7 Arheološki vestnik 71, 2020, 007–075; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AV.71.01
Aurignacian osseous points
from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia).
Interpreting the new results of a morphometric
statistical analysis
Orinjasjenske koščene konice iz Potočke zijalke.
Razlaga novih rezultatov morfometrične
statistične analize
Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
Izvleček
Zbirka 134 orinjasjenskih koščenih konic z masivno bazo iz Potočke zijalke je po 90 letih od odkritja še vedno 
največja takšna zbirka v Evropi. Konice, ki so bile večkrat predmet različnih raziskav, so bile najdene v dveh plasteh na 
dveh lokacijah z različnim bivalnim in sedimentacijskim mikrookoljem. Glede na vzdolžni presek konic sta z velikim 
številom primerkov v obeh plasteh in na obeh lokacijah zastopana dva različna tipa konic: ploščat in vretenast, ki se 
razlikujeta tudi po tehničnih lastnostih. S po enim primerkom je zastopanih nekaj monotipov, med katerimi je tudi 
t. i. tip mladečke konice. Sto sedemnajst konic obeh glavnih tipov je tokrat prvič sistematično analiziranih z uporabo 
standardnih parametričnih in neparametričnih statističnih postopkov na podlagi kombinacij 20 znakov: 9 metričnih 
in 11 opisnih. Glede na izsledke analiz je predlagana vrsta novosti o domnevnih razvojno-tehničnih izboljšavah konic, 
načinu nasaditve, popravilu poškodb, izdelavi nastavkov za večje konice in pomenu zarez na robovih nekaterih konic. 
Avtorja ugotavljata, da gre pri tipu vretenastih konic Potočke zijalke za tehnično izpopolnjeno obliko konice z masivno 
bazo, ki si upravičeno zasluži naziv konica Potočka zijalka ali olševska konica.
Ključne besede: Slovenija; Potočka zijalka; orinjasjen; koščene konice; morfometrična analiza (ANOVA); tipologija 
Abstract
After ninety years since its discovery, the 134 massive-based Aurignacian osseous points from the cave site of Potočka 
zijalka still represent the largest collection of its kind in Europe and the subject of numerous and varied studies. They 
were found in two layers in two different areas of the cave with different habitation and sedimentation microenviron-
ments. Most are either flat or spindle-shaped with regards to their longitudinal cross section or side contour, each 
with its own set of technical properties and present at both areas of the cave. There are also single examples of several 
monotypes, including a Mladeč type point. Of the two main types, 117 points are systematically analysed here for the 
first time using standard parametric and non-parametric statistical procedures based on a combination of twenty vari-
ables, nine of them metric and eleven descriptive. The results of the analysis have led to new observations concerning 
the presumed technical improvements of Aurignacian points, the way the points were hafted, repairs of damaged points, 
manufacture of blanks for large points and the significance of the cuts and incisions occurring on some of them. They 
have also shown the spindle-shaped points from Potočka zijalka as a technically accomplished shape of massive-based 
point meriting the name the Potočka zijalka or Olševa point.
Keywords: Slovenia; Potočka zijalka; Aurignacian; osseous points; morphometric analysis (ANOVA); typology
Dedicated to the memory of Srečko and Mitja Brodar,
who left us a valuable collection of Palaeolithic finds from the Potočka zijalka cave.

8 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
1. INTRODUCTION
The cave of Potočka zijalka (hereinafter also P . 
z.) lies at 1650 m a.s.l. on the southern slope of 
Mt. Olševa (1849 m), in the eastern Karavanke 
Mountains. It ranks among the most important and 
best known Palaeolithic sites in Slovenia. Potočka 
zijalka was excavated in several campaigns that 
yielded the greatest collection of well-preserved 
Aurignacian bone points with a massive base in 
Europe: 1926–1928 (M. Brodar 1994), 1928–1935 
(Brodar, Brodar 1983) and 1997–2000 (M. Brodar 
2000; Pohar 2004; Pacher, Pohar, Rabeder 2004), 
while in 2012 a small part of the back dirt left 
behind by S. Brodar was re-examined (Odar 
2014). The bulk, i.e. 127 points was found dur-
ing the 1928–1935 excavations led by S. Brodar. 
Comparable numbers of Aurignacian points, but in 
a much poorer condition and made almost exclu-
sively of antler, have been unearthed at Istállóskő 
in Hungary (~130 pieces as counted by I. and M. 
Turk, and related by Horusitzky), as well as Abri 
Blanchard des Roches (~154 pieces), La Ferrassie 
(~136 pieces) and Abri Castanet (~73 pieces) in 
France (Leroy-Prost 1979).
The P. z. collection currently comprises 135 
points that include a single split-based example. 
M. Brodar analysed them in the most systematic 
and detailed manner (Brodar, Brodar 1983; M. 
Brodar 1985a; 1985b; 2009). They were also dis-
cussed from various aspects by a number of other 
authors (Bayer 1929; Albrecht, Hahn, Torke 1972; 
Hahn 1988; Turk 2002; 2005; 2014; Horusitzky 
2006; Odar 2008, 2011; Pacher 2010; Verpoorte 
2012; Jéquier 2016; Doyon 2017; 2019). Six of 
the points were directly dated using the AMS 
14
C 
method (Rabeder, Pohar 2004; Moreau et al. 2015).
There is much scholarly interest for Aurignacian 
points of bone or antler. In the last decade, several 
articles have been published in various journals 
that mainly tackle questions related to the manu-
facture and use of the points, all more or less on 
the basis of experiments. Their results inasmuch 
as they pertain, directly or indirectly, to the P. z. 
collection are critically evaluated further down.
The numerous points from P . z. were unearthed 
in two archaeological levels in two different parts 
of the cave with different living conditions (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983). This, coupled the possibilities for 
a statistical stratification, make the sample of the 
points from P . z. very suitable for a comprehensive 
statistical analysis. We continued the analytical 
work that I. Turk began some years ago (Turk 
2002; 2005; 2014) and systematically investigated 
the entire sample, interpreting it with the help 
of standard descriptive and analytical statistics. 
Until Turk, no other author attempted to statisti-
cally analyse all the points from P. z., after him, 
this was only performed by Doyon (2017; 2019). 
2. METHOD
We used a sample of 117 points from P. z. to 
perform a new analysis based on nine quantita-
tive (metric) and eleven qualitative (descriptive) 
variables or their combinations (App. 2) using the 
STATISTICA software. This sets it apart from the 
analytical approach of S. and M. Brodar (1983), 
as well as other authors who analyzed the collec-
tion of P. z. points in a different way and from 
various aspects.
The advantage of statistically analysing a large 
quantity of data is that it reveals characteristics 
otherwise not clearly perceptible. The analysis 
must be conducted on a large enough sample, the 
values of which are preferably normally distributed. 
The shape of distribution can roughly be gleaned 
from the frequency distribution histogram. Sample 
size and normal distribution of sample values are 
interconnected: the larger the sample, the more 
the values come closer to normal distribution 
(central limit theorem); hence the lower limit for 
the number of values in a sample.
All data were subjected to the Shapiro-Wilk 
W-test (hereinafter the SW W-test) to verify the 
degree of probability that the sample belongs to a 
population of normally distributed values. If the 
probability exceeds 5% (p > 0.05), the sample may 
belong to such a population, hence we can analyse 
it with parametric statistics based on the mean 
value. If the probability is below 5%, the sample 
does not belong to a population of normally dis-
tributed values and it is better to analyse it using 
non-parametric statistics based on the median 
value and ranks.
Parametric statistics have certain advantages 
over non-parametric. W e used both, depending on 
the distribution of values and the instructions for 
using individual analytical statistical procedures. 
The basis of our analytical work was the one-
way analysis of variance (ANOVA) used to verify 
whether the means of selected populations differ 
from one another. The ANOVA demands a nor-
mal distribution of values. The SW W-test for all 
unaltered metric values on the points was negative 

9 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
(p < 0.05), which led us to use the square root of 
values to obtain a positive result (p > 0.05) for all 
the data altered in this manner except for the per-
centage of reconstruction, mass and cross section 
of the points (App. 2, last line). For the last three, 
we used non-parametric statistics instead, which 
are based on the median and ranks, as well as the 
use of the Kruskal-Wallis median test (KW-test).
The use of the ANOVA also demands homo-
geneity of variances. This was verified using the 
Levene’ s test, where a statistically significant result 
shows inhomogeneous variances. W e also verified 
the correlation between the means and standard 
deviations of the factors that can create a sub-
stantial disruption and may influence the results 
of the analysis of variance.
In the analysis of variance, the measurable data 
(e.g. length, width, thickness, mass) represent 
dependent variables, while the data that can be 
manipulated or controlled (e.g. size, side contour 
of the point and so forth) are factors or independ-
ent variables. Factors can be fixed or random. The 
latter comprise all the factors whose categories are 
more or less randomly selected. For example, the 
‘small’ , ‘medium-sized’ and ‘large’ point categories 
in the size factor are randomly selected; someone 
else would likely select them differently. In contrast, 
the ‘front’ and ‘back’ categories in the cave area 
factor, as well as the ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in the cuts and 
incisions factor are fixed because no other selec-
tion is possible. The analysis of variance can also 
predict the situation created by random factors. A 
subjective factor selection does contribute to the 
variance and this contribution can be estimated 
if necessary.
In the analysis of variance, we can test every 
factor separately while controlling all others at 
the same time. This makes the ANOV A more sta-
tistically powerful than the t-test, which hmeans 
that less than the prescribed 30 values suffices 
Fig. 2.1: Points Nos. 12, 44, 134 and 47 from P. z. (Potočka zijalka) with marked border between hafted and unhafted 
parts. The drawings of this and all other points are taken from S. and M. Brodar (1983, Pls. 6–22).
Sl. 2.1: Konice št. 12, 44, 134 in 47 iz P. z. (Potočke zijalke) z nakazano mejo med nasajenim in nenasajenim delom. 
Risbe konic so, enako kot v vseh naslednjih slikah, povzete po S. in M. Brodarju (1983, t. 6–22).

10 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
to establish statistical reliability. This come very 
handy in stratified samples where the number of 
values per stratum decreases.
1
The statistical analysis was performed under 
the assumption that a large part of the points 
were used as throwing or thrusting spears, pos-
sibly as arrowheads. M. Brodar (2009, 340) did 
not analyse in detail how the points were used, 
but did believe that roughly half of them were 
hafted. The P. z. collection only comprises nine 
points that survive complete and further three or 
four almost complete, while others are damaged 
to different degrees, which made it necessary to 
reconstruct their original lengths: total length,
2
 
length of the hafted (basal) part and that of the 
active (distal) part (App. 2). Both parts can include 
1
  The statistical stratification of a sample is meant here, 
with large, medium-sized and small points, for example, 
representing sample strata.
2
  The 104 reconstructed lengths and all unreconstructed 
measurements have been taken from the unpublished list 
compiled by M. Brodar (archives of the Inštitut za arhe-
ologijo ZRC SAZU; Ljubljana [Institute of Archaeology ZRC 
SAZU]). S. and M. Brodar (1983, 124) initially estimated 
the length of 101 points. Later, M. Brodar (1985a; 1985b) 
limited the number of points with a reconstructed length 
to 83. He probably left out the reconstructions he deemed 
less credible. We added 13 reconstructions of total length 
and all reconstructed lengths of the distal and basal parts 
to Brodar’s list. The missing parts were reconstructed 
arbitrarily based on the known shape of complete points.
the medial section if present on the point at all. 
It is difficult to objectively separate the medial 
from the basal and distal parts. I. Turk (2002) 
dedicated a special study to the medial part. Our 
arbitrary distinction is based on the assumption 
that the hafted part covers 1/3 of the total length 
of the javelin-, lance- or arrowhead in optimally 
hafted points.
3
 S. and M. Brodar suggested this 
for the hafted points from P. z. (1983, Pl. 15: 54; 
M. Brodar 2009, 340) and Horusitzky (2008) for 
the points from Dzérava skala. Horusitzky also 
developed a special procedure for reconstructing 
points presumably damaged through use. This 
rule represents one of the main premises of our 
analysis and is substantiated by:
– 1.) cuts on the edges and incisions
4
 on the 
front and back that predominantly only occur on 
the upper two thirds of the points, i.e. the active 
distal part (Nos. 12, 30, 44, 64, 74, 109, 113, 124, 
134),
5
 while they are absent on the base (Fig. 2.1: 
12,44,134);
– 2.) basal fragments usually without cuts and 
incisions (Nos. 94, 108, 112, 113, 114, 121, 123, 
126–128, 132, 133) (Fig. 3.4);
– 3.) distal fragments with cuts along the total 
length (Nos. 8, 66, 91, 136) (Fig. 2.1: 47);
– 4.) especially one point broken in two, i.e. 
a basal (No. 125) and a distal fragment (No. 86) 
(Fig. 3.4: 86 and 125).
The last point could only have broken at the spot 
where the point jutted out of the shaft (hereinafter 
shaft-point junction) when it hit a hard obstacle. It 
could not have been broken in a post-sedimentary 
process because the damage (breakage) of the apex 
is such as typically occurs when a point hits a hard 
obstacle (see Horusitzky 2008). In addition, the 
two fragments were recovered far apart from one 
another (Brodar, Brodar 1983, 103; Figs. 48, 49), 
with rounded fracture edges on the basal and sharp 
ones on the distal fragment. It is, of course, not 
3
  In his publications, I. Turk (2002; 2005; 2014) de-
termined the distal part using a different criterion, hence 
his reconstructed measures differ slightly from those given 
here, but this does not significantly influence the results of 
the analysis. The parts of the point as distinguished here 
(total, distal, basal length) are automatically in perfect 
correlation (see Fig. 5.1). This means that the statistical 
analytical procedures that include these parts provide 
similar or redundant results; it is therefore enough to only 
include one part of the point in the analysis.
4
  For terminology see Chapter 9.
5
  The point numbers refer to those used for the draw-
ings published by S. and M. Brodar (1983).
Fig. 2.2: Correlation between the arbitrarily delimited basal 
part of the points from P . z. as proposed by Doyon (2017), 
Horusitzky (2008) and the authors of this contribution. 
For data see App. 1.
Sl. 2.2: Povezanost različno arbitrarno zamejene baze ko-
nic iz P . z., kot jo predlagata Doyon (2017) in Horusitzky 
(2008), s predlagano zamejitvijo baze avtorjev članka. Za 
podatke glej prilogo 1.

11 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
possible to completely rule out post-sedimentary 
breakage, but such an interpretation involves many 
more coincidental events connected with the ac-
tion of humans and natural forces, which erode its 
credibility as opposed to the simple explanation 
of damage through use (see below). 
It is possible to distinguish basal and distal 
parts in a different arbitrary manner. According 
to Doyon, the base of a point begins or ends at 
maximum width (Doyon, Knecht 2014; Doyon 
2017; 2019). For the points from Dzérava skala, 
Horusitzky (2008) determined that the length 
measured 2.5-times the width.
6
 When applying 
these rules to the points from P . z., there are certain 
deviations with regards to our determination of 
the basal part, there are illogical solutions (Figs. 
2.2; 2.3), but also cases where the base is of the 
same length as the one we proposed. 
6
  For the wide points with a predominantly split base, 
the base : distal part ratio was exceptionally 1 : 2. This ratio 
changed for the narrow points with a massive base. Devia-
tion occur as shown for select points from P . z. in Fig. 2.3. 
 3. RESEARCH GOALS
AND THEORETICAL PREMISES
The main aim of our analysis was to define and 
explain the characteristics of the sample related to 
the manufacture, use, maintenance and possible 
storage of osseous points. The focus was on the 
factors influencing the development of the points 
as a hunting weapon through the several thousand 
year long period of the Aurignacian. Key in this 
evolution was strength (reliability) and penetrat-
ing effect (efficiency) of the points as generally 
accepted qualities (Doyon, Knecht 2014). Both 
are closely connected with the shape of the points 
that is the basis for typology (Horusitzky 2004; 
2006; Turk 2005). Given the side contour (profile) 
of the points from P . z., we arbitrarily distinguish 
between flat and spindle-shaped (see Turk 2005). 
Flat points have parallel front and back planes 
along a considerable stretch of their length in 
the medial part, while front and back planes of 
spindle-shaped points are conspicuously thickened 
roughly at one third of their total length (Fig. 3.1). 
Fig. 2.3: Points Nos. 50, 51, 56, 71 and 113 from P . z. with hafted parts according to Doyon (2017, Annexe 2: 3066, 3067, 
3070, 3076, 3090) (App. 3) and according to a 1 : 2 ratio between basal and distal parts. The basal parts according to Doyon 
are shaded. For the potential length of the hafted base see point No. 74 with incisions, which is the same size as No. 71.
Sl. 2.3: Konice P. z. št. 50, 51, 56, 71 in 113: domnevna nasadišča po Doyonu (2017, Annexe 2: 3066, 3067, 3070, 3076, 
3090) (pril. 3) in po razmerju 1 : 2 med bazo in distalnim delom. Doyonove baze so v rastru. Za potencialno dolžino 
nasajene baze glej konico št. 74 z zarezami, ki je velika kot konica št. 71.

