 J/mm. Nato so
izdelali {e 3D model na osnovi metode kon~nih elementov (FEM) za simulacijo temperaturnega polja med lasersko obdelavo
koaksialnega nanosa plasti prahu pri razli~nih vnosih toplote z uporabo B&D tehnik (angl.: birth and death). Izdelali so detajlno
3D termi~no analizo s temperaturno odvisnimi lastnostmi materialov. Veljavnost predlaganega modela so preverili z eksperi-
mentalnimi rezultati. Ugotovili so, da lahko zmanj{anje vnosa laserske toplote vodi do zman{anja kontaktnega ~asa vnosa
toplote na stiku med delci in zato vi{je hitrosti ohlajanja lokalno nastale manj{e "lu`ice" (bazen~ka) taline. Posledi~no avtorji
zaklju~ujejo, da je osnovni pogoj za nastanek amorfne faze manj{i vnos toplote med lasersko izdelavo izbrane prevleke.
Klju~ne besede: laserska obdelava (navarjanje); amorfna prevleka; mikrostruktura; vnos toplote; simulacija
1 INTRODUCTION
Laser cladding is a deposition welding process, in
which a layer of powder is deposited on the substrate
material, and the two materials are fused by metal-
lurgical bonding through the action of a laser beam.
1,2
During laser cladding, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and
melt pool are so small that a thin, metallurgical, bonded
coating is produced between the cladding layer and
substrate. Due to intensive heating and rapid cooling rate
(10
3
–10
6
K/s), laser cladding is a feasible technique for
producing amorphous coatings.
3,4
Y. Y. Zhu successfully
fabricated customized Fe-Co-B-Si-C-Nb amorphous
coatings with laser cladding.
5
P. L. Zhang produced
Fe-Ni-Si-B-Nb amorphous coatings with laser cladding
plus laser remelting.
6
G. L. Yang
7
and T. M. Yue
8
ob-
tained an amorphous coating with the help of element Zr.
M. Aghasibeig applied Fe-Cr-Mn-Si-Mo-C amorphous
composite coatings on AISI 1018 steel substrates using a
diode laser.
9
Currently, the fabrication of amorphous
coatings with laser processing methods is still attracting
considerable attention.
10,11
An amorphous coating often
exhibits a high microhardness, excellent corrosion
resistance and wear resistance, and also allows extensive
potential industrial applications in nuclear energy, ther-
mal-power and chemical plants, shipping and sewage-
disposal systems, etc.
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 53 (2019) 4, 521–526 521
UDK 620.1:536.4:669.245:544.538 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 53(4)521(2019)
*Corresponding author's e-mail:
li_ruifeng@just.edu.cn

Rapid cooling is one of the main considerations for
the selection of metallic-glass synthesis techniques.
12
During the laser-cladding process, rapid cooling is
usually achieved with a limitation of the melt to a small
geometrical size and a fast removal of the laser heating
source. So, it is very useful to obtain the cooling rate of
the melt pool for analyzing the amorphous-formation
mechanism during the laser-cladding process. However,
it is very difficult to measure the temperature and dimen-
sion variations of the melt pool in real time. Currently,
although several methods can be applied in a laser-
cladding process, none of them is universal, in particular
when used with coaxial powder injection. For example, a
thermocouple is only suitable for the cases of single or
several fixed-point measurements of the temperature
variation of the HAZ. Non-contact temperature monitor-
ing using an infrared pyrometer is very desirable for a
cladding process, but it still faces the difficulties such as
the influence of reflected laser radiation and sharp
variations of emissivity as well as a poor environment of
practical-in-flight, molten ashes or steam.
13
In addition,
the measurement error of the infrared pyrometer is
notable and it is also impossible to monitor the interior
of the melt pool.
Recently, some numerical simulations, especially the
ones using the FE method, have been proposed for
calculating the temperature field and researching the
evolution of the melt-pool boundary that normally
affects the metallurgic bonding between the cladding
material and the base material. P. Farahmand developed a
three-dimensional (3D), transient, uncoupled, thermo-
elastic–plastic FE model to simulate a thermal process
during the single- and multi-track laser cladding and the
thermally induced residual stress in the laser cladding.
14
Mingzhong Hao built an FE model, which was able to
achieve temperature distributions for laser cladding with
varying combinations of process parameters by con-
structing an adaptive cladding layer and moving the
heat-source model using an inverse modeling approach.
