dU^IUIIIU UCIU socialno delo X Fakulteta za socialno delo, Univerza v Ljubljani 0) fO o 5 o D" (D O. (D O (D 3 D" (D fO O fO W c/>< r-h Izdajatelj Fakulteta za socialno delo Univerze v Ljubljani Vse pravice pridržane Glavna urednica Vera Grebene Odgovorni urednik Borut Petrovič Jesenovec Uredniški odbor Srečo Dragoš, Martina Kerec, Nina Mešl, Tamara Rape Žiberna, Irena Šumi, Mojca Urek, Darja Zaviršek Uredniški svet Gordana Berc, Lena Dominelli, Shirley Gabel Gaetano, Subhangi Herath, Duška Kneževič Hočevar, Roman Kuhar, Chu-Li Julie Liu, Rea Maglajlič, Jana Mali, Theano Kallinikaki, Dragan Petrovec, Paula Pinto, Francka Premzel, Shula Ramon, Liljana Rihter, Alessandro Siccora, Lea Šugman Bohinc, Mirjana Ule In memoriam Jo Campling Naslov Topniška 31, 1000 Ljubljana tel. (01) 2809 273, faks 2809270 socialno.delo@fsd.uni-lj.si Spletna stran https://www.revija-socialnodelo.si/ Tisk CICERO, Begunje, d. o. o., Ljubljana Naročnina (cena letnika) za pravne osebe € 55,00 za fizične osebe € 27,00 (študentje € 23,00) enojna številka € 13,50, dvojna številka € 27,00 Vključenost v podatkovne baze International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS), ERIH PLUS EBSCO SocIndex with Full Text Na leto izidejo štiri številke. Subvencija: Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije Smernice, kako pripraviti in predložiti prispevek za objavo, se nahajajo na spletnih straneh revije. Besedila, objavljena v reviji Socialno delo, so ponujena pod licenco Creative Commons: CC BY-SA. doi: 10.51741/sd.2023.62.4 Izvirni znanstveni clanek Prejeto 14. avgusta 2023, sprejeto 29. novembra 2023 doi: 10.51741/sd.2023.62.4.241-258 Srečo Dragoš Dekomodifikacija dela Socialna država, največja družboslovna inovacija 20. stoletja, je v zadnjih petdesetih letih tarča številnih kritik. Nekatere so upravičene, druge nikakor. Upravičene kritike problematizirajo predvsem uspešnost socialne države, torej premajhno realizacijo nekaterih ciljev, zaradi katerih je omenjeni koncept sploh nastal, na primer odpravo revščine, prekariata, regulacijo nevidnega dela, skrb za obseg in kakovost javnih storitev. Neupravičene kritike pa se nanašajo predvsem na učinkovitost socialne države, problematizirajo njeno legitimnost in ji očitajo celo moralno negativne vplive na državljane, na primer na brezdelne prejemnike pomoči. Ker se razdalja med eno in drugo vrsto kritik nikakor ne zmanjšuje, je videti, da je doseg racionalnih argumentov in empiričnih podatkov precej omejen, zato se vse bolj poudarjajo možne alternative socialni državi. V prispevku je predstavljenih deset alternativnih konceptov, še prej pa je obravnavan eden od osnovnih problemov, o katerem se najmanj govori, čeprav bi moral biti eden od kriterijev presoje obravnavanih alternativ, ta problem je (ne) smiselnost dela. Ključne besede: socialna država, delo, prekariat, komodifikacija, usrane službe, univerzalni temeljni dohodek. Dr. Srečo Dragoš je docent na Fakulteti za socialno delo Univerze v Ljubljani. Kontakt: sreco.dragos@fsd.uni-lj.si. Decommodification of work The welfare state, the greatest social science innovation of the 20th century, has been the target of much criticism over the last 50 years. Some of them are justified, others not at all. The legitimate criticisms have been mainly concerned with the performance of the welfare state, i.e. the lack of realisation of some of the objectives for which it was conceived in the first place, such as eradication of poverty, precariat, regulation of invisible labour, scope and quality of public services. Unjustified criticisms focus on the effectiveness of the welfare state, questioning its legitimacy and even accusing it of having morally negative effects on citizens, such as on the stateless recipients of welfare. Since the distance between one type of criticism and the other is by no means diminishing, it seems that the range of rational arguments and empirical data is rather limited, and that is why more and more emphasis is being placed on possible alternatives to the welfare state. This paper presents ten alternative concepts, but before that, it deals with one of the basic problems that is least discussed, although it should serve as one of the criteria for assessing the alternatives discussed, namely the (un)meaningfulness of work. Keywords: welfare state, work, precariat, commodification, bullshit jobs, universal basic income. Srečo Dragoš, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Social Work, University of Ljubljana. Contact: sreco.dragos@fsd.uni-lj.si. Uvod Dekomodifikacija1 človekovega dela pomeni zmanjšanje ali odpravo odvisnosti temeljnih človeških potreb od tržnih mehanizmov. Glavni argumenti za dekomodifikacijo dela so: • dostopnost: dekomodifikacija povečuje enak dostop do osnovnih potreb za vse prebivalce, ne glede na njihov status ali ekonomsko moč. Sistem tržne distribucije, če ni reguliran, povečuje družbene neenakosti, revščino 1 Dekomodifikacija dela (iz. lat commodatum) pomeni razblagovljenje, tudi raztrženje, oziroma izvzetje človeškega dela iz procesov, kjer se delovno silo obravnava kot blago, torej da se jo kupuje ali prodaja na trgu dela. Ker sta slovenska izraza razblagovljenje in raztrženje nekoliko preozka - saj delo lahko dekomodificiramo tudi tako, da ga ne izvzamemo povsem iz tržnih procesov (npr. s pravno ali drugo regulacijo) - uporabljam v tem besedilu tujko. 0009-0002-2590-5511 '13 ¿Ž 242 co in zmanjšuje kakovost življenja celotne družbe, ne le spodnjih slojev, tudi zgornjih, čeprav prvih bolj kot drugih (Wilkinson in Pickett, 2012); o • varnost: z dekomodifikacijo dela se osnovne človeške dobrine, kot so pre-^ živetje, zdravstvena oskrba, izobraževanje, stanovanje, zaščitijo pred trž- nimi silami na način temeljnih (iztožljivih) pravic, ne glede na ekonomski položaj posameznika; • kohezija in stabilnost: dekomodifikacija dela zmanjšuje neenakosti in povečuje vključenost vseh državljanov v odločanje o skupnih potrebah, to pa zmanjšuje socialne napetosti, izključevanje in konflikte, kar družbo stabilizira v večji meri kot pa ekonomska rast. Z dekomodifikacijo ključnih produkcijskih sektorjev (zdravstveni, stanovanjski, izobraževalni, so-cialnovarstveni) bodo ti sektorji osvobojeni nihanj na trgu in stabilnejši ter bolj trajnostni, to pa koristi celotni družbi; • kakovost življenja: ko so osnovne potrebe zadovoljene in neodvisne od tržnih tveganj, imajo posamezniki več možnosti za osebno in poklicno rast, izobraževanje, inovacije ter sodelovanje v družbenem življenju. S tem se spodbuja napredek družbe kot celote. Argumenti proti dekomodifikaciji dela (torej za večjo liberalizacijo) pa opozarjajo, da takšne intervencije države zmanjšujejo blaginjo, svobodo tržnih mehanizmov, izkrivljajo »naravne« cene blaga in storitev, hkrati pa povečujejo administrativne stroške, birokracijo, nadzor nad državljani, neučinkovito porabo javnih sredstev kot tudi moralno neodgovornost posameznikov in sistemsko korupcijo. Kje je rešitev? Če mislimo, da je nekje vmes, nismo naredili ničesar. Kajti to vmesno rešitev - med komodifikacijo dela in proti njej - prakticiramo že zadnjih sedemdeset let v obliki socialne države, a se zdi, da nam ta kompromisni koncept razpada. Da bi naredili korak naprej, je treba najprej pro-blematizirati smiselnost dela in njegov izvor. Zato v prvem razdelku članka predstavim tipologijo nedostojnih del v kapitalističnih gospodarstvih. Da so rešitve tega problema lahko različne, čeprav niso poljubne, prikažem v drugem razdelku, kjer predstavim deset alternativ v zvezi s komodifikacijo dela. (Ne)smiselnost dela Z odnosom do dela, ki je bistvena sestavina človeške zgodovine, imamo ljudje stalne težave. Delo, zreducirano na fizično dejavnost, je že v antiki veljalo za nekaj manjvrednega, zato je bilo delegirano sužnjem. Razlike med sužnjelast-ništvom, fevdalizmom in kapitalizmom niso toliko v stopnji prisilnega dela in odtujitvi (ta variira znotraj vseh sistemov), pač pa v lastništvu posameznih produkcijskih faktorjev, človekovega telesa, zemlje, delovne sile. Prva večja stigmatizacija dela se je zgodila šele s krščanstvom. V njem delo ni bilo zgolj nekaj manjvrednega, pač pa je pridobilo dodaten status božje kazni za izvirni greh. Po starozavezni Genezi je namreč zaradi Adamovega greha Bog obsodil človeka na mukotrpno delo in na vegetarijanstvo, ko mu 243 je ukazal: »Naj bo zaradi tebe prekleta zemlja; s trudom boš jedel od nje vse D dni svojega življenja. Trnje in osat ti bo rodila in jedel boš poljsko rastlinje« O (Biblija.net, b.d.: 1 Mz 3:17-18). | Ta krščanski pogled se je spremenil šele s protestantsko reformacijo v f zahodnoevropskih deželah v 17. stoletju. Šele takrat se je delo prvič versko ■= rehabilitiralo tako, da se je iz onostranske kazni za izvorni greh preobrazilo ® f v osrednjo - tostransko - kategorijo življenjskega smisla, in sicer po obratni logiki od prejšnje, ne več zaradi božje nevprašljivosti, pač pa zaradi človekove vprašljivosti in negotovosti. Kajti odslej je veljalo, da so delovni rezultati edini možni pokazatelj odgovora na vprašanje, ki je po kalvinistični doktrini (predestinacije) zapečateno že ob rojstvu in deluje kot usoda, ta pa je bivalentna in je ni mogoče spoznati neposredno. To je pomenilo, da po eni strani posameznik ne more z ničemer na tem svetu - niti z ekonomskimi niti z dobrodelnim dejavnostmi - vplivati na božjo voljo, ker je njegova transcendenca zapečatena že ob rojstvu, saj je že takrat dokončno določeno, ali bo posameznik deležen nespremenljive božje milosti oz. odrešitve ali pa je ni deležen in je obsojen na pogubo. Problem je, kako naj človek to prepozna. Če posameznik sodi med božje izbrance, se bo to pokazalo v njegovih poklicnih dosežkih, in nasprotno, če človek v poklicni sferi ni uspešen, ne bo izpostavljen negotovosti le v tem življenju, pač pa bo ostal tudi brez edinega možnega indica, kaj se bo zgodilo z njim po smrti. Delo in njegovi uspehi so torej edini pokazatelj (ne pa vzrok!), ali posameznik sodi med izbrance ali pač ne. Ta afirmativna etika dela je sprožila revolucijo ne zgolj v krščanstvu, pač pa tudi v ekonomiji, saj je, kot dokazuje Max Weber (1988), v zgodaj industrializiranih okoljih dodatno pospešila kapitalistični razvoj tako, da je doživljanje dela dvojno sekularizirala. Po eni strani je delovnim mukam in neznosnim delovnim razmeram odvzela božji status (kazni za greh), po drugi strani pa je trpljenje v tem procesu normalizirala z degradiranjem dela v testni indikator človekove volje, da spozna, kaj mu je usojeno od zgoraj. Paradoks takšne etike, ki je pospešil industrializacijo, je v spremembi razumevanja dela v depersonalizirano smer. Delo je postalo zgolj (neosebna) sestavina produkcijskega procesa, ki prek blaga rodi kapital, ta osrednji smoter pa zagospodari nad delom, ki zato izgubi etično dimenzijo. Štiristo let po protestantski in dvesto let po industrijski revoluciji se revizija statusa dela zgodi tudi v katolicizmu, in sicer z encikliko O človeškem delu, Laborem exercens. V njej je obsojena degradacija delavca na proizvajalno sredstvo, hkrati pa se delu znova pripiše duhovno vrednost, tokrat na način pravic (Pavel II., 1981). Korenito rehabilitacijo doživi delo šele z marksizmom. Pri tem je treba opozoriti na predsodek, ki se je začel že v socializmu in vztraja še danes, namreč, da je bistvo Marxove kritike kapitalizma v izkoriščanju (ker se delavcu odtujuje rezultate njegovega dela). To ni res. Izkoriščanje je šele drugotna, izvedena težava, ki je posledica nečesa hujšega. Po Marxu je izvorni problem odtujitve dela tam, kjer se zgodi najprej, torej znotraj samega delovnega 244 co procesa, v katerem produkt dela šele nastaja: »odtujitev se ne kaže le v rezultatu, temveč v aktu produkcije, znotraj proizvajajoče dejavnosti same«, pri o tem pa je produkt oz. izdelek »samo povzetek dejavnosti, proizvodnje« ^ (Marx, 1979a, str. 305; podč. K. Marx).2 Posledica je izguba smisla dela, ki jo Marx tematizira kot odtujitev na petih pomembnih področjih: ekonomskem, političnem, religijskem, socialnem in individualnem (Marx, 1979a, 1979b; Dragoš, 2021a). Ta poudarek je v novejšem času najbolj aktualiziral antropolog David Graeber (2019), a s pomembno razliko. Tudi on, tako kot Marx, obravnava nesmiselnost dela znotraj delovnega procesa, torej z osredotočenjem na zaposlitve in delovna mesta oz. opravila, pri tem pa se Graeber izogne redukci-onizmu. Marx je namreč vseh pet oblik odtujitve izvajal iz prve, ekonomske, Graeber pa ni prepričan, da je to prav. Kajti če bi bilo to res, kapital ne bi toleriral, plačeval, množil in celo spodbujal nesmiselnih delovnih mest, ki ne koristijo nikomur, niti njihovim izvajalcem. Hkrati pa - če bi veljala marksistična teza - ne bi bili prizadeti tudi bogatejši sloji, pač pa predvsem revnejši, saj so najbolj na udaru (tako v pomenu nemogočih delovnih razmer kot v pomenu plačila za opravljeno delo). Graeber je nesmiselne zaposlitve označil kot bullshit jobs, torej dobesedno kot usrane službe.3 Njegova istoimenska knjiga se bere tudi kot antologija takšnih služb in zgodb delavcev, ki ne vidijo več smisla; med njimi so borzni posredniki, ki celotno kariero po računalnikih premeščajo fiktiven denar, korporativni pravniki, oglaševalci, »poklicni« sprehajalci psov itd. Po tržni logiki bi morale biti usrane službe obratno-sorazmerne z razvojem kapitalizma, dejansko pa so premosorazmerne, opozarja Graeber. Zakaj tu konkurenca ne deluje, za kakšen problem gre in kje je rešitev? Najprej poglejmo Graeberjevo (2019, str. 9-10) definicijo usranih služb: Usrana služba je oblika plačane zaposlitve, ki je tako popolnoma nesmiselna, nepotrebna ali škodljiva, da celo zaposleni ne more upravičiti njenega obstoja, in to kljub dejstvu, da se je zaradi zaposlitvenih pogojev dolžan pretvarjati, da to ne drži. Graeber opozarja na obseg pojava: čeprav deleža usranih zaposlitev ne moremo natančno izmeriti, to ne pomeni, da ne obstaja.4 Avtor navaja podatek, 2 Od tod dva pomembna poudarka v zvezi s participacijo delavcev: prvič, zaradi omenjenega razloga je lahko delo odtujeno tudi v nekapitalističnih ekonomijah; drugič, humaniziranja produkcijskih razmerij ne smemo omejiti samo na participacijo delavcev pri dobičku, saj s tem ignoriramo druga dva pogoja ekonomske demokracije, to je sodelovanje delavcev pri upravljanju podjetij in pa nujnost t. i. notranjega lastništva zaposlenih, bodisi na način delavskega delničarstva ali pa delavskega zadružništva - vse to je izvedljivo že znotraj kapitalističnega sistema in znotraj tržnih zakonitosti ter instituta zasebne lastnine. 3 Ne nasedajmo tradicionalni občutljivosti za vulgarnost, saj je naveden izraz (v Graeberjevi monografiji z istoimenskim naslovom) konceptualno utemeljen. Graeberjevih usranih služb ne smemo zamešati s prekarnimi zaposlitvami - čeprav sta termina podobna, nista sopomenki. Razliko med obema (brez nje ni mogoče razumeti obravnavanega pojava) prikažem v shemi 1. 4 Tudi zvezd in galaksij še nismo prešteli, a to ne pomeni, da vesolje ni veliko. 245 da je takšnih delovnih mest v razvitih ekonomijah od 37 do 40 odstotkov, D torej, kot trdi: »Približno polovica gospodarstva je iz usranih zaposlitev ali 0 pa take službe podpira« (Graeber, 2019, str. 285). Pri prekarnih zaposlitvah g. je ocena nekoliko lažja, saj jih evidentirajo tudi mednarodne statistike. Delež f prekarcev (med vsemi zaposlenimi) se v kapitalističnih ekonomijah giblje ■= nekje med 25 do 40 odstotki. Nižjo oceno v tem razponu navaja Guy Standing ® f (2018, str. 54), avtor, ki se je prvi poglobljeno ukvarjal s prekariatom, višja ocena pa temelji na povprečju statistik v zvezi z negativnimi obremenitvami pri delu po posameznih državah (OECD, 2023a). Mimogrede: ne tolažimo se s tem, da je v Sloveniji drugače. Glede prekar-nosti naša država res nima nadpovprečnih odstotkov, je pa glede na trend ena od najbolj kritičnih v Evropi. Med letoma 2007 in 2018 smo v Sloveniji povečali delež neprostovoljnih delnih zaposlitev kar za 50 odstotkov! To je drugo največje povečanje (prva je Grčija), medtem ko so se v Evropi v istem času povprečno povečale prekarne zaposlitve »le« za 30 odstotkov. Enako je z začasnimi zaposlitvami med mladimi, tudi tu smo po velikosti tega deleža drugi v EU (leta 2018), takoj za Portugalsko (OECD, 2023b). Ker smo v tem obdobju (2007-2018) doživeli zadnjo največjo ekonomsko krizo, takoj za njo pa tudi vrh izjemne gospodarske konjunkture, se ne moremo izgovarjati na »objektivne« okoliščine poslovanja. Takšno povečanje prekariata je zasluga državne politike. Shema 1: Tipologija nedostojnih delovnih mest v kapitalističnih gospodarstvih. usrane službe (bullshit jobs) 37-40 % prekarne službe (precariat) 25-40 % V shemi 1 opozarjam na kombinacije nedostojnih delovnih mest v kapitalističnih gospodarstvih. Medtem ko se kategorija (Graeberjevih) usranih služb navezuje na nesmiselnost5 dela, prekarna kategorija pa na podplačanost 5 Kot opozarjajo klinični psihologi, to velja celo za patološka stanja, npr. pri diagnozi v zvezi z »izgorelostjo« pri delu. Problem ni v delovni preobremenjenosti, pač pa v njegovi nesmiselnosti - izgorelost je stanje, ko »dejansko ne vidimo smisla v tistem, kar delamo« (Kovič, 2023). 246 co in negotovost,6 je še bolj problematičen njun presek, ki ga označujem kot ničvredne službe (junkjobs). Ta vsebuje nesmiselna opravila dveh vrst. Ena o so takšna, ki so nesmiselna za vse vpletene in za celotno družbo ter hkrati ^ podplačana, včasih celo neplačana. Druga podvrsta tega ničvrednega preseka pa je delo, ki je postalo nesmiselno samo delavcem kot izvajalcem takšnih opravil - čeprav so sicer družbeno koristna - in sicer zaradi mezdne depri-vacije. Prav ta (pod)kategorija del ostaja neverjetno marginalizirna, čeprav smo vsi vse bolj odvisni od nje. Kdor kljub plačilu za težaško delo ostaja v revščini ali pa oscilira okrog njenega praga, mu slej ko prej zbledi tudi smisel opravil, ki jih opravlja (npr. podplačane medicinske sestre, podplačani izvajalci socialnih storitev, čis-tilke). Podplačanost, ki jo tržne zakonitosti v kapitalizmu spodbujajo, ne pa preprečujejo, uničuje ne le fizična telesa, pač pa tudi nesporno koristna opravila, ustanove in poklice.7 Kaj koristi sužnju na bombažnem polju, če ve, da iz njegovega pridelka delajo srajce? In v tem je poanta prejšnje sheme: za razliko od (levega kroga) usranih zaposlitev, ki bi jih lahko ukinili brez škode za kogarkoli, pri ničvrednem delu (na preseku) velja nasprotno - treba ga je sanirati, finančno stimulirati, da preprečimo erozijo smisla družbeno koristnih opravil. Je to sploh možno znotraj kapitalističnega sistema, in če je, kako? Pri tem ne pozabimo, da so omenjene vrste nedostojnih delovnih mest iz sheme 1 le vrh ledene gore. Problem imamo celo z regulacijo legalnega dela, znotraj katerega meritokrat-ska distribucija nagrad ni tržno rešljiva.8 Še bolj pa je problematično nevidno delo, npr. gospodinjska dela, družinska oskrba nemočnih ipd.,9 ki je izključena iz vseh formalnih regulacij. Čeprav je po merilu vloženega dela, po številu storitev, njihovih izvajalcev (predvsem izvajalk) nevidno delo najobsežnejši sektor ekonomije (Sadasi-vam, 2021; SED, 2021; Rodric, 2002), je hkrati najmanj viden, najpogosteje ignoriran in najbolj na udaru. Nevidno delo je ogroženo zaradi dveh neoliberalnih prepričanj: da ga je treba izključiti iz vsake, tudi posredne regulacije, ker naj bi s tem samo obremenili davke in zato škodili formalni ekonomiji, in drugič, da je najbolje, če nevidno delo prepustimo zgolj tržnim zakonitostim ponudbe in povpraševanja. Nasprotno je res.10 Trg je (brez regulacije) izjemno škodljiv, ker ne rešuje, 6 Čeprav se prekariat razrašča tako hitro, da mu definicije težko sledijo, je najbolj celovito opredelitev prekariata podal Standing (2018, str. 34). Našteva sedem področij prikrajšanosti oz. negotovosti: v zvezi z varnostjo trga dela, zaposlitveno varnostjo, varnostjo službe, varnostjo pri delu, varnostjo reprodukcije spretnosti, dohodkovno varnostjo in varnostjo zastopništva. 7 Trenutno so med poklici v Sloveniji najbolj na udaru novinarstvo ter zdravstvena in socialna nega. 8 Edini poskus reševanja te težave v razvitih ekonomijah je t. i. tripartitni sistem (netržnih) pogajanj med sindikati, delodajalci in državo. 9 Natančnejšo kategorizacijo nevidnega dela podaja Komlosy (2021, str. 80ss). 10 Zadnje mednarodne statistike dokazujejo, »da so socialni delavci zaslužili plače, ki so bile za 21 odstotkov nižje od povprečne nacionalne urne postavke. Prevladuje delo s krajšim delovnim časom, pogosto zaradi pomanjkanja delovnih mest s polnim delovnim časom. Ženske 247 pač pa zaostruje vse glavne probleme razvitih družb,11 tudi najnovejše, s ka- D terimi se spopadamo v Sloveniji.12 o 0 1 k £D Alternative komodifikaciji dela I d Alternative, kako delo zavarovati pred škodljivimi učinki trga, so različne, a a niso poljubne. Deset najpomembnejših navajam v shemi 2. Ker se predlogi med sabo razlikujejo predvsem v dveh splošnih merilih, sem jih razvrstil na dve osi, glede na stopnjo de/komodifikacije dela (abscisa) in intenzivnost sprememb, ki jih predlogi obravnavajo, torej ali so bolj reformistični ali radikalnejši (ordinata). Shema 2: Alternative komodifikaciji dela. Radikalem Komodïfikacija krščanski [rejpatriarhalizem [afinnadjat.i. .družinske meide", pri nas: A. _ UUniinik t ofralnä RKC, iatetek ¡0. stol.) eskapisticni naturalizem (L J. Rousseau 1754] Dekomodifikacija sociatai-niliiibena država ■¡A. Giddens, 1996; EU] tehnicizem [«¡svetljenstra t ¡nanstvernM. misija, 17. stnl. eskapisticni absentizem (P. Laforgue, 1883 J. M. Keynes, 1K5 A. Cfffltt, A. Harper, K Stiriirg, 2020 socialna država: - socialne pravice kot državljanske pravice UTS + defcvske pravice Reformizem predstavljajo več kot 80 odstotkov delovne sile v oskrbi, kar kaže, kako se neenakosti med spoloma izražajo v sektorju« (Goudriaan in Renouvel, 2023). 11 Seznam teh problemov navajam v Dragoš (2021b). Najnovejši dokaz, da je to res - saj trgi s »samodejnim« mehanizmom ponudbe in povpraševanja ne morejo rešiti niti temeljne produkcijske težave, pomanjkanja delovne sile in kakovostnih delovnih mest - vidimo v vseh evropskih državah in ne le znotraj ožjih panožnih segmentov (Fernandes, 2023). 12 Zlasti: zdravstvena in stanovanjska oskrba (Wixforth in Haddouti, 2023; Dubois, 2023), problemi z inflacijo (Weiss, 2023; Weber, 2023; Wixforth in Haddouti, 2023; Nilsson, 2023; Lip-nik, 2023), vodenje gospodarstva (Kovač, 2023), izgubljanje delovnih mest zaradi tehnološkega napredka (Beblavy, Maselli in Veselkova, 2014) in revščina (Narayan, 2000; Ferrandis in Ruiz, 2023; Mason, 2023). 