12 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
This side contour criterion is simple and reliable 
in most cases. Insofar as we know, it has not yet 
been used before because the focus was rather on 
the shape of the points in front view (Albrecht, 
Hahn, T orke 1972; Hahn 1988; Doyon 2017; 2019). 
Apart from overall shape (geometry), efficiency of 
a point is also determined by its size, which needs 
to be suited to the size of the prey, as well as to 
either an offensive or a defensive role. As opposed 
Fig. 3.1: Examples of flat (No. 53) and spindle-shaped (No. 50) points, as well as the only biconical spindle-shaped point 
(No. 5) from P. z. with marked base as presumed in this contribution. The maximum thickness of No. 50 is 1 cm above 
the end of the presumed base.
Sl. 3.1: Primerek ploščate (št. 53) in vretenaste konice (št. 50) ter edine vretenaste bikonične konice (št. 5) iz P. z. z 
označenim domnevno nasajenim delom (bazo). Pri št. 50 je največja debelina 1 cm nad začetkom domnevne baze.
Fig. 3.2: Simplified display of the possible buckling (Nos. 1–5) of the osseous points when encountering a hard obstacle. 
The spots marked are where the points break due to buckling (short oblique line), the inevitable damage to the apex 
(short horizontal line) and potential fragments (letters). A single (No. 2), double (Nos. 1, 3) and triple break (Nos. 4, 5) 
is possible. The P. z. collection includes the following fragments: e: 4 fragments (Fig. 3.3: e.g. No. 1, 2); a?: 1 fragment 
(Brodar, Brodar 1983, Pl. 6: 119); b or b1: 3 fragments (Brodar, Brodar 1983, e.g. Pl. 22: 21); a1+ b and a1 + b1: 4 fra-
gments (Fig. 3.5: e.g. No. 104); d: 11 fragments (Fig. 3.5: e.g. No. 106); a1 + b + c and a1 + b1+ c1: 22 fragments (Fig. 
3.3: e.g. No. 3); b + c and b1 + c1: 6 fragments (Fig. 3.4: e.g. No. 103); c1: 2–5 fragments (Fig. 2.3: e.g. No. 113) and c: 
11 fragments (Fig. 3.4: e.g. No. 112 ).
Sl. 3.2: Poenostavljen prikaz možnih uklonov (št. 1–5) organskih konic kopja, ko te naletijo na trdo oviro. Označena so 
mesta, kjer se konice zaradi uklona lahko prelomijo (poševna črtica), neizbežna poškodba apeksa (vodoravna črtica) 
in potencialni odlomki (črke). Možen je enojni (št. 2), dvojni (št. 1, 3) in trojni prelom (št. 4, 5). V zbirki konic P. z. so 
zastopani naslednji odlomki prikaza: e: 4 primerki (sl. 3.3: npr. št. I, II); a?: 1 primerek (Brodar, Brodar 1983, t. 6: 119); 
b ali b1: 3 primerki (Brodar, Brodar 1983, npr. t. 22: 21); a1 + b in a1 + b1: 4 primerki (sl. 3.5: npr. št. 104); d: 11 pri-
merkov (sl. 3.5: npr. št. 106); a1 + b + c in a1 + b1 + c1: 22 primerkov (sl. 3.3: npr. št. 3); b + c in b1 + c1: 6 primerkov 
(sl. 3.4: npr. št. 103); c1: 2–5 primerkov (sl. 2.3: npr. št. 113) in c: 11 primerkov (sl. 3.4: npr. št. 112).
3.2.
to the lithic points, those of bone and antler were 
better at penetrating deeper, reaching the internal 
organs and immediately immobilising the prey; 
this eliminated the need for tracking down the 
wounded animal.
A feature common to all points from differ-
ent sites is a more or less damaged condition. 
We presume that most of the damage (breakage) 
at P. z. occurred due to buckling (Fig. 3.3) and 
3.1.

13 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
flexion during use (Horusitzky 2007) and that 
the damage was repaired. The apical and distal 
parts were most susceptible to damage (Fig. 3.2), 
as corroborated by experiments (Doyon, Knecht 
2014; Odar 2008). There are even individual api-
cal and distal fragments, from P . z. and other sites 
(Odar 2014; Leroy-Prost 1979, Figs. 38, 52, 92; 
Istállóskő, numerous unpublished examples). It is 
also possible to connect the frequent deviation in 
maximum thickness distally from the beginning of 
the presumed current base, which took up 1/3 of 
the length of the undamaged point, with presumed 
repairs of damaged distal parts (see Figs. 10.5 and 
10.6). This resulted in a shortened total length of 
the point and its base (contra Doyon 2017, who 
believes that repairs to the distal part did not result 
in a shorter base), while retaining the 1 : 2 ratio 
between base and distal part.
Points also broke at the shaft-point junction 
(Brodar, Brodar 1983; M. Brodar 2009, 340; Ho-
rusitzky 2008). Evidence of this is the basal and 
long distal fragments of massive-based points 
from P . z. and La Ferrassie (Brodar, Brodar 1983, 
Pls. 6–10, 21; Odar 2014; Leroy-Prost 1979, Fig. 
52: 11) (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5). Such breakage can-
not be replicated in experiments not using live 
targets and the projectiles not hitting a rock or 
a tree if missing the target. Experiments show 
that the heads of arrows and other projectiles 
most commonly sustain apical and minor distal 
damage (Odar 2008; Doyon, Knecht 2014); for 
the projectiles with such damage, it would have 
been much easier to repair than to make new 
ones (Hahn 1974; 1988; Turk 2002; Horusitzky 
2008; Doyon 2013; Doyon, Knecht 2014). It was 
also possible to repair long distal fragments by 
making a new base.
As for post-sedimentary damage, we should 
make certain general remarks. If most fragments 
occurred through post-sedimentary processes, we 
would expect more fragments to fit into whole 
points that only one. Moreover, it does not seem 
plausible for people to have left complete points 
lying on the ground where some broke apart and 
Fig. 3.3: Examples of apical and substantial distal damage on the points from P. z. The apical fragments are taken from 
Odar 2014.
Sl. 3.3: Primeri apikalnih in večjih terminalnih poškodb na konicah P. z. (Apikalni odlomki so povzeti po Odar 2014.).

14 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
individual fragments travelled far apart from one 
another not to be found by archaeologists because 
of a limited scope of excavation. It is difficult to 
imagine that some of the larger points could have 
broken either on the ground or in the sediment. 
Finally, experiment results and a recurring pattern 
of basal and distal fragments does not allow us to 
exclude the possibility that different damage oc-
curred through use and that people repaired the 
damaged points.
Numerous similar distal and basal fragments 
show that firmly hafted points tended to break at 
the shaft-point junction. It is therefore necessary 
to strengthen this part and transfer the damage 
to the shaft which was easier to repair than the 
point. This could be achieved by widening and/or 
thickening the body of the point without reducing 
its penetrating effect. 
Given the above, we may posit the following 
more or less parallel tendencies in the evolution 
of points through use:
– 1.) Points became thicker and narrower, hence 
more durable and penetrating.
– 2.) Points became wider and thinner, hence 
more penetrating and less durable.
– 3.) Points became wider and thicker, hence 
more durable and less penetrating.
The evolutionary tendencies that eventually led 
to rod-shaped points are verifiable with stratigra-
phy, less with direct dating as the 
14
C dates have an 
unsuitable resolution. Development was the result 
of the experience that one or several generations 
gained from using the points for hunting or other 
purposes. We may surmise that old and new im-
proved shapes were in use at the same time, with 
the new shapes gradually ousting the old ones, 
Fig. 3.4: Basal fragments of the points from P. z. and their presumed original length.
Sl. 3.4: Bazalni odlomki konic P. z. in njihove domnevne prvotne dolžine.

15 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
as is generally the rule in introducing novelties. 
It should be noted that the points have not been 
analysed with this model of development in mind, 
either in Slovenia or elsewhere.
4. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTIC OF POINTS
The standard descriptive statistics of the prin-
cipal measurements are given at the bottom of 
App. 2 and in Fig. 4.1. The reconstructed lengths 
vary between 0 and 68% of the total length. The 
median is 13%. The interquartile range of the 
reconstructed lengths is 6–34%.
Half of all points have a reconstructed length 
that exceeds 132 mm and a preserved length 
that exceeds 99 mm. The interquartile ranges are 
102–165 mm and 81–124 mm, respectively. The 
maximum reconstructed length measures 245 mm, 
the minimum 40 mm. Half of all points have a 
reconstructed distal part that exceeds 88 mm and 
an interquartile range of 68–110 mm, which corre-
sponds with both the preserved (84–139 mm) and 
the reconstructed lengths (90–150 mm) of twelve 
distal fragments with a predominantly missing apex. 
The maximum reconstructed length of the distal 
part is 163 mm, the minimum 27 mm. Half of all 
points have a reconstructed base that exceeds 44 
mm and an interquartile range of 34–55 mm. The 
maximum reconstructed length of the base is 82 
mm, the minimum 13 mm. Nine basal fragments 
that presumably broke at the shaft-point junction 
are 43–80 mm long with the interquartile range 
of 57–75 mm.
Width and thickness are the two measures that 
most objectively represent the actual measures of 
Fig. 3.5: Distal fragments of the points from P. z. and their presumed original length. The split-based variant is shaded.
Sl. 3.5: Terminalni odlomki konic P. z. in njihove domnevne prvotne dolžine. Varianta z razcepljeno bazo je osenčena.

16 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
the points. Half of all points are wider than 15.2 
mm and thicker than 8 mm. The interquartile range 
is at the width of 12.0–17.8 mm and the thickness 
of 6–9 mm. The maximum width is 31 mm, the 
minimum 6 mm. The maximum thickness is 13 
mm, the minimum 3 mm. The thickness measures 
show that only a small part of the points could 
have been made of antler, which is characterised 
by a cortex that is relatively thin in comparison 
with the long bone cortex of cave bears and large 
ungulates (see also Pacher 2010). 
The P . z. sample includes some points that stand 
out from the average metric values. They are rare, 
but not exceptional considering the larger unknown 
population of points represented by a small sample 
from P. z. The greatest preserved length, as well 
as greatest reconstructed total and distal lengths 
are recorded on the spindle-shaped point No. 31 
(180, 188 and 125 mm) and the flat point No. 75 
(198, 230 and 153 mm). The front shape of the 
latter closely corresponds with that of most other 
points from P . z. (Turk 2002).
7
 No. 75 also stands 
out in a hole in its base (see M. Brodar 2009; 
Horusitzky 2008). The flat point No. 136 has the 
greatest reconstructed length (245 mm), which is 
the maximum of bone point lengths in general. 
The same holds true of the point No. 49, which 
7
  Formally, point No. 75 stands between the spindle-
shaped and flat type (see Turk 2005; 2014).
we have not reconstructed.
8
 At the other end of 
the scale, with the lowest preserved length, as well 
as reconstructed total and distal lengths, are the 
spindle-shaped point No. 102 (38, 40 and 27 mm) 
and the flat point No. 59 (46, 65 and 43 mm); the 
former also stands apart in its split base.
5. SIZE OF POINTS
The points from P . z. are divided into three size 
classes on the basis of the length of the distal part, 
i.e. their active part:
– 1.) small, 27 mm < 65 mm;
– 2.) medium-sized, 65–95 mm;
– 3.) large, > 95 mm.
The 10 and 90 percentiles, which cover 80% 
of all lengths, have a range of 43–65 mm for 1.), 
69– 92 mm for 2.) and 97–150 mm for 3.). Apart 
from the shape of the passive base, it is the shape 
and length of the active distal part that is of im-
portance for the study of points. The distal parts 
of the complete points measure 53, 57, 66, 68, 
8
  Assuming that most points from P. z. are made of 
cave bear bones, it is not certain whether this artefact 
is really a point. Given the subparallel edges along the 
entire length, it would have been unlikely for the artefact 
to terminate in a suitably sharp tip as the long bones of 
cave bears could only produce up to 230 mm long points.
Fig. 4.1: The mean, standard error (SE), standard deviation (SD), outliers and extremes, as well as the result of the F-test 
of the main measures of the points from P. z. based on the proposed typology. All measures are transformed by square 
root extraction. The points with extreme measures are marked with their inventory numbers.
Sl. 4.1: Srednja vrednost (mean), standardna napaka (SE), standardno odstopanje (SD), “posebneži” (outliers) in “skrajneži” 
(extremes) ter rezultat F-testa glavnih mer vzorca konic iz P . z. glede na predlagano tipologijo. Vse mere so spremenjene 
s korenjenjem. Navedene so inventarne številke konic z ekstremnimi merami.

17 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
73, 75, 90 and 116 mm in length (App. 2). The 
maximum preserved length of the points Nos. 
42 and 75 shows that the distal part may even 
have exceeded 120 mm. Considering the distal 
fragments Nos. 66, 106, 136 and the premise that 
points broke at the shaft-point junction, the distal 
part of the points from P. z. was 140–160 mm 
long.
9
 This length enabled the hunter to mortally 
wound even a large prey. We posit that the length 
of the distal part was adapted to the size of the 
prey, as well as to the offensive or defensive use. 
Offensive points had to be as long as possible. 
The length could then decrease due to repairs of 
damage sustained during use. The repaired points 
could still be used for hunting smaller animals, 
for defensive or other purposes (Owen 2013). 
According to M. Brodar (2009), some points were 
not hafted at all. A number of authors have drawn 
attention to the need for distinguishing between 
the osseous points used as arrowheads, lanceheads, 
javelinheads or daggers (Vértes 1955; Brodar, 
Brodar 1983; Horusitzky 2004). The manner of 
use and the prey determined the size of the points 
without excessive deviations, such as characterise 
the analysed P. z. sample (App. 2).
The question connected with the preserved and 
reconstructed lengths is why there are so many 
different lengths that gradually increase from 
9
  Under the same premise, we get a 150–160 mm long 
distal part for the basal fragments Nos. 108, 128 and 129. 
A very long distal part can also be expected for the basal-
medial fragments Nos. 49 and 103.
small to large (Fig. 5.1). In hunting weapons, it 
would not be reasonable to expect the size of the 
points to be coincidental, i.e. largely dependent on 
the differing sizes of the natural bone fragments. 
The numerous intermediate sizes, between large 
and small, may have occurred as a consequence 
of repairing large and medium-sized points. Such 
repaired examples may be seen in the points Nos. 
12, 29, 80, 76, 82, 101, 104 and 122 that have a 
disproportionately great width and thickness in 
comparison with their length (Fig. 5.2) and a shape 
that stands apart considerably from the ‘standard’ 
point No. 75 (Turk 2002, Fig. 3: 12,80).
The ANOVA can help us in answering such 
questions. It could only be used for the width and 
thickness of the points from P. z. where the vari-
ance is homogeneous (p > 0.05) and there is no 
correlation between the factors, while the distri-
bution is normal. Both measures show significant 
differences between size classes (p = 0.000). The 
width increases more substantially from small to 
medium-sized (average 5 mm, 33%) than from 
medium to large points (average 3 mm, 17%). The 
thickness increases substantially from small to 
medium-sized (average 2.5 mm, 32%) and hardly 
at all from medium-sized to large points (average 
0.5 mm, 6%) (Fig. 5.3). This is also clearly visible 
from the median value and the interquartile range 
(KW p < 0.001). The almost identical thickness 
of the medium-sized and large points, and the 
relatively small decrease in width between large 
and medium-sized points may be the consequence 
of repairs of large examples. It is less likely that 
Fig. 5.1: Preserved length (unbroken line) and the length of the reconstructed part (broken line) (a), as well as the re-
constructed length of the points from P. z. and their parts (b).
Sl. 5.1: Ohranjena dolžina posamezne konice (polna črta) in dolžina (prekinjena črta) rekonstruiranega dela (a). Rekon-
struirane dolžine konic iz P. z. in njihovih delov (b).

18 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
and 88 massive-based points from La Ferrassie, 
determining an independent morphotype (M04) 
and a variable group composed of six morphotypes 
(M01, M02, M03, M05, M07 and TDB). Doyon’s 
morphotypes are derived from two basic types, 
i.e. massive- and split-based points. At P. z., his 
M04 morphotype includes a single flat example 
(No. 56), M01 includes twelve points (11 flat, 1 
spindle-shaped), M02 twenty-four points (13 flat, 
10 spindle-shaped, 1 undeterminable), M03 one 
point (spindle-shaped), M05 eight points (4 flat, 
3 spindle-shaped, 1 undeterminable), M07 four 
points (1 flat, 1 spindle-shaped) and TDB two 
points (flat). In contrast, S. and M. Brodar believed 
that the points from P . z. were of a single type with 
variants (Brodar, Brodar 1983; M. Brodar 1985a; 
1985b; 2009). 
Point typology with typometrics primarily 
makes sense when viewed together with their 
function. As a hunting weapon prone to damage 
during use, the point had to be securely hafted, 
medium-sized and large points were produced 
from equally thick blanks and much smaller blanks 
were used for small points. The reconstructed total 
lengths decrease relatively gradually from large to 
medium-sized (average 60 mm, 32%) and from 
medium-sized to small points (average just under 
40 mm, 31%). This offers no evidence of repairs 
to the medium-sized and small points.
6. SIDE CONTOURS
OF THE POINTS AND THEIR
TYPOMETRICS
Horusitzky (2004) and I. Turk (2005) used 
the side contour to distinguish between flat and 
spindle-shaped points from P . z. (Fig. 3.1). Doyon 
(2017, Annexe 2), who gave precedence to geo-
metric morphometry and volumetry over typology, 
performed a complex statistical analysis to examine 
a sample of 52 massive-based points from P. z. 
5.3. 5.2.
Fig. 5.2: Presumably repaired points from P. z. (Nos. 29, 
76 and 122) and their original size. A typical apical (No. 
93) and basal fragment is also shown (No. 112).
Sl. 5.2: Domnevno popravljene konice iz P. z. (št. 29, 76 
in 122) in njihova prvotna velikost. Prikazana sta tudi 
značilen terminalni (št. 93) in bazalni odlomek (št. 112).
Fig. 5.3: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOV A, 
p < 0.001) pertaining to the width and thickness of the 
points from P. z. in relation to their size class (total n = 
114; partial n = 26 – small, 41 – medium-sized, 47 – large).
Sl. 5.3: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p 
< 0,001) širine in debeline konic glede na velikost konic 
(skupni n = 114; delni n = 26 – majhna, 41 – srednja, 
47 – velika).

19 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
part – again presumably at the shaft-point junc-
tion – and artificially thinned at both ends. The 
side contour resembles that of a spindle, hence 
the name. On average, they are shorter, narrower 
and thicker than flat points (Fig. 4.1). The met-
ric differences are statistically significant (p = 
0.04; 0.05 and < 0.001). There is no significant 
difference in the preserved length, even though 
we would expect it given the different shape and 
hence strength of the points.
Flat points have all reconstructed lengths sig-
nificantly greater than spindle-shaped points, 
while the preserved length is the same for both 
(Fig. 6.1). They are also more variable in all the 
lengths, in width and thickness. Spindle-shaped 
points are (non)significantly narrower (p = 0.05) 
and significantly thicker than flat ones (p < 0.05) 
(Fig. 6.2); they are on average 2 mm narrower and 
just under 2 mm thicker. This is corroborated by 
the KW-test of the median for width (p = 0.04) 
and thickness (p < 0.001). The difference in width 
6.2. 6.1.
durable, efficient and repairable. The points that 
have all these properties in the P . z. sample are the 
spindle-shaped points with an elongated medial 
part (Turk 2002). They represent a specific point 
type with the potential of evolving into a durable 
(ideal?) rod-like point of a round cross section.
10
 
In evolutionary terms, flat points are earlier and 
also represent a specific point type with its own 
development, though not towards the presumably 
ideal point.
Flat points are made of relatively thin bone cortex 
and are of an even thickness except at the terminal 
of the base and in the apex. They are widest at the 
shaft-point junction. In shape and contour, they 
are similar to lanceheads with blunt edges. 
Spindle-shaped points are made of relatively 
thick bone cortex, which is thickest in the medial 
10
  Several such points are known from the Aurignacian 
layers of the cave of Hohle Fels in the Swabian Jura (Wolf 
et al. 2016, Fig. 6.5).
Fig. 6.1: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0.04 for reconstructed and 0.98 for preserved length) 
pertaining to the length of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. (total n = 104; partial n = 65 – flat, 39 – spin-
dle-shaped).
Sl. 6.1: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0,04 za rekonstruirane mere in 0,98 za ohranjeno dolžino) 
dolžinskih mer ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P. z. (skupni n = 104; delni n = 65 – ploščate, 39 – vretenaste).
Fig. 6.2: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0.05 for width and < 0.001 for thickness) pertaining 
to the width and thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. (total n = 104; partial n = 65 – flat, 39 – 
spindle-shaped).
Sl. 6.2: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOV A, p = 0,05 za širino in < 0,001 za debelino) širine in debeline ploščatih 
in vretenastih konic iz P. z. (skupni n = 104; delni n = 65 – ploščate, 39 – vretenaste).