15
Up to now, far too little attention has been paid to the
cooling rates during the laser-cladding process for the
fabricating of amorphous coatings.
In this paper, the microstructures of laser-cladded
Ni-based amorphous composite coatings were observed
at different heat inputs. The temperature-field distribu-
tion and the thermal-cycle curve during the laser-cladd-
ing process were simulated using a 3D transient FE
model. The amorphous-formation mechanisms were
analyzed based on the experimental and numerical
investigation results of the laser-cladding process.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
Low-carbon steel with dimensions of 150 mm ×
15 mm × 10 mm was used as the substrate material. The
(Ni
0.6
Fe
0.4
)
65
B
18
Si
10
Nb
4
C
3
(in x/%) alloy powder was
selected as the coating material. The powder particle size
varied in a range of 30–50 μm. Then, nickel-based
amorphous composite coatings were fabricated using the
laser-cladding method with a coaxial powder feeding
nozzle. Laser cladding was carried out usinga6k W
ytterbium-doped fiber laser (IPG Photonics) operating at
1075±5 nm wavelength. The beam was focused to a
square spot of approximately 5 mm × 5 mm at 13 mm
beyond the nozzle, with a uniform energy distribution. A
schematic diagram of the laser-cladding process is
shown in Figure 1.
The optimum laser-cladding parameters were deter-
mined based on a large number of experiments to obtain
a combination of favorable single-track properties in-
cluding a low wetting angle, the minimum dilution ratio
and high surface quality. The optimum laser-cladding
parameters are given in Table 1; the heat inputs (laser
power/laser scanning speed) were also calculated. To
protect the melt pool from oxidation, argon shielding gas
was supplied through the nozzle at 12 L/min.
Table 1: Laser-cladding parameters and their heat inputs
Laser power
(W)
Laser scanning
speed (mm/s)
Powder feed
rate (g/min)
Heat input
(J/mm)
2100 16 13.3 131.3
2600 32 15.2 81.3
3100 48 17.1 64.6
3500 64 19.0 54.7
4200 80 20.9 52.5
4800 96 22.8 50.0
Each coating was transversely cross-sectioned and
etched using an aqua regia. The microstructures of the
coatings were characterized with JEOL scanning elec-
tron microscopy (SEM, JSM 6460) and a transmission
electron microscope (TEM, PHILIPS CM200). The
sampling points of the SEM and TEM investigation were
all at the middle of the coating. The phase composition
of the coatings was determined with X-ray diffraction
using an XRD-6000 apparatus equipped with a Cu radi-
ation source.
R. LI et al.: EFFECTS OF HEAT INPUTS ON THE STRUCTURE OF Ni-BASED AMORPHOUS COMPOSITE ...
522 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 53 (2019) 4, 521–526
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the laser-cladding process

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 shows the microstructure of the cladding at
different heat inputs. The primary microstructure in-
cluded coarse dendrites for the specimen laser cladded at
a heat input of 131.3 J/mm. The SEM micrograph of the
specimen corresponding to a heat input of 81.3 J/mm
also indicated the presence of dendrites. However, the
dendrites became finer. Some featureless regions without
crystalline characteristics were also found. Simult-
aneously, many particle phases were formed and the
particle size was on the order of 1 μm. When the heat
inputs were (64.6, 52.5 and 50.0) J/mm, the featureless
region became larger and larger. At the heat input of
50.0 J/mm, the cladding was predominantly formed of a
featureless constituent, with some particle phases and an
equiaxed dendrite phase.
Figure 3 shows a TEM image in the middle of the
coating at the heat input of 50 J/mm. A selected-area
electron diffraction (SAED) pattern of region A is also
shown in Figure 3. The broad diffraction halo indicates
that region A is an amorphous phase. The SAED pattern
also confirms the formation of the amorphous phase in
the coating fabricated with laser cladding.
Figure 4 shows the XRD patterns of the clad at
different laser-cladding heat inputs. Figure 4 shows that
when the heat input was 131.3 J/mm, the clad primarily
consisted of a crystalline phase. When the heat input was
lowered from 81.3 J/mm to 50 J/mm, the XRD pattern
showed that broad hole peaks appeared at 2 (40–50°)
indicating that an amorphous phase was produced. To
calculate the amorphous-phase volume fraction from the
XRD results (Figure 4), the integrated areas of the amor-
phous and crystalline peaks were separated using the
computer software and the V
f
of the amorphous phase
was calculated using the following equation:
V
A
AA
f
amor
amor cryst
=
+
(1)
where V
f
is the volume fraction of amorphous phase in
the coating formed with laser cladding; A
amor
and A
cryst
are the total integrated areas corresponding to the
crystalline and amorphous phases, respectively.