248 co Začnimo zgoraj desno, pri marksistični alternativi, saj se je koristno spomniti, da ta alternativa ni prva, a je najradikalnejša in hkrati zahteva najkore-o nitejši umik človeškega dela iz trga. Če je izvorni problem gospodarstva, člo-£ veštva in celotne družbe trženje oz. poblagovljenje dela (komodifikacija),13 bi tudi rešitev morala biti radikalna. A predlog ima, odkar se je pojavil pa vse do danes, tri glavne težave. Prvič, ni jasno, kako naj bi ekonomija sploh delovala, če bi ukinili tržne zakonitosti; drugič, vsi poskusi prakticiranja sistema, kakršnega je napovedal Marx, so klavrno propadli in povzročili veliko žrtev in trpljenja; tretjič, tudi če bi bila komunistična utopija izvedljiva, ostaja nerešeno vprašanje, kaj naj storimo do takrat. Naslednja alternativa, ki ohranja enake cilje, a zavrača radikalizem, je eskapistični absentizem. Gre za idejo, da je dekomodifikacija izvedljiva že brez revolucionarnega prevzema oblasti, in sicer preprosto tako, da bi manj delali. Prvi je to idejo zagovarjal Paul Lafargue, Marxov sodobnik (tudi njegov zet), ko je zahteval umik dela iz trga, in sicer s spremembo navad: »Človek se mora navaditi delati le tri ure na dan« (Lafargue, 1883, poglavje II). Pri tem bi namesto revolucionarnega aparata za rušenje oblasti zadostovala že zgolj sprememba vrednot pri delavcih; namesto storilnosti, ki jo kapital izkorišča, je treba kot prioriteto določiti brezdelje (»O, Lenoba, usmili se našega dolgega trpljenja! O, lenoba, mati umetnosti in plemenitih vrlin, bodi balzam za človeško stisko!«, Lafargue, 1883, poglavje IV). Ta beg od dela dobi pospešek v 20. in 21. stoletju, a tokrat brez moraliziranja in naivnosti, pač pa s sklicevanjem na razvoj produkcijskih sil, torej tehnologije in kakovosti delovne sile, ki omogoča obratno-sorazmeren odnos med družbenim bogastvom in količino živega dela. Zato je John M. Keynes (1930) že pred drugo svetovno vojno napovedal možnost skrajšave tedenskega delavnika zgolj na 15 ur, ne da bi se znižala plača, kar je zahteval že Lafargue.14 Pomanjkljivost teh predlogov ni v realizaciji, pač pa v učinkih, saj vse drugo, razen zmanjšane količine dela, ostane enako. V tem pogledu je bil radikalnejši starejši eskapistični naturalizem, ki je verske nauke o vlogi dela postavil na glavo. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, razsvetljenski filozof, je z apelom »Nazaj k naravi!« zahteval celovito vrnitev človeka in družbe v izvorno, neodtujeno »naravno« stanje, ki ga je naknadno pokvarila civilizacija, zlasti z izumom zasebne lastnine. Zadnji močan odmev teh idej se je zgodil z eksplozijo mladinske kontrakulture v šestdesetih letih 20. stoletja, ki ni brez zveze z najnovejšimi iskanji »naravnih« življenjskih slogov v sodobnih ekoloških gibanjih. Takšne eskapistične ideje se lahko zdijo naivne, gotovo pa niso nevarne, v nasprotju s tehnicizmom, ki je od vseh naštetih pogledov najvplivnejši (zlasti v 13 »Predmet, ki ga delo producira, njegov produkt, mu stopi nasproti kot neko tuje bitje, kot neka od producenta neodvisna moč. [...] Povnanjenje delavca v njegovem produktu pomeni ne le, da postane njegovo delo neki predmet, neka vnanja eksistenca, temveč da biva izven njega, neodvisno, njemu tuje, in da postane nasproti njemu samostojna sila, da mu stopi življenje, ki ga je posodil predmetu, sovražno in tuje nasproti« (Marx, 1979b, str. 302-304). 14 V zadnjem času tudi: Coote, Harper in Stirling, 2021; pri nas Korošec, 2011; Huš, 2014; Klarič, 2017. Najnovejši predlog tedenskega delovnika, ki bi trajal štiri dni, pa je oblikoval evropski komisar za zaposlovanje in socialne pravice Nicolas Schmit (Le Monde, 2023). 249 krizah). Čeprav je nasprotni pol rousseaujevskega naturalizma, se tudi ta smer D navdihuje pri razsvetljenstvu (racionalnost) in znanstvenotehnoloških revolu- 0 cijah. Tehnicizem je neurejen in večkrat nekonsistenten skupek različnih idej, g. a z osnovno poanto, ki v spregi z močjo deluje kot ideologija. Ta poanta se gla- f si - vse glavne družbene probleme, od socialnih do ekoloških, bo slej ko prej ■= rešil že sam razvoj tehnike in naravoslovnih znanosti.15 Predpostavlja se, da bo ® f dekomodifikacija dela dosežena s sicer postopnim, toda vse hitrejšim nadomeščanjem živega dela s preteklim (stroji, roboti, umetna inteligenca itd.). Delo naj bi se torej osvobodilo že znotraj kapitalizma in to brez posegov države in njenih stroškov; neoliberalizem je osrednja ideologija te utopije. Intelektualno zanimivejša je alternativa, ki jo predstavlja liberalni16 feminizem. Gre za zahteve, da bi žensko enakopravnost v zvezi z delom dosegli z uvedbo statusa, ki ga uživa moški spol že od nekdaj, torej z vključitvijo nevidnega dela med plačane zaposlitve. S tem bi se odpravili glavni štirje tradicionalni dejavniki podrejanja žensk: • dejstvo, da je še bolj od formalnega trga delovne sile izkoriščano tisto delo, ki je nujno, a sploh ni plačano, to je nevidno delo, • da se daleč največji del nevidnega dela izvaja znotraj družine in sorodstvenih mrež, • da skoraj vse nevidno delo deluje na ženski pogon, saj je tradicionalno in samoumevno delegirano ženskemu spolu, • da so vse velike javne institucije, npr. državni aparat, politične stranke in gibanja, v moških rokah, zato se celo znotraj progresivnega dela meščanskih in delavskih organizacij problematika nevidnega dela ne rešuje. Odlični predstavnici tega pristopa sta Mariarosa Dalla Costa in Selma James, ki zahtevata uvedbo plač za hišno delo, da ženske ne bodo več v lastnem domu »sužnje mezdnih sužnjev«. Ker so njihovi možje na formalnem mezdnem trgu v vlogi sužnjev, one pa jih doma servisirajo zastonj, sta iz tega izpeljali povsem logičen sklep, da »produktivnost mezdnega suženjstva temelji na neplačanem suženjstvu« (Dalla Costa in James, 1973, str. 17). Kljub pronicljivosti tega predloga se zatika pri izvedljivosti, saj ta varianta feminizma ne podaja odgovorov na nekatere ključne težave, ki se pojavijo, ko skušamo omenjene probleme rešiti s potiskanjem nevidnega dela v smeri formalne komodifikacije.17 15 Dober pregled nevarnosti tega pristopa podaja Rizman (2023). 16 Tu je oznaka liberalni uporabljena zgolj za razlikovanje od socialdemokratske, marksistične, konservativno-meščanske in radikalne struje feminizma. Sicer je res, da bolj ko gremo v podrobnosti, bolj je omenjen kriterij za razvrščanje feminističnih struj nezanesljiv, je pa kljub temu pri splošnih opisih pogosto uporabljen, npr. v: Komlosy, 2021, str. 47; Haralambos in Holborn, 2005, str. 267ss; Turner, 2006, str. 199-201; Outhwaite in Bottomore, 1998, str. 226228; Ritzer, 1992, str. 462-481; delno tudi Pogačnik, str. 2006, str. 1127-1128). 17 Na primer: ali gospodinjska opravila profesionalizirati s poklicno kvalifikacijo, ki zahteva dolgotrajne postopke, raznovrstno izobraževanje, sistem napredovanja ipd.; ali podpreti odpiranje novih, nekvalificiranih delovnih mest z nekvalificirano delovno silo; ali oblikovati specializirane ali integrirane storitve na tem področju; kako pritegniti moške in defeminizirati področje; kako regulirati ponudbo in povpraševanje; kako konkurirati ponudbi na črnem trgu itd. (več o tem v Hrženjak, 2007). 250 co Najmanj posrečene alternative - ki so, žal, najaktualnejše - so navede- ne v levem spodnjem kvadrantu sheme 2. Čeprav prihajajo tako z desne o kot z leve strani političnega spektra, jim je skupna smer, da si osvobajanje ^ dela obetajo z njegovim potiskanjem v večjo, ne pa v manjšo komodifika-cijo. Ena od najstarejših je krščanski (re)patriarhalizem, katerega najglasnejši pobudnik je v Sloveniji katoliška cerkev. Najvidnejši predstavnik tega pristopa je bil teolog Aleš Ušeničnik, ki je v prvi polovici 20. stoletja o tej temi vodil dvajset let trajajočo polemiko s katoliškim sociologom Andrejem Gosarjem.18 Po mnenju Ušeničnika (1910) naj bi pravičnost v delovnih razmerjih bila izvedljiva zgolj s »pravičnim« plačilom delavcem, ki bi ga na trgu delovne sile dosegli z uveljavitvijo t. i. »družinske mezde«, s katero bi delavec prejel tolikšno plačilo, da bi se lahko z njim dostojno preživljal on in njegovi družinski člani. Slabosti tega pristopa, ki jih je kritiziral Gosar, so predvsem štiri: • nepremišljenost: ni pojasnjeno, kaj naj bi bila primerna (»pravična«) plača kot tudi ne dilema, ali naj delavec s številčno družino dobi večje plačilo za isto količino dela, kot ga opravi samska oseba brez družine, in če je odgovor pritrdilen, kdo bo pokril razliko v njunih plačah; • antisocialnost: da bi delodajalci zgolj v imenu svojih krščanskih načel in brez posegov države res začeli izplačevati »pravične« plače, ni verjetno; in tudi če bi bilo, včasih sploh ni možno, na primer v tistih primerih, ko za prenizko mezdo ali njeno odsotnost niso delodajalci osebno krivi (v krizah, stečajih). Kaj storiti v teh primerih in ob odsotnosti socialne države, ki jo je Ušeničnik odklanjal, ker je v njej videl komunistično nevarnost? • kulturni boj: ker je Ušeničnik uveljavljanje »pravičnih« razmerij med delom in kapitalom načrtoval brez državne regulacije, mu ni ostalo drugega, kot da je zahteval vsesplošno moralno prenovo celotne družbe, tudi vcep-ljanje pravih (krščanskih) vrednot delavcem in delodajalcem, kar se naj bi zgodilo pod vodstvom katoliške cerkve, in sicer od zgoraj navzdol (Ušeničnik, 1910, str. 457-808); s tem je prvi na Slovenskem zahteval kulturno revolucijo in zaostril kulturni boj (takrat še nikjer ni bilo komunistov!), katolicizmu pa trasiral pot v avtoritarni koncept družbe; • totalitarizem: v istem času, torej kmalu po prvi svetovni vojni, se je v Evropi, tudi na Slovenskem, začel uveljavljati avtoritarni korporativizem, ki so ga najbolj dosledno prakticirali v fašističnih državah (Italija, Avstrija, Španija, Portugalska), in sicer na enakih idejah, kot jih je razvil Ušeničnik že več kot desetletje pred tem. Naslednji alternativi izhajata iz idej istega avtorja, a ju je kljub temu treba omenjati ločeno. Gre za Giddensovo Tretjo pot (2000) in pa za njeno naknadno izpeljavo, ki je postala uradna politika EU, to je koncept socialno-naložbene 18 Več o teh razhajanjih v: Gosar, 1987; Pelikan, 1997; Dragoš, 1998, str. 143-173 in 210-218; 1993, str. 37-40; 2015, str. 255-262. 251 države.19 Tretja pot je poskus iskanja sredine med politično levico in desnico, D kar na področju regulacije dela pomeni iskanje novega ravnovesja med soci- 0 alno državo in tržnimi zakonitostmi. Giddens ni upošteval, da prav to, kar naj g. bi on s tretjo potjo trasiral na novo - predstavlja že klasična socialdemokra- f cija sama po sebi, saj je nastala z zavrnitvijo obeh ekstremov, komunistične ■= centralizacije in anarholiberalnega prostega trga. ® f A ne pozabimo bistvenega, namreč, da Giddensov namen ni bil iz klasičnega zgodovinskega (socialdemokratskega) kompromisa narediti posodobljen kompromis, kjer bi se »tretja pot« poskušala znova otresti škodljivih levih in desnih ekstremov, kolikor jih je pač še ostalo. Giddensova pristranskost je v tem, da je obstoječi model socialdemokracije, ki jo je hotel posodobiti, okles-til samo levih vsebin, da bi se bolj približal desnim. Prva posledica je bila v oslabitvi angleških laburistov in prevladi torijcev in v poznejšem izstopu Združenega kraljestva iz EU. Druga posledica pa je bil dodaten veter v jadra sodobni desnici po vsej Evropi, ki krči socialno državo z natančno istimi argumenti, ki jih je uporabil prav Giddens v svoji tretji poti. Gre za predsodke o tem, da je klasična socialna država nepravična, ker jemlje bogatim in daje revnim ter moralno kvari ljudi, saj jih zaradi socialnih podpor odvrača od dela. Sisteme podpore je treba spremeniti tam, kjer vodijo v moralno nevarne situacije. Kjer je le mogoče, je treba spodbujati več aktivnega tveganja, če pa je to nujno, so potrebne zakonske obveze. (Giddens 2000, str. 126) Ne pozabimo, kdo je tarča. Opozorilo pred padcem v brezno »nevarnih situacij« - ker denar človeka moralno spridi, če ga dobi od države - ni niti Giddens niti nihče drug od teh, ki ga ponavljajo za njim, nikoli naslovil na zgornje sloje. Vedno je svarilo pred tem najglobljim krogom pekla uperjeno zgolj proti tistim spodaj, ki imajo najmanj.20 Da to ni nič novega, ne more veljati za tolažbo. Že v 19. stoletju je isto poudarjal Spencer, a je takrat veljal za antikonservativca, saj je v njegovem času ta ideja nekako asociirala na darvinizem, ki je bil miselna novost. Sto let pozneje pa je Giddensovo ponavljanje istega moraliziranja v tretji poti preraslo v politični program prenovljene levice: Politika tretje poti bi morala, zavedajoč se težavne zgodovine države blaginje, upoštevati nekatere desničarske kritike. Država blaginje je v osnovi nedemokratična, ker je odvisna od distribucije podpore od zgoraj navzdol. (Giddens, 2000, str. 117) 19 Več o tem konceptu (angl. social investment state) v: Morel, Palier in Palme, 2009; Vanden-broucke in Vleminckx, 2011; Kersbergen in Hemerijck, 2012; MacGregor, 2014; Ronchi, 2018; Filipovič Hrast in Rakar, 2018, str. 88-93; Dragoš, 2021c. 20 Eden od najbolj nazornih in škandaloznih primerov tega pravila je prav Slovenija, saj že ves čas od začetka samostojne države - to pomeni vsako leto, brez izjeme - namenjamo za socialno področje občutno manj denarja od evropskega povprečja, hkrati pa ostajamo vseskozi visoko nad povprečjem EU pri proračunskem financiranju ekonomskega sektorja (merjeno v % BDP; Eurostat, 2021). 252 co Prav iz teh Giddensovih idej je vzniknila tudi uradna evropska socialno-na-ložbena država, ki naj bi nadomestila obstoječo - preživelo, domnevno neo učinkovito, predrago in nepošteno - socialno državo. Novost socialno-nalož-^ bene države, v primerjavi s tretjo potjo, ni v tem, da bi bila drugačna, pač pa v dveh lastnostih, ki se že kažeta za škodljivi (zlasti po zadnji ekonomski krizi). Prva je, da vsebuje podrobnejše smernice in načrte o tem, kako konkretizirati Giddensove ideje iz tretje poti, druga posebnost pa je moč, ki so ga evropske države temu konceptu podelile s konsenzom na ravni EU. Torej, za kaj sploh gre? V čem je domnevna novost, »dodana vrednost« socialno-naložbenega koncepta? Odgovor je: prevrednotenje. V primerjavi s klasično socialno državo je »nov« koncept legitimiral prav tisto, kar je v »starem«, klasičnem, veljalo za prekršek. V imenu zmanjševanja t. i. novih družbenih tveganj (za katera klasična socialna država domnevno ni usposobljena, ker jih še ni poznala) se dogaja premeščanje sredstev in njihovih virov iz »starih« programov - temelječih na redistribuciji in dekomodifikaciji - v »nove« programe, v katerih so socialni cilji devalvirani v korist ekonomskih. Preprosteje rečeno, namesto klasičnih podpor tistim, ki so izvrženi iz trga dela, naj bi bila vloga socialne države v večjem financiranju programov, ki izboljšujejo in spodbujajo kakovost človeškega kapitala za tekmovanje na trgu delovne sile. Prav »nov« koncept, ki naj bi s socialnimi naložbami preprečeval nova družbena tveganja, je sam največje tveganje. Če ga vzamemo zares, se nam lahko zgodi črni scenarij s štirimi koraki (Vandenbroucke in Vleminckx, 2011, str. 8-9): 1. revščina bi se povečala, saj bi se povprečni dohodek delovno aktivnih gospodinjstev povečal, 2. relativni delež delovno neaktivnih gospodinjstev bi ostal enak, 3. hkrati bi se dvignil prag revščine, ker je odvisen od mediane dohodkov, 4. medtem pa bi socialni programi postali manj redistributivni, nadomestila za brezposelnost bi se znižala, saj veljajo za relikt »stare« socialne države. Socialno-naložbeni koncept bi mogoče lahko postal koristen le z dvema pogojema: če bi nehal biti škodljiv (za socialno margino) in če bi se odpovedal vlogi trojanskega konja neoliberalizma. A nič ne kaže, da bi se to lahko zgodilo. Omenjene alternative ne bo mogoče socializirati, še manj opustiti, dokler se bo ujemala z »lizbonsko« pogodbo EU (2009), ki daje poudarek večji liberalizaciji trgov, večji odvisnosti od tržnih zakonitosti in manjši regulaciji podjetij. Če se tu ne bodo zgodile spremembe, bo ta zveza socialno-nalož-bene države z lizbonsko pogodbo vodila v spore med evropskimi državami (Diamond, Roger in Daniel, 2015). Slabostim naštetih predlogov se še najbolj izogneta zadnji alternativi iz spodnjega desnega kvadranta sheme 2: klasična socialna država in univerzalni temeljni dohodek (UTD).21 Kajti v vsej človeški zgodovini je prvič in 21 Literature o univerzalnem temeljnem dohodku je veliko, tudi v Sloveniji. Zadnja znanstvena monografija o UTD, ki to tematiko predstavi najceloviteje in dokaže, da je uvedba UTD 253 najbolj intervenirala na področje dela šele največja družboslovna inovacija D 20. stoletja, to je socialna država. Za družboslovno inovacijo gre zato, ker je 0 brez znanosti ne bi bilo.22 Nastanek socialne države ni posledica družbenih g. kriz, revščine, trpljenja niti uporov zatiranih množic (ki so se dogajali v vsej f zgodovini, npr. že pred našim štetjem v času rimskega Spartaka ali pa nekaj ■= stoletij pozneje s krščanstvom ali pa z dve tisočletji poznejšo najbolj emanci- ® f patorsko in globalizirano ideologijo 19. stoletja, z marksizmom, ki vključuje protikolonialistična gibanja 20. stol.). Nastanek socialne države je v 20. stoletju omogočila šele povezava med empirijo in teorijo, ki je bila pred tem nerazvidna in prepuščena političnemu voluntarizmu in predsodkom. Šele s tem znanstvenim prispevkom se je prvič v zgodovini pokazalo, da empirija o socialni stratifikaciji korespondira - evi-dentno, preverljivo - s teoretskimi implikacijami za kapitalistični sistem. Nakar se je to spoznanje politično institucionaliziralo predvsem v Evropi, ker jo je najbolj prizadela katastrofa med drugo svetovno vojno. K tej povezavi teorije z empirijo so največ pripomogle sociologija, ekonomija, politologija pa tudi socialno delo, odkar se je iz dobrodelnosti preoblikovalo v družboslovno disciplino. Po zaslugi omenjenega koncepta se je klasični vlogi najmogočnejše institucije, države, uspelo transformirati iz represivne v socialno tako, da je iz komodifikacije izvzela tiste količine človeškega dela, ki se odslej brez diskriminacije namenjajo vsem članom družbe (javne storitve), ki so z redistri-bucijo bogastva postale dostopne tudi spodnjim slojem (progresivni davki), ki blažijo izkoriščanje zaposlenih na trgu delovne sile (delavske pravice, tri-partitni sistem) in omogočajo preživetje vse večji kategoriji državljanov, ki je izvržena iz trga delovne sile (starejši, nezaposleni, bolni, invalidi) ali pa se še ni vključila vanj (mladi). Še več, samo socialna država delno rešuje tudi tisto, kar ni uspelo nobeni drugi alternativi iz sheme 2, problematiko nevidnega dela. Na primer, neplačano skrb za nego in vzgojo otrok, za bolnike in starostnike, rešujejo javni programi, do katerih imajo dostop tudi plačilno nezmožni, skrb za materinstvo in porodnice se rešuje s pravico do delnega dohodka oz. nadomestil v času porodniškega dopusta. Vse te probleme neplačanega dela socialna država blaži v smeri rfekomodifikacije, ne pa v nasprotni smeri (kot predlagajo alternative iz leve polovice sheme 2). tudi ekonomsko izvedljiva brez uvedbe novih davkov, je v Sloveniji izšla pred štirimi leti (Dragoš, 2019). 22 Kljub obširnosti in nepreglednosti literature o nastanku socialne države priporočam za splošen pregled: Gladstone, 2003; Kennedy, 2013; Kennett in Lendvai-Bainton, 2017; Siim, 2006; Outhwaite in Bottomore, 1998; O'Rand, 2012; Fives, 2008; Haralambos in Holborn, 2005. V jugoslovanskem in slovenskem prostoru najdemo prva in analitično najboljša dela o tem v: Kržišnik, 1976; Ružica, 1985; Rus, 1990. 254 * Sklep ¿5 Socialna država je zato najpomembnejša družboslovna inovacija, ker ji je •S prvič v zgodovini uspelo združiti tržno kompetitivno družbo s humanističen nimi načeli in znanstveno preverljivimi dejstvi. Spoj demokracije in kapitalistične ureditve se je lahko stabiliziral le z institucionalizacijo redistribucijske funkcije, ki jo je prevzela država. Tako so nastale socialne politike 20. stoletja. Te se kljub različnim variacijam vse usmerjajo k dvema glavnima ciljema, v demarginalizacijo najšibkejših, da družba ne razpade, hkrati pa v zagotavljanje kakovosti življenja za vse družbene sloje (z javnimi storitvami in programi). Živimo v času, ko je ta pristop že pol stoletja na udaru neoliberalizma, in to s povsem enakimi ugovori proti socialni državi, s kakršnimi so izpodbijali zamisel o tem konceptu že pred njegovim nastankom (npr. v 19. stol.) - da gre za nepravičnost, za finančno nevzdržnost, za dušenje tržne svobode, za erozijo meritokracije s penetracijo komunističnih idej (za propad načela »kdor ne dela, naj ne je«), za dušenje civilne družbe, svobode, ekonomije itd. Nič od tega ni res - razen treh dejstev: a) ker se je koncept socialne države uspešno dokaz(ov)al po drugi svetovni vojni, predvsem v Zahodni Evropi, je s stopnjevanjem globalne kompeti-tivnosti nastal vtis, da je geografska omejenost tega koncepta dokaz njegove nesposobnosti; b) ker redistribucijska in blaginjska funkcija povečuje stroške, saj se država iz tradicionalno-represivne vloge ne more spremeniti v socialno brez povečanja davkov, se zaostri vprašanje učinkovitosti tega koncepta; c) s tem pa se problematizira tudi vprašanje njene uspešnosti (v pomenu stopnje realizacije ciljev). Pokazalo se je, da socialni državi - kljub obljubam - ni uspelo zmanjšati nekakovostnih delovnih mest, sistem socialnih pravic je postal preveč razdrobljen, nepregleden in včasih na prenizki ravni, saj socialne pravice niso postale brezpogojne, pogosto jim ne uspe zmanjšati revščine niti po obsegu, niti po dolgotrajnosti, niti po globini, hkrati pa je raven socialnih pravic (»transferjev«) še vedno odvisna predvsem od političnega voluntarizma vsakokratnih vladnih koalicij. Ker so navedene kritike vsebinsko pomembne (v nasprotju z večino drugih), jih ni mogoče zreducirati zgolj na interese elit ali ideologijo. Zato se je koristno spomniti, kakšne so možnosti za (de)komodifikacijo človekovega dela in pa glede celovitosti oz. globine potrebnih sprememb (reformizem / ra-dikalizem). Čeprav so alternative številne, niso poljubne. V članku sem jih omenil deset: marksizem, eskapistična naturalizem in absentizem, liberalni feminizem, tehnicizem, krščanski (re)patriarhalizem, Giddensova tretja pot, koncept socialne države, njena evropska alternativa, socialno-naložbena država in univerzalni temeljni dohodek. Pri prenovi socialne države je treba biti previden, da ne podležemo neo-liberalnim ugovorom, ki ne gredo v smeri izboljšanja socialne države, pač pa 255 erodirajo legitimnost njenega obstoja. Previdnost pomeni upoštevanje dveh D poudarkov: 0 1. Giddensova tretja pot, tudi njena socialno-naložbena konkretizacija, ne g. vsebuje niti enega predloga, ki bi hkrati uresničeval cilje socialne države f (ne pa se od njih oddaljeval) in pa pomenil takšno izboljšavo, ki je ne bi ■= bilo mogoče realizirati znotraj klasične socialne države; šele s tema dve- ® f ma pogojema - ko bi bila izpolnjena - bi bila smiselna zamenjava socialne države z nečim drugim. 