20 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
We verified the hypothesis of large point repair 
on medium-sized and large points, assuming that 
the populations of two size classes are intercon-
nected and that the usual distal fragments (such as 
Nos. 8, 47, 53, 66, 95, 106, 136) of large flat points 
could be reshaped into medium-sized points. This 
reshaping would decrease the width of a point, 
while the thickness would remain unchanged. The 
same would occur when repairing medium-sized 
flat points with substantial apical damage (Nos. 12, 
29, 32, 44, 90, 121, 122) and also when repairing 
some fragments of flat and spindle-shaped points 
(Nos. 9, 63, 103).
The highest number of durable spindle-shaped 
points can be found in the medium-size class, 
where they are double in number (20 specimens) 
compared with the large points (10 specimens). 
Quite the opposite is true of the flat medium-sized 
(17 specimens) and large points (30 specimens). 
Fig. 6.3: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.001 for width and thickness) pertaining to the 
width and thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. according to size classes (total n = 102; partial n = 
30 – large flat, 10 – large spindle-shaped, 17 – medium-sized flat, 20 – medium-sized spindle-shaped, 16 – small flat, 
9 – small spindle-shaped).
Sl. 6.3: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0,001 za širino in debelino) širine in debeline ploščatih in 
vretenastih konic iz P. z. glede na velikost (skupni n = 102; delni n = 30 – velike ploščate, 10 – velike vretenaste, 17 – 
srednje ploščate, 20 – srednje vretenaste, 16 – majhne ploščate, 9 – majhne vretenaste).
Fig. 6.4: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.001 for width and thickness) pertaining to the width 
and thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. according to size classes shown in graphically different 
manner to Fig. 6.3 (total n = 102; partial n = 30 – large flat, 10 – large spindle-shaped, 17 – medium-sized flat, 20 – 
medium-sized spindle-shaped, 16 – small flat, 9 – small spindle-shaped).
Sl. 6.4: Slikovno drugačen prikaz rezultata analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0,001 za širino in debelino) širine 
in debeline ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P. z. glede na velikost, kot je prikazan v sl. 6.3 (skupni n = 102; delni n = 
30 – velike ploščate, 10 – velike vretenaste, 17 – srednje ploščate, 20 – srednje vretenaste, 16 – majhne ploščate, 9 – 
majhne vretenaste).
6.4. 6.3.
and thickness between flat and spindle-shaped 
points is highly significant (p < 0.001) for all size 
classes (Fig. 6.3). The difference between width 
and thickness is slightest (average 3 mm) in small 
spindle-shaped points. In small flat points, this 
difference is just over 3 mm. We see these sig-
nificant properties of the spindle-shaped points 
as technological advancement. Narrower points 
have a greater penetrative capacity and thicken-
ing increases their strength to the power of two 
while hardly decreasing the ability of penetration. 
Thickness is limited with the thickness of the 
compact bone, which measures a maximum of 13 
mm in the cave bear long bones, while the width 
is limited with the penetrating capacity and the 
width of the blank. Strength and penetration are 
balanced best in small spindle-shaped points that 
may have been used as arrowheads.

21 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
The numerical difference in size classes between 
the two types is statistically highly significant (χ
2
 
test: p = 0.009). No such statistically significant 
difference is observable between medium-sized 
and small points (χ
2
 test: p = 0.16). This would 
suggest that, because of the shape of their side 
contours, spindle-shaped points were less prone 
to fracture at the shaft-point junction than flat 
ones. They were easier to repair if only sustain-
ing insignificant damage to the distal part. This 
may have occurred several times in the span of 
their use. Frequent repairs would then have led 
to the prevailing use of spindle-shaped points in 
the medium-size class. Damaged medium-sized 
spindle-shaped points were repaired less frequently 
than large ones. They may even have been dam-
aged less frequently.
The ANOV A result shows that width and thick-
ness do not increase evenly with the size of the 
point (Fig. 6.4). Their increase from medium-sized 
to large points is much smaller that the increase 
from small to medium-sized points. This indicates 
that the medium-sized and large points are closer 
in both measures than small and medium-sized 
points, which could be explained with repairs 
mainly done on large points.
Small points are a class unto itself, both in size 
and the significant difference between flat and 
spindle-shaped points in terms of their width and 
thickness (Fig. 6.4). Because their repair does not 
seem reasonable and was presumably not done, 
they retained the original properties unlike the 
medium-sized points that may in part be the result 
of repairs to large points.
If point size depended solely on the random size 
of the bone blanks or fragments and there were 
no selection, we would have a sample with a full 
range of sizes (Fig. 5.1). It is, however, unlikely 
that people unselectively manufactured and used 
points. If the size of the points also depended on 
frequent repairs done outside the site, the point 
sample of this variability could only have accu-
mulated at the site over a longer period or as a 
consequence of frequent visits in a short period.
7. LOCATION OF POINTS
AND AREAS OF THE CAVE
The points were recovered from two separate 
areas of the cave, at the front and at the back. 
Because of the size of the cave and the relief of 
its ground, these two areas had different light and 
microclimatic conditions, consequentially also 
different sedimentation conditions. This brought 
about differences in the use of space (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983, 124, 127, 130), sedimentary envi-
ronment and taphonomy (Verpoorte 2012), all of 
which resulted in differences between the points 
from the two areas.
There are significant differences between the 
number of small, medium-sized and large points 
at the entrance and at the back of the cave (χ
2
 
test: p < 0.001) (Fig. 7.1). The back area yielded 
all size classes in roughly equal numbers, while 
the entrance area revealed most large points and 
progressively less smaller ones.
The number of flat and spindle-shaped points 
of all three size classes at the entrance and at the 
back (Tab. 1) show a statistically significant dif-
ference only for small points (χ
2
 test: p = 0.04). 
This difference could not have occurred selectively 
during excavations, because all small points save 
two or three were found at the back of the cave.
The presence of small points at the back cannot 
be related to hunting activities; they must have 
Fig. 7.1: Individual size classes of the points from P. z. 
according to cave areas (total n = 114; partial n = 29 – 
large back, 23 – large front, 29 – medium-sized back, 12 
– medium-sized front, 24 – small back, 2 – small front).
Sl. 7.1: Zastopanost treh velikosti konic iz P . z. pri vhodu in 
v ozadju jame (skupni n = 114; delni n = 29 – velike, zadaj, 
23 – velike, spredaj, 29 – srednje velike, zadaj, 12 – srednje 
velike, spredaj, 24 – majhne, zadaj, 2 – majhne, spredaj).

22 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
arrived there for another reason, possibly as awls 
as suggested by a needle also found at the back 
of the cave (Brodar, Brodar 1983, Pl. 11: 27), they 
may have been stored there (Verpoorte 2012) or 
lost together with other points (Brodar, Brodar 
1983). In the last two interpretations, primarily 
the spindle-shaped points may have served as ar-
rowheads as they were more readily hafted onto 
an elder foreshaft in comparison with the flat 
points (Odar 2008).
The ANOVA shows the reconstructed total 
lengths of points and their parts to be significantly 
7.3. 7.2.
Size Side contour/Type Location N
large   flat    back 15
large   flat    front 15
large   spindle-shaped back 6
large   spindle-shaped front 4
medium  flat    back 12
medium  flat    front 5
medium  spindle-shaped back 16
medium  spindle-shaped front 4
small   flat    back 16
small   flat    front 0
small   spindle-shaped back 7
small   spindle-shaped front 2
Sum     102
Tab. 1: Number of points from P. z. according to size 
classes, side contour and cave areas.
Tab. 1: Zastopanost konic iz P. z. glede na velikost, profil 
in lokacijo.
Fig. 7.2: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0.00 for all reconstructed measures and 0.16 for 
preserved length) pertaining to the length of the points from P. z. according to cave areas (total n = 117; partial n = 
39 – front, 78 – back).
Sl. 7.2: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0,00 za vse rekonstruirane mere in 0,16 za ohranjeno dolžino) 
dolžinskih mer konic glede na lokacijo (skupni n = 117; delni n = 39 – spredaj, 78 – zadaj).
Fig. 7.3: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0.000 for reconstructed length and 0.44 for preserved 
length) pertaining to the length of the points from P . z. according to cave areas and side contours (total n = 104; partial 
n = 22 – flat front, 10 – spindle-shaped front, 43 – flat back, 29 – spindle-shaped back).
Sl. 7.3: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0,000 za rekonstruirano dolžino in 0,44 za ohranjeno dolžino) 
dolžinskih mer konic iz P. z. glede na lokacijo in profil (skupni n = 104; delni n = 22 – spredaj, ploščate, 10 – spredaj, 
vretenaste, 43 – zadaj, ploščate, 29 – zadaj, vretenaste).

23 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
smaller at the back than at the entrance; this is 
not the case for the preserved length, which shows 
no statistically significant differences between the 
two areas (Fig. 7.2). The variability of all lengths 
is greater in the points from the entrance area in 
spite of lower numbers, which may primarily be 
seen as the consequence of greater fragmentation 
of the points from the entrance. This may have 
any number of causes, from post-sedimentary 
fragmentation to the manipulation on the part of 
the Palaeolithic hunters. Post-sedimentary dam-
age or breakage can mainly affect apexes of the 
points lying in the coarse-grained gravel sediments 
at the entrance, less of those in the loamy and 
fine-grained sandy layers at the back. It should 
be noted that Brodar’s back dirt from the back 
of the cave did yield very small apical fragments 
(Odar 2014) that may have broken off in a post-
sedimentary process or during the use of points 
such as spring hunting for cave bears in their den. 
The latter possibility is corroborated by indirect 
material evidence, i.e. a scapula with presumed 
lance damage (Withalm 2004). 
It is difficult to only use post-sedimentary 
fragmentation to explain the difference in the 
reconstructed total length of flat and spindle-
shaped points between both areas as established 
in the analysis of variance (Fig. 7.3). The flat 
points from the entrance area show a significantly 
greater reconstructed total length than those from 
the back. This means that such points from the 
entrance area survive in a poorer condition even 
though their reconstructed total length varies less 
in comparison with the points from the back. The 
reconstructed total lengths of the spindle-shaped 
points show no significant differences between 
the two areas. The condition of these points is the 
same between the two areas. The preserved lengths 
show no significant differences between the two 
areas, for either flat or spindle-shaped points. The 
latter show more variability in reconstructed and 
preserved measures for the points from the back, 
presumably on account of their greater numbers.
The points from the entrance area are signifi-
cantly wider in comparison with those from the 
back, while thickness values show no significant 
differences (Fig. 7.4). The variability of width and 
thickness is greater for the points from the back, 
which is the exact opposite of the reconstructed 
lengths.
Because of the inhomogeneous variance for 
width (p > 0.05), we used the KW-test of the 
median for further distinction between flat and 
spindle-shaped points from the two areas of the 
cave. It shows the spindle-shaped points (n = 
29) to be significantly thicker than flat ones (n 
= 43) only at the back of the cave, while the flat 
points (n = 22) are significantly wider than the 
spindle-shaped (n = 10) only at the entrance. The 
differences may be either chronological, accidental 
or have some other cause. If the points stored at 
the back included repaired points, then all the 
points from this area could have been narrower 
and thicker than the points at the entrance, as the 
users would have preferred to repair durable and 
more penetrable points.
8. STRATIGRAPHY OF POINTS
The horizontal distribution of the points with 
regards to the areas of the cave, but also their 
vertical distribution with regards to the stratig-
raphy offer important information in establishing 
Fig. 7.4: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way 
ANOVA, p = 0.02 for width and 0.18 for thickness) 
pertaining to the width and thickness of the points from 
P. z. according to cave areas (total n = 117; partial n = 
39 – front, 78 – back).
Sl. 7.4: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p 
= 0,02 za širino in 0,18 za debelino) širine in debeline 
konic iz P. z. glede na lokacijo (skupni n = 117; delni n = 
39 – spredaj, 78 – zadaj).

24 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
in solving this issue (Moreau et al. 2015, Tab. 4; 
Rabeder, Pohar 2004, Tab. 1). The sample of dates 
is too small (N = 7) given its further stratification 
(n = 1, n = 2, n = 4) for the comparisons between 
individual layers to be reliable. The standard er-
ror ranges cover many generations of Palaeolithic 
hunters and gatherers, a period that allows for 
many changes, archaeologically and otherwise. 
Moreover, we cannot exclude the possibility that 
thousand or more year old bones were used in 
point manufacture. This makes the dates on their 
own an unreliable basis for drawing conclusions. 
However, they do suggest that the points from 
Layer 7 at the entrance and Layer 5 at the back 
may have been roughly contemporaneous (see 
Moreau et al. 2015, Tab. 4).
11
In addition to the separate stratigraphy of both 
areas (Version 0), we also envisaged two versions 
(1 and 2) of the chronological relationships be-
tween the layers by area in the statistical analysis 
of the points. This increased the number of units 
per sample strata. In Version 1, we joined Layer 7 
Front and Layer 5 Back, as well as Layer 5 Front 
and Layer 4 Back (App. 2, Column 15). In Version 
2, we only joined Layer 5 Front and Layer 5 Back 
(App. 2, Column 16) (see Turk 2005).
12
 
S. and M. Brodar (1983, 109) already discussed 
such synchronization of layers, but dismissed both 
of the above versions as unfounded and did not 
specifically address them.
13
 In V ersion 1, they were 
disturbed by sterile Layer 6 at the entrance that 
separated Layers 7 and 5 with points, a situation 
that differed from the continuous distribution of 
points through Layers 5 and 4 at the back of the 
cave. In Version 2, they were disturbed by the 
clastic (eboulis) Layer 5 Front that was relatively 
thin in comparison with the relatively thick loamy 
Layer 5 Back. An additional problem was in the 
rich finds from Layer 7 Front not equalled at the 
11
  The table erroneously states Layer 5 for the PZ-126 
point instead of the correct Layer 7 (see Brodar, Brodar 
1983, Pl. 7). Five of the seven dated points are flat. The 
fragmentary condition prevented two of the points to be 
identified; one may be spindle-shaped. A better though-
out selection of points for dating may have provided more 
useful results. 
12 
 The analysis in this article did not include points 
with atypical measures, as they would affect the ANOVA 
results with regards to the width of the points.
13
  As S. and M. Brodar (1983, 109) could not find a 
proper reason for correlating individual layers from both 
areas, they believed that the points from the two areas were 
roughly contemporaneous and did not differ in any way.
the changes that took place in time and space. 
The changes in time are presumed to indicate 
evolutionary trends, while the spatial differences 
may suggest differences in the use of the areas of 
the cave and different activities (Brodar, Brodar 
1983; Verpoorte 2012). Different activities can 
only reliably be established when dealing with 
contemporary finds from both areas.
In contrast, establishing evolutionary trends, 
which S. and M. Brodar (1983, 109) refuted, 
requires the points to be chronologically clearly 
separate. This separation is not questionable for 
the points from the entrance area, found in Layers 
5 and 7 clearly separated by the relatively thick 
and sterile Layer 6. The separation is not clear for 
the back of the cave, where points were unearthed 
across the whole thickness of Layers 5 and 4, i.e. 
in lower, middle and upper parts of each layer 
(App. 2, Column 13).
This begs the question of the chronological re-
lationships between layers in both areas (ib.). The 
recent direct AMS 
14
C dates of the points from dif-
ferent layers in the two cave areas have not helped 
Fig. 8.1: Result of the analysis of the median pertaining to 
the shares of the absolute difference between the preserved 
length of the points from P . z. and their reconstructed total 
length according to layers and cave areas (total n = 88; 
partial n = 32 – lower layer back, 22 – upper layer back, 
12 – upper layer front, 22 – lower layer front).
Sl. 8.1: Rezultat analize mediane deležev absolutne razlike 
med ohranjeno dolžino konic iz P. z. in rekonstruirano 
celotno dolžino po plasteh in lokaciji (skupni n = 88; delni 
n = 32 – spodaj, zadaj, 22 – zgoraj, zadaj, 12 – zgoraj, 
spredaj, 22 – spodaj, spredaj).