16
The
results calculated for V
f
are shown in Table 2. This table
indicates that the fraction of the amorphous phase
increased with a decrease in the laser-cladding heat
input. A high volume fraction of 80.9 % was obtained
when the heat input was 50.0 J/mm. In addition, Figure
4 shows that some diffraction peaks can also be seen
over the broad halo. These crystallization phases can be
identified as  (Fe,Ni), Fe
2
B and NbC. Moreover, these
R. LI et al.: EFFECTS OF HEAT INPUTS ON THE STRUCTURE OF Ni-BASED AMORPHOUS COMPOSITE ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 53 (2019) 4, 521–526 523
Figure 3: TEM image of the coating at the heat input of 50 J/mm
Figure 2: Effect of the heat input on the microstructure of the clad: a)
131.3 J/mm, b) 81.3 J/mm, c) 64.6 J/mm, d) 54.7 J/mm, e) 52.5 J/mm,
f) 50.0 J/mm
Figure 4: XRD patterns of the clad at different laser-cladding heat
inputs

diffraction peaks gradually weakened with a decrease in
the heat input.
Table 2: Amorphous fraction of the clad at different laser-cladding
heat inputs
Heat input (J/mm) 131.3 81.3 64.6 54.7 52.5 50.0
Volume fraction of
amorphous phase
0 35.9 46.9 66.9 71 80.9
4 FE SIMULATIONS AND ANALYSIS
During the formation of an amorphous coating, the
cooling rate is one of the most important factors. The
cooling rate at different heat inputs may also change the
amorphous-forming ability of a laser-cladded coating.
Therefore, in this study, the temperature-field distribu-
tion and thermal-cycle curves were simulated using the
FE method. Hence, it can be used to learn about the
mechanism of the amorphous formation of the coating.
In order to guarantee the accuracy of the calculation
and reduce the computing time, a non-uniform mesh
near and along the clad was used. Figure 5 shows the FE
model for the clad deposited at the heat input of 50 J/mm
and its cross-section. All the geometries of the FE mo-
dels at different heat inputs are based on the cross-
section profile measurements of the laser-cladded speci-
mens. The thermal physical properties of the substrate
and the cladding alloys were obtained from a reference
paper.
17
Heat-flow density was loaded through the form
of surface heat source F (F =  × P/A) is the absorpti-
vity, A is the laser spot area (5×5mm
2
), P is the laser
power). The governing equation of the heat conduction
in Cartesian coordinates is given by:
 c
T
t
k
T
x
T
y
T
z
F
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
222
=++
⎛ ⎝ ⎜ ⎞ ⎠ ⎟ +
222
(2)
where x, y and z are Cartesian coordinates, k is the
thermal conductivity, c is the specific heat, F is the
surface heat flux, T is the temperature and t is the time.
At the boundaries, the heat losses from the plate surfa-
ces to the surroundings take place by means of natural
convection and radiation effects. In this study, the fiber
laser delivers a homogeneous energy distribution to the
spot. Moreover, in order to depict the process of mass
transfer due to the powder deposition on the substrate,
the technique of the element birth and death is applied
to the 3D thermal model.
18,19
Figure 6 shows the temperature field of the clad at
the heat input of 50 J/mm. As can be seen from Figure
6a, the highest temperature appears in the surface layer
of the clad. Due to the heat-conduction effect, the tem-
perature decreases from the top to the bottom. Figure 6b
shows a comparison of the experimental result and simu-
lation result; the left half is a SEM photo of the cross-
section, the right half shows the FE simulation results. In
Figure 6b, the temperature of the region in red is higher
than the melting point of the deposited material (1304
K). It indicates that the red region was melted during the
laser-cladding process. The comparison between the
experimental result and temperature field indicates that
R. LI et al.: EFFECTS OF HEAT INPUTS ON THE STRUCTURE OF Ni-BASED AMORPHOUS COMPOSITE ...
524 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 53 (2019) 4, 521–526
Figure 6: a) Cross-sectional temperature distribution and b) its com-
parison with the experimental results Figure 5: Partial image of: a) the FE model and b) its cross-section

the temperature predicted by the developed model is in
good agreement with the simulated results. The simu-
lated results can be used to analyze the thermal cycle
during the laser-cladding process.