2. 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Pridobljeno 18. 7. 2023 s https://www.socialeurope.eu/ price-and-profit-curbs-or-how-really-to-fight-inflation Zalokar, L. (2023). Srbija se lahko zgodi povsod. Delo, 29. 5. 2023. Pridobljeno 29. 5. 2023 s https://www.delo.si/nedelo/srbija-se-lahko-zgodi-povsod Original scientific article Received on 17 January 2023, accepted on 16 June 2023 doi: 10.51741/sd.2023.62.4.259-274 Gordana Horvat The importance of formal and informal support networks for foster parents in establishing the normalisation of children's life: the case of Croatia Foster care has become the focus of social work in Croatia in recent years, due to the lack of placement capacity in institutions and process of deinstitutionalisation which aims to achieve normalisation of human life in the community. In foster care, the normalisation of a child's life is a challenge for all those involved in the process, as there is no inclusive model of foster care in Croatia and the role of social work is divided between all actors in the foster care process. Therefore, the thesis is put forward that for the establishment of the normalisation of the life of a foster child, it is important to provide formal and informal networks in the community, which are built and connected by social work in joint collaboration. The purpose of this paper is to identify the current support network for foster care, determine the needs of foster parents for normalizing the life of a child in foster care, and examine how social work as a profession contributes to this process. Through a qualitative analysis of eight semi-structured interviews with foster families conducted between November 2021 and January 2022, the findings indicate that foster parents need more accessible ongoing institutional support from social workers, but also non-formal forms of support, particularly associations of foster parents in the civil sector and better collaboration with children's primary families. Key words: foster care, childcare, families, deinstitutionalisation, social work, social work centres. Gordana Horvat, is a doctoral student at the Faculty of Social Work, University of Ljubljana, and an assistant at the Faculty of Law, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek UNIOS. Contact: ghorvat@pravos.hr. Pomen formalnih in neformalnih podpornih mrež za rejniške starše pri zagotavljanju normalizacije otrokovega življenja: primer Hrvaške Rejništvo je v zadnjih letih na Hrvaškem postalo predmet zanimanja socialnega dela zaradi pomanjkanja namestitvenih kapacitet v institucijah in zaradi procesa deinstitucionalizacije, ki si prizadeva za normalizacijo življenja v skupnosti. Pri rejništvu je normalizacija otrokovega življenja izziv za vse vpletene, ker na Hrvaškem ne ostaja inkluzivni model rejništva in ker je vloga socialnega dela razdeljena med vse akterje v rejništvu. Avtorica izhaja iz domneve, da je za zagotovitev normalizacije pomembno poskbeti za formalne in neformalne mreže v skupnosti, ki jih socialno delo vzpostavlja in povezuje. V članku prepozna obstoječe podporne mreže za rejništvo in preučuje vlogo socialnega dela pri tem. Na podlagi kvalitativne analize osmih polstrukturiranih intervjujev z rejniškimi družinami, opravljenih med novembrom 2021 in januarjem 2022, izsledki kažejo, da rejniški starši potrebujejo več dostopne kontinuirane institucionalne podpore od socialnih delavk in delavcev, pa tudi neformalne oblike podpore, zlasti združenj rejniških staršev v civilnem sektorju, in boljše sodelovanje s primarnimi družinami otrok. Ključne besede: rejništvo, otroško varstvo, družine, deinstitucionalizacija, socialno delo, centri za socialno delo. Gordana Horvat je doktorska študentka Fakultete za socialno delo Univerze v Ljubljani in asistentka Pravne fakultete Univerze Josipa Juraja Strossmayerja v Osijeku. Kontakt: ghorvat@pravos.hr. Introduction The foster care system in Croatia, as in other European countries, is becoming more and more important, which is highlighted in the policies and guidelines of the European Union on forms of care for children and children's rights. It is estimated that around 5 to 6 million children in the world still live in institutional care (Goldman et a!., 2020, p. 606). In the countries of 0000-0002-7601-5837 '13 3 260 ~ the European Union, a total of 758.012 children have been displaced from 5 their families, of which 421,810 children live in family-type accommodation « (UNICEF & Eurochild, 2021, p. 8). The lack of foster families is felt in all Euro-| pean countries (Sellick, 2011). a Data from the Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Pol- icy of Croatia (Ministarstvo rada, mirovinskoga sustava, obitelji i socijalne politike (2021) show that in 2021 there were 1,286 foster families for children in Croatia, accommodating 1,980 children. Compared to 2020, there is a decrease in the number of foster parents and 300 fewer children in foster care. The motivation of potential foster parents is proportionally related to the support network, which represents a sense of belonging for the child, the possibility of developing relationships and easier acceptance of separation from the primary family, and enables the child's involvement in daily activities and the immediate social environment (Zizak et al., 2012). In addition, research by Amanfo et al. (2008) and Krajncan and Bajzelj (2015) points to the child's need to feel safe and to have control over and determine his or her own life, which are elements of normalisation that influence the child's good adjustment to the foster family (Zizak et al., 2012). The research conducted by authors Sabolic and Vejmelka (2015) in Croatia shows that the motive for engaging in foster care is the support network the family receives from institutions or the community. Support for foster parents is necessary for the child to normalise life in a new family upon arrival, which means a life that is most similar to the life of children in their primary families (Ajdukovic and Radocaj, 2008, p. 24). This is an issue that needs to be talked about more in Croatia, given the lack of cooperation at all levels and the difficulty of establishing a support network (Laklija and Brkic, 2022). The first part of the paper presents the theoretical framework and terminological concepts related to the research objectives aimed at determining the type of networks available to foster families and their availability, while the second part presents the qualitative research conducted with foster families in Croatia. Foster care as a resource in social work and a strategic part of the deinstitutionalisation process in Croatia In Croatia, institutional accommodation has less and less space for children (Laklija, 2011). On the other hand, there are more and more children who are abused and neglected in their primary families, as well as children with developmental disabilities (Thoburn, 2009). Children placed in foster care stay longer and longer in this form of placement and grow up in foster families because the conditions for a return to the family are not met (Tilbury and Osmond, 2006). Foster families are an important resource in social work for the placement of children, but as there are still not enough foster parents in Croatia, social 261 workers face a complex task when they have to place a child outside their h home. The role of foster care in social work is related to the process of dein- m stitutionalisation in Croatia, the aim of which is to ensure the right of children r to grow up in an environment that is closest to family placement (Ajdukovic § and Radočaj, 2008, p. 24). Despite the long tradition of foster care in Croatia, 0 it is not conceptually focused on connecting all those involved in foster care rr with the community, and the primary family is particularly excluded. 1 In contrast to Croatia, Slovenia, which has a similar tradition of foster care, | has a developed model of foster care that includes all participants (Čačinovič 0 Vogrinčič and Mešl, 2019, p. 136), and the focus is on the need to provide the a child with positive interpersonal relationships that include all participants U in the foster care process and a support network (Kompan Erzar, Rožič and 0 Simonič, 2011). In Slovenia, the concept of an individual group in foster care § was developed, which includes all participants equally through a project of 0 joint cooperation and is regulated by law (Čačinovič Vogrinčič, 2006). The fo- 11 cus is on establishing cooperation, solutions and equality in power position f and includes different types of support for the primary and foster family and t the child (čačinovič Vogrinčič and Mešl, 2019, p. 141). This example shows p a that deinstitutionalisation is not only a transition from an institutional form § of care to non-institutional placements, but also requires a change in socie- § ty's attitude, a change in power position and dialogue (Flaker, 2014, p. 24). t In Croatia, several studies have been conducted in the last two decades 1 that addressed the needs of foster children, but no studies have been record- § ed on the support network for foster parents and the establishment of nor- h malisation of a child's life in foster care. § Support networks for foster families In order to meet the needs of the foster parents and the child, formal and informal support networks provide a social resource to meet the needs of the family in everyday or crisis situations (Lin and Ensel, 1989). The support provided by social resources in adapting to the living conditions provided by the network is emotional, psychological, physical, informational or material, depending on the needs of the person (Dunst, Trivette and Deal, 1988). Furthermore, previous research shows that the support network available to the family is an important factor in positive coping with difficulties in foster care, but also in lower rates of children returning to the system (Farmer and Wijedasa, 2013). The main role in the foster care process is played by support from family, friends, neighbours and formal support from experts and institutions. The support network should actively involve all participants in the foster care process, the primary and foster family and the child, as the co-creation of solutions in the foster care system extends from the family to the community (Cacinovic Vogrincic and Mesl, 2019, p. 150), which requires the activation of all possible available resources of the support network. 262 ~ According to Nirje (1969), the principle of normalisation states that every 5 human being has the right to a life that is most similar to the life of people « without difficulties. The author interprets normalisation as the establish-| ment of an everyday life that allows for a normal daily routine, living space to a live in, privacy for each person, access to social relationships, normal experiences while growing up, or choice and participation in decisions that affect the individual's future. Normalisation of the child's life in foster care According to May and Finch (2009), normalisation is the work that actors do while participating in a range of activities, which may involve new or changed ways of thinking, acting and organising that integrate with pre-existing socially shaped knowledge and practise. Furthermore, the normalisation process theory model consists of several components, and one of them is flexible monitoring, which involves monitoring the way practise is understood by the actors involved (May and Finch, 2009). Foster care as a service, institutional support for providers of such services, and society's acceptance and perception of foster care can be considered as practise, while foster parents and foster children are actors. Compared to institutional placement, the advantages of foster care are more personal approach to each child, the opportunity to create their own daily routine, and generally appropriate living conditions (Bronston, 1976). In contrast, professionals are taught from the beginning of their work in institutions not to establish personal relationships with users, which reduces the quality of life of users in institutions (Brandon, 1991). The principles of normalisation, which include effective participation of service users in the institution are even more evident in foster care. While the normalisation of services in institutions refers to the transfer of power from the hands of professionals to shared decision-making that is important to the lives of users, this balance of decision-making sometimes already exists in foster care. Unlike an institution, the goal of foster care is to empower people in foster care to stand up for themselves, make decisions about their own lives and develop personally in a family-like environment. Normalisation emphasises the importance of raising social awareness for the equal status of vulnerable members of society such as children (Bronston, 1976), thus ensuring the overcoming of physical and social exclusion (O'Brien, 1980). Taking all these theoretical assumptions and guidelines into account and placing them in the context of fostering, a support network is necessary to have a good fostering experience. Furthermore, support networks strengthen the foster parents' sense of belonging to their new environment and the integration of foster children into the community is necessary for their proper development and daily functioning. 263 The problem of the study Existing support networks are an important source of support for everyone involved in foster care process because there is no well-developed concept of foster care in Croatia. As social work is an important link for all participants and its role is to expand the support network in the community, the research objectives are to define the existing support networks available to foster families. The research objectives are focused on analysing the types of support networks available to foster parents that help the child and family gain more control over their lives. In accordance with the work and research objectives, the following research questions were asked: How do foster parents describe the existing support network and what advantages and disadvantages do they observe? What support network do foster parents need to normalise a child's life? And how do social workers contribute to the normalisation of a child's life in a foster family? Methodology Data was collected qualitatively by conducting semi-structured interviews with foster parents to gain a better understanding of the topic under study by talking about their daily lives, which the interviewees interpret and describe through narrative data (Mejovsek, 2013). Phenomenological qualitative research allowed me to gain a more detailed understanding of the topic and area under study, which enables the process of learning objective truth (Lamza Posavec, 2021), while interviewees describe their life experience of the phenomenon (Creswell and Creswell, 2018, p. 25), people's real problems are the starting point of the research (Mesec, 1998, p. 30). Based on the literature review, I analysed the previous research findings in the field of foster care. The empirical research applied in the thesis provides data on foster parents' needs for establishing normalisation of a foster child's life, so that foster parents interpret difficulties in everyday life as well as the need for a support network. The research used the semi-structured interview method, which was conducted with respondents in two ways: in person at the foster family's home (five interviews) and via the online platform Zoom (three interviews). The questions were prepared in accordance with the research questions and additional sub-questions were asked in relation to the answers in order to deepen the understanding of the researched topic. The interviews lasted between 30 and 45 minutes. Respondents expressed their experiences, feelings and thoughts on the topic, and open-ended questions gave them space to express their views. The sampling criteria for the research and for conducting the interviews were established and included foster families with different criteria: from 3 TJ O TJ O 264 ~ rural and urban areas, with different lengths of foster care, foster parents 5 with children of different ages, foster parents who are employed, unem-« ployed or retired. Part of the sample is convenient, and concerns foster fam-| ilies known to me (N=3), while part of the sample (N=5) was collected using a the snowball method based on recommendations from known foster parents who met the sampling criteria. Eight interviews were conducted, from each family with one foster parent individually. Seven families consist of married couples and one family consist of a divorced woman who works as a foster mother. The age of the foster parents ranges from 35 to 65 years, and the duration of the foster care practice is from 3 to 18 years. In five families, one spouse is working while the other is unemployed or retired, while in three families both spouses are retired. The current number of foster children in the families ranges from without children at this time to a maximum of three children, and the age of the children ranges from 4 to 19 years. The length of current stay of children in foster families ranges from 11 months to 13 years. The research was conducted with foster parents in Croatia, in the counties of Osijek-Baranja and Brod-Posavina, in the period from November 2021 to January 2022. Basic demographic data was collected at the beginning of the interview, while the second part of the interview was about getting answers to the research questions. Before starting the research, approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social Work in Ljubljana. Before the interview, I explained to all respondents what my role is, the aim and purpose of the research and the protection of their personal data. I explained that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from participation at any time. All participants signed their consent to participate and to the audio recording of the interview. After the interview, I offered the interviewees to read the transcript of the interview and to add to, or correct, statements if necessary. After transcription, I analysed the interviews using the method of qualitative analysis in such a way that categories and subcategories were formed in the table in which the transcript data were linked, coded and connected with concepts from all the interviews. The concepts are grouped and related to the research subject and placed in relationships, theory and research questions. Each interview has a code marked with a letter and a number (Mesec, 1998). I have presented the findings descriptively and related them to previous academic findings and research in the discussion section. Results The findings of the research show that foster parents in rural areas do not have all the services they need, pointing to the lack of primary and secondary schools nearby, poor transport links, lack of lighting, shops, social workers, post office or medical doctors. 