25 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
back of the cave. They concluded that it cannot be 
explained by the effects of climate on sedimenta-
tion and human behavior.
Interpretation shifts in favour of Version 2 if 
we consider the possibility of a snow talus at the 
entrance and the associated protalus crioclastic 
sediments (J. T urk 2011). In such conditions, Layer 
7 deposited in a relatively warm climate (ib.), when 
people did not need to seek shelter in the warmer 
cave interior unless staying there in early spring 
or late autumn. Layers 3–6 Front were deposited 
in a colder and more humid climate (ib.). A large 
snow talus at the entrance caused relatively thin 
layers of clasts (eboulis) to be deposited at the 
entrance, which grew thicker (protalus sediments) 
towards the interior, while percolating water from 
the melting snow washed increased quantities of 
loam to the back of the cave from the bare land 
above it. Layers 5 and 4 Back show slightly better 
conditions that allowed people to revisit P . z. after 
a long period of absence; the climate was still cold, 
though, and visitors mainly occupied the back of 
the cave. For Version 1 of joined layers from both 
parts of the cave, the following explanation for the 
use of the cave space is considered that takes into 
account the snow talus. In a relatively warm and 
humid climate (Layer 7 Front and Layer 5 Back), 
people used both areas, but for different purposes 
(see Brodar, Brodar 1983; Verpoorte 2012). In the 
subsequent, colder and moist period (Layer 5 Front 
and Layer 4 Back), they mainly used the back of 
the cave. This indicates that we should consider a 
long hiatus in sediment deposition between Layers 
5 and 4 Back.
The suggestion that points were stored at 
the back, proposed on the basis of the differing 
condition of unstratified points from both areas 
(Verpoorte 2012), should be verified against the 
available stratigraphic samples from the two areas. 
This would allow us to get closer to the actual 
activities of the Palaeolithic hunters and gatherers 
at P . z. and avoid the effects of different archaeologi-
cally and geologically undetected (unconsidered) 
time spans.
The results of non-parametric analysis accord-
ing to the original stratigraphic units (Version 0) 
separately for the two areas (App. 2, Column 14) 
only exceptionally support the premises on the 
evolutionary trends of points. For the most part, it 
merely indicates certain trends; we would require 
a larger sample for more reliable results.
The percentage shares of preserved lengths and 
reconstructed total lengths, as indicators of the 
state of fragmentation, show significant differ-
ences (p = 0.0001) per layer and cave area (Fig. 
8.1). As already stated previously, the higher state 
of fragmentation of the points from the entrance 
area may be related to the different composition 
of sediments in both areas. This interpretation, 
however, is challenged by the statistically significant 
differences in fragmentation between the points 
from the upper and lower layer in each of the 
areas. We therefore believe that substantial dam-
age occurred mainly during the use of points as 
hunting weapons (also see Chapter 11).
At the entrance, the points from the upper layer 
are wider and possibly thicker (?) than the points 
from the lower layer. At the rear of the cave, the 
points from the upper layer are narrower and pos-
sibly thicker (?) than the points from the lower 
layer (Fig. 8.2). Only the difference in width is 
significant (p = 0.04).
Flat points in both layers of the two areas are 
roughly twice as numerous (61–67%) as spindle-
shaped ones. There is no evidence to suggest an 
increase in spindle-shaped points in the upper 
layers at either area. 
Fig. 8.2: Result of the analysis of the median pertaining to 
the width and thickness of the points from P . z. according 
to layers and cave areas (total n = 90; partial n = 33 – lower 
layer back, 22 – upper layer back, 13 – upper layer front, 
22 – lower layer front).
Sl. 8.2: Rezultat analize mediane širine in debeline konic 
iz P. z. po plasteh in lokaciji (skupni n = 90; delni n = 33 
– spodaj, zadaj, 22 – zgoraj, zadaj, 13 – zgoraj, spredaj, 
22 – spodaj, spredaj).

26 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
The multi-stratified sample of points separated 
by layer and area (Figs. 8.3 and 8.4) gave results 
on the limit of statistical significance (p = 0.05). 
T ogether with a low number of units in the sample 
strata, this should be taken in consideration when 
interpreting the results. Analysis shows that flat 
and spindle-shaped points from the entrance area 
tend to be wider and thicker in the upper layer, 
which may suggest technological improvement 
(Fig. 8.3a). The situation is quite different at the 
back: the flat points from upper layer tend to be 
narrower and thinner, whereas the spindle-shaped 
points from the same layer tend to be narrower 
and thicker (Fig. 8.3b); the latter may be seen 
as technological improvement, the former is a 
regression. Because the layers at the back are not 
clearly distinguishable in chronological terms, 
such an interpretation must be taken with all the 
more caution.
Spindle-shaped points may be narrower and 
thicker that the flat points particularly at the en-
trance, generally in both layers (Fig. 8.4a). At the 
back of the cave, the spindle-shaped points from 
upper layer are narrower than the flat ones, those 
from lower layer are thicker (Fig. 8.4b).
Version 1 of joined layers (App. 2, Column 15) 
provides results that partially correspond with the 
premises on the evolution of points. The spindle-
shaped points from both layers are non-significantly 
narrower (p = 0.17) and significantly thicker (p = 
0.03) than flat ones (Fig. 8.5). The flat points from 
the upper layer are non-significantly narrower and 
thinner, the spindle-shaped points non-significantly 
narrower and thicker. The former can be inter-
preted as regression in terms of strength, the latter 
as progress in terms of strength and penetrative 
capacity. These interpretations need to be taken 
with caution as not all the changes between layers 
are statistically significant. 
Version 2 of joined layers (App. 2, Column 16) 
gave similar results. The zero values for some 
units of strata of Layer 7 led us to only analyse the 
points from both Layers 5 and from Layer 4. Each 
of the joined Layers 5 from both areas of the cave 
shares a higher degree of point fragmentation in 
comparison with the points from other layers (Fig. 
8.1). The ANOV A results are isometric to those of 
Version 1 of joined layers shown in Fig. 8.5, but 
statistically non-significant (p > 0.05). 
How is it possible to get isometric results for two 
so very different combinations of layers from the 
two areas? Only Layer 5 Front and Layer 5 Back 
are connected with the isometry of the ANOVA 
results. At the back of the cave, Layer 5 represents 
Fig. 8.3: Result of the analysis of the median pertaining to the width and thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped points 
from P . z. according to layers and cave areas. – (a) Total n = 29 – front; partial n = 12 – lower layer flat, 7 – upper layer 
flat, 6 – lower layer spindle-shaped, 4 – upper layer spindle-shaped. – (b) Total n = 53 – back; partial n = 19 – lower 
layer flat, 14 – upper layer flat, 12 – lower layer spindle-shaped, 8 – upper layer spindle-shaped).
Sl. 8.3: Rezultat analize mediane širine in debeline ploščatih in vretenastih konic po plasteh in lokaciji. – (a) Skupni n 
= 29 – spredaj; delni n = 12 – spodaj, ploščate, 7 – zgoraj, ploščate, 6 – spodaj, vretenaste, 4 – zgoraj, vretenaste. – (b) 
Skupni n = 53 – zadaj; delni n = 19 – spodaj, ploščate, 14 – zgoraj, ploščate, 12 – spodaj, vretenaste, 8 – zgoraj, vretenaste).

27 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
the lower layer in both versions. Not so with Layer 
5 Front, which is the upper layer in Version 1 and 
the lower layer in Version 2. The stratigraphy at 
the entrance only changes for ten points (6 flat 
and 4 spindle-shaped), while the stratigraphy at 
the back remains the same for 62 points (39 flat 
and 23 spindle-shaped). This caused only minor 
changes of the ANOV A result in V ersion 2 of joined 
layers in comparison with Version 1.
In addition to the width and thickness of points, 
we also analysed their size in connection with 
side contour and stratigraphy according to Ver-
sions 1 and 2 of joined layers. Because of some 
zero values, this was not possible for the origi-
nal stratigraphy. The more the sample is broken 
down, the greater the chances that the analyses 
of variance show certain previously unnoticed 
details and relationships.
The spindle-shaped points of all sizes in the 
upper layer are narrower than the flat points (Fig. 
8.6a,b), but only the large ones are significantly 
narrower. The latter are also significantly narrower 
than those from the lower layer (Fig. 8.6a). In 
contrast, the medium-sized points from the upper 
layer are significantly wider than those from the 
lower layer (Fig. 8.6a); this may be interpreted as 
an evolutionary trend of increasing the strength 
of the medium-sized and increasing the penetra-
tive capacity of the large spindle-shaped points. 
In the analysis of variance for width, the detailed 
results only show a difference between Versions 1 
and 2 of joined layers for the large spindle-shaped 
and medium-sized flat points. The greatest differ-
ence is in the latter (cf. Fig. 8.6a,b). The detailed 
results of Version 2 of joined layers are not sta-
tistically significant.
The large and medium-sized spindle-shaped 
points from the lower layer are significantly 
thicker (p < 0.05) than the flat points of the same 
size; this is not the case for the small points (Fig. 
8.7a,b). The large and small spindle-shaped points 
from the upper layer are significantly thicker (p 
< 0.05) than the flat points (Fig. 8.7a,b). Only 
the large and medium-sized flat points become 
significantly thicker in the upper layer (Fig. 
8.7a,b). The spindle-shaped points of all size 
classes do not significantly differ in their thickness 
between lower and upper layers (Fig. 8.7a,b). The 
only evolutionary change occurred in the large 
and medium-sized flat points that increased in 
strength through the increased thickness. The 
greater thickness of medium-sized flat points in 
the upper layer corresponds with their greater 
width. However, the small number of units in 
Fig. 8.4: Result of the analysis of the median pertaining to the width and thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped points 
from P . z. according to layers and cave areas. – (a) Total n = 29 – front, partial n = 12 – lower layer flat, 7 – upper layer 
flat, 6 – lower layer spindle-shaped, 4 – upper layer spindle-shaped. – (b) Total n = 53 – back, partial n = 19 – lower 
layer flat, 14 – upper layer flat, 12 – lower layer spindle-shaped, 8 – upper layer spindle-shaped).
Sl. 8.4: Rezultat analize mediane širine in debeline ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P . z. po plasteh in lokaciji. – (a) Skupni 
n = 29 – spredaj, delni n = 12 – spodaj, ploščate, 7 – zgoraj, ploščate, 6 – spodaj, vretenaste, 4 – zgoraj, vretenaste. – (b) 
Skupni n = 53 – zadaj, delni n = 19 – spodaj, ploščate, 14 – zgoraj, ploščate, 12 – spodaj, vretenaste, 8 – zgoraj, vretenaste).

28 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
individual sample strata calls for caution when 
drawing conclusions from these results.
In the analysis of variance for thickness, the 
detailed results only show a difference between 
Versions 1 and 2 of joined layers for the large flat 
points (cf. Fig. 8.7a,b).
The ANOVA result for individual layers of the 
two versions sheds light on questions pertaining 
to the manufacture, presumed use and repair 
of points. The large and medium-sized flat and 
spindle-shaped points from the upper layer do 
not differ in width and thickness, which indicates 
related populations (Figs. 8.6a,b and 8.7a,b). The 
result for the width does not correspond with the 
presumed repairs of damaged points, at least not 
substantial repairs of damaged distal parts. In the 
lower layer, the same points only differ in width, 
in that the medium-sized points are narrower than 
the large ones, particularly the flat examples (Fig. 
8.6a). The situation with unaltered thickness (Fig. 
8.7a,b) corresponds with the presumed repairs. The 
small points, both flat and spindle-shaped in Figs. 
8.6 and 8.7 stand apart in their substantially smaller 
width and thickness compared with the medium-
sized points. In both measures, they do not differ 
between layers and within them except for the 
upper layer where the spindle-shaped points are 
Fig. 8.5: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOV A, 
p = 0.17 for width and 0.04 for thickness) pertaining to 
the width and thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped 
points from P . z. according to the joined layers of Version 
1 (total n = 82; partial n = 31 – lower layer flat, 21 – up-
per layer flat, 18 – lower layer spindle-shaped, 12 – upper 
layer spindle-shaped).
Sl. 8.5: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p 
= 0,17 za širino in 0,04 za debelino) širine in debeline 
ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P. z. po združenih plas-
teh prve različice (skupni n = 82; delni n = 31 – spodaj, 
ploščate, 21 – zgoraj, ploščate, 18 – spodaj, vretenaste, 
12 – zgoraj, vretenaste).
Fig. 8.6: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.001 for both versions of joined layers) pertaining to 
the width of all three size classes of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P . z. given their origin in the lower (middle) 
or upper layer according to Versions 1 and 2 of joined layers. – (a) Version 1 (total n = 80, partial n = 3–17); – (b) Ver-
sion 2 (total n = 62, partial n = 2–10).
Sl. 8.6: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0,001 za obe različici združenih plasti) širine treh velikosti 
ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P. z. glede na njihovo umestitev v spodnjo (middle) in zgornjo plast po prvi in drugi 
različici združenih plasti. – (a) Prva različica združenih plasti (skupni n = 80, delni n = 3–17); – (b) druga različica 
združenih plasti (skupni n = 62, delni n = 2–10).

29 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
thicker than the flat ones (Figs. 8.6a,b and 8.7a,b). 
As opposed to some of the large ones, the small 
points did not develop in correspondence with the 
presumed evolution. Within both layers, there are 
also great differences in the width and thickness 
of small and medium-sized points of both flat and 
spindle-shaped types, which indicates unrelated 
populations. These differences are substantially 
greater than the differences in width between large 
and medium-sized points in the lower layer. We 
infer from this that medium-sized points were not 
repaired as often as large ones.
9. CUTS AND INCISIONS
ON THE POINTS
A puzzling feature of the points from P . z. is their 
cuts and incisions. Cuts occur on 30 points, inci-
sions on 8 points. Cuts are short, transverse with 
regards to the longitudinal axis of the points and 
only occur on the edges (Fig. 10.7: 129). Incisions 
are long and occur on the front and back faces of 
the points, either in straight lines or in curves, 
either transversely or obliquely to the longitudinal 
axis (Figs. 2.1: 44,134; 2.3: 74,113). Both were first 
noted by S. Brodar (1935; 1936–1937), who also 
provided a detailed description. Cuts and incisions 
are thoroughly discussed in the monograph on 
Potočka zijalka (Brodar, Brodar 1983).
14
Cuts usually occur on the distal part, some also 
medially. The same is true of incisions, which have 
in rare cases also been documented on the base. 
The incisions on points Nos. 92 and 97 form a 
spiral, which is rare for points in general. Both 
cuts and incisions are barely visible with the naked 
eye. Parallels are rare and known on the points 
from French (Leroy-Prost 1979, 212, 245, 259) 
and other sites (Dobosi 2002, Fig. 7: 1).
15
 As for 
the location of cuts, the claim that they can be 
found mainly on the proximal, medial-proximal 
and medial parts is incorrect (see Jéquier 2016). 
As stated above, cuts predominantly occur on the 
distal part.
S. and M. Brodar (1983) have observed cuts 
and incisions on roughly one third, i.e. 37 of the 
points from P. z. They noted each one, described 
their pattern in great detail (also see M. Brodar 
14
  S. and M. Brodar used the term incisions for both.
15
  In the catalogue of points, the author does not state 
cuts for the Pb 50/91 point in Fig. 7:1 (also see V értes 1955, 
Pl. XVI: 1). Neither does she mention incisions on the Pb 
51/13 point, which we observed personally during our visit 
to the collection of points from Istállóskő. The Pb 50/91 
point was on exhibition and not available for inspection.
Fig. 8.7: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.001 for both versions of joined layers) pertaining 
to the thickness of all three size classes of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. given their origin in the lower 
(middle) or upper layer according to Versions 1 and 2 of joined layers. – (a) Version 1 (total n = 80; partial n = 3–17); 
– (b) Version 2 (total n = 62; partial n = 2–10).
Sl. 8.7: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0,001 za obe različici združenih plasti) debeline treh velikosti 
ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P. z. glede na njihovo umestitev v spodnjo (middle) in zgornjo plast po prvi in drugi 
različici združenih plasti. – (a) Prva različica združenih plasti (skupni n = 80; delni n = 3–17); – (b) druga različica 
združenih plasti (skupni n = 62; delni n = 2–10).

30 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
2009) and established that they were not depend-
ent on the length of the points, that more points 
with medial cuts and incisions were found at the 
entrance (ib., 127) and that their pattern is the 
same in all areas of the cave and all layers. There 
are some points with cuts they missed (see Odar 
2008). In App. 2, Column 17, we added six points 
to their list (Nos. 25, 29, 108, 132, 134 and 135) 
and omitted four (Nos. 1, 98, 110 and 131).
S. and M. Brodar did not analyse and interpret 
the role of the cuts and incisions in more detail, 
but did see the spirals on the points Nos. 44, 92 
and 97 as decoration (Brodar, Brodar 1983, 132). 
In literature, several possible interpretations have 
been put forth:
– 1.) some incisions are decorative even though 
poorly visible;
– 2.) cuts were made so as to facilitate sharpening;
– 3.) cuts on middle-sized and even more so on 
small points were made so that the poison could 
better adhere to the point;
– 4.) cuts were symbolic in nature. The hunter 
made cuts to mark the point that performed 
particularly well during the hunt and remained 
only slightly damaged for a long time. If such a 
point then sustained substantial distal damage and 
was reworked into a middle-sized point, its cuts 
were transferred as well. Because of a personal 
relationship between the hunter and the weapon, 
cut visibility was of little consequence. In certain 
cases, longer and also curved lines served the same 
purpose (mostly our interpretation).
In order to verify these interpretations, we 
performed a statistical analysis only on the points 
with cuts and incisions visible with the naked eye; 
they are listed in App. 2, Column 17. If merely 
decorative, they would not mainly occur on the 
edges, as is the case, but also elsewhere. If cuts 
facilitated sharpening and their remains on nu-
merous points were no longer visible (Odar 2008), 
how can we explain the preserved cuts? Further 
research should broaden the sample of points 
with cuts and divide them according to length, 
pattern and distribution on the different parts of 
the points (see M. Brodar 2009, 277). The distri-
Fig. 9.2: Points from P . z. with cuts and incisions according 
to size classes (total n = 112; partial n = 29 – large without 
cuts and incisions, 17 – large with cuts and incisions, 25 
– medium-sized without cuts and incisions, 16 – medium-
sized with cuts and incisions, 22 – small without cuts and 
incisions, 3 – small with cuts and incisions.
Sl. 9.2: Zastopanost konic iz P . z. z zarezami po velikostnih 
razredih (skupni n = 112; delni n = 29 – velike brez zarez, 
17 – velike z zarezami, 25 – srednje velike brez zarez, 
16 – srednje velike z zarezami, 22 – majhne brez zarez, 
3 – majhne z zarezami.
Fig. 9.1: Result of the t-test pertaining to the thickness of 
the points from P. z. with (n = 38) and without cuts and 
incisions (n = 78).
Sl. 9.1: Rezultat t-testa debeline konic iz P. z. z zarezami 
(n = 38) in brez njih (n = 78).