The temperature variation at a fixed point during the
full laser-cladding time for all the coatings was derived
from the FE simulation results and depicted in Figure 7.
In detail, the fixed point is in the center symmetry plane
and on the top surface of the coating. All the curves
illustrate that the temperatures changed remarkably; they
were the first to increase in the heating process and then
they decreased in the cooling process. Figure 7 also
shows that the peak temperature of each coating was
different; the peak temperature was at its maximum
when the heat input was 131.1 J/mm and then it de-
creased with the decrease in the heat inputs. In addition,
it can be observed that the high-temperature duration
also decreased with the decrease in the heat inputs.
Meanwhile, it can be inferred that the duration of the
molten pool was reduced.
For bulk metallic glasses, if a liquid is cooled below
the melting point (T
m
), the liquid enters into the region of
T
m
to T
g
(glass transition temperature). In this study, the
T
g
of the Ni-based alloy is 743 K. The free energy
difference between the liquid and a crystal provides a
driving force for crystal nucleation. If the cooling rate
between T
m
and T
g
is very high, then high viscosity and
sluggish kinetics in the supercooled liquid state are
obtained; as a result, the liquid can be undercooled into
the amorphous state. Therefore, when the nucleation is
suppressed, the minimum cooling rate between the
highest temperature and T
g
is called the critical cooling
rate (R
c
). In this study, the temperature variation of the
fixed node was used to study the entire trend of the
thermal-field variation in the cladded coating. Therefore,
the cooling rates from the highest temperature to T
g
for
different heat inputs were calculated in accordance with
Figure 7 and depicted in Figure 8. As seen from Figure
8, with a decrease in the heat input, the cooling rate rises
rapidly. The cooling rate reaches 16087 K/s when the
laser-cladding heat input is 50 J/mm. For the Ni-based
alloy used in this study, a Rc value of 49.3 K/s was
obtained based on the study of Z. P. Lu.
20
It can be seen
that the cooling rate for all the laser-cladding inputs is
much higher than R
c
. However, the amorphous structure
is not obtained at heat inputs of 131.3 J/mm and 81.3
J/mm, for which the cooling rates are 5657 K/s and 8744
K/s, respectively. The reason for this may be the fact that
at high heat inputs, the composition of the coating is far
away from the designed composition due to a large
dilution rate. In addition, the lack of amorphous phase
may also attribute to the heterogeneous nucleation during
the laser-cladding process.
21,22
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, a (N
i0.6
Fe
0.4
)
65
B
18
Si
10
Nb
4
C
3
alloy powder
was deposited onto low-carbon steel at different heat
inputs using laser cladding. The microstructure of the
coatings was investigated. The process of laser cladding
was simulated using the FEM method. The temperature/
time behavior of the coating was obtained to analyze the
amorphous formation during the laser-cladding process.
The microstructure of the coating was observed with
the SEM, TEM and XRD methods. The coating con-
sisted of both amorphous and crystalline phases; the
fraction of the amorphous phase increased with a de-
crease in the laser-cladding heat inputs.
The simulation of laser cladding for the temperature-
field analysis was achieved using a 3D FE simulation.
The instantaneous temperature distribution and tempera-
ture curves were obtained; the cooling rate of fixed
nodes was calculated. It was validated with the experi-
mental results, showing a high degree of agreement.
The simulation results indicated that a decrease in the
heat input leads to a higher cooling rate. Hence, the heat
input has a strong correlation with the amorphous-form-
ing ability during laser cladding.
R. LI et al.: EFFECTS OF HEAT INPUTS ON THE STRUCTURE OF Ni-BASED AMORPHOUS COMPOSITE ...
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 53 (2019) 4, 521–526 525
Figure 8: Effect of heat input on the cooling rate of the coatings
Figure 7: Thermal-cycle curves of the laser-cladded coating at diffe-
rent heat inputs

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support provided by the National Key Research and
Development Program of China (no. 2018YFC0310400),
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
nos. 51775254 & 51405206) and the China Postdoctoral
Science Foundation (Grant no. 2017M611750).
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