265 We live in the countryside, transport links are very poor. If you do not have a car, you cannot do anything. (U5) The cooperation with the doctors is described as positive by foster parents, they are available for consultations and foster parents can always come with the child without long waiting times. Most of the interviewees describe the teachers at the school as people who make a lot of effort to bring the child together with peers, to include the child equally in classes and to prevent discrimination of the child among peers. I also asked for help from the school and the pedagogue, the pedagogue gave me instructions and that helped me. (U5) For foster parents, the most important thing is the support of their own family, but also the support of friends and the understanding of neighbours. My relatives and others were happy, many of them think I am doing something good. (U5) The support expected by primary family of the child is regularly absent, and relationships with the primary family are described by foster parents as complex and difficult. One third of the respondents state that they are in contact with the foster families where the child's brothers or sisters are placed and that they try to maintain these relationships because they are in the child's best interest. Respondents mention civil sector as providing support in the area of additional education, thematic workshops, support or organising activities and socialising for foster parents. Foster parents indicate that they are well accepted in the community and that there is no difference in acceptance before and after fostering. They indicate that the environment in which they live is stimulating and that most people think that they do humane work, but a part of people believe that foster parents work only to earn money. Foster parents state that they lack certain resources in the community that could meet the needs of the child and the foster family. One respondent stated; It is more of a problem that we do not have activities for the children to participate in. (U7) When it comes to achieving the normalisation of the child's life upon arrival in the family, respondents talk mainly about the need for social workers and institutional support. Respondents indicate that they received the most intensive support at the very beginning of foster care, after which the intensity of support decreases. A quarter of respondents are satisfied with the support they receive from social workers, while a quarter of respondents indicate that they cannot rely on them, but only on an informal support network. At the beginning of the foster care I was satisfied with everything, with the support of the centre, the psychologist, the social worker. I had support, help and everything. Later, that was lost, and I did not have support anymore. (U1) 3 TJ O TJ O 266 ~ The centre gives me the most support. They participate, they want everything, 5 there is no problem with them. (U4) = Half of the respondents say that they are supported by the social workers, 5 but that they have to fight for it, invest a lot of effort and be persistent in their demands. The frequency with which foster parents need contact with social workers varies, averaging 2-3 times per month. All respondents indicated that they would like to be visited by social workers more often, they invite them often, but the most common response is that they do not have time, they have many families they are responsible for, and they are sure that everything is fine with the foster parents. All foster parents indicated that they do not have a change plan for the child (a plan for working with the child) and that they write a report every six months on the child's progress based on their observations. In addition, all respondents emphasise the importance of having an association for foster parents in their area that no foster parent has. They see the associations as a space for learning through sharing experiences, but also as a benefit to the foster child to whom the foster parents can provide a better understanding (Redding, Fried and Britner Redding, 2000). Currently, foster parents make informal contacts on online platforms (Facebook) or in groups on applications (viber, WhatsUp). When I participated in the foster care workshop, I learned a lot. (U5) I personally did not receive any written instructions to behave this way or that way, I participated in the association's workshop and learned all kinds of things. If I had known them beforehand, it would have been much easier for me at the beginning. (U1) As specific problems related to social work centres, respondents mention restrictions in the area of consent for the child, which should be given by the still custodial primary family, or the social work centre. Consent is required for activities at school, such as photo shoots, field trips, going to the movies or theatre, to more complex needs of the child, such as medical exams or serious illnesses. Foster parents are often unable to reach the child's parents, or the parents promise to sign the necessary documents but often do not. Most foster families expect support and cooperation from the primary family, but this is often not forthcoming, which interferes with the normalisation of the child's life, in which the presence of the primary family is still very important (Zizak, 2008). All participants agree that parental consent is necessary for more complex things in child's life, but for everyday life and minimal risks for the child, they believe that they can make the decision themselves. You cannot do anything. The child is yours 24 hours a day. There is nothing you can do. Sign off on the surgery? No. Field trip? No. Theatre? No. Nothing. And the child is yours 24 hours a day and you are responsible for him. (U6) 267 We had to complain about the cooperation with the centre, they are slow to react when something happens. When you need them for something. (U7) Another important problem cited by foster parents is the jurisdiction of the child's social work centre, which is often not located in the same city or even county. Foster parents turn to unfamiliar social workers, and there is a lack of communication and visits by a social worker due to distance, while obtaining the necessary consent is difficult. All respondents indicate the importance of support from social workers in crisis situations when they need advice on how to deal with certain problems, how to approach the child, or how to respond to certain behaviours of the child. They describe the lack of support in such situations as feeling that they do not have enough skills. If you say you cannot handle it, then you are not a good foster parent anymore, then you are a number and a place that needs to be filled. (U1) Respondents understand the needs of social workers when it comes to the placement of the child and the urgency of the situation, but at the same time feel that there is a lack of reciprocity in the joint relationship. I believe that foster parents should be asked a lot and given a lot. (U1) They note the overwork of social workers in social work centre, the lack of professional staff, and the frequent change of staff in charge of their case. We are satisfied with everything except for the waiting time at the social work centre, which can take up to an hour, and the overload of social workers should be reduced because they are usually not available when we need them. (U2) I would like the social workers to visit and talk to the children more often. More social workers should be hired because when we need them, they are mostly in the field or must take care of paperwork. (U3) Discussion Formal support is defined as support provided by professionals, services, agencies, or institutions (Spilsbury and Korbin, 2013), which includes all systems and sectors available to families. The education sector plays an important role in the child's adjustment and integration into the new environment, as the child's experience of moving to a new school can influence the stability of the child's placement in foster care (Barber and Delfabbro, 2004). Research by Zizak et al. (2012) in Croatia shows that children have better experiences with foster care when they are better accepted in a social environment such as school, which is also evident in my research. The health sector provides significant support to foster care. Sobocan (2014) points out that medical support after a child's arrival in the family is particularly important when foster parents are confronted with the most neglected children who need medical care, which they perceive as a demanding 3 TJ O TJ O 268 ~ task, especially because there are no doctors and medical specialists in the 5 area. i « For foster parents, the strength and stability of the informal, personal net- 's work, as well as the connection between family members, is of the greatest a importance, according to Zizak (2008). The author notes that foster parents have a developed informal support network and rely on the support of their spouses, their own children, close and extended relatives, and friends, which is consistent with the findings of my research. In addition, Rodger, Cummings and Leschied (2006) link foster parents' motivation to engage in foster care to the fact that it is higher when there is more informal support. As Cacinovic Vogrincic and Mesl (2019, p. 170) stated, the child's informal social networks can also be helpful for the child as a source of self-confidence and power, as the child lives not only in the family but also outside it. Although the child's contacts with the family are crucial for the child's proper development and growth (Morgan and Baron, 2011), they are often absent or not regular, as the results of my research show. Zizak et al. (2012) state that the family network influences the child's experience of belonging to his or her own family. The importance of involving and working with the primary family is illustrated by the example of Slovenia (Cacinovic Vogrincic and Mesl, 2019), where this is highlighted as a fundamental role of social work. In Croatia, children are often placed in foster care far away from the place where they have been living, which limits the possibility of the child's contact with the primary family (Laklija and Brkic, 2022), but also the cooperation between foster parents, the child and social workers. Lietz and Strength (2011) define the importance of a support network in facilitating the moment of a child's separation from the primary family, which foster parents agree with, stating that this is the moment when they most need the support of social workers. Opinions about the support provided by social workers are divided, and similar results are shown by the research conducted by Sabolic and Vejmelka (2015), who found that foster parents are most satisfied with the support of the informal network, while social workers are most often unavailable and not interested in cooperation. My findings, which relate to recorded infrequent contacts between a social worker and a child, are consistent with research by Ajdukovic, Sladovic-Franz and Kamenov (2005) which shows that 90% of children in foster care do not receive the professional support they need and that social workers visit foster families on average once or twice a year. Thoburn (2009) shows in his research that foster care outcomes are strongly influenced by the continuity of contact between foster parents and social workers. The involvement of the child and foster parents is based on the assessment of the child's needs and planning together with experts who actively participate in foster care placement (Jedud Boric, Mirosavljevc and Salinovic, 2017). 269 In addition, activities related to the foster care process, such as creating a plan for the child, are an important segment for foster parents because they provide a sense of partnership or belonging to the institution where they provide services to children. The exclusion of foster parents and the child from the planning process suggests that there is neither an inclusive model of foster care nor a shared collaboration among all participants. Cacinovic Vogrincic (2016) cites as an example a concept she developed in Slovenia, in which work with families is understood as a joint co-creation and the work of all participants through an individual work project to support families. The concept aims to solve problems and involve all participants as equal actors, while my research shows that the primary family is insufficiently involved, i.e. they only participate in certain parts of the plan development. Children and foster families participate only partially or not at all in the development of the plan, while further cooperation with social workers takes place only a few times a year or it is difficult to get the necessary support. According to Jedud Boric, Mirosavljevc and Salinovic (2017), research shows that children want to participate and be included, but this is often not the case when decisions are made about their future lives, which is the basis for the normalisation of the child's life in a new family. The theory of normalisation process includes understanding work as a purposeful social activity that involves investment of personal and group resources to achieve goals (May and Finch, 2009). An example of this type of "work" is foster parent associations, which are almost non-existent or not accessible to all. In order to achieve normalisation of a child's life in foster care, foster parents must provide a daily decision-making routine for the child, which is a problem when the homes of the primary and foster families are farther apart, but also when they are not far apart because all those involved in the foster care process are not connected. Social workers play a key role in normalisation of foster child's life by mobilizing existing and new support networks (Cacinovic Vogrincic and Mesl, 2019, p. 170), and Kimberlin, Anthony and Austin (2009) show that the lack of a support network can be considered a risk factor for successful adjustment and reunification with the primary family, which is one of the goals of foster care. According to my research, overall support for foster care is inadequate, especially from the formal network, which does not have the resources to provide a better service. The informal network is the main source of support that foster parents rely on, but professional support is still lacking. The shortcomings of my study lie in the small sample size (eight foster families). It is difficult to generalise and draw definitive conclusions, so it would be good to expand the number of participants in further research. The limitation in the research is reflected in the impossibility to conduct the research in all counties of Croatia, as the number of foster families varies greatly from region to region. For future research it would be good to use a larger and representative random sample in order to obtain the best possible generalisation of the results. In addition, it would be important for social work academics and practitioners 3 TJ O TJ O 270 ~ to explore other topics that respondents said were important to them, but which 5 are not the subject of this study, such as creating an individual plan for child, de« veloping a foster care model, and methods of working with families. CD ■a o a Conclusion The results of my research show that despite good policies in the field of foster care, implementation in practice is still difficult and support for foster parents is insufficient. Formal forms of support are rare and inadequate, while the civil sector is weak and there are insufficient associations for foster parents. Social workers are insufficiently involved in the foster care process. Mobilizing and building a support network for foster parents is not a systematic process and does not receive sufficient attention. The needs of foster parents aimed at normalizing the child's life in foster care cannot be fully met. This directly affects the difficulty of establishing a daily routine in the family, the difficulty of making decisions about the child, or the extension of time to resolve the obstacles and difficulties of foster care. Institutional support exists but is scattered and does not connect all professionals in a single support network. Although the law clearly defines foster parents' rights, practice shows that it is difficult to monitor and implement all the institution's obligations to foster parents. This is particularly evident in the creation of a plan for a foster child, which, according to the findings, involves not only the foster parents, but also the child and the primary family. The involvement of all participants in foster care in the planning process is a possible topic for further research in social work. In addition, the normalisation of a foster child's life and the quality of the foster care relationship are reflected in the relationship with the primary family, which research has shown to be disrupted or difficult for the foster family. For social work, it is important to balance the relationship between the foster parents and the primary family and to include them in a common support network. Social work is an extremely important link in the normalisation of a child's life in a foster family, which is expressed in foster families' needs for more frequent meetings with social workers, acceleration of processes necessary for the daily functioning of the family, and more intensive support after the child's arrival in the family. Foster parents rely primarily on the informal support network, but there is a need to develop additional services in the community. The results show the foster parents' need for information, exchange of experiences, and emotional support, which are prerequisites for the balance and dynamism of family life and, consequently, for the normalisation of the child's life in the new family. Guidelines for improving informal support for foster parents are reflected in the possibility of developing support groups in the community for foster parents, which would allow foster parents to share experiences, acquire new knowledge, and create a sense of community. 271 On the level of formal support, regular group meetings of foster parents with social workers could lead to a similar outcome. In Croatia, the social work profession should focus on developing new social work concepts, advancing foster care practice, and methods of working with families. The role of social work centre should be clear and focus on the quality of foster care, well-educated and trained social workers to work with families with multiple problems, and an inclusive approach to working with families. An example of best practices in other countries may be useful, such as the family group conference method, which allows for the participation of all participants in the foster care process, as well as independent decision-making by the family about their own lives. Although this method does not exist in Croatia, research into its possible application would contribute to the development of social work science and practice. A similar example of integrative foster care practice exists in Slovenia, a system of individual project groups and experts working with families in assistance and support processes (Caci-novic Vogrincic and Mesl, 2019, p. 139) or the example of the Children's Project Ark, which is discussed by Mann and Kretchmar-Hendricks (2017), who present a model of foster care based on children and primary parents living together with support. The identified need for more intensive involvement of social work in mobilizing and expanding the support network for foster parents also requires changes on the institutional level, such as changes in the organisation of the workload of social work centre, a bigger number of social workers, and additional training of social workers to work with foster parents. Frequent turnover and departure of social workers from social work centres who are working with families was also observed, an issue that should be further investigated. My research provided good evidence for a deeper exploration of this topic and the identification of foster parents' needs and opened up new topics as an occasion for further research in the field of foster care. Acknowledgement The research was funded by the Faculty of Law, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek, within the internal project IP-PRAVOS-9 "Development of a model in the community for support and assistance to families, persons at risk and vulnerable groups in society". 3 TJ O TJ O Sources Ajdukovic, M., & Radočaj, T. (2008). Pravo djeteta na život u obitelji: stručna pomoč obitelji-ma s djecom i nadzor nad izvršavanjem roditeljske skrbi kao proces podrške za uspješno roditeljstvo. Zagreb: Ured UNICEF-a za Hrvatsku. Retrieved on 11. 12. 2022 from https:// www.unicef.org/croatia/media/616/ftle/Pravo%20djeteta%20na%20%C5%BEivot%20 u%20obitelji.pdf 272 „ Ajdukovic, M., Sladovic-Franz, B., & Kamenov, Ž. (2005). 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Retrieved on 9. 8. 2022 from https://www.unicef.hr/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Sto_ nam_djeca_govore_o_udomiteljstvu.pdf Original scientific article Received on 18 May 2023, accepted on 16 June 2023 doi: 10.51741/sd.2023.62.4.275-295 Petar Sajfar Experience of deinstitutionalisation from service users' perspective in Croatia As in other post-socialist countries, the process of deinstitutionalisation in Croatia began much later than in Western countries. A turning point is the year 2014, when the mass relocations of people with intellectual disabilities from long-term institutions to community-based settings began. The focus of this research is on the experiences of deinstitutionalisation from the perspective of service users. The research methodology is based on a qualitative approach because it enables a deeper understanding of the problem and allows the researcher to focus on real life experience of respondents. The sample included 27 participants (14 males, 13 females) who during the research lived in 11 different group homes in different parts of the Republic of Croatia. Based on thematic analyse, the results show that the majority of respondents had to move from a long-term institution to a group home due to necessity when long-term institutions were closed. The criteria by which someone was selected or excluded for admission to the deinstitutionalisation process was his or her functionality (e.g. good behaviour, physical mobility). Finally, the research shows that most participants were not systematically and purposefully prepared for the transition from a long-term institution to a group home. Findings of the study are partly in line with the international literature, highlighting the marginal role and difficulties of service users in the deinstitutionalisation process. Key words: intellectual disability, relocation, community-based support, group homes, long-term care. Petar Sajfar is a PhD student at the Faculty of Social Work, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and a teaching assistant at the Faculty of Law, J.J. Strossmayer University in Osijek, Croatia. Contact: psajfar1@pravos.hr. Izkušnja deinstitucionalizacije iz perspektive uporabnikov storitev na Hrvaškem Tako kot v drugih postsocialističnih državah se je proces deinstitucionalizacije tudi na Hrvaškem začel pozneje kot na Zahodu. Odločilno je bilo leto 2014, ko so se začele množične preselitve ljudi z ovirami iz institucij za dolgotrajno oskrbo v skupnostne namestitve. Namen raziskave je ugotoviti izkušnje oseb, ki imajo intelektualne ovire, z deinstitucionalizacijo. Raziskovalna metodologija temelji na kvalitativnem pristopu, ker poglablja razumevanje problema in raziskovalcu omogoča, da se osredotoči na izkušnje respondentov z resničnim življenjem. Opravljeni so bili delno strukturirani intervjuji s 13 udeleženkami in 14 udeleženci iz 11 različnih izvajalcev storitev stanovanjskih skupin na področju Republike Hrvaške. Večina sodelujočih je navedla, da so se iz institucij za dolgotrajno oskrbo preselili v stanovanjske skupine zaradi zaprtja institucij. Merilo, po katerem je bil nekdo sprejet v proces deinstitucionalizacije ali pa zavrnjen, je bila njegova funkcionalnost (npr. lepo vedenje, telesna mobilnost). Raziskava pokaže, da večina sodelujočih ni bila deležna sistematične in namenske priprave na prehod iz institucije za dolgotrajno oskrbo v stanovanjsko skupino. Rezultati raziskave delno sovpadajo z izsledki mednarodne literature, ki prav tako ugotavlja, da so uporabniki v procesu deinstitucionalizacije marginalizirani. Ključne besede: intelektualne ovire, preselitev, podpora v skupnosti, stanovanjske skupine, dolgotrajna oskrba. Petar Šajfar je doktorski študent na Fakulteti za socialno delo Univerze v Ljubljani in asistent na Pravni fakulteti Univerze J. J. Strossmayerja v Osijeku. Kontakt: psajfar1@pravos.hr. CC i m © 0000-0003-0301-5980 276 I 1 Introduction « Deinstitutionalisation1 is a concept based on different theoretical origins, so s there are variety of definitions that emphasise certain aspects (Videmsek and Leskosek, 2015). Essentially, it can be said that the process of deinstitutionalisation does not only mean the closure of long-term institutions, but also the development of services in the community that enable people to live self-determined and independent lives (Videmsek, 2013). This is in line with the values and activities of social work, therefore a mutual intertwining is inevitable (Ramon, 2003). For example, deinstitutionalisation is embedded in the paradigm of human rights, and advocacy for these rights is one of the methods of social work (Ife, 2012). In addition, social workers manage cases and provide support during the process of community integration, using some inherent methods such as personal planning and risk analysis (Flaker and Rafaelic, 2023). It is already well documented that long-term placement in total institutions leads to social breakdown of people (Torre, 2021). The experience of abuse and other forms of inappropriate treatment further compromises their dignity (Rafaelic and Flaker, 2021). This is particularly emphasised by the human rights model, as such acts violate the provisions of international documents (Mihanovic, 2019). But even before the development of the human rights model, strong opposition to the confinement of people in total institutions was articulated through various approaches such as social psychiatry, anti-psychiatry and the concept of normalisation (Torre, 2021). Among the most important is the independent living movement, which demanded that people with disabilities receive support that enables them to live in the community like the rest of population (Jolly, 2015). In addition, the concept of self-determination, i.e. control over one's own life, is also an important value in the idea of deinstitutionalisation (Wehmeyer and Bolding 2001). The theory of deinstitutionalization does not only argue for replacing institutional forms of care with support for community life but presupposes a change in the power relations between »clients« or »residents«, and care professionals, a change in the institutional culture and other aspects (Goff-man, 1961; Mansell et al., 2007; Flaker, 2015). Deinstitutionalization therefore requires: redefining the function of service providers, changing the position of service users (residents), ensuring that users have the right to choose their personal lifestyles and also the right to work and financial independence, and the ongoing development of community services (United Nations, 2006; Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, 2010). These principles have influenced the development of the deinstitutionalisation process, which means a change in attitudes towards people who need 1 Deinstitutionalization is often only seen as the process of closing institutions, hence the misunderstanding that it eliminates all the difficulties institutionalization entails (European Expert Group, 2012). To avoid such confusion and better emphasize the multidimensionality of the process, the European Expert Group (2012) proposes the term "transition from institutional care to community support." 