31 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
bution should also be viewed in connection with 
possible repairs, presumed remains of old medial 
cuts and presumed addition of new ones on the 
repaired, usually distal part (Nos. 51, 64, 65, 80).
The T-test (independent sample according to 
groups) of the basic measures (preserved length, 
reconstructed length, width, thickness) of the 
points with cuts and without them has shown 
those with cuts to be significantly thicker (p = 
0.005) than the points without them (Fig. 9.1). 
Other measures show no significant differences, 
though the points with cuts do show a tendency 
towards greater length and width.
The number of points with cuts is almost equally 
high among large (17 : 29) and medium-sized (16 : 
25), but substantially lower among the small points 
(3 : 22). The differences are statistically significant 
(Fig. 9.2) (χ
2
 test: p = 0.05). The rare small points 
with cuts do not support the putative connection 
between cuts and the use of poisoned arrowheads. 
They do indicate a functional or symbolic differ-
ence between the cuts on the small points and 
those on all larger ones.
The ANOVA for the thickness of the points 
with and without cuts in relation to their size 
classes has shown the large points with cuts 
to be thicker (Fig. 9.3). Why? Considering the 
interpretation of cuts as technical help (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983; Odar 2008), it would be reasonable 
to make cuts mainly on the edges of the thickest 
and largest points where the greatest amount of 
material had to be removed by turning to obtain 
the desired shape. The presence of preserved cuts 
on the points of all sizes is not reasonable in this 
sense. If cuts were made in advance, just in case 
the point broke and needed repairing, the cuts 
on medium-sized and even more so the small 
points would be disturbing. The medium-sized 
points with and without cuts do not significantly 
differ from the large ones in thickness (Fig. 5.3). 
It was primarily the large points that were most 
worth repairing, less the medium-sized and least 
the small ones. Hence the interpretation of an 
exclusively technical role of cuts on all points 
does not seem plausible.
Useful in interpreting cuts is the ANOV A result 
for flat and spindle-shaped points with and without 
cuts, as well as for their measures. The spindle-
shaped points with cuts do not significantly differ 
in preserved and reconstructed length, width and 
thickness from the spindle-shaped points without 
cuts. Not so for the flat points, where those with 
cuts have all the measures significantly greater 
than those without (Fig. 9.4a,b). These are the 
most durable points, apart from the spindle-shaped 
ones, that are least prone to hunting damage. It 
is probably not a coincidence that spindle-shaped 
points include relatively more examples with cuts 
(14 : 25) than flat ones (18 : 45).
The measures of flat and spindle-shaped points 
with and without cuts were also analysed according 
to the areas of the cave they were found in. The 
ANOV A shows that the flat points with cuts from 
the back are significantly longer, wider and thicker 
that the flat points without cuts (Fig. 9.5a–c). For 
spindle-shaped points, there are no differences 
between the points with and without cuts with 
regards to the area of the cave. Also, there are no 
significant differences between the points with and 
without cuts found at the entrance. There appears 
to be a distinction between the flat points from 
the back in terms of strength: points with cuts 
(solid) and those without them (less solid); only 
12 belong to the former and as many as 31 to the 
latter. The question is why the back of the cave 
Fig. 9.3: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOV A, 
p < 0.001) pertaining to the thickness of the points from 
P. z. with and without cuts and incisions according to 
size classes (total n = 113; partial n = 29 – large without 
cuts and incisions, 17 – large with cuts and incisions, 25 
– medium-sized without cuts and incisions, 16 – medium-
sized with cuts and incisions, 22 – small without cuts and 
incisions, 4 – small with cuts and incisions).
Sl. 9.3: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 
0,001) debeline konic iz P . z. z zarezami in brez njih glede 
na velikost konic (skupni n = 113; delni n = 29 – velike 
brez zarez, 17 – velike z zarezami, 25 – srednje brez zarez, 
16 – srednje z zarezami, 22 – majhne brez zarez, 4 – majhne 
z zarezami).

32 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
Fig. 9.4: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOV A, p = 0.34 for preserved length, 0.02 for reconstructed length, 
0.01 for width and 0.001 for thickness) pertaining to the preserved length, reconstructed total length (a), width (b) and 
thickness (c) of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P . z. with and without cuts and incisions (total n = 102; partial n 
= 45 – flat without cuts and incisions, 18 – flat with cuts and incisions, 25 – spindle-shaped without cuts and incisions, 
14 – spindle-shaped with cuts and incisions).
Sl. 9.4: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0,34 za ohranjeno dolžino; 0,02 za rekonstruirano dolžino; 0,01 
za širino in 0,001 za debelino) ohranjene dolžine in rekonstruirane celotne dolžine (a), širine (b) ter debeline (c) ploščatih 
in vretenastih konic iz P. z. z zarezami in brez njih (skupni n = 102; delni n = 45 – ploščate brez zarez, 18 – ploščate z 
zarezami, 25 – vretenaste brez zarez, 14 – vretenaste z zarezami).
Fig. 9.5: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.001 for reconstructed length, 0.004 for width and 
0.001 for thickness) pertaining to the reconstructed total length (a), width (b) and thickness (c) of the flat and spindle-
shaped points from P. z. with and without cuts and incisions according to cave areas (total n = 101–103; partial n = 
31 – flat without cuts and incisions back, 12 – flat with cuts and incisions back, 14–16 – flat without cuts and incisions 
front, 6 – flat with cuts and incisions front, 18 – spindle-shaped without cuts and incisions back, 10 – spindle-shaped 
with cuts and incisions back, 7 – spindle-shaped without cuts and incisions front, 3 – spindle-shaped with cuts and 
incisions front).
Sl. 9.5: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0,001 za rekonstruirano dolžino; 0,004 za širino in 0,001 za 
debelino) rekonstruirane celotne dolžine (a), širine (b) ter debeline (c) ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P . z. z zarezami 
in brez njih na lokaciji spredaj in zadaj (skupni n = 101–103; delni n = 31 – ploščate, zadaj, brez zarez, 12 – ploščate, 
zadaj, z zarezami, 14–16 – ploščate, spredaj, brez zarez, 6 – ploščate, spredaj, z zarezami, 18 – vretenaste, zadaj, brez 
zarez, 10 – vretenaste, zadaj, z zarezami, 7 – vretenaste, spredaj, brez zarez, 3 – vretenaste, spredaj, z zarezami).

33 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
yielded spindle-shaped (10 with and 18 without 
cuts), but also flat points, both solid and less 
solid ones. Were they stored there for future use 
(Verpoorte 2012)? Were they lost (Brodar, Brodar 
1983)? Were they offered (Odar 2015)? Are they 
the result of a combination of different habits and 
practices? Or are they there by coincidence? Given 
the available evidence, it is as yet not possible to 
offer a clear answer supported by arguments that 
would correspond with the results of the analysis 
of a stratified sample.
The points with and without cuts can be statis-
tically analysed according to layers in connection 
with other variables only by joining layers from 
both areas of the cave after Versions 1 and 2 (App. 
2, Columns 15 and 16). The analysis according to 
single layers (ib., Column 14) is not reasonable 
due to insufficient data for most sample strata.
The conditions for an ANOV A analysis are met 
for thickness and Version 1 of joined layers; for 
thickness and Version 2, the variance is inhomo-
geneous (p < 0.05).
For the upper layer in both versions of joined 
layers, flat points with cuts are significantly thicker 
that flat points without cuts (Fig. 9.6a,b). The 
same is true of the width and Version 1 of joined 
layers. In both versions, the analysis indicated a 
tendency of thickening flat points with cuts and 
thinning flat points without cuts between the up-
per and lower layer (Fig. 9.6a,b). All this suggests 
a connection between cuts and the strength of the 
points that may best be interpreted by symbolic 
markings of more durable points. There is also the 
possibility that, in the lower layer, spindle-shaped 
points with cuts were significantly thicker than 
those without cuts (Fig. 9.6b). In both layers, the 
Fig. 9.6: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0.008 for Version 1 of joined layers and p = 0.01 for 
Version 2) pertaining to the thickness of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P . z. with and without cuts and incisions 
according to joined layers. – (a) Version 1 (total n = 81; partial n = 24 – flat without cuts and incisions lower layer, 7 – 
flat with cuts and incisions lower layer, 17 – flat without cuts and incisions upper layer, 4 – flat with cuts and incisions 
upper layer, 12 – spindle-shaped without cuts and incisions lower layer, 6 – spindle-shaped with cuts and incisions lower 
layer, 6 – spindle-shaped without cuts and incisions upper layer, 5 – spindle-shaped with cuts and incisions upper layer). 
– (b) Version 2 (total n = 63; partial n = 20 – flat without cuts and incisions middle, 5 – flat with cuts and incisions 
middle, 12 – flat without cuts and incisions upper layer, 3 – flat with cuts and incisions upper layer, 9 – spindle-shaped 
without cuts and incisions middle, 6 – spindle-shaped with cuts and incisions middle, 4 – spindle-shaped without cuts 
and incisions upper layer, 4 – spindle-shaped with cuts and incisions upper layer).
Sl. 9.6: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p = 0,008 za prvo različico združenih plasti in p = 0,01 za drugo) 
debeline ploščatih in vretenastih konic z zarezami in brez njih iz P. z. po združenih plasteh. – (a) Prva različica zdru-
ženih plasti (skupni n = 81; delni n = 24 – ploščate, spodaj, brez zarez, 7 – ploščate, spodaj, z zarezami, 17 – ploščate, 
zgoraj, brez zarez, 4 – ploščate, zgoraj, z zarezami, 12 – vretenaste, spodaj, brez zarez, 6 – vretenaste, spodaj, z zarezami, 
6 – vretenaste, zgoraj, brez zarez, 5 – vretenaste, zgoraj, z zarezami). – (b) Druga različica združenih plasti (skupni n 
= 63; delni n = 20 – ploščate, sredina, brez zarez, 5 – ploščate, sredina, z zarezami, 12 – ploščate, zgoraj, brez zarez, 
3 – ploščate, zgoraj, z zarezami, 9 – vretenaste, sredina, brez zarez, 6 – vretenaste, sredina, z zarezami, 4 – vretenaste, 
zgoraj, brez zarez, 4 – vretenaste, zgoraj, z zarezami).

34 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
points with cuts are much more common among 
the spindle-shaped than among the flat type (see 
numerical data in the caption to Fig. 9.6), which 
also suggests a connection between cuts and 
strength of the points.
10. MANUFACTURE,
REPAIR AND USE OF POINTS
We believe that nearly all the points from P. z. 
are made of long bone cortex. Standing apart are 
Nos. 9 and 86+125, made of bovine (muskox?), 
ibex or wild sheep (mouflon) horn, and No. 133 
that is made of deer antler, possibly also No. 28. 
Doyon (2017) states ten (19%) of the altogether 
52 analysed points to be made of deer antler (Nos. 
9, 28, 39, 48, 49, 55, 73, 81, 105, 117) and one of 
ivory (No. 134). Of the ten examples six are flat, 
three spindle-shaped and one undeterminable. 
Similarly, Pacher (2010) writes that up to 40% of 
all points may be made of antler and Nos. 92 and 
134 of ivory. Slightly different information is given 
by Jéquier (2016), who refutes the use of ivory. As 
none of the points has been subjected to a micro-
scopic tissue analysis, all information pertaining 
to the material must be taken with caution.
S. and M. Brodar (1983, 124), later also Hahn 
(1988, 12) posited that (some of) the points from 
P . z. were made of cave bear bones. This is highly 
likely because coarse trabecular tissue present on 
several points is characteristic of the long bones 
of some mammal species including cave bears, 
the remains of which represent over 99% of all 
fossil remains from the cave. The thickness of the 
points (average 7.7 mm) corresponds better with 
the thickness of the long bone cortex of cave bears 
and other large mammals than with the thickness 
of the red or reindeer antler compact tissue. The 
distribution of thickness is presumably bimodal 
with the first peak at 5–6 mm and the second 
at 8–9 mm (Fig. 10.1). In theory, antler points 
could belong to the first peak and bone points to 
the second. However, the bimodal distribution of 
thickness is probably linked to typology, i.e. either 
flat or spindle-shaped points (see Fig. 12.5), not to 
material. Only three points (Nos. 15, 77 and 78) 
are made of very thin bone cortex with a smooth 
surface of the medullary canal, which speaks against 
the bones of carnivores or large animals in general. 
The rather thick points Nos. 71 and 75 also have 
a smooth medullary canal, but the surface of the 
latter is probably artificially smoothed.
Points could be made from the evenly thick 
bone cortex of the central part of the femur or 
humerus diaphyses belonging to dead cave bears, 
as well as from the unevenly thick bone cortex of 
the metaphyses. On a femur, the most suitable 
part was the flat surface of the posterior side, on 
a humerus that on the medial side. These surfaces 
enabled the manufacture of points up to 23 cm 
long, on a femur possibly even a centimetre or so 
more. The points made from femora are identifi-
able in the presence of the foramen nutritium (Nos. 
35, 94 and possibly 41), those from humeri in the 
torsion of the cortex (Nos. 19, 61, 79, 120, 130) 
and in the thinning of the cortex in the direction 
of the distal epiphysis (Nos. 2, 90, 120 and 124). 
The cross section of the compact bone with the 
remains of the medullary cavity and spongy tissue 
suggest that several points (Nos. 60, 80, 101, 109, 
122, 136) may have been made from other cave 
bear long bones such as radius and ulna. Apart 
from these, the metapodials and femora of large 
ungulates may also have been used.
The main problem in the manufacture of large 
points was obtaining appropriate splinters, 15–20 
cm or more long. We are of the opinion that 
there could not have been many, if any, suitable 
bone fragments at the site (contra Brodar, Brodar 
1983). This opinion is based on the examination 
of roughly 900,000 bone fragments belonging to 
several thousand cave bear individuals from the 
260 m
3
 sediments excavated at the cave site of Divje 
babe I. The solution to the problem is in splitting 
diaphyses with the help of a pair of holes, made 
one below the other, and a pair of wedges with a 
blunt tip, one of which is driven into the upper 
Fig. 10.1: Distribution of the points from P. z. (n = 117) 
according to thickness.
Sl. 10.1: Porazdelitev debelin vzorca konic P . z. (n = 117).

35 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
hole while the other rests in the lower hole and 
transfers the force of the blows to the lower side as 
well. After removing the epiphyses, the diaphysis 
of a humerus or femur can be simply and quickly, 
with a little bit of practice also in a more or less 
controlled manner (depending on preparation 
such as the leading incision), split lengthwise 
and thus made into appropriately long splinters. 
Some of the numerous holes in the cave bear long 
bones recovered from the Aurignacian layers of 
P. z. and Mokriška jama (Brodar, Brodar 1983; 
M. Brodar 1985a; 1985b) may be connected with 
this technique of splinter manufacture. No such 
holes have been documented on the bones from 
the Mousterian layers of Divje babe I, neither has 
such a high number of holes been documented at 
Gravettian sites, from a time when the cave bear 
was not yet extinct. M. Brodar (2009, 329) already 
pointed out that holes on bones were a temporally 
limited phenomenon.
The rough shape of a point can be obtained from 
a bone splinter of a certain width by incising the 
contour of the point and breaking off the bone 
along the incision by striking it (see Turk et al. 
2001, Fig. 25). Such a process is much easier that 
others suggested elsewhere, such as the double 
longitudinal grooving procedure (Leroy-Prost 
1975, 76; Tartar, White 2013; Odar 2008; 2015), 
used in the Gravettian, or the simple longitudinal 
splitting of antlers from the top (i.e. cleavage) as 
suggested by T ejero, Christensen and Bodu (2012), 
and repeated by Doyon (2013, Fig. 2.4) for antler 
split-based points. The last suggestion is close to 
our own, but is more efficient for massive antlers 
than for tubular long bones. It lacks an essential 
part to be simpler and more effective: a hole or 
indentation made beforehand in the antler beam, 
into which a blunt indirect percussor is placed 
that split the beam lengthwise from the side rather 
than the top. The procedure can be repeated on 
each of the two halves of the antler beam to obtain 
narrow blanks, which the procedure as proposed 
by Tejero and colleagues does not foresee. The 
edges and faces can later be worked by grinding 
and planing (Brodar, Brodar 1983; Tartar, White 
2013). Planing leaves behind facets; as numerous 
points from P. z. show facets, we suppose that 
they were often finished by planing. The process, 
however, required the point to be firmly secured 
into a vice, which was not a simple undertaking 
only using bare hands and simple tools.
Apart from the edges, the faces were also worked 
with the aim of thinning the cortical bone at the 
end of the basal and distal parts. The base was usu-
ally and logically worked less that the distal part. 
Less logical is the fact that the base was rounded 
or even pointed, given that the points were hafted.
Thinning the bone cortex on the basal and distal 
parts may also have been aimed at obtaining the 
most straight point contour from the flexed blank. 
This was done in a number of ways: only thinning 
the exterior side of the cortex (e.g. Nos. 3, 99), the 
exterior basal and interior distal sides (e.g. Nos. 
11, 31, 42, 64, 82, 111), the exterior and interior 
sides of the distal part and only the exterior side 
of the basal part (e.g. Nos. 4, 10, 50, 65, 71, 75, 80, 
101, 130) or both ends of the point on both sides 
that produced a completely or almost completely 
transformed cortex (e.g. Nos. 20, 22, 30, 38, 41, 
44, 51, 55, 62, 97).
Some of the points with bilaterally thinned 
distal parts may have been re-sharpened (e.g. 
Nos. 65, 80) (Figs. 10.6 and 12.3). The location 
of maximum thickness and the substantial medial 
part would confirm such an observation; both are 
disproportionate to point size.
A specific manufacture technique has been noted 
for the presumably re-sharpened point No. 68. The 
exterior of its cortex is unworked; the point is only 
thinned at basal and distal ends on the interior 
side of the bone cortex so that it is thickest in the 
medial part where the original cortex thickness 
survives, while the base is polished smooth and 
has sharp edges.
The point exhibiting the highest degree of re-
work is No. 92 (S. and M. Brodar 1983, Pl. 10), 
which stands apart from others in all aspects. 
Its cross section is almost round, indicating that 
the natural form of the material (ivory?) is most 
extensively reshaped.
Primarily based on the size of the surface bearing 
the remains of trabecular tissue and the medullary 
cavity, we can distinguish between several arbitrary 
phases of bone cortex transformation.
16
 This does 
not pertain to its edges, the working of which was 
inevitable in manufacture. The transformation of 
the cortex is linked to the amount of work that 
goes into the manufacture of a point, with the 
higher amount of work usually resulting in a 
higher quality of the finished product. For large 
points, intended for hunting dangerous animals, 
16 
 The preserved trabecular tissue on osseous points 
has already been studied by Hahn (1988, 12), who did 
not attempt to interpret the different degrees of cortex 
transformation in any way.

36 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
high-quality manufacture was important because 
a reliable, i.e. durable point meant reduced risk for 
the hunter. Cortex transformation may also have 
been influenced by repeated reworking caused by 
the damage sustained during hunting.
We informatively analysed the arbitrarily de-
termined insignificant and substantial cortex 
transformation (App.2, Column 18). Most points 
with substantial cortex transformation are spindle-
shaped (21 spindle-shaped, 13 flat), while most 
points with insignificant cortex transformation are 
flat (35 flat, 7 spindle-shaped). There is a statisti-
cally very significant difference in the numbers of 
transformed points (χ
2
 test: p < 0.001). The ANOV A 
has shown a relation between the degree of bone 
cortex transformation and the shape/type of a point 
(flat, spindle-shaped); bone cortex transformation 
and point type are interdependent properties.
Flat points with substantial cortex transformation 
are significantly thicker than those with insignifi-
cant cortex transformation (Fig. 10.2). No such 
difference has been observed in spindle-shaped 
points. The latter with substantial bone cortex 
transformation are significantly thicker that the 
flat points with substantial cortex transformation. 
The manufacturers apparently invested more effort 
Fig. 10.2: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way 
ANOVA, p < 0.001) pertaining to the thickness of the 
flat and spindle-shaped points from P . z. according to the 
degree of bone cortex transformation (total n = 76; partial 
n = 35 – flat insignificant transformation, 13 – flat sub-
stantial transformation, 7 – spindle-shaped insignificant, 
21 – spindle-shaped substantial transformation).
Sl.10.2: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 
0,001) za debelino ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P . z. v 
povezavi s preoblikovanjem kostne lupine (skupni n = 76; 
delni n = 35 – ploščate, neznatno, 13 – ploščate, znatno, 
7 – vretenaste, neznatno, 21 – vretenaste, znatno).
Fig. 10.3: Result of the analysis of variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0.001) pertaining to the bone cortex transformation 
of the large, medium-sized and small points from P. z. according to (a) width and (b) thickness (total n = 78; particu-
lar n = 15 – large insignificant transformation, 10 – large substantial transformation, 11 – medium-sized insignificant 
transformation, 18 – medium-sized substantial transformation, 16 – small insignificant transformation, 8 – small sub-
stantial transformation).
Sl.10.3: Rezultat analize variance (One-way ANOVA, p < 0,001) preoblikovanja kostne lupine pri velikih, srednjih in 
majhnih konicah iz P. z. glede na (a) širino in (b) debelino (skupni n = 78; delni n = 15 – velike, neznatno preobliko-
vane, 10 – velike, znatno preoblikovane, 11 – srednje, neznatno preoblikovane, 18 – srednje, znatno preoblikovane, 16 
– majhne, neznatno preoblikovane, 8 – majhne, znatno preoblikovane).

37 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
in the large blanks so as to obtain a reliable and 
effective weapon.
The large and small points with substantial 
cortex transformation are significantly narrower 
and thicker that the large and small points with 
insignificant cortex transformation (Fig. 10.3a,b). 
The large points with insignificant cortex transforma-
tion are significantly wider that the medium-sized 
points with insignificant cortex transformation 
(Fig. 10.3a). The absence of a significant difference 
in their thickness (Fig. 10.3b) indicates repairs of 
damaged large points. These repairs did not involve 
substantial work on the faces, but rather on the 
edges, which resulted in narrower points. The large 
points with substantial cortex transformation are 
significantly thicker than medium-sized points with 
substantial cortex transformation (Fig. 10.3b). The 
absence of a significant difference in their width 
(Fig. 10.3a) indicates either the absence of repairs 
or the repairs resulting in a thinner rather than a 
narrower point. The former does not correspond 
with some of our interpretations, the latter is not 
logical. Hence it is the use of the cortex transfor-
mation criterion for identifying repaired points 
that is questionable. Contrary to expectations, the 
medium-sized points do not include significantly 
more examples (χ
2
 test: p = 0.10) with substantial 
cortex transformation (18 : 11) than the large points 
(10 : 15). In contrast, there are significantly less 
small points (χ
2
 test: p = 0.03) with substantial 
cortex transformation (8 : 16) compared with the 
medium-sized points (18 : 11).
Verpoorte (2012) used the difference in the 
fragmentation of points from the entrance area 
and from the back of P . z. to suggest that the Pal-
aeolithic visitors repaired the damaged points at 
the entrance and stored them for later use at the 
back. This interpretation is problematic for several 
reasons, some of which have already been men-
tioned above. Another compelling reason is that 
the lithic assemblage from P . z. include no pieces 
that could be used as tools for rough planing, for 
example large cores (planes) with a blunt angle of 
the working edge that would produce long facets 
such as occur on the edges of some points. V arious 
authors (Moreau et al. 2015; Jéquier 2016; Doyon 
2017) do no mention these facets even though 
they should, especially in connection with the 
chaîne opératoire in the manufacture of individual 
points or points in general. There are rare large 
flakes (and blades) with a sharp angle of the cut-
ting edge which are suitable for fine turning, but 
without the nibbling retouch that occurs during 
scraping. Such atypical tools quickly become worn 
during point manufacture and need replacing. The 
used tools are usually discarded on the spot. We 
can infer from the quantity of points, the absence 
of suitable atypical lithic tools and the absence 
of typical macroscopic damage on the tools that 
points were manufactured or repaired at P . z. only 
exceptionally. We cannot hope to find evidence 
of manufacture and repair in production waste 
(chips, shavings) because such small pieces are 
not archaeologically recognisable. It would be pos-
sible to unearth unused blanks as the result of the 
above-suggested technique of splitting bone and 
antler. If the manufacture took place elsewhere, 
the blanks could also be made from the bones of 
animals other than predominantly cave bears. For 
very long flat points, they could be gained from 
the metapodials of horses, elks, giant deer and red 
deer. People usually split the metapodials to get to 
the marrow; they could also gain suitable blanks 
for points at the same time.
Almost all points were brought into the cave 
complete, used for hunting in or near the cave 
and damaged during this activity. As for why 
they remained in the cave, it is difficult to an-
swer this question with sound arguments. The 
hypothesis that they were ritually deposited in 
the cave functioning as a sanctuary (Odar 2008, 
2015) is not supported by scientifically sufficient 
arguments. It is possible that at least some of the 
damaged points were stored there as spare parts, 
while others, still unused, were lost either during 
the dangerous pursuit of hunting hibernating cave 
bears or during stays in the poorly lit back of the 
cave. The unusable broken pieces of points were 
most likely discarded.
While the distal part of the points is consistently 
smoothed, the basal part in most cases is left rough, 
which indicates they functioned as the passive end 
of the point. The base of all the points regardless 
of their shape is either rounded or pointed, which 
suggests that, firstly, the hafting manner depended 
on whether the base was wide and rounded or 
narrow and pointed, and secondly, that it did not 
change through time, hence that it was effective 
and practical. However, we have noticed a technical 
problem in hafting the spindle-shaped points with 
an oval cross section of the base, which would be 
solved by inserting the point into the soft pith of 
an elder shaft (Horusitzky 2006, 348). This hafting 
manner may apply to at least 27 points from P . z. 
(App. 2, Column 6, numbers in bold), which would 
have been used as light javelins or arrowheads. 

38 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
The points that Horusitzky (2006, 337) identified 
as such are too wide to fit into the cavity of an 
elder stick. A good solution may be seen in the 
shouldered spindle-shaped point No. 38 (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983, Pl. 16: 38) (Fig. 12.3: 38). It would 
have been difficult to securely haft oval-sectioned 
points in the split or cut of the shaft in any other 
manner. Moreover, the cut in the shaft was the 
weakest point of the armature. It would also have 
been very difficult to make a central cut with the 
tools available at the time, but fairly easy to make 
a lateral cut. It was impossible to hollow out the 
shaft in the length of the point base. Neither is a 
foreshaft made from a long bone a suitable solution 
to the hafting problem of spearheads because the 
opening is too large for a point and too narrow for 
a shaft. The find of a point fragment wedged in 
the medullary cavity led S. and M. Brodar (1983, 
Fig. 56) to suggest that points were also hafted 
in medullary cavity of long bones, but this argu-
ment is not convincing. It was probably merely a 
coincidental find, as similar examples are known 
from Divje babe I with the only difference that 
the medullary cavity there held unworked bone 
fragments. The depicted point fragment is broken 
off at a much lower spot that the edge of a simple 
bone shaft. It is difficult to say why a point would 
break so deep in the shaft and not at the edge. 
Having said that, S. and M. Brodar came very close 
to the solution of the hafting problem – points 
hafted into the pith of an elder stick. 
As already stated, it was essential for a point 
as a hunting tool to be durable and effective. The 
strength of a point is two-dimensionally determined 
in a satisfactory manner with its mass and the 
product of maximum width and thickness (here-
inafter cross section) at the shaft-point junction, 
as shown in Fig. 10.4. The diagram only includes 
the points damaged less than 11% of reconstructed 
total length. The relationship between cross section 
and mass is curved (logarithmic function) as the 
values of both variables are limited up with the 
maximum possible thickness and width of the bone 
blanks and with the optimal width with regards 
to the penetrating effect. Both variables are in a 
strong and very significant linear relationship (r 
= 0.91, p < 0.001), but also in a non-linear one 
Fig. 10.4: Relationship between mass and maximum cross 
section of the well preserved flat (rings) and spindle-shaped 
points (dots) from P . z. The presumably repeatedly repaired 
points are in an oval frame and the presumed arrowheads 
in a rectangular frame. The undamaged points are shown 
in red inventory numbers, other in black (total n = 52; 
partial n = 26 – spindle-shaped, 26 – flat).
Sl. 10.4: Odnos med maso in največjim presekom dobro 
ohranjenih ploščatih (krogi) in vretenastih konic (pike) 
iz P . z. V ovalu so domnevno večkrat popravljene konice. 
V pravokotniku so domnevne puščične osti. Inventarne 
številke celih konic so rdeče, ostalih črne (skupni n = 52; 
delni n = 26 – vretenaste, 26 – ploščate).
Fig. 10.5: 3D diagram showing the relationship between the 
reconstructed total length of the almost complete points 
from P. z., their cross section and mass. The presumably 
repeatedly repaired points are marked with triangles. 
The points most likely repeatedly repaired are in an oval 
frame, the presumed arrowheads in a rectangular frame 
(total n = 52; partial n = 30 – repaired points, 22 – un-
repaired points).
Sl. 10.5: 3D-diagram s prikazom odnosa med rekonstruirano 
celotno dolžino skoraj celih konic, njihovim presekom in 
maso. Navedene so inventarne številke P . z. S polnimi tri-
kotniki so označene domnevno večkrat popravljene konice. 
Najznačilnejši primerki so obkroženi. Domnevne puščične 
osti so v pravokotnem okvirčku (skupni n = 52; delni n 
= 30 – popravljene konice, 22 – nepopravljene konice).

39 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
(r = ?). The relationship between select variables 
shows an even increase in the strength of the flat 
and spindle-shaped points. As mass depends on 
the size of a point and size is partially connected 
with efficiency, we decided on a 3D representation 
of the relationship between the reconstructed total 
length (maximum 11% reconstruction of the miss-
ing length), their cross section and mass. All three 
variables are strongly and significantly correlated 
(multiple R (z/xy) = 0.91, p < 0.001).
The 3D diagram (Fig. 10.5) shows mass in con-
tour lines that are projected onto a 2D plane and 
fit best with the non-linear spatial presentation 
of the data of the three variables. The diagram 
reveals that the points in the oval frame are 
disproportionately massive and short (see Figs. 
5.2: 76; 10.7: 6,51; 12.3: 30,80,101) compared 
with equally massive points of considerably 
greater length. This is illustrated by the data on 
the points Nos. 80 (20.7 g, 200 mm
2
, 117 mm) 
and 64 (22.1 g, 153 mm
2
, 166 mm). In its cur-
rent condition, No. 80 (Fig. 12.3: 80) is poorly 
penetrable and not usable for hunting. It shows 
considerable transformation and bears cuts at the 
medial-distal border, suggesting that it should 
have the special status of (repeatedly ?) repaired 
point. It is unlikely that it ended its use as an awl. 
It was more likely in secondary use as the butt 
of a spear or a walking stick. The 3D diagram 
includes at least 30 points that may have been 
transformed due to the repairs to the distal part. 
The maximum thickness and thereby cross sec-
tion in some (e.g. Nos. 6, 65, 80, 82, 101, 124) is 
shifted distally from the base (Fig. 10.6). Some 
(Nos. 51, 65, 80) only have cuts medially just 
above the base (Figs. 10.7: 51; 12.3: 80), others 
(Nos. 37, 70, 129) also have cuts on the upper 
part of the base (Fig. 10.7: 129). Most (Nos. 5, 6, 
30, 37, 51, 65, 70, 76, 80, 82, 101, 124), however, 
are disproportionally massive considering their 
slightly reconstructed total length (Figs. 5.2: 76; 
10.7: 6; 12.3: 30,80,101). All this suggests repairs 
of the apical and distal damage and the shaping of 
a new base on large distal fragments (Fig. 10.7).
Fig. 10.6: The spindle-shaped points Nos. 6, 22, 40, 41, 65, 82, 101, 116, 124 and the flat point No. 82 from P. z. with a 
long medial part in side view. The presumed current bases are shaded, located below maximum thickness marked with 
a line. Also marked with lines are the presumed previous size, apical and distal damage and base.
Sl. 10.6: Stranski pogledi vretenastih konic št. 6, 22, 40, 41, 65, 80, 101, 116, 124 in ploščate konice št. 82 z dolgim me-
dialnim delom iz P . z. Baza (domnevno sedanje nasadišče) je v rastru. Sedanje nasadišče je pod največjo debelino konic. 
Posebej sta označeni domnevna nekdanja velikost in baza.

40 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
Very small and light points, possibly used as 
arrowheads, form a special group (Fig. 10.5 rec-
tangular frame and 10.6: 22,40,116). They include 
a single point with a split base (No. 102). Odar 
(2008; 2015) used copies of such points in his 
experiments and interpreted them as arrowheads 
hafted into an elder foreshaft. Unless we are deal-
ing with light javelins or awls used by women and 
children (see Owen 2013) – with the exception of 
the split-based point No. 102 that corresponds most 
closely to an arrowhead
17
 – this interpretation is 
correct. If they are indeed light javelins or awls, 
the question is what were women and children 
doing in P . z. Odar (2015) also suggested that the 
arrowheads or small points were originally longer 
and became reduced in length due to repairs; there 
17
  Another possibility is that they were the projectiles 
of a blowpipe with a tuft of hair or fibre inserted into the 
split (Horusitzky, pers. comm.).
Fig. 10.7: Original size of the basal and distal parts of the presumably repaired points from P. z. based on maximum 
thickness or maximum cross section (No. 6), on maximum cross section and the remains of cuts next to it (No. 51) and 
on the unusual presence of cuts on the upper part of the base (No. 129) with added apical (No. 23), distal (No. 66) and 
basal fragments (No. 133). The possibly repaired point on the distal fragment No. 66 is shaded.
Sl. 10.7: Prvotne velikosti bazalnega in terminalnega dela domnevno popravljenih konic iz P. z. glede na največjo debe-
lino oziroma največji presek (št. 6), največji presek in ostanek zarez ob njem (št. 51) in neobičajno prisotnost zarez na 
zgornjem delu baze (št. 129). Dodan je apikalni (št. 23), terminalni (št. 66) in bazalni odlomek (št. 133). Na terminalnem 
odlomku je z rastrom označena možna popravljena konica.

41 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
is no evidence to corroborate such a hypothesis 
with the sole exception of the observation that 
maximum thickness in some points (Nos. 22, 40, 
41, 72, 116) shifted away from the current base 
(Fig. 10.6).
11. DAMAGE ON THE POINTS
We performed a detailed statistical analysis of 
the damage on the osseous points by first dividing 
them into two groups based on the most significant 
damage sustained while hunting with a javelin, 
lance or arrowhead (App. 2, Column 19, 20). We 
excluded the points that may have been damaged 
during archaeological excavations (Nos. 13, 67, 
90, 91, 93, 94, 99 and 119).
The first group (apical-distal) comprises points 
missing the apex (2–10% damage, n = 32) and 
those missing some of the distal part (11–44% 
damage, n = 37),
18
 but still having the base. The 
second group (basal-distal) consists of large basal 
and distal parts (fragments) of points that presum-
ably broke at the shaft-point junction (n = 24). 
The fractures are predominantly perpendicular 
to the longitudinal axis, often also oblique (Nos. 
17, 91, 95, 104, 106, 121, 122). All broken distal 
parts are damaged at the top. What appears at first 
glance to be minor damage to the terminal of the 
base (Verpoorte 2012) most likely represents the 
remains of the fracture surface of the blank, in a 
repaired point possibly the remains of the fracture 
that the original point sustained when it broke at 
the shaft-point junction (Nos. 2, 14, 18, 19, 28, 
34, 39 and others). The remains of these fracture 
planes mostly have sharp edges. Apical and short 
distal fragments are rare finds at P. z. (see Odar 
2014 and caption to Fig. 3.2 in this article). To 
the contrary, such fragments and large distal frag-
ments are common at Istállóskő (e.g. Pb 50/11, 
Pb 50/15–19, Pb 50/24, Pb 50/60, Pb 50/93, Pb 
50/161, Pb 50/165, Pb 50/167, Pb 51/13, Pb 51/85 
18
  In the experimental use of replicas of massive-based 
antler points as projectiles, the points sustained a maximum 
of 13.4% damage when hitting bone (scapula). No fractures 
at the shaft-point junction have been noted (Doyon 2013, 
Tab. 4.5). We need to keep in mind that no lab experiment 
can replicate all the circumstances and consequences oc-
curring during hunting. Repeated experiment gave the 
maximum damage of 17.32% or 16 mm (Doyon, Knecht 
2014), which corresponds with independent observations 
by Horusitzky (2008). For an interpretation of how the large 
distal fragments occurred see Horusitzky 2008.
unpublished; Vértes 1955, Pls. 34: 1; 36: 4), where 
antler split-based points predominate. Only rarely 
do such fragments occur as the consequence of 
excavation and are distinguishable from ancient 
ones in unweathered fracture planes (e.g. P. z. 
Nos. 13, 91, 94, 119). A challenge to interpret is 
the medial fragments, which are very rare (P. z. 
Nos. 17, 21, 24).
The edges of the fractures on the apical and 
distal fragments are either sharp or rounded (App. 
2, Column 20), the fracture plane either appears 
unweathered or is weathered. The points with 
rounded edges and weathered fracture plane were 
undoubtedly already damaged in the past. There 
are 43 such points of the total number of 66 with 
apical and distal fractures. Rounded fracture edges 
do not mean that damaged points were used, as 
most bone fragments in the clastic cave sediments 
naturally get more or less rounded edges due to 
weathering. Rare point fragments show oblique 
compressive or step fracture (e.g. Nos. 3, 17, 24, 
25). Experiments show that the tip of a point made 
of fresh bone or antler breaks in this manner if the 
point hits bone (Arndt, Newcomer 1986; Doyon, 
Knecht 2014).
A special question pertains to apical and insig-
nificant distal damage. M. Brodar (2003) believed 
that such points continued to be used regardless 
of the damage. We are of the opinion that every 
damaged point was eventually re-sharpened to 
be functional. A very pertinent question that M. 
Brodar posed is why at least 60 of the damaged 
points were not re-sharpened. Another equally 
pertinent question is why were the numerous 
still usable points, according to Brodar, found 
alongside equally numerous unusable fragments. If 
both were stored in the cave, they could have been 
stored there so as to be repaired and reused at a 
later point (Verpoorte 2012). It is certainly easier 
to leave behind an unusable than a usable point.
Apical and distal damage may also have oc-
curred either in a post-sedimentary process or 
during excavation. S. Brodar and later Odar (2014) 
unearthed few distal and apical fragments. The 
compressive or step fractures suggest that most 
damage occurred due to the stresses during use 
and is not post-sedimentary (see Horusitzky 2008). 
Moreover, it is not known that any of these frag-
ments fitted to one of the damaged points. Seven 
of the points with distal compressive fracture have 
rounded and a single one sharp fracture edges. Of 
the apically damaged points (2–10% damage), 26 
have rounded edges and only four sharp ones. For 