277 a certain kind of support for everyday life, integrated into the wider commu- x nity (Mansell et al., 2007). i O 2 Deinstitutionalisation in Croatia: moving from i long-term institutions to community-based settings t The realisation of the deinstitutionalisation process is determined to a large | extent by numerous social and political forces, so that there are distinct dif- S ferences between many countries (Šiška and Beadle-Brown, 2022). In Cro- | atia, as in other countries that had socialist systems, the process of deinsti- £ tutionalisation is significantly delayed compared to Western countries (Za- S viršek, 2017). i The first step toward deinstitutionalization in Croatia was in 1997 when ® the Association for Promoting Inclusion was founded, today the largest pro- £ vider of organized housing services. Croatia's legal framework for deinstitu- p tionalization comprises various international documents and national regu- p lations. The most important is the Convention on the Rights of Persons with i Disabilities (United Nations, 2006) which the Republic of Croatia, as one the n first countries, ratified in 2007 (Korac Graovac and Čulo, 2011). I But, after the ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with a Disabilities and the subsequent adoption of fundamental strategic documents, the process finally intensified (Disability Ombudswoman, 2015). However, the most significant is the Plan for Deinstitutionalization and Transformation of Social Welfare Homes and Other Legal Entities Performing Social Welfare Activities in the Republic of Croatia 2011-2016 (2018) (the so-called Master Plan; Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, 2010). This strategic document was adopted in 2010 and intended to accelerate deinstitutionalization and transformation. The plan entails individual analyses of social welfare homes, which follows one of three possible directions: transformation into so-called community service centers, transformation into homes for intensive and long-term social welfare or simply closure. Another important set goal was the development of non-institutional services in proportion to the reduced total number of users in permanent or weekly accommodation. The plan stipulated that social welfare homes develop an individual plan to identify opportunities for transforming the homes. Accordingly, some homes embarked on deinstitutionalization, financed by the relevant Ministry and partly by international organizations. A turning point was 2014, when the first mass moves of people with intellectual disabilities from long-term institutions to group homes2 began 2 Group homes as a form of support already appeared in the early phases of deinstitutionalisation (Videmsek, 2013). In a group home several people make up a common household and live in a house or apartment within the community (Cocks et al., 2014). In Croatia, group homes exist as a service called "organised housing", provided by state institutions or non-governmental organisations. A maximum of 8 service users can live in one housing unit, who receive a support from a few hours a week to 24 hours a day, depending on their needs. 278 - (Disability Ombudswoman, 2015). There is no exact data on the number of £ adults with intellectual disabilities who have moved from long-term institu-| tions. However, the existing data shows that 1,847 people were in long-term institutions in 2015. Over the next few years, the number fluctuated, while from 2020 onwards there was a significant increase, mainly due to the increase in the capacity of non-state service providers. According to the latest available data, 2,021 adults with intellectual disabilities were living in long-term institutions in 2022 (Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy, 2023). Table 1: Number of users of long-term accommodation - adult persons with intellectual, physical and sensory disabilities. 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Long-term accommodation3 -state homes 891 855 858 867 841 844 Long-term accommodation -non-state homes 843 619 855 865 855 943 Long-term accommodation -other legal entities 113 114 119 120 123 225 Long-term accommodation -total 1,847 1,588 1,832 1,852 1,819 2,012 Source: Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy (2023). Although there was a national plan aimed to reduce institutionalization of people with intellectual disabilities by the year 2016 for 30%, we can observe that there is a constant grow of the population of people with intellectual disability who live in an institution. Table 2: Number of users of organized housing - adults with intellectual, physical and sensory impairments. 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Organized housing - state homes 259 291 298 316 328 363 Organized housing - non-state homes and other legal entities 406 416 422 441 464 479 Organized housing - all service providers 665 707 720 757 792 842 Source: Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy (2023). The data in the Table 2 show that Croatia carries out deinstitutionalization mainly based on the idea of organized housing. From 2015 with 665 people with intellectual disability living in a group homes (state and non-state) the number had been constantly growing as in 2021 there was 842 people with 3 The new Social Welfare Act (2022) calls this service only "accommodation", without prefixing the adjective "long-term". 279 intellectual disability living in a form of group home. But these are mostly x people with intellectual disability who did not previously live in an institu- T tion and are now accommodated in the newly opened places, only a small C part of them are for those who come back to community from institutions. f Those who lived in the institution moved intensively only in 2014 and 2015. i This means that dispite some people moving, new ones still came to the insti- ! tutions. Moreover, the number of places in institutions increased after 2020. | n s 3 Moving from a long-term institutional care to a group TT home i s Institutional care has proven to be extremely harmful and limiting in many i aspects (Kozma, Mansell and Beadle-Brown, 2009; Johnson and Bagatell, ® 2020). For example, people living in long-term institutions usually exhib- ® it more aggressiveness, behavioral problems and psychological difficulties p e with an increased use of psychopharmaceuticals. Their ability to choose p where and with whom to live and numerous other human rights are greatly i limited (Stancliffe et al., 2011; Murphy and Bantry-White, 2021). | The risk of experiencing abuse is significantly higher compared to living | outside institutions (World Health Organization & The World Bank, 2011). Us- a ers in total institutions believe that the time spent there has marked their lives negatively. They cite numerous negative experiences related to lack of freedom, feelings of inequality and social uselessness (Hutchinson and Sandvin, 2019). On the other hand, Pretty, Rapley and Bramston (2002) state that people with intellectual disabilities, who have always lived like the majority of the population in the community, are no different from people without intellectual disabilities regarding neighborhood experiences and various quality of life aspects. Especially important is the finding that people with intellectual disabilities living independently cited significantly fewer (negative) events compared to people living in community group homes and significantly less than those in institutional settings (Myles et al., 2000; Bond et al., 2019; Hastings et al., 2004). Studies, covered by meta-analyses, have consistently proved that deinstitutionalization brings positive changes in the lives of people with intellectual disabilities (Kim et al., 2001; Kozma, Mansell and Beadle-Brown, 2009; Le-may, 2009; Hamelin et al., 2011; Larson, Lakin and Hill, 2012; McCarron et al., 2019; Bredewold, Hermus and Trappenburg, 2020). This studies generally agree that the transition from an institutional life to a life in a community brings improvements in quality and positive changes in many other aspects of life (McCarron et al., 2019; Hamelin et al., 2011; Lemay, 2009; Kozma, Mansell and Beadle-Brown, 2009). Generally speaking, life in community settings is linked to a better quality of life and subjective well-being (Sines, Hogard and Ellis, 2012; Kozma, Mansell and Beadle-Brown, 2009; McCon-key et al., 2018). 280 Some studies indicate also that deinstitutionalization was extremely dif- CD £ ficult for some people with intellectual disability (Mansell, 2006; Owen, Hu-| bert and Hollins, 2008). Living in a community is not necessarily a positive experience or integration in that community by default. It changes over life course and depends on many aspects such as location of housing unit, transportation, available community activities, attitudes of the society, person's social skills, cumulative disadvantages, etc. (Abbott and McConkey, 2006; Bele and Kvalsund, 2016). Therefore, it is important how the process of transition from institution to community is planned. As Mali (2019) underlined, planning to move from a long-term institution to community-based setting involves engaging the service user as well as planning specific support tailored to her/his needs. The process of moving from institution to community should be based on a concrete personal plan that expresses the service user's desired lifestyle and is operationalised through goals with different deadlines, necessary activities and resources (Flaker et a!., 2013). During the phase of planning relocation, all key stakeholders from the user's environment should be included, especially the environment the user is entering. Moving from an institution to one's own family or a non-institutional form of care should not be incidental for all persons affected by the event. If the resident or user is moving to a non-institutional form of support, such as a group home, the preparation should provide the opportunity to familiarize other members of the housing community with the arrival and motivate them to accept the new member as much as possible (European Expert Group, 2012). A transitional phase should be ensured in which the user in the deinsti-tutionalization process and other residents of the residential community are able to establish contact, get to know each other better and build relationships with each other. Regardless of age, disability or other characteristics, the ongoing nurturing of existing (friendly) relations during the relocation process should be encouraged (European Expert Group, 2012; Head et a!., 2018). The European Expert Group (2012) says that when preparing to move a user from institutional care, staff should receive information about the person and enable them to establish relationships. It can be done by staff visiting the person while still in the institution. Afterward, visits should be allowed in the other direction, i.e., the user meets the staff (and other users) of the future housing unit. At that time, the user can bring some of their belongings so that they already have most of their furniture and personal belongings during the final relocation instead of being deprived of them, as may be the case when entering institutional care. Finally, when moving to a new housing unit, i.e., non-institutional care, the process is made easier if people working there are already known by the user or resident, for example from previous work in an institution (European Expert Group, 2012). Various studies, focusing specifically on people with intellectual disabilities, show that many of service users had no choice in the decision to 281 deinstitutionalise, i.e. they could not decide if and when they would move from a long-term institution to a community-based setting, nor with whom they would share their new living space (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; Salmon et a!., 2019). On the other hand, for some people, deinstitutionali-sation was gradual so that they had some transition time to get to know the staff and environment in a new housing unit (Head et a!., 2018). The preparation activities involved workshops on independent living, money management, cooking, cleaning, other household tasks (Salmon et a!., 2019). The acquisition of independent living skills mentioned above is also in line with the guidelines of the Transition from Institutional to Community-Based Care (European Expert Group, 2012). But, Flaker and Rafaelic (2023) criticise such a pedagogical view because it may happen that the move to the community is conditioned by the acquisition of these skills. As Rafaelic and Flaker (2021) warn, the service users who are »more skilled« or, broadly speaking, »more capable« are also usually the first to be selected for the move. The consequence may be a delay in deinstitutionalisation (or a complete drop-out) for those who are classified as »challenging« and »less able«. The same authors point out that experts also strengthen their power because they decide on the further course of the service user's life. Instead of asking how to ensure adequate support for all service users, the question is increasingly being asked which service users are »able« or »deserve« to leave the total institution. For those who ultimately leave long-term institutions, the experience of the deinstitutionalisation process can be very different. Some research shows that some people with intellectual disabilities experienced the move very positively (Perry et a!., 2011; Head et a!., 2018; Salmon et a!., 2019). This was because the transition brought positive changes in their self-perception, their status in relation to others, particularly in their position of power in relation to staff or enabled them to live closer to family members (Head et a!., 2018; Salmon et a!., 2019). On the other hand, several studies have found that the move was a particularly difficult experience for some people with intellectual disabilities, for a number of reasons, including the loss of relationships with staff and other service users (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; McCarron et a!., 2019). The purpose of this research is therefore to find out how people with intellectual disabilities were prepared for the move from long-term institutions to community settings, mainly organised group homes. r o 4 Research design The European Expert Group on the Transition from Institutional to Community-Based Care (European Expert Group, 2012) was considered as conceptual frame for the implementation of deinstitutionalisation, i.e. the move from long-term institutions to community-based settings, and was used to 282 - select criteria for a better understanding of deinstitutionalisation process £ in Croatia. The involvement of service users in each segment of the deinsti-| tutionalisation process is the most important factor for the quality of implementation (Salmon et a!., 2019). Therefore, knowledge of their perspective is extremely important and can lead to a better understanding and improvement of the process itself (Videmsek, 2013). My research problem is related to examination of the process of moving people with intellectual disabilities from long-term institutions to community-based settings. The use of a qualitative methodology was chosen as it makes it possible to emphasise the importance of personal stories, i.e. to place them at the centre of research interest (Zavirsek and Videmsek 2009; Grebenc and Sabic, 2013). It also facilitates the acquisition of knowledge as a common good and the recording of the testimonies of people who would otherwise remain unheard if they are not allowed to talk about their lives (Urek, 2021). A qualitative approach allows the researcher to focus on what is really the critical point for respondents (Milas, 2009). It also highlights different perspectives that describe certain phenomena (Adu, 2019). Within the qualitative approach, there is a very long tradition of the ethnographic approach, which emphasises that knowledge is best gathered from participants in their natural, everyday environment (Creswell and Creswell, 2018). The skills required for ethnographic work broadly coincide with the skills used in social work and enable a deeper understanding of the processes related to different individuals, groups and communities, particularly those on the social margins (Gillingham and Smith, 2020). Considering all above, the focus of my research is on the experiences of moving from a long-term institution to a group home, from the perspective of people with intellectual disabilities. For this purpose, the following research questions were posed: 1. What are the reasons for moving from a long-term institution to a group home? 2. What criteria do they (service users) need to meet to be chosen for a move from a long-term institution to a group home? 3. What was the moving from a long-term institution to a group home like? The research population are people with intellectual disability who live in group home settings in Croatia. In line with the general objectives of qualitative research and the specific aim of this study, greater importance was placed on involving different members of the population whose opinions and experiences are to be known and understood in detail, which is why purposive sampling was used (Campbell et a!., 2020). Sampling was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, from the official list of all group home service providers (20) in the Republic of Croatia, 11 group home service providers were purposively selected to obtain both state institutions (5) and non-governmental organisations (6) located in different parts of 283 Croatia. In the second phase, all sampled group home service providers were asked to complete a questionnaire on socio-demographic and other characteristics4 for each service user which meets the population criteria of this study. Based on the data obtained, a purposive sample was made to include participants who could provide different and multi-layered insights into the topic. A total of 14 male and 13 female participants took part in the study. The youngest participant was 19, the oldest 69 years old, the shortest stay in a long-term institution was 1 and the longest 53 years, while the shortest stay in group homes was 1 and the longest 7 years. I collected the data during a stay of several days in the participants' housing units from April to September 2021. The semi-structured interview method was used in such a way that participants were interviewed individually about their life experiences5 during the moving to group home. The data analysis was conducted according to the guidelines of Braun and Clarke (2006). This requires a detailed familiarisation with the data, which was achieved by the researcher conducting the interviews independently, transcribing them and reading the transcripts several times. Next comes the formation of initial codes, i.e. ideas, concepts and notes on interesting findings. This is followed by the grouping of codes into potential themes and checking whether there is a logical continuity between the data, codes and themes in both directions. Finally, the final codes and themes need to be refined, which is additionally analysed in the context of the existing literature when writing the research report. r o 5 Results 5.1 Reasons for moving from a long-term institution to a group home Respondents explained that the most often the reason they moved from a long-term institution to a group home was necessity, because the long-term institution was closed or they did not have the option of returning to their own family: And there, [name of a long-term institition] is no more, it's locked closed, everyone moved out. (Iris6) A large proportion of participants did not know any reason why they moved from long-term institution. The decisions about moving to a group home was done by other people, i.e. social workers, other service provider staff or 4 Age, sex, number of years in a long-term institution, number of years in group homes, deprivation of legal capacity, multiple disabilities, ability to express oneself verbally, education, level of support provided. 