42 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
those with more substantial damage to the distal 
part (11–44% damage), the number of fractures 
with rounded and sharp edges is almost equal (17 
: 19). At least eight points were damaged during 
excavation, which is much more than the number 
stated by S. and M. Brodar (1983). All the points 
damaged during excavation have sharp fracture 
edges and unweathered fracture planes.
The fracture planes of large basal and distal 
point fragments have rounded edges in twelve 
cases and sharp edges in eight cases. A particular 
example is a point surviving as two corresponding 
fragments (Nos. 86 and 125). The two fragments 
were found at some distance from one another, 
but both at the entrance. The distal fragment has 
sharp edges, the basal fragment rounded ones. The 
edges of the basal fragment were clearly rounded 
in a post-sedimentary process. The same has been 
established for one broken cave bear humerus 
recovered during the excavations led by S. Brodar 
(Brodar, Brodar 1983, 82). An alternative inter-
pretation suggests that the edges became rounded 
during reuse of the fragment as an ad hoc tool. 
In a similar way, the insignificant apical fractures 
may also have become rounded during continued 
use of the points (M. Brodar 2003). The fracture 
edges, be they sharp or rounded, tell us nothing 
definite of how and when the damage occurred, 
with the exception of damage during archaeologi-
cal excavation.
The collection of points from P. z. includes a 
fragment of a longitudinally split massive base (No. 
107), which is highly unusual damage. Equally 
unusual are two fragments of longitudinally split 
medial part of points (Nos. 110 and 131). Damage 
such as this and the gnawed broken ends of the 
point No. 49 (Turk et al. 2001, Fig. 20a; Moreau 
et al. 2015, Fig. 3: 1) could have been caused by 
carnivores and have nothing to do with the use 
Fig. 11.1: Number of damaged points from P . z. according 
to cave areas and shape of the fracture plane edges (total 
n = 86; partial n = 56 – apical and distal damage back, 
10 – apical and distal damage front, 7 – basal and distal 
fragments back, 13 – basal and distal fragments front).
Sl. 11.1: Zastopanost konic iz P . z. s poškodbami glede na 
lokacijo in obliko robov prelomnih ploskev (skupni n = 
86; delni n = 56 – apikalne in terminalne poškodbe, zadaj, 
10 – apikalne in terminalne poškodbe, spredaj, 7 – bazalni 
in terminalni deli, zadaj, 13 – bazalni in terminalni deli, 
spredaj).
Fig. 11.2: Number of points with apical and distal dam-
age, as well as of the basal and distal fragments of the 
points from P. z. according to cave areas (total n = 92; 
partial n = 58 – apical and distal damage back, 7 – basal 
and distal fragments back, 11 – apical and distal damage 
front, 16 – basal and distal fragments front).
Sl. 11.2: Zastopanost konic iz P. z. z apikalnimi in ter-
minalnimi poškodbami ter odlomljenih bazalnih in ter-
minalnih delov konic glede na lokacijo (skupni n = 92; 
delni n = 58 – apikalne in terminalne poškodbe, zadaj, 
7 – bazalni in terminalni deli, zadaj, 11 – apikalne in 
terminalne poškodbe, spredaj, 16 – bazalni in terminalni 
deli, spredaj).

43 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
of the points or it does (see Bergman 1987, Fig. 
1: 4). Similar gnaw marks have been observed on 
the Pr. 11 point from Dzérava skala (Slovakia). To 
our knowledge, no one except Bergman has as yet 
specifically pointed out such damage.
Two fragments of large points (Nos. 9 and 122) 
surviving as the distal and much of the medial 
part have a fracture that is not readily explainable 
using one of the above-presented interpretations 
on the cause of fractures.
We performed a statistical analysis of the dam-
age on the points from P. z. to verify the above-
mentioned interpretations.
The number of damaged points from both areas 
of the cave with clear differences in the texture of 
the sediments shows differences and similarities 
in the fracture plane morphology (Fig. 11.1). The 
points with apical and distal damage from the 
back of the cave show a strong predominance of 
rounded edges, while such points from the entrance 
area show nearly equal number of rounded and 
sharp edges. There are no substantial differences 
between the points from the two areas with regards 
to the shape of the edges on the basal and distal 
fragments. In consequence, it is difficult to make 
reasonable inferences on the impact of sediments 
on the point damage (contra Verpoorte 2012).
The number of damaged points shows statisti-
cally significant (χ
2
 test: p < 0.001) differences 
between the two areas of P. z. (Fig. 11.2), while 
the width and thickness of the points that could 
influence these numbers show no significant dif-
ference. S. and M. Brodar (1983) already observed 
that more basal and distal fragments were found 
at the entrance than at the back. To the contrary, 
the back revealed much more apically and distally 
damaged points than the entrance area. Basal 
fragments predominate at the entrance, distal 
fragments at the back. There seems to be no clear 
evidence to support the hypothesis of either storage 
(Verpoorte 2012) or ritual offering of the points 
(Odar 2015) at the back of the cave. Apical and 
distal damage may, together with the recent finds 
of such fragments (ib.), indicate a more intensive 
use of points at the back. Points may have been 
used in the spring hunt for cave bears, for which 
the warm back of the cave and the niches in the 
huge rockfall blocks represented the ideal winter 
hibernation spots. Any point detached from its 
shaft or broken together with it was lost in such 
dangerous circumstances.
The two groups of damaged points significantly 
differ in width and reconstructed length (Fig. 
11.3). The basal and distal parts that broke off 
have significantly greater reconstructed length of 
the distal part (p < 0.001) and greater width (p 
= 0.001) in comparison with the apically-distally 
damaged points. Their thickness shows no signifi-
cant differences (p = 0.82). The result shows that 
long points frequently broke at the shaft-point 
junction in spite of their greater width unless the 
point was thickened at this spot and unless the 
shaft broke instead. The frequency of apical-distal 
damage is almost equal between flat (37 items) 
and spindle-shaped points (31 items). Flat points 
include fourteen with apical damage, spindle-
shaped points include eighteen such items. There 
are 23 flat points with extensive distal damage 
and only 13 spindle-shaped points. The basal and 
distal fragments belong to 15 flat points and only 
Fig. 11.3: Result of the median test for the reconstructed 
distal length, width and thickness of the damaged points 
from P . z. (total n = 92; partial n = 69 – apically and distally 
damaged points, 23 – basal and distal fragments).
Sl. 11.3: Rezultat testa mediane za rekonstruirano distalno 
dolžino, širino in debelino poškodovanih konic iz P. z. 
(skupni n = 92; delni n = 69 – apikalno in terminalno po-
škodovane konice, 23 – bazalni in terminalni deli konic).

44 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
3 spindle-shaped points. The latter were obviously 
better than flat points.
There are 22 large, 27 medium-sized and 20 
small points with apical-distal damage. Of these, 
eight large, fifteen medium-sized and nine small 
points show apical damage, while fourteen large, 
twelve medium-sized and eleven small points show 
distal damage. There is no difference between the 
large and small points in this sense, which indi-
cates their similar use. Basal and distal fragments 
only belong to large (20 items) and medium-sized 
points (3 items). Large points were more frequently 
fractured due to longer leverage, due to exposure 
to greater loads compared with the medium-sized 
and small points, or because their fragments were 
stored for later repair and transformation into 
smaller points.
One of the premises was that spindle-shaped points 
were more durable than flat ones. The numbers of 
basal and distal fragments of both point types that 
broke off at the shaft-point junction supports such a 
premise if disregarding the strength of the wooden 
shaft. Flat points include significantly more (χ
2
 test: 
p = 0.02) of these fragments than spindle-shaped 
ones (Fig. 11.4a). Almost all the distal fragments 
are missing the apex, which is usually damaged 
when the point hits a hard obstacle (Horusitzky 
2007; Doyon, Knecht 2014). Only three distal frag-
Fig. 11.4: Number of the spindle-shaped and flat points 
from P. z. with apical and distal damage, as well as of the 
basal and distal fragments of both point types (total n = 
86; partial n = 37 – flat apical and distal damage, 15 – flat 
basal and distal fragments, 31 – spindle-shaped apical 
and distal damage, 3 – spindle-shaped basal and distal 
fragments) (a). Number of points with apical and distal 
damage, as well as the basal and distal fragments according 
to the degree of bone cortex transformation (total n = 64; 
partial n = 27 insignificant apical and distal damage, 7 – 
insignificant basal and distal fragments, 29 – substantial 
apical and distal damage, 1 – substantial basal and distal 
fragments) (b).
Sl. 11.4: Zastopanost vretenastih in ploščatih konic iz P .z. 
z apikalnimi in terminalnimi poškodbami ter odlomljenih 
bazalnih in terminalnih delov prvih in drugih konic (skupni 
n = 86; delni n = 37 – ploščata, apikalne in terminalne 
poškodbe, 15 – ploščata, bazalni in terminalni deli, 31 – 
vretenasta, apikalne in terminalne poškodbe, 3 – vretenasta, 
bazalni in terminalni deli) (a). Zastopanost konic z apikal-
nimi in terminalnimi poškodbami ter odlomljenih bazalnih 
in terminalnih delov konic glede na preoblikovanje kostne 
lupine (skupni n = 64; delni n = 27 neznatna apikalne in 
terminalne poškodbe, 7 – neznatna, bazalni in terminalni 
deli, 29 – znatna, apikalne in terminalne poškodbe, 1 – 
znatna, bazalni in terminalni deli) (b).

45 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
ments (Nos. 13, 16 and 96) show no damage to 
the apex, indicating that the fracture occurred due 
to flexion rather than impact (Horusitzky 2008). 
Two of the fragments belong to flat and one pos-
sibly to spindle-shaped points. These three points 
may have formed part of lances, which are less 
likely to suffer apical damage. In the number of 
points with apical and distal damage, flat points 
only have a minor advantage over spindle-shaped 
points. This is expected, as both types are nearly 
equally resistant in this part. The basal and distal 
fragments of the spindle-shaped points that broke 
off are significantly thicker (p = 0.03) than the 
same fragments of the flat points; similarly for the 
apically and distally damaged points (p < 0.01). 
Other measures show no significant differences.
The number of damaged flat and spindle-shaped 
points corresponds with the number of those with 
bone cortex transformation (Fig. 11.4b). The points 
with insignificant cortex transformation include 
significantly more (χ
2
 test: p = 0.03) basal and 
distal fragments than the points with substantial 
cortex transformation. The opposite is true of api-
cal and distal damage. It can be expected that a 
greater amount of work put into the manufacture 
of a point results in its higher quality. 
The analysis of point fragmentation has revealed 
that almost exclusively large points of a certain 
width and even more of certain thickness broke 
in the lower medial part. They are flat points 
manufactured with relatively little effort. Small 
points show a different damage pattern, but are 
no less damaged. The similar and equally heavy 
apical-distal damage of large and small points 
suggests their similar use. Both large and small 
points can have distal compressive fractures (e.g. 
Nos. 3 and 25), which is damage typically sustained 
by javelin and arrowheads when hitting a hard 
obstacle. Fractures on the (lower) medial part 
are mainly caused by lateral stress such as occurs 
when thrusting with a lance or when the shaft 
of a planted javelin moves to and fro in reaction 
to impact (see Horusitzky 2008). These fractures 
are typical of flat points that may have been used 
as lanceheads. As no small points show medial 
fractures, we infer that these were not used as 
lanceheads. The smallest points may have been 
used by women and young individuals, hafted onto 
light javelins, or by all members of a community as 
arrowheads. As the presence of weaker members 
of Aurignacian communities is questionable at P. 
z. given its high altitude, it is more likely that the 
small points were used as arrowheads.
12. DISCUSSION
Scholars have determined the types of Aurigna-
cian points in an arbitrary fashion, based on the 
performance of the base (massive, split), shape 
of the face (lozenge-shaped, spindle-shaped, tri-
angular) and cross section (oval, plano-convex, 
rectangular and others). This was a generally ac-
cepted practice joined by certain measures (also 
used in this article) and measure ratios in the form 
of quotients (see e.g. Doyon 2013; 2017). The lat-
ter is unnecessary as it only repeats the findings 
obtainable from basic measures. On the incentive 
of F . Z. Horusitzky, we added the shape of the side 
contour as a defining characteristic directly linked 
to the point’s technical properties similarly as the 
performance of the base and shape of the face. 
The contour criterion allowed us to distinguish 
between flat and spindle-shaped points (Fig. 3.1). 
The typometrics have confirmed the validity of 
such a division, to which several site monotypes 
should be added (Nos. 5, 49, 55, 60, 92, 97, 103) 
that cannot be analysed statistically. Monotypes are 
coincidental shapes of points that either proved 
not functional to the Aurignacian hunters, stand 
at the beginning of new, more successful lines of 
points or are merely imitations of points of other 
technological traditions.
The size data for individual points from sites 
that yielded comparable numbers of points only 
recently became available, enabling us to correctly 
perform a comparative statistical analysis with the 
points from P . z. The necessary data in part come 
from Doyon’s dissertation (2017, Annexe 2) that 
brings together the basic measures for 322 split-
based and 225 massive-based points from 49 Au-
rignacian sites in Europe. His list is unfortunately 
not complete. For Istállóskő, for example, it only 
gives 23 of the total of roughly 130 points that are, 
admittedly, in a heavily fragmented state. It includes 
52 points (App. 3) of the total number of 117 from 
our own list of points from P. z., leaving out the 
most representative and best preserved examples 
(Nos. 4, 5, 30, 31, 41, 42, 53, 60, 61, 64, 68, 70, 75, 
76, 92, 100, 101, 109, 124). Those left out include 
almost all the small points (Nos. 25, 36, 40, 43, 52, 
57–59, 69, 72, 77, 102, 116) that were on exhibition 
at the time and therefore unavailable for Doyon’s 
measurements. Because of the analytical concept, 
he also intentionally left out all basal and distal 
fragments without at least the remains of the me-
dial part. Doyon used a different definition of the 
basal and distal parts and his measures for these 

46 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
two key elements cannot be compared with ours, 
making a comprehensive comparative analysis of 
variance between the points from P. z. and those 
from Doyon’s list impossible.
Doyon (2017, Tab. 5.1) provides the descrip-
tive statistics for the length, width and thickness 
of the split-based points predominantly from 
French sites and made almost exclusively from 
reindeer antler. For 62 complete points, he gives 
the length of 43.5–168.7 mm, the mean value of 
81.1 mm, the standard deviation of 25.9 mm and 
the median of 78.1 mm, which is considerably less 
than the statistics for the length of complete points 
and the reconstructed lengths of the points from 
P. z. (App. 2). For 316 points, he gives the width 
of 6.1–40.1 mm, the mean value of 14.8 mm, the 
standard deviation of 5.4 and the median of 13.8 
mm, as well as the thickness of 3–13.4 mm, the 
mean value of 6.3 mm, the median of 6.2 mm and 
the standard deviation of 1.6 mm. The statistics 
for the width correspond with those for the points 
from P . z., not so the statistics for thickness, where 
the points from P . z. show higher values. The data 
for the maximum thickness of split-based points 
(13.4 mm) given by Doyon (ib.), as well as Tartar 
and White (2013) are surprising, as they exceed the 
thickness of the antler compact tissue for individual 
deer species. Such thickness can only be obtained 
together with the spongy tissue, which is present 
on almost all of the antler points (Doyon, Knecht 
2014). The split-based points from Istállóskő are 
18–6 mm wide and 3.2–6.2 mm thick (Dobosi 
2002; unpublished data by Horusitzky). 
The only site apart from P . z. that yielded large 
number of massive-based points is La Ferrassie 
(France). A comparison of the lengths of complete 
massive-based points between P . z. and La Ferrassie 
shows no statistically significant differences (Fig. 
12.1a; App. 1). For 48 complete massive-based 
points (eleven from P. z., almost all others from 
La Ferrassie), Doyon (2017, Tab. 5.1) gives the 
length of 40–245 mm, the mean value of 126.7 
Fig. 12.1: Comparison of the normally distributed measures of the length and width of the complete points from P. z. 
(n = 9) and La Ferrassie (n = 21) (a), as well as the width and thickness of enlarged samples from both sites (P. z., n = 
117; La Ferrassie, n = 84) (b).
Sl. 12.1: Primerjava normalno porazdeljenih mer dolžine in širine celih konic iz P . z. (n = 9) in La Ferrassie (n = 21) (a) 
ter širine in debeline razširjenega vzorca z obeh najdišč (P. z., n = 117; La Ferrassie, n = 84) (b).