5 Set of five topics discussed with the participants during the interviews: a person's life course from early age till now, experience with institutionalization, experience with deinstitutionalization, current life in organized housing, and a vision of one's future. 6 All names used are pseudonyms. 284 - decisions made by family members. Respondents were not asked about their £ wishes and expectations: CD ® My sister requested it for me. (Ivy) In some cases the respondents stated that the reason for moving was their independent request, often motivated by dissatisfaction with life in the previous long-term institution: I couldn't live with them anymore ... what can I say ... I asked to come [to group home]. (Karl) Other studies present similar results. The closure of an institution is also cited as one of the most important reasons for deinstitutionalisation of people (Hubert and Hollins, 2010; Drake and Herbert, 2015). The deterioration of buildings and blocking investments in institutional care due to the financing requirements of EU funds forced the closure of parts or sometimes an entire long-term institution (Mladenov and Petri, 2020). Instead of criticizing in-stitutionalism, the reasons for closing an long-term institution are found in economic and managerial goals (Miettinen and Teittinen, 2013). Service users are not involved as these decisions are being made by management and higher levels of government (Hubert and Hollins, 2010). It follows that the reasons for the move do not lie in the affirmative goals of deinstitutionalisation, such as living independently in the community. This even applies to participants who have endeavoured to move on their own initiative. As it is common for people who have difficulty functioning in daily life to be returned to a long-term institution (Broadhurst and Mansell, 2007), this process is the opposite. Indeed, while in an long-term institution, participants were obviously in constant contact with the service users who had caused them difficulties. It did not make sense to move these »problematic« to another long-term institution. Relocating the aforementioned participants to the group homes, as a kind of separation from the »problematic« service users, was the optimal solution, which they saw as the reason for their deinstitutionalisation. On the other hand, the dominance of experts and family members in decisions about the service user's life is actually based on the cultural assumption that people with intellectual disabilities are not able to make independent decisions (Wiesel eta!., 2020). Other studies also show that service users were not significantly involved in shared decision-making about the move (Bjornsdóttir, Stefánsdóttir and Stefánsdóttir, 2015; O'Doherty et a!., 2016; Mihanovic, 2019). This means that the most of participants had no influence on whether they would move from a long-term institution to a group home because it was a process that just »caught« them and they had no choice. 285 5.2 Criteria that service users need to meet to be chosen for a move from a long-term institution to a group home One of the most frequently mentioned criteria by participants is functionality, which manifests itself in independence of movement, self-care, good health and developed skills: She would also like to get accommodation at the apartment. But not selected because of the wheelchair. (Chris) On the other hand, fulfilling tasks such as school attendance, regular participation in organised activities and absence of behavioural problems also proves to be an important aspect of criteria called »good behaviour«: Must be nice, must be polite, must be honest, no fighting no steeling. (Jan) However, it is interesting to note that some of the participants know that there are certain criteria, but the assessment of whether they are fulfilled depends solely on the experts. Finally, some of the participants did not know any of the criteria that have to be met in order to be chosen for a move from a long-term institution to a group home. It cannot be attributed to intellectual difficulties either, as several participants answered other questions very meaningfully. This contrasts with the theory of deinstitutionalisation, where the key criterion should be the individual's desire to be included in the relocation (Flaker and Rafaelic, 2023). The recognised criteria actually reflect the functionalist paradigm and the medical model, which focus on the difficulty and need to »fix« a person so that they fit into societal expectations (Leutar and Buljevac, 2020). Foreign research shows that deterioration in health can be a crucial factor in the decision to institutionalise someone (Werner, Edwards and Baum, 2009; McKenzie, Ouellette-Kuntz and Martin, 2016). In this sense, improvement or stabilisation of health status may be a criterion by which the need for institutional care is eliminated, opening up the possibility of using less intensive forms of care such as group homes. Accordingly, Martin and Ashworth (2010) found that service users who were assessed as being more functional in self-care and requiring less medical care were also selected for earlier exit from institutional care. In addition, service users who are involved in a range of activities, most of which are provided by the long-term institution, have also been shown to be the first to exit the institution (Martin and Ashworth, 2010). The above supports the earlier criterion of »functionality«, but at the same time implies the importance of adequately meeting the demands placed on service users such as school attendance and regular participation in organised activities. The absence of behavioural problems also proves to be an important aspect of the criteria that could be summarised as »good behaviour«. In other studies, behavioural difficulties actually act as a preventive for deinstitutionalisation (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; Hubert and r o 286 - Holins, 2010; Spagnuolo, 2016). Moreover, behavioural difficulties can be an £ important trigger for reinstitutionalisation (Broadhurst and Mansell, 2007). CO CD Q. 5.3 Move from a long-term institution to a group home Participants in the current research participated modestly in the whole process of preparing for deinstitutionalisation. More specifically, for most participants there was no prior clear and sufficiently early informing about how and when the move would take place, but such a possibility actually came as a surprise to them: First, I went to [cousin's name] for Christmas and New Year. Then [name of social worker] called a day or two before that she would be here that day. We were shopping when the mobile phone rang. They were coming to pick me up. (Sarah) Furthermore, it is surprising that most participants stated that their preparations consisted of packing up the clothes. If there were more extensive preparations, they apparently went unrecognised by a large proportion of the participants in the current study, i.e. they did not associate them with their own deinstitutionalisation. However, four participants stated that they had the opportunity to see the housing unit before the relocation, and only two of them were involved in the work related to the furnishing of a specific housing unit. In other words, for most participants, the first arrival in the housing unit was at the same time a temporary stay in the same, without achieving a transition period. Similar findings are found in some foreign research, where participants also stated that they suddenly found out about the move, which they did not discuss in detail, what contributed to the sense of chaos and subsequent problems (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; Drake and Herbert, 2015; Head, 2017). Furthermore, the findings of the current research confirmed the previous warnings of the Disability Ombudswoman (2015) that service users do not undergo adequate preparation in the deinstitutionalisation process. Such difficulties also appear in research abroad (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; Hubert and Hollins, 2010), but there are also numerous examples of adequate preparation, which includes working on acquiring daily independent living skills, such as cooking, doing laundry, maintaining one's home, taking care of one's hygiene and health (Garcia Iriarte et a!., 2016; Head et a!., 2018; Salmon et a!., 2019). A particularly important aspect of preparation is the choice of people to live with, the choice of housing unit and its furnishings (Head et a!., 2018). Other research also shows that people with intellectual disabilities have limited choices about where and with whom they live (Stancliffe et a!., 2011; Deguara et a!., 2012; Salmon et a!., 2019; Niven et a!., 2020; Mihanovic, 2019). This contributes to the further deepening of the power imbalance between 287 staff and users, as service users effectively have to live with those whom staff refer or »judge« to be the most appropriate. Considering the aforementioned lack of information and preparation, it is not surprising that some of the participants in current research stated that the relocation itself was an unpleasant experience for them. Similar findings have been noted in foreign research, where some people with intellectual disabilities also reported various difficulties in relocating (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; Drake and Herbert, 2015). Consequently, the negative experience of moving into the community is associated with worse outcomes, i.e., detoriation of the quality of daily life (Kozma, Mansell and Beadle-Brown, 2009). However, for most participants in my study, move is still a pleasant experience, which is consistent with the findings of numerous authors (Drake and Herbert, 2015; Head, 2017; Angell et a!., 2020). Nonetheless, in the cited studies, participants indicated that move was a positive life event because it brought them greater independence, more opportunities to organise their own leisure time, more opportunities and involvement in activities in the community and related opportunities to socialise, generally more activities in everyday life, and much more. The above is consistent with the reasons for deinstitutionalisation, so it can be said that service users have internalised and actually achieved it to some extent. Finally, in other studies, participants often associated the move from a long-term institution to the community with various losses, particularly social relationships with other service users and staff (Owen, Hubert and Hollins, 2008; Head, 2017). Despite this, the current study did not find that preparation for relocation implied working to maintain social contacts, but participants also did not problematise their loss during the deinstitutional-isation process. This seems to indicate the strong influence of institutional culture that led to the breakdown of social relations and mutual alienation between people who in some cases had spent decades of their lives together. r o 6 Discussion The fact that the deinstitutionalisation process started much later in the post-socialist countries than in the Western countries could be a kind of advantage, because a body of theoretical knowledge and empirical research has already been created that can be used to improve the process (Zavirsek, 2017; European Expert Group, 2012). Nevertheless, it seems that the previously well-documented mistakes persist even in new waves of deinstitutionalisation. More precisely, in the Croatian context, good preconditions were created, several smaller deinstitutionalisation projects were piloted, strategic documents were adopted, funds were secured and a positive political climate was created to start the process (Disability Ombudswoman, 2015; 2022). In other words, in Croatia a top-down approach was chosen, in which 288 - the impetus for implementing deinstitutionalisation comes from the author-£ ities and management structures. | The problem, however, is that such an approach often does not reach the actual people, i.e. the service users (Rafaelic and Flaker, 2021). They do participate in the deinstitutionalisation process, but not in a way that enables them to better exercise the right to self-determination, freedom of choice, the right to live in a community and other benefits, but often only because it is required of them in order to fulfil certain policy goals. The features of the medical model and the previously established position of power that characterised the situation of institutionalisation are also identified in the present in research. In this sense, the process of deinstitutionalisation does not bring participants as service users anything new, but a further deepening of the exclusion from decisions about their own lives. It follows from the above that service users themselves develop neither personal nor political power to demand a further improvement of their own position and thus at the same time the continuation of the deinstitutional-isation process. Instead, the most important and often only driving force remains the withdrawal of financial resources, especially from EU funds (Mladenov and Petri, 2020). When these are exhausted, the process comes to a standstill and the results achieved gradually collapse as the vacancies in total institutions are filled again with new service users (Disability Ombuds-woman, 2022). This is supported by the fact that in Croatia only in 2014 and 2015 a larger number of relocations from long-term institutions to community-based services were recorded, while in the following years this number was extremely low, with the number of people in long-term institutions actually increasing (Disability Ombudswoman, 2022; Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy, 2023). Criticism of the recent wave of deinstitutionalization in Croatia is important to consider when endeavoring to improve general practices. The new wave of deinstitutionalization planned in the coming years, should not repeat the same mistakes. Some changes have been observed at the policy level. A new, comprehensive National plan for the development of social services for the period 2021-2027 (hereinafter National Plan) has been adopted (Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy, 2021). Using international and national documents and strategies as the basis, the National Plan declares to take the same direction as decided in the first wave of deinstitutionalization. There are plans for new forms of social services such as care leave, and peer support which in addition to the legally guaranteed new personal assistance service, should ensure the prevention of institutionalization. The focus is also on ensuring the quality and availability of social services regardless of place of residence in Croatia (Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy, 2021). Accordingly, there is criticism that the set goals do not go far enough, given that, for example, the availability of social services should be guaranteed, and not highlighted as a key goal (Opacic, 2022). In addition, although 289 generous funds are planned for the implementation of the National Plan, x predominantly from EU funds, the situation is reminiscent of previous scenarios where deinstitutionalization occurs only if financial motivation exists. C It seems that even the new wave of deinstitutionalization fails to a radical f change among all stakeholders, hence the justified fear of perpetuating the i previous mistakes, but even more dangerous is the ongoing deterioration of ! many people who will remain or end up in a long-term institution. | n s 6 Conclusion = The recognised reasons for moving from long-term institutions to group § s homes are not in line with the goals of deinstitutionalisation and reflect the i marginal role of service users. In this regard, the recognised criteria by which ® someone is selected for inclusion in the aforementioned process still largely ® reflect the medical model of care. Another overwhelming fact is that the par- e ticipants felt that there was no meaningful preparation for transition. In the p end, although the move was a difficult life event for some of the participants, i it was still perceived as a positive change for most of them. n These findings provide an important insight into the experience of dein- r | stitutionalisation and can help stakeholders at different levels. In particular, a it is important for social workers to pay more attention to planning for deinstitutionalisation. In this sense, social workers should provide timely and appropriate information to service users. Particular attention should be paid to ensuring that moving into a community does not become a privilege for a select few but is an option for every person living in a long-term institution. Existing methods, such as personal planning, should not be disregarded, as was the case with the participants in my study. In this regard, planning for the move should certainly include a transition period where service users have the opportunity to choose where, with whom and how they want to live. However, moving to a group home does not end the process of deinstitutionalisation, but continues in a further process of integration into the community, to which social workers can also make an important contribution. In addition to all the known guidelines for deinstitutionalisation, it would be useful in the following research to find out what service users think might help them in the process, i.e. their move to the community. This knowledge should then be used to revise the existing guidelines and create new ones, because it comes from the key stakeholders - the service users themselves. 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Robotu chatGPT so bila postavljena vprašanja, ki se nanašajo na identifikacijo osnovnih tem, osnovnih konceptov, tipološkega razporejanja (klasifikacije) in ocenjevalnega razporejanja. Odgovori robota so bili primerjani z izdelki človeškega raziskovalca. Robot je podal presenetljivo ustrezne odgovore. Samokritično je zavrnil samo zahtevo po strokovni konceptualizaciji. Sklep neformalnega poskusa je, da je robot chatGPT povsem uporaben pripomoček pri kvalitativni analizi, če mu raziskovalec zna postavljati ustrezna vprašanja (prompts). Izdelke robota mora pred objavo presoditi in dopolniti človeški raziskovalec. Postavlja se vprašanje avtorstva in odgovornosti. Ključne besede: človeška inteligenca, hevristika, utemeljena teorija, metodologija, mentorstvo, študijska praksa. Dr. Blaž Mesec je zaslužni izredni profesor na Fakulteti za socialno delo Univerze v Ljubljani. Kontakt: meseceksrebrni@gmail.com. Linguistic model of ChatGPT artificial intelligence as a tool in qualitative analysis The text describes an experiment that used the language model of artificial intelligence called ChatGPT for the qualitative analysis of a response from a social work student to an interview question about her study practice. ChatGPT was asked questions about identifying basic themes, concepts, typologies, and evaluations. The robot provided surprisingly appropriate answers, but it rejected self-critically the request for professional conceptualization. The conclusion of the informal experiment is that ChatGPT is a useful tool in qualitative analysis, provided that the researcher can ask appropriate questions (prompts). However, the output of the robot must be evaluated and supplemented by a human researcher before final report and publication. The issue of authorship and responsibility is raised. Key words: human intelligence, heuristics, grounded theory, methodology, mentorship, study practicum. Blaž Mesec, PhD, is Associate Professor Emeritus at the Faculty of Social Work, University of Ljubljana. Contact: meseceksrebrni@gmail.com. Jezikovni model umetne inteligence chatGPT Nisem izvedenec v računalniški znanosti in umetni inteligenci (UI). Z razvojem jezikovnega modela umetne inteligence chatGPT sem se seznanil iz člankov v dnevnem časopisju, ki so jih napisali poznavalci tega področja, ali iz intervjujev z njimi. Tako opisuje Sašo Dolenc (2023), fizik, filozof in uveljavljen znanstveni publicist, začetke »jezikovnega modela umetne inteligence«: Ko so Googlovi programerji leta 2017 prišli na idejo, s katero so želeli izboljšati kakovost strojnega prevajanja, si verjetno niso predstavljali, da bo njihova zamisel čez nekaj let povzročila pravo revolucijo na področju umetne 1 Najprej sem navdušeno in hvaležno dodal chatGPT kot soavtorja članka, pozneje pa ugotovil, da so znani založniki znanstvene literature (Elsevier, Springer-Nature, Taylor&Francis) to pred kratkim odsvetovali (Rahman idr., 2023). Navsezadnje res sam odgovarjam za vsebino, iz katere je jasno razviden delež programa umetne inteligence. on I 0009-0007-0946-5858 '13 ¿Ž 298 o inteligence. V tehničnem članku ... so opisali novo obliko nevronske mreže, 0 J ki je bila posebej prilagojena za učenje jezikov. >N 1 Glavna značilnost te nevronske mreže, ki so jo poimenovali transformer, je bila, da v matematični zapis ni zakodirala le pomena posameznih besed, ampak tudi kontekst, v katerem so bile besede uporabljene. Nevronska mreža se je tako lahko lažje naučila, katere besede so medsebojno odvisne oziroma katere zahtevajo več pozornosti v posamezni situaciji. Jezikovni model chatGPT (GPT je kratica za Generative Pre-trained Transformer), katerega ime pomeni, da z njim lahko kramljamo, se pogovarjamo, mu postavljamo vprašanja, sodi med sodobne jezikovne modele, ki, kot pojasnjuje Vintar (2023, str. 14), temeljijo na statističnih izračunih verjetnosti povezav med posameznimi besedami in pojmi, ti pa izhajajo iz velikih količin pretežno besedilnih podatkov. Povedano enostavneje - sodobni inteligentni sistemi se učijo tako, da res veliko berejo. (Navedena znanstvenica imenuje to napravo »gender«-solidarnostno »robotka«, jaz pa jo po istem načelu in spolno specifičnem čutenju imenujem »robot«, ne da bi hotel s tem podaljševati zahajajoči patriarhat.) V navedenem članku so opisane še druge značilnosti tega modela, od katerih naj navedem le še najosupljivejše. Program ... piše eseje, poslovna pisma in knjige, popravlja računalniške programe in piše brezhibno kodo ter univerzitetnim profesorjem pripravlja prosojnice za predavanja. [...] jezikovni modeli namreč niso le papige, ki ponavljajo statistično najverjetnejše nize besed, ampak se v nevronskem procesiranju resnično skriva konceptualno razumevanje. (Vintar, 2023, str. 15) Seveda ta silni, za laike presenetljivi razvoj UI, ki povsem realno vodi do prevlade UI nad humano inteligenco (HI) - kot se je zgodilo že pri šahu -sproža številna nova vprašanja, med katerimi vprašanji plagiatorstva in šolskega ocenjevanja znanja samo najbolj neposredno zadevata raziskovalno in šolsko področje. Moja osebna izkušnja z robotom pred poskusom uporabe pri kvalitativni analizi Marca sem se začel pomenkovati s programom (https://openai.com/blog/ chatgpt). Postavljal mu je različna vprašanja, na primer: o deležu površine posameznih celin od celotne svetovne površine (ob trditvi, da Zahodnjaki diskriminativno prikazujejo Afriko kot manjšo, kot je v resnici); o filozofskih argumentih za materializem, idealizem in dualizem; o geomorfologiji Brazilije in Slovenije; o zimskih razmerah za jadranje po Jadranu in o priporočenih rutah poleti; o bistvu afere Timija Zajca; o presežnih smrtih in smrtih zaradi covida-19 v Sloveniji med pandemijo; o psihoanalitični razlagi motenj 299 hranjenja; o izvoru praznika mučencev; o zgodbi Judite in Holoferna (kot pogumnem, radikalnem feminističnem dejanju); o prednostih in nevarnostih zmernega pitja alkohola; o protipoplavnih zadrževalnikih; o ocenah romana Donne Tartt Skrivna zgodovina. Robotovih odgovorov nisem preverjal z neodvisnimi viri (spletni portali, npr. Wikipedija, so verjetno vključeni v nabor robotovih podatkov in niso neodvisni), a po laični presoji, ki ni pri vseh vprašanjih popolnoma laična, saj sem do zdaj nekaj študiral in bral, so bili odgovori presenetljivo točni. Precej površen je bil leporečen odgovor glede psihoanalitične razlage motenj hranjenja in zmernem pitju alkohola. Robot je precej zablodil samo pri hudobnem vprašanju: »V kateri ljudski pesmi se junaku pokaže nasprotnik v dvojni podobi, on pa useka po sredini in zadene pravega?« Robot je nekaj naložil o Martinu Krpanu, pa na moje negodovanje še o Petru Klepcu. Pravih verzov iz pesmi o Pegamu in Lambergarju, ki ju ima za brata, ki sta se spopadla, pa ni poznal. Odgovoril je kot jezičen dijak, ki se ni učil, pa se mu zdi, da bo »prišel skozi« z brezveznim čvekanjem, ko vidi, da profesor ne posluša. A to pot je profesor poslušal. Pri ocenjevanju robotovih odgovorov se je treba zavedati, da so ti v veliki meri odvisni od ustreznosti vprašanj ali tako imenovanih spodbud (angl. prompts). Konkretnejša vprašanja dobijo konkretnejše odgovore. Včasih je dobro robotu kaj sugerirati, da se spomni in poveže podatke. Vedeti je tudi treba, da je chatGPT pogovorni robot, to je, da odgovarja na vprašanja in reagira na pripombe. Zato ni nadomestek npr. za Wikipedijo, ki ponuja celovite članke z opombami, viri in napotitvami na druge spletne strani. 3 o o. o p Uporaba UI pri raziskovanju Člankov o družbenih in etičnih posledicah uporabe UI je precej, zelo malo pa o konkretni uporabi v okviru kvalitativnega raziskovanja. Splošne usmeritve glede uporabe UI, konkretno »velikih jezikovnih modelov (Large Language Models - LLMs) in posebej chatGPT, pri raziskovanju, izhajajo iz članka Rahman idr. (2023). Raziskovalci ugotavljajo, da je uporaba UI pri raziskovanju naletela na nasprotujoče si odzive in da so šele pred kratkim podrobneje obravnavali probleme, povezane z njo. V okviru raziskave z naslovom »Usvojitev umetne inteligence (AI) v visokem šolstvu« (Adoption of Artificial Intelligence /AI/ in Higher Education) so programu chatGPT postavili več vprašanj, ki so se nanašala na posamezne faze raziskave oziroma dele raziskovalnega načrta: zamisel za raziskavo, pregled literature, metodologija, analiza podatkov in ugotovitve. Raziskovalci ocenjujejo, da je chatGPT učinkovito orodje ustvarjanja idej za raziskavo; da zna napisati uvod, opredeliti raziskovalni problem in hipoteze, da pa je glede na pomen te faze nujna presoja raziskovalca pri formulaciji problema. Program zna kompilirati in povzeti literaturo, če pa zahtevamo od njega, da sestavi koherentno pripoved, si začne »izmišljevati«; navaja tudi 300 o lažne reference. Če mu posredujemo transkribirane podatke, zna opraviti J kvalitativno analizo. Zna sestaviti opis metodologije, če mu povemo, katere £ metode nameravamo uporabiti. Ni primeren za analizo kvantitativnih podatkov, ki mu jih tudi ne moremo posredovati. Raziskovalci so na tej podlagi izdelali priporočila za posamezne faze, a se tu v to ne morem spuščati. Pisci svetujejo previdnost pri uporabi tega pripomočka. Pozivajo znanstveno skupnost, naj izdela vodila za ustrezno rabo jezikovnih modelov, posebej še chatGPT, pri raziskovanju in objavljanju. Podobno sta program preizkusila Donmez in Gulen (2023). Programu chatGPT sta zaupala nalogo svetovalca pri izvedbi kvantitativne raziskave o motivaciji učencev za učenje predmetov STEM (znanost, tehnologija, inženir-stvo, matematika). Robotu so zastavljali vprašanja glede na faze raziskave: katera raziskovalna vprašanja bi bila ustrezna; kakšen naj bi bil raziskovalni načrt za preveritev vpliva različnih dejavnikov na motivacijo za učenje; učence katere stopnje (razreda) naj vključijo; ali naj vključijo tudi učitelje; kako velik naj bo vzorec; kateri merski instrumenti bi ustrezali in tudi kakšen naj bo naslov raziskave, da ne bi ponavljali že obstoječih. Na vsa vprašanja je program podal sprejemljive odgovore, čeprav v nekaterih primerih splošnejše. Naredil je tudi nekaj napak. V splošnem ni navajal referenc, razen pri merskih instrumentih. Program je točno povzel, opisal in interpretiral uporabljene statistične mere, na koncu pa ponujeni povzetek raziskave na prošnjo skrajšal na 100 besed. Obe navedeni raziskavi kažeta, da je program UI koristen pomočnik, da pa ne more nadomestiti presoje človeškega raziskovalca. V organizacijska in etična vprašanja, ki jih odpira uporaba UI v raziskovalne namene, se tu ne morem spuščati, omenjata pa jih obe navedeni raziskavi. Podobno pa sodijo tudi Opara, Adalikwu in Tolorunleke (2023). Kvalitativno raziskovanje s pomočjo chatGPT-ja Temi tega članka sem se približal, ko sem robotu postavil vprašanja o kvalitativni analizi: o utemeljeni (grounded) teoriji Glaserja in Straussa (1967); o pojmu poskusne (tentativne) teorije v okviru utemeljene teorije (Mesec, 1998); o razliki med tematsko analizo in utemeljeno teorijo, o načinu konstrukcije utemeljene teorije.2 Odgovori so bili presenetljivo točni in »pametni«. Ker sem ravno takrat čakal na izid svoje knjige Kvalitativno raziskovanje v teoriji in praksi (Mesec in Rape Žiberna, 2023), sem želel z robotom naknadno preveriti nekatere dele besedila knjige. Bil sem zadovoljen tako z robotom kot sam s seboj. 2 V svojem delu o kvalitativnem raziskovanju se zavzemam, da bi angl. izraz »grounded theory« slovenili s »prizemljena teorija«, morda izmenoma z »utemeljena teorija«. Osnovni argument je, da naj bi bila utemeljena vsaka teorija, ne le kvalitativna; torej ta epiteton ni posebna značilnost kvalitativne izkustvene teorije (Mesec in Rape Žiberna, 2023). V tem besedilu zaradi komunikacije z UI uporabljam izraz »utemeljena teorija«, saj po vsej verjetnosti robot ne bi razumel besede »prizemljena teorija«, ker je najbrž še ni v naboru njegovih podatkov. 301 Ker je bil namen te raziskave preveriti možnosti za uporabo programa UI v kvalitativnem raziskovanju, to je, v kvalitativni analizi besedil, sem pregledal skromno število objav o tej temi. Naj poudarim, da objav o uporabi UI pri kvalitativni analizi nisem iskal s pomočjo chatGPT, ampak s pomočjo do zdaj uporabljanih spletnih portalov, npr. Google scholar, Research Gate, Academia, Mendeley. Šele potem ko sem sam izbral relevantne članke, sem nagovoril chatGPT z naslednjo zahtevo (prompt) v angleščini. V prevodu: Zahteva: Poišči reference za naslednjo raziskavo: »Uporaba AI, konkretno chatGPT, pri kvalitativni analizi intervjujev v okviru tradicije utemeljene teorije«. Odgovor robota: Žal mi je, vendar ne morem najti konkretnih referenc za natanko to raziskovalno vprašanje, ker je to zelo specifična in ozka raziskovalna tema. Vendar pa vam lahko posredujem nekaj splošnih informacij o uporabi AI in chatGPT pri kvalitativni analizi intervjujev kot tudi o utemeljeni teoriji. Brez pomoči bota sem na spletu odkril pomemben članek o povezavi utemeljene teorije s programiranjem umetne inteligence. Članek z naslovom »Utemeljena teorija abstrakcije v umetni inteligenci« (Zucker, 2003) že v naslovu, vsekakor pa v nadaljevanju članka, združuje dve na videz popolnoma različni stvari: programiranje umetne inteligence in utemeljeno teorijo. Prvo sodi na področje naravoslovno-matematično-tehničnih ved in metod, drugo se je izvorno razvijalo na področju družboslovja in humanistike. Ob tem pomislimo na nasprotje med naravoslovno-pozitivistično metodo na eni strani in humanistično interpretativno metodo na drugi, tu pa se obe pojavljata povezani. Ključ do tega navideznega protislovja je v pojmu »abstrakcija«. Utemeljeno teorijo Glaserja in Straussa konstruiramo s stalnim primerjanjem empiričnih postavk (izjav) in postopnim abstrahiranjem skupnih značilnosti. Tako nastanejo iz opisnih pojmov abstraktnejše kategorije. Idejo, da bi analogen postopek uporabili pri razvijanju programov umetne inteligence in da tako računalniški programi UI kot kvalitativna analiza po metodi utemeljene teorije potekata kot iste vrste miselni proces, imam za genialno. UI namreč postaja »inteligentna« z abstrahiranjem, s stalnim primerjanjem vhodnih podatkov, prepoznavanjem njihovih skupnih značilnosti in združevanjem podobnega (kodiranje). Zucker je razvil algoritme abstrahiranja, ki jih uporablja računalnik. Sociološka utemeljena teorija se ves čas svojega razvoja trudi razviti take postopke, a je postopek daleč od formalizacije s pomočjo algoritmov in zato nenehno deležen očitkov zasilne znanstvenosti. Seveda bomo šele, ko bodo taki algoritmi razviti, lahko presodili, ali analizo izboljšujejo ali zavirajo ustvarjalno domišljijo, ki ne mara algoritmov. Omenjeno idejo so razvili Muller idr. (2016) v članku o konvergenci, di-vergenci in kombinaciji strojnega učenja in metode utemeljene teorije. Oba pristopa izhajata iz empiričnih podatkov; abstrakcije (kode) temeljijo na 3 o o. o p 302 o podatkih. Podatki so izhodišče za oblikovanje pojmov; ko so ti konstruirani, J jih preverjamo na podatkih. Procesi so iterativni (naprej-nazaj). Sklepni korak pri gradnji teorije je interpretacija s človeško inteligenco. CO Problem Ugotoviti sem skušal, ali je mogoče jezikovni model chatGPT uporabiti pri kvalitativni analizi besedil na področju socialnega dela in sorodnih področjih. Zanimalo me je, pri katerih opravilih nam lahko koristi v pomenu, da v določeni meri nadomesti analitika ali predlaga rešitve. V sodobnih pristopih h kvalitativnemu raziskovanju je namreč vse bolj poudarjeno vprašanje analize gradiva (po intervjuju) (Vanover, Milhas in Saldana, 2022) in manj vprašanje zbiranja in urejanja gradiva. Metoda Študija je eksplorativna in hevristična. Uporabil sem neformalno primerjavo izdelkov robota (UI/AI) in človeškega raziskovalca (HI) pri analizi besedila s področja socialnega dela (komparativna študija). Ta pristop je v soglasju s smernicami »kvalitativne hevristike« (Kleining, 2010); »neformalni« zato, ker pri primerjavi nisem upošteval kakega priporočenega postopka - seznama dimenzij, saj ga je treba šele iznajti. Začetke kvalitativne hevristike najdemo v raziskavah Paula Lazarsfelda, Marie Jahode in Charlote Buhler iz tridesetih let 20. stol. v Evropi (Jahoda, Lazarsfeld in Zeisel, 1969; originalna raziskava leta 1933) in raziskavah Her-te Herzog (1941; kvalitativni intervju, fokusni intervju). Drugi vir so kultur-no-antropološke raziskave W. Lloyda Warnerja in drugih v Chicagu (Yankee City Series, 1941). Kvalitativna hevristika je reflektirana in sistematična uporaba empiričnih raziskovalnih postopkov pridobivanja spoznanj, metoda, pri kateri so spoznanja rezultat naknadno sledljivega procesa. (Kleining, 2010, str. 66) Odkritja so rezultat sistematičnih raziskovalnih postopkov in ne morda intuicije (Popper, 1973) ali teoretiziranja v naslanjaču. Pri raziskovanju v kvalitativni hevristiki naj bi upoštevali štiri pravila: 1. odprtost raziskovalca za nova spoznanja in odkritja, ki se razlikujejo od že znanega; 2. pripravljenost upoštevati spremembe predmeta raziskovanja, v tem primeru bi to pomenilo pripravljenost, da sprejmemo nepričakovan pomen in vlogo UI pri kvalitativnem raziskovanju; 3. pripravljenost spremeniti do zdaj priporočene postopke kvalitativne analize (npr. uvesti interaktivno analizo z UI); 4. preučevani pojav (postopek kvalitativne analize) preučiti s čim več vidikov - primerjati različne poglede in poiskati njihove skupne značilnosti in razlike. Tehnično je za moj namen primerna metoda primerjalnega zaporedja (comparative sequence method) (Muller idr., 2016), to je, da izmenoma in 303 zaporedno uporabljamo človeško in umetno inteligenco. Ko so podatki kodirani, s programom UI preverimo atribute. Če začnemo z računalniško klasifikacijo, nato uporabimo HI, da si za vsak razred, ki ga ponudi UI, izmislimo opise lastnosti. Uporabljamo metodo stalnega primerjanja izdelkov človeške in umetne inteligence. Začetni kriterij primerjave postopka analize s človeško in umetno inteligenco je priporočeni postopek analize po metodi utemeljene teorije po Gla-serju in Straussu. Ta postopek poteka v petih korakih: 1. tematska analiza, 2. kodiranje (= pomenska analiza), 3. definiranje pojmov in kategorij, 4. ustvarjanje odnosnega modela, 5. poskusna teorija. Ni mogoče pričakovati, da bo robot že zdaj, ko je še v adolescenci, namesto nas opravil popolno analizo, če mu ukažemo: »Izvedi kvalitativno analizo gornjega zapisa intervjuja v skladu z metodo utemeljene (grounded) teorije po Glaserju in Straussu«. Pričakujem pa, da se bo vsaj približno ustrezno odzval na spodbude (prompts) pri vsaki fazi ali opravilu posebej. Ni mogoče pričakovati, da bo obvladal terminologijo kvalitativne analize (npr. »aksialno kodiraj«), zato bom ukaze prilagodil in izrazil v bolj splošnem, nespecifičnem jeziku. V nadaljevanju raziskovanja pa se bo morda priporočeni postopek kvalitativne analize spremenil ali pa si bosta opravila razdelila raziskovalec (HI) in računalniški program (UI). Izhodiščno besedilo, zapis odgovora študentke socialnega dela na prvo vprašanje intervjuja o praksi, je del seminarske naloge v okviru predmeta Metodologija II - kvalitativno raziskovanje na Fakulteti za socialno delo. 3 o o. o p Intervju s študentko socialnega dela o njeni praksi Odgovor (lektoriran) na vprašanje »Ali mi za začetek lahko poveste, kako ste v treh letih opravljanja prakse doživljali mentorja?« V prvem letniku, ko sem bila v društvu za pomoč in samopomoč brezdomcev, sem mentorja doživljala kot zelo sproščenega, takega, ki nam pusti, da smo na praksi zelo samostojne, da opravljamo prakso tako, kot smo si jo mi zamislile. V bistvu sploh ni bilo nikakršnih ukazov, kaj lahko delamo, česa ne smemo, ampak nam je res vedno pustil prosto pot, mogoče celo malo preveč prosto pot, saj včasih nisem vedela več, kaj bi delala na praksi, in ni vedno bilo nekega vodstva. Vseeno se pa je trudil, da izve, kako se s sošolko, ki je prav tako z menoj opravljala prakso na tej učni bazi, počutiva, kaj bi mogoče radi izpeljali. Prav tako nama je pomagal izpeljati projekt, ki je zelo dobro uspel, celo denar so nam dali iz društva, zato da sva lahko projekt izvedli, tako da je bil mentor res konkreten. Skratka, doživljala sem ga kot preprostega človeka, ki si želi, da se študentke na praksi učimo večinoma same. On nam je tudi povedal, da se bomo kot študentke na praksi največ naučile, če bomo že samo gledale, opazovale, kaj se ljudje pogovarjajo, kako se pogovarjajo, kaj so njihovi problemi, že če samo poslušamo ljudi, se bomo naučile ogromno. V drugem letniku sem prakso opravljala v društvu za pomoč odvisnikom in njihovim družinam. Tu je bila tudi podobna stvar, le da je bila mentorica 304 o nekoliko doslednejša, bolj je sledila mojim nalogam, zmeraj me je spodbuja- O J la, da ji zmeraj pošljem kakšne naloge, pri katerih potrebujem kakšno pomoč, ^ sicer je to hitro pozabila. Zmeraj je hotela, da imam stvari narejene dobro. Je šla popravljat za mano stvari, mi povedala, glej, tule pa si se mogoče malo narobe izrazila. Doživljala sem jo v glavnem res tako, kot da me je dobro vodila, ampak hkrati pa mi je pustila zares veliko poti, veliko svobode pri tem, da delam, kar si želim delati. Tako da sta v bistvu oba bila zelo v redu. Analiza zapisa intervjuja s humano inteligenco Zapis intervjuja sem kopiral v drugo datoteko. S klikanjem na ustrezno tipko za označevanje besedila sem z rumenim signirjem označil besede, ki so se mi zdele pomembne. Poleg tega sem pri teh ali drugih besedah kliknil na ikono za pripombo in v okvir, ki se je pojavil ob strani, vpisal misli, ki so se mi ob teh besedah porodile po načelu »ustavi se in zapiši« (stop and memo). Gl. posnetek zaslona 1. Posnetek zaslona 1: Zapis intervjuja v word 10 z označenimi značilnimi besedami in opombami ob strani. PES ANALIZA PRIMERA 2: PRAKSA SOCIALNEGA DELA »Ali mi za začetek lahko poveste, kako ste tekom treh let opravljanja prakse doživljali mentorja?« »V prvem letniku ko sem bila v druitvu za pomoč in samopomoč brezdomcev, sem mentoija (doživljala kot zelo sproščenega takega, ki nam pustu da smo na praksi zelo samostojne, da opravljamo prakso tako kot srno si jo mi zamislile, V bistvu sploh ni bilo nikakršnih ukazov, kaj mi moremo delati, kaj ne smemo, ampak nam je res vedno pustil prosto pot mogoče malo celo preveč prosto pot. saj včasih nisem vedela več kaj bi delala na praksi in nT vedno bilo nekega vodstva. Vseeno se pa je trudil, da izve kako se s sošolko, kije prav tako z menoj | opravljala prakso na tej učni bazi, počutiva, kaj bi ^nogočej rade izpeljali, prav tako nama je pomagal izpeljati projekt, ki je zelo dobro uspel, celo denar so nam dali iz društva, zato da sva lahko projekt izvedli, tako da je res mentor bil konkreten. Skratka doživljala sem ga kot preprostega človeka, ki si želi, da se Študentke na praksi učimo večinoma same. On nam je tudi povedal, da se bomo kot študentke na praksi največ naučile, če bomo že samo gledale, opazovale kaj se ljudje pogovarjajo, kako se pogovarjajo, kaj so njihovi problemi, že če samo poslušamo ljudi se bomo naučile |ogromno| V drugem letniku sem prakso opravljala v društvu za pomoč odvisnikom in nj ihovim družinam. Tuje bila tudi podobna jštvU^ s tem, da je bila mentorica nekoliko bolj dosledna, bolj je sledila mojim nalogam, zmeraj meje spodbujala, da ji zmeraj pošljem kakšne naloge, pri katerih potrebujem kakSno pomoč, ker če ne ona to hitro pozabi. Zmeraj je hotela da imam stvari narejeno dobro, je šla popravljat za mano stvari, mi povedala glej tie pa si se mogoče malo narobe izrazila. V glavnem sem jo doživljala res tako. kot da meje dobro vodila, ampak hkrati pa mi je pustila zares veliko poti, veliko svobode pri temu da delam, kar si želim delati. Postopek po priporočenih fazah analize. 1. Teme, o katerih govori: Doživljanje/opisovanje: mentorjevega ravnanja, mentorjeve osebnosti, mentorjeve teorije vodenja Doživljanje same sebe Ocena (evalvacija) mentorstva oz. prakse Mcsei. Blaz RKfdarefcna iKlrttffl co | temeljne človekove pravice odraslih invalidnih oseb do storitve, ki uporab-£ nikom, v skladu z njihovimi sposobnostmi, omogoča aktivno vključevanje v ™ družbeno življenje in delovno okolje ter opravljanja koristnega, vendar njihovim zmožnostim primernega dela. Storitev izvajamo tako, da uporabnikom omogočamo ohranjanje pridobljenih in širitev novih znanj in delovnih spretnosti, pridobivanje novih socialnih in delovnih navad, uresničevanje lastnih idej in ustvarjalnosti, vzbujamo občutek koristnosti in samopotrdi-tve. (Pravilnik o standardih in normativih socialnovarstvenih storitev, 2010) Storitev »vodenje, varstvo in zaposlitev pod posebnimi pogoji« izvajamo v treh enotah: Šmihel, Bršljin in Trebnje. V storitev je vključenih 141 uporabnikov. Z njo jim zagotavljamo ohranjanje pridobljenih znanj in delovnih sposobnosti, pridobivanje socialnih in delovnih spretnosti, razvijanje individualnosti, čim samostojnejše življenje in vključevanje v skupnost. Institucionalno varstvo je oblika obravnave v zavodu, ki upravičencem nadomešča, dopolnjuje ali zagotavlja funkcijo doma ali lastne družine. Obsega osnovno oskrbo in socialno oskrbo v skladu s pravilnikom in zdravstveno varstvo po predpisih s področja zdravstvenega varstva. (Pravilnik o standardih in normativih socialnovarstvenih storitev, 2010) Institucionalno varstvo izvajamo na treh lokacijah: na sedežu zavoda oz. v enoti Šmihel, v bivalni enoti Novo mesto in v bivalni enoti Trebnje. Storitev izvajamo v obsegu 16 ali 24 ur. V storitev je vključenih 85 uporabnikov, ki ob pomoči in podpori zaposlenih ustvarjajo družinsko okolje. Zaposlitev je le del dejavnosti, ki jo enote zagotavljajo. Uporabnikom zagotavljamo tudi več dodatnih dejavnosti, s katerimi jim je omogočeno čim kakovostnejše življenje: plesne vaje, učenje angleščine, redno vodeno bralno dejavnost v sodelovanju s knjižnico Mirana Jarca v Novem mestu, atletiko, košarko, nogomet, kegljanje, pohodništvo, alpsko in nordijsko smučanje, plavanje, udeležbo na športnih tekmovanjih specialne olimpijade in nogometne lige, vodene likovne delavnice, kuhanje in peka peciva, gledališka in glasbena skupina, obiski prireditev ter gledaliških in kino predstav, praznovanja rojstnih dni in praznikov. Velik poudarek je na povezovanju z lokalnim okoljem: sodelovanje z vrtci, šolami, društvi in drugimi organizacijami. Preoblikovanje procesa dela zaradi epidemije Epidemija covida-19 je povzročila pretrese v ustaljenih dejavnostih v VDC Novo mesto, zato smo proces dela reorganizirali. Spomladi 2020 smo začasno prekinili izvajanje storitve »vodenje, varstvo in zaposlitev pod posebnimi pogoji«. Omejili smo izhode uporabnikov, ki so vključeni v institucionalno 325 varstvo, prav tako tudi obiske. Med posameznimi enotami ni bilo prehajanj, > saj so bili uporabniki povsem ločeni glede na storitev in lokacijo izvajanja | storitev. § Strokovne delavke in delavci smo morali zaradi novih razmer pri izvaja- p nju storitev pokazati veliko ustvarjalnost in fleksibilnosti. Posebno pozor- k s nost smo namenjali vzdrževanju stikov z uporabniki in njihovimi svojci, ki so d zaradi različnih razlogov ostali v domačem okolju. VV Socialno delo se osredotoča na reševanje kompleksnih socialnih proble- a mov, pri tem pa so ključni pojmi pomoč, reševanje problema in iskanje novih S rešitev v socialnodelovnem delovnem odnosu, saj s tem mobiliziramo moč s družine ali posameznika (Čačinovič Vogrinčič, 2002). j CD < V s Čajanke in druge fleksibilne metode dela ® < Množica interventnih ukrepov za zajezitev epidemije covida-19 in za omi- > litev njenih posledic je pri uporabnikih in njihovih svojcih povzročila nego- < tovost in strah, zato so številni uporabniki ostali v varnem zavetju svojega < doma. Nove okoliščine so nas prisilile v iskanje novih, drugačnih strategij t dela in vse zaposlene izrinile iz cone ugodja in utečenih delovnih procesov. N Zato smo storitev »vodenje, varstvo in zaposlitev pod posebnimi pogoji« za- < čeli izvajati na daljavo. S s Z uporabniki, ki so ostali v domači oskrbi, smo ohranjali redne tedenske ° stike, najprej s telefonskimi pogovori, nato pa smo storitev temeljito reorganizirali. Uporabljali smo sodobne načine komunikacije in storitev prenesli na družbena omrežja in različne spletne platforme. Sodobna tehnologija je bila pri premagovanju razdalj nepogrešljiva. Strokovne delavke in delavci so zaradi velike potrebe po razbremenilnih pogovorih po telefonu vsak teden te izvajali s svojci, skrbniki, zakonitimi zastopniki in uporabniki. Ti so izražali čustvene stiske in poročali o strahu pred neznanim, apatičnost. Nekateri uporabniki so imeli pogostejše čustvene izbruhe in so se vedli bolj agresivno. Uporabnikom smo vsak teden poslali dopis po navadni pošti in jih obveščali o dogajanju v zavodu, aktualnih novostih, morebitni ponovni vključitvi v storitev ter sprejetih ali spremenjenih ukrepih. Dopis je vseboval tudi telovadne vaje za celostno krepitev telesa, pobarvanko in recept za pripravo zdravih prigrizkov, solat, sladic ali napitkov. Z dopisom smo želeli uporabnike spodbuditi k aktivni udeležbi, podajanju replik ali predlogov. Številni so se na to odzvali in tako smo vzdrževali reden stik z njimi. Nekonvencionalen način izvajanja storitev na daljavo je izzval izjemno pozitivne odzive uporabnikov in svojcev. Vpeljali smo še en inovativen pristop k izvajanju storitve na daljavo - čajanke, katerih cilji so bili druženje in pogovor, hkrati pa tudi spodbujanje in ohranjanje zdravih življenjskih navad, preventivno delovanje na različnih področjih, spodbujanje ustvarjalnosti, zagotavljanje pomoči idr. Družabni 326 0 dogodek smo organizirali enkrat na teden na spletni platformi Zoom. Uvodni f del srečanja je vodil fizioterapevt; začel je s telovadbo in smejalnimi vajami. | Drugi del je bil namenjen usmerjenim pogovorom o prijetnih dogodkih, ki so 1 jih uporabniki doživeli v preteklem tednu. Z- Na srečanju so strokovni delavci z različnimi metodami in tehnikami po- >co | govora ustvarjali varen prostor, v katerem so uporabniki spregovorili o sebi, £ svojih čustvih, občutkih in doživetjih. Tako so uporabniki ob strokovni pod™ pori raziskovali svoje notranje doživljanje in krepili lastne obrambne mehanizme. Ves čas srečanja je vsak posameznik sodeloval na svoj način in drugim zaupal toliko, kolikor je zmogel in želel. Nameni srečanj so bili krepitev dobrega razpoloženja, širjenje optimizma in povečevanje pozitivnega odnosa do življenja. Za vzdrževanje stikov z uporabniki in njihovimi svojci, ki so morali zaradi takšnih ali drugačnih razlogov ostati v domačem okolju in niso imeli možnosti vzpostavitve stika prek spletnih medijev, smo uvedli individualen pristop. Osebni stik je pri delu z uporabniki ključen, saj na njem temelji delovni odnos, ki vodi do ustreznih, na uporabnika usmerjenih rešitev (Čačinovič Vogrinčič, Kobal, Mešl in Možina, 2022). V takšnih okoliščinah so zaposleni obiskali uporabnike in njihove svojce v domačem okolju in se skupaj z njimi odpravili na sprehod in tako preživeli skupen čas kakovostno. Na terenu se je pokazala predvsem potreba po razbremenilnih pogovorih med starši, svojci in zakonitimi zastopniki. Tudi pri delu z uporabniki, ki so bili vključeni v storitev institucionalnega varstva in so bivali v zavodu, smo uvedli nove pristope. Organizirali smo različne dejavnosti: kuharske, ustvarjalne, glasbene delavnice, bralne urice, filmske popoldneve ipd. Posebno skrb smo namenili telesni pripravljenosti oz. fizični aktivnosti in gibanju na svežem zraku. Osrednjo pozornost pa smo namenjali vzdrževanju in ohranjanju stikov s svojci. Pri tem so zaposleni uporabljali različne načine: telefonske pogovore, video klice, pošiljanje fotografij in pisem. Med reorganizacijo delovnega procesa in uvajanjem alternativnih metod dela so bili zaposleni ves čas dostopni za informacije, povezane z zdravstvenim stanjem in počutjem uporabnikov. Med epidemijo, ko so bile razmere izjemno negotove, spremenljive in tvegane, so bile številne stresne situacije povod in priložnost za oblikovanje novih sodelovanj in načinov povezovanja. Pri tem se je ustvarjanje pozitivnih in prijaznih odnosov pokazalo kot še posebej dragoceno. Neizogibno uvajanje drugačnih strategij dela je imelo za posledico povezovanje zavoda s številnimi regionalnimi osnovnimi šolami, pri tem pa so bile osrednje teme pogovorov stigma ter motnje v duševnem in telesnem razvoju. Po zaslugi spletnih srečanj so si udeleženci ogledali predstavitev zavoda, se udeležili delavnic bralne pismenosti in se odzivali na besedilo (pri tem so učenci brali zgodbe uporabnikom). Prav tako so učenci aktivno sodelovali, saj so za uporabnike VDC Novo mesto pripravili video posnetke plesnih točk. 327 Sklep Na podlagi izkušenj z epidemijo covida-19 smo spoznali, da ljudje v negotovih časih iščejo različne načine za odmik od vsakodnevnih skrbi. Stresne situacije je možno omiliti tako, da posameznik skrbi za redno telesno dejavnost, zdravo in uravnoteženo prehrano, prosti čas in oddih ter se ukvarja z avtoge-nim treningom, meditacijo ali kakšno drugo tehniko. To lahko potrdimo tudi v VDC Novo mesto, saj so se posamezniki preizkusili v različnih prostočasnih dejavnostih, preživljali več časa z družino, skrbeli za redno telesno aktivnost, se gibali na svežem zraku in se ukvarjali s športom. Kljub temu so stresne situacije, spremembe in novi izzivi ter negotovost pri nekaterih vplivali na njihovo duševno zdravje. Krizne razmere, ki so bile posledica širjenja virusa covida-19, so pri ljudeh povzročile vznemirjenje, strah, negotovost, ranljivost in občutljivost. V tako turbulentnem obdobju smo prepoznali povečanje števila primerov izgorelosti med zaposlenimi. Ljudje pogosto v stiski hrepenimo po bližini drugih, vendar v času pandemije in ukrepov za zajezitev covida-19 (zaukazana socialna izolacija) to pogosto ni bilo izvedljivo. Ker smo se zavedali pomena medsebojne povezanosti in vpliva te dimenzije na kakovost posameznikovega življenja, smo morali iskati nove, nadomestne načine dela. Zato smo bili zaposleni prisiljeni poiskati nove načine izvajanja storitev in biti ustvarjalni pri spreminjanju ustaljenega, konvencionalnega načina izvajanja storitev. Okoliščine so nas prisilile v iskanje nekonvencionalnih rešitev in povzročile drugačno zaznavanje okolice in procesa dela. Zaposleni smo bili dovzetnejši za dojemanje in ocenjevanje situacije iz različnih perspektiv in torej bolj inovativni pri implementaciji novih strategij v proces dela. Volja, povezanost, timski duh, občutek pripadnosti in pozitivne povratne informacije - vse to je pripomoglo k pozitivnemu odnosu, večji motiviranosti, sodelovalnosti in dobremu telesnem počutju med zaposlenimi, tako na delovnem mestu kot tudi v domačem okolju. Ovrednotenje obdobja epidemije covida-19, ki je bilo polno številnih dilem, je imelo za posledico spoznanje, kaj je v življenju bistveno. Z osebno odgovornostjo, kolektivno pozitivno usmerjenostjo in medsebojno povezanostjo lahko hude življenjske razmere postanejo lažje obvladljive in manj stresne. Duševna blaginja mora postati prioriteta, saj se bodo posamezniki le tako lahko učinkovito spoprijemali z izzivi, pa naj bodo ti še tako veliki. i < V Janja Jakše, Suzana Savičic 328 Viri Čačinovič Vogrinčič, G. (2002). Koncept delovnega odnosa v socialnem delu. Socialno delo, 41(2), 91-96. Čačinovič Vogrinčič, G., Kobal, L., Mešl, N., & Možina, M. (2022). Vzpostavljanje delovnega odnosa in osebnega stika. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za socialno delo (7. izdaja). Flaker, V. (2003). Temeljne in nujne spretnosti socialnega dela. Socialno delo, 45(4/5), 237- 257. Pravilnik o standardih in normativih socialnovarstvenih storitev (2010). Ur. l. RS, št. 45/10, 28/11, 104/11, 111/13, 102/15, 76/17, 54/19, 81/19, 203/21, 54/22 in 159/22). Pridobljeno 30. 11. 2023 s http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=PRAV10060 Knjižna recenzija Prejeto 4. aprila 2023, sprejeto 8. maja 2023 doi: 10.51741/sd.2023.62.4.329-332 Vito Flaker (2022) Moč skupine Ljubljana: Založba Univerze. 99 strani. ISBN: 978-961-297-015-4 V i t F I e r Pisec je posvetil knjigo trem naslovnikom: enemu od začetnikov poučevanja skupinskega dela pri nas, kolegu Bernardu Striti-hu, ob njegovi 85-letnici; spominu Johna Southgatea, enega od piščevih učiteljev, ki je pred kratkim preminil; in Oddelku za socialno delo Pravne fakultete v Osijeku, kjer je vodil tečaj skupinskega dela. Knjiga ni obsežna, ni pa lahko branje. To zadnje dejstvo je delno posledica narave predmeta, delno pa sloga pisanja. Skupine so namreč po eni strani medij, v katerem živimo in smo zanj »slepi«, po drugi strani pa, ker so oprijemljive in neoprijemljive narave hkrati, morda težko pojmovno opisljiv pojav. A pojdimo po vrsti. Kot beremo v predgovoru, ki naj bi bil hkrati tudi zagovor ponovnega pisanja o skupinski dinamiki, ki se zdi stvar preteklosti zaradi novejših »transverzalnih« metod socialnega dela, je delo nastalo delno kot priprava na gostovanje avtorja s tečajem skupinskega dela na Oddelku za socialno delo Pravne fakultete v Osijeku; delno kot vrsta zapisov na avtorjevem blogu, namenjenem tamkajšnjim študentom; in končno kot refleksija o tej demonstraciji skupinskega dela in nostalgično sporočilo udeležencem skupinskega druženja. Pisec sam se zaveda priložnostnega motiva za nastanek svojih zapisov, hkrati pa je doživel, da ob prizadevni poglobitvi v snov tudi v takem primeru nastane »precej sistematično« delo. Delo je razdeljeno na štiri poglavja: o tem, kako razumeti skupinsko delo, in o pojmu skupine; o procesih v skupinah in o skupinskem delu, to je, o razvoju skupine, skupinski želji in vodenju; o umetnosti dialoga in refleksiji ob seminarju o skupinskem delu v Osijeku. © CN on on I 0009-0007-0946-5858 330 Skupino po navadi definirajo kot manjše število med seboj povezanih oseb za razliko od nepovezane množice, skratka, kot strukturo komunikacij, statusov in vlog za razliko od nestrukturirane »mase«. Pisec ne povzame teh jasnih opredelitev, ampak se spusti v zapleteno razglabljanje, ali obstajajo »skupinske misli«, »ali obstaja miselni proces sui generis, neodvisen od mišljenja članov skupine«. S podobno zapleteno ambicijo opiše sklon akompanjativ, da bi poudaril »kompanjonstvo« s pozitivnim prizvokom. Poudari pa, da je osnovni pomen skupinskega dela »skupno delo« za krepitev moči skupine. Skupina je del skupnosti, organizacij in družbe in ta kontekst v določeni meri določa naravo skupine in njene dejavnosti. Pisec ne izpelje konsekvenc tega nazora in ne opiše razlike med skupinami v bolj ali manj strukturira-nih okoljih, razlike med neformalnimi skupinami in delovnimi skupinami, strokovnimi timi, odbori in komisijami, recimo, ampak se spusti v zapleteno razglabljanje o tem, »koliko ljudi je potrebno, da postanejo skupina«. Ali je en človek tudi skupina? Odgovori pritrdilno celo z ilustracijo, ki pa ne prepriča. Seveda, vsaj od G. H. Meada vemo, da vsak posameznik »vsebuje« družbo, ker jezik družbe, v katero se rodi, strukturira njegovo doživljanje; vsebuje podobe drugih, ki jih tudi »posnema«. Ne obstaja pa kot več oseb, razen v blodnjah. Ni skupina, čeprav »ima v sebi« skupino. Sledi zapleteno razglabljanje o tem, kaj pomeni par in kdaj nastane par. »Par vedno obstaja v odnosu do tretjega«, beremo. Naj bi to pomenilo, da je par vedno v odnosu do okolice? Kako ga to določa? Sledi geometrija, ki naj bi pojasnila, koliko članov mora imeti skupina, da lahko razpade na pare. Da sta dva par, ni dvoma. Če so trije, se dva lahko izločita kot par, eden ostane zunaj, vendar obstajajo tri možnosti parčkanja. Pri štirih članih nastane šest parov, ki se združijo v skupine dveh parov na tri različne načine (česar avtor ne izpelje). Itd. Ocenjevalec ne razume nadaljevanja: šele peterokotnik »ponudi število, ki preprečuje (sic!) preprost razpad skupine na pare in posameznike«. Kako to? Skupina petih lahko razpade na dva para in enega posameznika na 15 različnih načinov. To nam pove matrika kombinacij parov. Ta nepotrebna zapletanja motijo.1 Pomembna je ugotovitev, da socialni delavec pogosto dela s tremi (klasičnimi) ravnmi, s posameznikom, družino (skupino) in skupnostjo ali institucijo hkrati, »transverzalno«. Vendar pa še vedno lahko dela tudi z vsako ravnijo posebej. Poučen je prikaz razvoja skupinskega dela kakor tudi njegovih številnih različic od »senzitivnostnih treningov«, kjer naj bi udeleženci »na svoji koži« doživljali »skupinsko dinamiko« in se učili vodenja, prek terapevtskih skupin, skupin samopomoči, skupin odklonskih mladostnikov v obravnavi do civilnodružbenih skupin pritiska in drugih akcijskih skupin. Terapevtske 1 K opombi 11 pod črto (teh opomb je toliko kot strani knjige): »komuna« ne pride od »cum« (s/z) in »munis« (zmotno »zid«), kar naj bi pomenilo, da je to nekaj, kar je »ograjeno z zidom«. Zid je »murus«. »Munio« pomeni »zidam«, »com-munio« pa »zidam skupaj z drugimi«. 331 skupine so res bliže spovednim skupinam (po Foucaultu); timi raziskovalcev 2 pa morda nekdanjim sokratsko-dialoškim. MM Čemu (služi) skupinsko delo, se sprašuje pisec in razlikuje obdobje labo- 8 ratorijskih učnih skupin in sodobno obdobje »stvarnejših skupin«. Prej so ž poudarjali prednosti skupinskega dela, češ da je cenejše od individualnega, -i bližje stvarnosti, bolj socialno in ima močnejši vpliv na posameznika in oko- ž lje. V sodobnosti se je poudarek preusmeril k »stvarnejšim skupinam«. S tem 8 pa so našteti razlogi postajali vse manj pomembni. V resničnih skupinah na- j. mreč ti razlogi veljajo še bolj kot v tistih, ki so posebej ustvarjene za »skupinsko delo«. Ocenjevalec se ne znajde: razlogi so vse manj pomembni, veljajo pa še bolj? V poglavju o skupinskih procesih in razvoju skupine pisec povzema teorije Biona o temeljnih čustvenih predpostavkah skupinske klime (odvisnost, boj-beg, parčkanje, delo), Southgatea, ki se opira na Reicha in uporablja metaforo orgazmičnega cikla (negovanje, energiziranje, vrhunec, sproščanje). Vse to so smiselne konceptualizacije skupinskega dogajanja. Ob njih so ugotovitve, kot je »orgazem nas združuje z vesoljem, produkt pa s trgom«, povsem odveč. Obstajajo namreč tudi trg orgazmov in (duhovni) produkti, ki nas ponesejo v vesolje, se pa slabo prodajajo. Stvarna razprava o ustvarjalni in destruktivni skupini, o vprašanju, kako naj skupina vključi čustvene predpostavke v svoje delovanje, je bolj smiselna, kot tudi upodobitev dveh ciklov skupinskega procesa. Tehtna je razprava o želji v skupini ali skupinski želji in o tem, »kako skupina pade v nezavest«. »Med odločilnimi postavkami skupinskega dela je včasih prav to, da člani skupine najdejo, artikulirajo svojo resnično skupinsko željo«, svoj projekt. Pisec se opre na razlikovanje institucionalne, skupinske in individualne želje, ki imajo vsaka svoje zakonitosti in »obstajajo hkrati in ob vzajemnem delovanju ravni« v resonanci, konfliktu, subverti-ranju itd. Želje so lahko zavestne ali nezavedne. Pisec emfatično pritrjuje, da obstaja kolektivno nezavedno (in se s tem približa Jungu) v obliki navad, avtomatizmov, podpražno utrjenih sporočil oziroma osnovnih predpostavk po Bionu. Eden od smotrov skupinskega dela je osvoboditev želje, kar pa, po mnenju pisca, ne pomeni vedno njeno ozaveščenje, ampak tudi nezavedno sledenje želji (»surfanje na njej«) oziroma - z vidika vodje - dopuščanje plutja s tokom želje. Morda prav to pomeni humorni preblisk o »onesvešče-nju« skupine. Informativna je predstavitev slogov vodenja po Lewinu in Lippitu (avtok-ratsko, demokratsko, razpuščeno) in po Schindlerju (od alfa do omega), ki se sklene z zavzemanjem za porazdeljeno ali rotirajoče vodenje, ki se pojavlja naravno zaradi različne usklajenosti kompetenc članov s situacijami ali izzivi pred skupino. Prav uporabna je preglednica poudarkov pri vodenju v različnih fazah razvoja skupine (negovanje, energiziranje, sproščanje) glede na različne delovne vidike ali »registre« (organizacija, proizvodnja, čustva). Isto velja za prikaz zunanjih vplivov in omejitev skupine. To poglavje bi zaslužilo podrobnejšo obravnavo s primeri, se pa žal konča z namigom o ključnih 332 rc dogajanjih na meji skupine, kjer se dogaja »ne tako zelo mitski začetek in <= konec skupine«. Ta dogajanja niso pojasnjena. 2 Za poglavje o umetnosti dialoga ne morem reči, da ne sodi v skupinsko | delo, saj aludira prav na sokratske dialoge v skupini prijateljev, je pa vendarle 5 vzeto iz nekega drugega konteksta, konkretno, Freirovih dialogov ozavešča-o nja. Po njem je dialog nasprotje vsiljevanja idej ali zatiranja, ki naj bi se ga J skupina osvobodila. »Z vsiljevanjem jih vsajene ideje prikrajšajo za možnosti, * da poimenujejo svet, da ga spreminjajo, da postanejo del zgodovine ...« Po-misel: v naši novejši zgodovini so vsiljene ideje spremenile svet za pol stoletja. Igra vlog »gospodarja in sužnja«, ki jo je neki osiješki študentski par subvertiral, ko je »gospodarica« ukazala »sužnji«, da »naj dela, kar hoče«, me napelje na misel, da zaukazana svoboda (ali užitek) brez omejitev ne poruši le didaktične igre, ampak vsak družbeni odnos. Celo odnos gospodar-suženj je bolj človeški, saj dopušča različne, tudi znosne kombinacije ravnanja obeh. Epikteta suženjski stan ni oviral pri filozofiranju. Znana pravila pogovarjanja v skupini sklenejo osrednji del knjige. Refleksija o dogajanju v osiješki šoli socialnega dela dopolnjuje besedilo z opisom dejanske piščeve izkušnje s prenašanjem tega znanja na prihodnje socialne delavke. Knjiga o moči skupine je, posebej zaradi skromnosti te vrste literature v slovenščini, dobrodošla. Dejstvo, da je njen pisec izkušen voditelj učnih in akcijskih skupin na področju socialnega dela in hkrati razmišljajoč teoretik z bogatim opusom raziskav, ji daje poseben pomen in verodostojnost. Vendar pa ima ocenjevalec vtis, da bi bilo delu v prid, če pisec ne bi skušal za vsako ceno abstraktno inovirati, kjer bi konkreten primer povedal več. V strahu, da ne bi bil videti dogmatičen in nekritičen, ampak odprtega duha, posebej v uvodnih poglavjih pretirava v nasprotni smeri z analitičnostjo, ki ne koristi didaktičnemu namenu besedila. Bolje bi bilo, ko bi le povzel, kar je že preverjenega napisanega o tem predmetu in dodal opis svojih osebnih izkušenj v podkrepitev včasih zelo abstraktnih razmišljanj, nerazumljivih ocenjevalcu (to seveda ni univerzalno merilo). Poleg tega bi se veljalo zamisliti nad tem, kaj pomeni besedna zveza »moč skupine«. To lahko pojmujemo kot vpliv skupine na posameznika v pomenu osebnostne rasti, terapije ali vzgoje, to je orientacije v svetu, ali pa kot vpliv skupine na družbeno okolje v pomenu družbene akcije in spreminjanja razmer, »volje do moči« torej. Ta poudarka imata morda različne posledice za praktično skupinsko delo. Blaž Mesec Publisher University of Ljubljana Faculty of Social Work All rights reserved Editor in chief Vera Grebenc Senior Editor Borut Petrovič Jesenovec Editorial Board Srečo Dragoš, Martina Kerec, Nina Mešl, Tamara Rape Žiberna, Irena Šumi, Mojca Urek, Darja Zaviršek Advisory Board Gordana Berc, Lena Dominelli, Shirley Gabel Gaetano, Subhangi Herath, Duška Kneževič Hočevar, Roman Kuhar, Chu-Li Julie Liu, Rea Maglajlič, Jana Mali, Theano Kallinikaki, Dragan Petrovec, Paula Pinto, Francka Premzel, Shula Ramon, Liljana Rihter, Alessandro Siccora, Lea Šugman Bohinc, Mirjana Ule In memoriam Jo Campling Address Topniška 31, 1000 Ljubljana phone (+386 1) 2809 273, faks 2809270 socialno.delo@fsd.uni-lj.si Web site https://www.revija-socialnodelo.si/ Inclusion in databases International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (IBSS), ERIH PLUS EBSCO Soclndex with Full Text Four issues are issued per year. Subvention: Slovenian Research Agency Guidelines for authors are published on the Journal's web pages. Texts published in Socialno delo Journal are licenced under Creative Commons licence: CC BY-SA SOCIALNO DELO, Vol. 62, Issue 4 (October-December 2023) SELECTED CONTENTS 241 Srečo Dragoš - Decommodification of work 259 Gordana Horvat - The importance of formal and informal support networks for foster parents in establishing the normalisation of children's life: the case of Croatia 275 Petar Šajfar - Experience of deinstitutionalisation from service users' perspective in Croatia 297 Blaž Mesec - Linguistic model of ChatGPT artificial intelligence as a tool in qualitative analysis SOCIALNO DELO LETNIK 62 OKTOBER-DECEMBER 2023 ŠTEVILKA 4 ISSN 0352-7956 UDK304+36 ZNANSTVENI ČLANKI Sreco Dragoš - DEKOMODIFIKACIJA DELA - 241 Gordana Horvat - THE IMPORTANCE OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL SUPPORT NETWORKS FOR FOSTER PARENTS IN ESTABLISHING THE NORMALISATION OF CHILDREN'S LIFE: THE CASE OF CROATIA - 259 Petar Šajfar- EXPERIENCE OF DEINSTITUTIONALISATION FROM SERVICE USERS' PERSPECTIVE IN CROATIA - 275 STROKOVNI ČLANEK Blaž Mesec - JEZIKOVNI MODEL UMETNE INTELIGENCE CHATGPT KOT PRIPOMOČEK PRI KVALITATIVNI ANALIZI - 297 POROČILI Klavdija Gorjup - POMEN TIMSKEGA DELA PRI OBRAVNAVI OGROŽENOSTI OTROK - 317 Janja Jakše, Suzana Savicic - ALTERNATIVNE PRAKSE DELA V ČASU EPIDEMIJE V VARSTVENO DELOVNEM CENTRU NOVO MESTO - 323 KNJIŽNA RECENZIJA Blaž Mesec - Vito Flaker (2022) - MOČ SKUPINE - 329