47 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
mm, the standard deviation of 47.9 mm and the 
median of 109.8 mm. He does not distinguish 
between points according to the shape of the 
face and side contour, but rather according to the 
shape (geometry) of the base. For the lozenge-
shaped points (pointes losangiques) from French 
sites, Leroy-Prost (1975, 118) states the lengths 
of <50–221 mm with an average of 148 mm. The 
spindle-shaped massive-based points (pointes 
fusiformes) are 84–121 mm long (ib., 121), while 
the triangular points (pointes triangulaires) reach 
the length of up to 300 mm (ib., 115). Many of the 
triangular points may actually be the distal parts 
of the massive- or split-based points that broke at 
the shaft-point junction, such as are also present 
(e.g. Nos. 13, 16, 47) in the P. z. collection (Fig. 
3.5). With only few exceptions, the points of all 
shapes are made of reindeer antler (Doyon 2017, 
Annexe 2). At Istállóskő, only rare massive-based 
points have been recovered (Pb 50/90, Pb 50/91, 
Pb 50/2, Pb 507133, Pb 50/187, Pb 50/188; Vértes 
1955, Pl. 41: 1,2); the only completely preserved, 
slender massive-based Pb 50/91 point is 253 mm 
long (Vértes 1955, Pl. XLI: 1; Dobosi 2002, 90, 
Fig. 7: 1).
The length data for points from different sites 
from Hungary to France (Istállóskő, Dzeravá skala, 
Mladeč, Wildhaus, Badelhöhle, Fumane, Les Rois, 
Mallaetes), including P . z. (see Brodar, Brodar 1983, 
Pl. 10: 49), show that there were long points, but 
also very long points of different shapes and dif-
ferent base types (massive, split). This is certainly 
to be expected for hunting weapons and consider-
ing the frequent finds of the remains of hunted 
animals the size of deer or horse. Long and more 
or less slender points had a functional advantage 
over other points, but also required more effort 
during manufacture (long blanks were more dif-
ficult to obtain given the properties of the raw 
material) and they were more prone to breaking 
at the shaft-point junction than shorter ones of 
equal width and thickness. 
The varied lengths of the points lead to the 
question of the purpose of such a wide range. 
Why would people need the points of so many 
different lengths for hunting? Were they initially 
around 250 mm long and gradually became shorter 
due to repairs? Or were the lengths adapted to the 
hunted animal species and to different members of 
their communities, be it adult men, women, elders, 
children? If the latter were the case, what were all 
these members doing in the alpine environment 
of P. z.? The scarce remains of the presumed prey 
speak against a varied range of hunted species that 
would require points of different lengths. Did people 
deposit the points, after they had served their pur-
pose and were reshaped, in a special place with the 
intention never to use them again? Were the small 
and some medium-sized points used in hunting at 
all? The lack of a clear distinction in thickness and 
partially width between large and medium-sized 
points, as well as the gradual increase/decrease of 
the lengths shows that the situation, at least for P . 
z., may in part be the consequence of repairs to 
the damaged apical and distal parts that occurred 
during use. No more can be said at this stage.
Fig. 12.2: Distribution of the reconstructed total length (0–11%) (a) and the reconstructed distal length of 55 points 
from P. z. (b).
Sl. 12.2: Porazdelitev celotne rekonstruirane dolžine (0–11 %) (a) in rekonstruirane terminalne dolžine 55 konic iz P . z. (b).

48 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
The wide range of sizes has also been observed 
at the rare other sites that yielded numerous points. 
It is therefore reasonable to wonder whether the 
same phenomenon, of repairing damaged large 
points, also took place elsewhere. The 75 complete 
split-based points from different French sites show 
the following length distribution: less than 50 
mm (10.6%), 50–100 mm (57.3%), 100–150 mm 
(29.3%), more than 150 mm (2.06%) (Leroy-Prost 
1975, 109). Most of the complete split-based points 
from Abri Castanet are 50–69 mm long (Tartar, 
White 2013, Fig. 5). At P. z., points twice as long 
(100–120 mm) predominate among the complete 
ones. P . z. yielded significantly more points in the 
100–150 mm (48% of all points) and more than 
150 mm (18% of all points) class than the French 
split-based points from different sites (29.3% and 
2.06%).
19
 It is not certain that it was viable/possible 
to once more split the base of originally split-base 
points usually damaged at the base and therefore 
render them usable again. It would rather be logical 
to rework such points into massive-based points.
The 25 complete lozenge-shaped massive-based 
points from Abri Blanchard des Roches show 
the following length distribution: 90–110 mm (5 
items), 110–130 mm (3 items), 130–150 mm (7 
items), 150–170 mm (4 items), 170–190 mm (1 
item), 190–210 mm (4 items) and 210–230 mm 
(1 item) (ib., 116). A comparison with the size of 
the almost complete points from P. z. shows that 
19
  Comparing the sample of points from a single site 
with a composite sample of points from several sites can 
give a misleading result. 
Fig. 12.3: Presumably repaired points from P. z. with their current and previous base and distal part (Nos. 30, 38, 39, 
80, 101).
Sl. 12.3: Primerki domnevno popravljenih konic iz P. z., njihova sedanja in nekdanja baza ter terminalni del (št. 30, 38, 
39, 80, 101).

49 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
P. z. yielded no points more than 190 mm long, 
but as much as 15% that measure 60–90 mm, 
hence are shorter that the French lozenge-shaped 
points. The differences hinder us from establish-
ing whether the lozenge-shaped points are also 
the result of repairs. 
More important than the total length (Fig. 
12.2a) is the length of the active distal part of a 
point (Fig. 12.2b). Of the points from P. z., 14% 
measure 110–130 mm in this part, which must 
have sufficed for hunting game to the size of roe 
deer, possibly hind. W e suppose that the number of 
points with such distal parts was originally higher. 
Most points (44%) have a 60–80 mm long distal 
part, which is suitable for hunting small game. It 
is difficult to establish whether these were origi-
nally long points repaired several times or were 
designed to be of this size at the start. Individual 
already mentioned examples certainly point to 
repairs of damaged points, but cannot be used 
as evidence of a general practice of repairs. More 
solid evidence to this effect can be gained from 
some statistical indicators given in the analytical 
part of the contribution. An indicator of repairs 
to the spindle-shaped points may be the frequent 
location of maximum thickness in medium-sized 
points above the current base or well above one 
third of the point length (Figs. 10.7: 6; 12.3: 
38,80,101). This spot may mark the border of the 
hafted base before repairs to the distal part. Doyon 
(2013, 2017) used the ratio between the lengths of 
the distal and basal parts as the criterion for pos-
sible repairs; the point was highly likely repaired 
if the two parts are equally long. He based this 
on the supposition that the base length remained 
constant because the points were repaired when 
still hafted. This makes no sense for substantial 
repairs. It is more plausible that the length of the 
base changed proportionately with the length 
of the point as a whole, which means that the 
point needed to be re-hafted after several minor 
or every substantial repair. This maintained the 
effectiveness of the distal part. For the most 
evident candidates for repaired points, we came 
to the same conclusions as Doyon even though 
working with different premises and criteria for 
identifying repaired points. 
We were not able to find thickness data for the 
lozenge- and spindle-shaped massive-based points 
from individual French sites. Doyon (2017, Appendix 
2) does state the length, width and thickness of 
massive-based points, but without distinguishing 
between spindle- and lozenge-shaped. Knecht (2000) 
only gives width: for thirty spindle-shaped points 
that of 7–19 mm and for 101 lozenge-shaped points 
the width of 5–33 mm. Most spindle-shaped points 
measure 10–15 mm in width, most lozenge-shaped 
ones measure 15–20 mm (ib.). This is similar as 
at P. z., where most spindle-shaped points (n = 
10) are 12–14 mm wide and most flat ones (n = 
17) are 16–18 mm wide (Fig. 12.4a). The lozenge-
shaped points from La Ferrassie are clearly wider 
than the spindle-shaped ones (Doyon, Knecht 
2014, Fig. 1). In parallel, the flat points from P . z. 
may be wider than the spindle-shaped ones (Figs. 
4.1 and 6.2). We presume that the spindle-shaped 
points from La Ferrassie are thicker and narrower 
than the lozenge-shaped ones, similarly as those 
from P . z. The unstratified samples of points from 
both sites do not differ statistically in width and 
thickness (Fig. 12.1a,b; App. 1). T o the contrary, the 
massive-based points are clearly wider and thicker 
that the split-based ones (see Doyon 2017, Fig. 
5.4 and 5.5), which is reasonable in evolutionary 
sense and corresponds with the presumed chrono-
logical attribution of both basic types of points 
or their bases, as well as its spread in space and 
time (ib., Fig. 6.4 and 6.5). The split-based points 
from Istállóskő are on average 11 mm wide and 
4.7 mm thick. This is less than the average width 
(15 mm) and thickness (7.7 mm) of the points 
from P. z. (App. 2), which also differ from the 
split- and massive-based points from other sites 
in their maximum thickness and width that lies 
roughly at 1/3 of the length for mechano-technical 
reasons. Greater average thickness of the points 
from P. z. – particularly the spindle-shaped ones 
– shows that most were made of bone and only a 
small proportion possibly of deer antler. Empiri-
cal analyses have shown the latter to be the most 
suitable material for manufacturing split-based 
points (Albrecht 1977; Knecht 2000; Tartar, White 
2013), but also for making blanks for points with 
the innovative technique presented above. The 
thinner compact tissue of reindeer antler (5 to 
7 mm) (Tartar, White 2013) in comparison with 
the bone compact tissue of cave bears (≥ 10 mm) 
made it unsuitable for the manufacture of large 
spindle-shaped points. Moreover, reindeer remains 
are very scarce at the Palaeolithic sites in Slove-
nia. The same is true of the whole eastern Alpine 
region (Pacher 2003) and Italy (Tagliacozzo et al. 
2013), where there is even a complete absence of 
these remains in the Aurignacian and just before it. 
The visitors to P . z. would have had to go to great 
lengths to acquire this raw material in contrast 

50 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
with the Aurignacians in France, where there was 
an abundance of reindeer in the migration season. 
The most readily available raw material was red 
deer antler with a coarser surface that demanded 
a specific splitting technique to obtain suitable 
blanks, similarly as bone.
The Palaeolithic hunters must have realised that 
width, thickness and their position with regards 
to the shaft have an important impact on the 
mechanical properties of their points; they gradu-
ally combined all these properties in an optimal 
manner. Past studies have not taken this fact in 
consideration seriously enough when discussing 
the evolutionary-technical improvements that must 
have been made when correcting the shortcomings 
exposed during use. 
Based on the greater length and thickness of the 
massive-based points from P . z. – for the spindle-
shaped ones also on the smaller width – we suggest 
that they were more effective than the split-based 
points, although this has not yet been experimentally 
corroborated. We correlate greater efficiency with 
bone as raw material instead of antler and with 
technological improvements linked to the hafting 
manner and measures taken to reduce breakage. 
The difference between a massive and a split 
base was clearly also a difference in the hafting 
manner. The shape of the split base shows that 
the hafted part could not have covered 1/3 of the 
point’s length, but considerably less, which meant 
that the point may have rapidly gotten loose during 
use. It was also twice as likely to break at the split 
than had the split not have been made (Horusitzky 
2004). The points with a massive base narrower and 
thinner than 10 mm were presumably hafted into 
a hollow elder stick up to 2 m long. Well suited 
for this hafting manner were the lozenge-shaped 
points of module A from French sites. They had 
a drawback, however, in that the distal part was 
short in comparison with the length of the haft if 
judging from the point’s maximum width shifted 
distally across the half-length of the point. An 
improvement in the sense of the points from P. z 
is module B of the lozenge-shaped points, where 
maximum width is shifted towards the base. Stand-
ing halfway between the two is module C, where 
maximum width lies at mid-length. Their shape and 
the length of the distal part made most lozenge-
shaped points of these three modules less effective 
and lagging far behind the technically advanced 
and more efficient spindle-shaped points from P. 
z. Closest to the latter were the medially thickened 
spindle-shaped points (also called biconiques), but 
these are extremely rare finds at French sites and 
only measure up to 120 mm (Leroy-Prost 1975, 
121). One example presumably of such a shape, 
measuring 135 cm in length, was found in P. z. 
(No. 5, removed from the collection during Ger-
Fig. 12.4: Distribution of the width of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. (a) and of the massive-based points 
from P. z. and La Ferrassie (b).
Sl. 12.4: Porazdelitev širine ploščatih in vretenastih konic iz P . z. (a) in konic z masivno bazo iz P . z. in La Ferrassie (b).

51 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
man occupation in WW II and later returned) (Fig. 
3.1) The narrow spindle-shaped points thickened 
at one third of the length from the terminal of the 
base were best suited of all Aurignacian points for 
hafting into a naturally hollow shaft (see Knecht 
2000, who suggested an artificially hollowed shaft). 
In his discussion on Potočka zijalka and Mokriška 
jama, M. Brodar (1985a, also see M. Brodar 1985b; 
2009) published and explained three diagrams with 
the measures of 83 points from P . z. as evidence of 
these points belonging to a single, though rather 
variable type. He thus lent additional support to 
his suggestion to replace the name Mladeč point, 
originally proposed by Bayer after the Mladeč 
site and also used for the points from P . z. (Bayer 
1922; 1929), with that of the Olševa or Potočka 
zijalka point (Brodar, Brodar 1983). He defined it 
formally and metrically as a bilaterally symmetric 
massive-based point with the basal part covering 
34.5%, the medial part 13.0% and the distal part 
52.5% of its length (Brodar, Brodar 1983, 127f). 
Until recently, the points from P. z. were gener-
ally, but as it turns out erroneously believed to 
have belonged to a single type, i.e. massive-based 
Mladeč point. Horusitzky (2004) was the first 
who distinguished between two types: flat and 
spindle-shaped. These metrically only differ in 
thickness (Fig. 12.5). It should be emphasised 
that thickness only increases in a statistically 
significant manner (p > 0.05) proportionately 
with width in small and medium-sized points, 
both flat (r = 0.84 and 0.54), and spindle-shaped 
(r = 0.67 and 0.72). More differences between flat 
and spindle-shaped points were gained from the 
analysis of variance.
Doyon (2017) went even further, distinguish-
ing between seven morphotypes of massive-based 
points from P. z., of which only M04 is clearly 
recognisable (a single point, No. 56: Doyon 2017, 
Fig. 6.2). This morphotype, primarily determined 
on the geometric characteristics of the base, in-
clude the large point from Mladeč (which gave 
the name to the type) and three smaller ones from 
the same site, six from Vindija and three from La 
Ferrassie (ib., Annexe 2), but none of the massive-
based points from Dzérava skala (ib., Annexe 2, 
his Nos. 3273–3275) with close parallels from 
P. z. (see Horusitzky 2008; Turk 2014). Doyon’s 
morphotypology corresponds with the opinion 
of M. Brodar that the points from P. z. are not of 
the Mladeč type according to Bayer (1922).
20
 The 
20
  On this subject also see Horusitzky 2008, 233–234.
drawback of Doyon’s division is that all morpho-
types of the points from P. z. comprise both flat 
and spindle-shaped points (App. 3) in spite of the 
fact that the volume of points was considered in 
the classification. The morphotypological division 
of points is thus flawed, particularly because the 
main criterion is limited to the base. It is possible 
to distinguish between rounded and pointed bases, 
the latter characteristic of spindle-shaped points 
and particularly well suited for hafting into the 
hollow pith of elder sticks.
The morphotypes determined on the basis of 
a group of sites with massive-based points seem 
of little use in terms of the practical use of the 
points from the perspective of P. z., which un-
dermines the methodology that Doyon proposes 
for analysing the split- and massive-based points. 
Doyon also failed to explain the purpose of the 
uncharacteristically different contours (he calls 
it geometry) of the massive base and the possible 
advantages of such shapes in hafting and use of 
the points. W e can only speak of advantages of one 
shape over the other in the case of split or massive 
base, with the latter having an advantage over the 
former. Interestingly, the bases of the split- and 
massive-based points are quite similar, at least 
in terms of either a rounded or pointed terminal 
(see Doyon 2017, Figs. 6.1 and 6.2). This gives the 
impression that the flat points are all roughly of 
the same shape (design) and experiments mainly 
pertained to the hafting manner. 
Doyon identified S03 (= proto-Aurignacian 
and Aurignacian I) as the earliest morphotype 
of split-based points, represented in almost all 
French sites, while the example outside France 
and geographically closest to Slovenia came to 
light at Šandalja (ib., 252, 254, Fig. 6.1: S03). One 
such point that Doyon did not include in his S03 
has also been found at P. z. (No. 102, currently 
on exhibition), which is very similar to the point 
from Šandalja (T urk 2014, Fig. 10.12). No. 102 was 
unearthed in Layer 5 Front (Brodar, Brodar 1983, 
Pl. 9: 102). It is stratigraphically contemporaneous 
with Doyon’s morphotypes M02 and M05 (Layer 
5 Front), and also later than M02, M03, M05 and 
M07 (Layer 7 Front) (Doyon 2017, Annexe 2). In 
this case, we trust stratigraphy over morphometrics 
for chronological attribution, particularly because 
of the relatively thick sterile Layer 6 separating 
the two layers. Another similar point (No. Pb 
51/24, unavailable, on permanent exhibition) 
was found at Istállóskő (Vértes 1955, Pl. 34: 11; 
Dobosi 2002, 91). 

52 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
According to Doyon, the most numerously 
represented morphotype at P . z. is M02 (n = 24 or 
45%). It is represented with sixteen points (18%) 
at La Ferrassie. The problem is that, like all other 
Doyon’ s morphotypes at P . z., it comprises both flat 
(n = 13 or 25%) and spindle-shaped points (n = 10 
or 19%). Doyon thus equated the points from P . z. 
with those from La Ferrassie, but this is not plausible 
as their overall designs are completely different and 
there is a further difference in how the point was 
strengthened at the shaft-point junction. Doyon’s 
second most numerous morphotype at P . z. is M01 
(n = 11 or 21%), comprising ten (19%) flat and one 
(~2%) spindle-shaped points. It is represented at La 
Ferrassie with 28 (32%) points. The third is M05 
(Doyon 2017, Fig. 6.2: left P . z., right La Ferrassie) 
with four (~8%) flat, three (~6%) spindle-shaped 
and one undeterminable point (~2%). There are 
fourteen (16%) points of this morphotype at La 
Ferrassie. The fourth is M07 with one flat (~2%) 
and three spindle-shaped (~6%) points. At La 
Ferrassie, it is represented with eight (9%) points. 
Points of morphotypes M02, M03 and M07 were 
also found at Dzérava skala (one of each), a site 
that yielded formal parallels for the points from P . 
z. (Horusitzky 2008), while two examples of M02 
were found at Mladeč. Istállóskő yielded points 
of different morphotypes than P. z., but these do 
include at least two massive-based examples (Pb 
50/51, 50/90; Vértes 1955, Pl. 41.1) formally close 
to the points from P . z. (in Horusitzky’s opinion).
Finally, we should make certain remarks regarding 
the denomination of the points as suggested by M. 
Brodar. The name Olševa or Potočka zijalka type 
point instead of the Mladeč point is only appropriate 
for the points with a spindle-shaped side contour, 
a pointed massive base and a variable length of the 
medial and distal parts (Fig. 3.1: 50). The edges are 
rounded, in very rare cases one edge is sharpened 
(No. 74). As much as 66% of all points are thickest 
in their widest part (Brodar, Brodar 1983, 126; M. 
Brodar 2009, 274), i.e. at their weak spot at the 
top of the base or in the medial part if they have 
it. This, but also the frequent presence of cuts on 
blunt edges
21
 and the elaborate design clearly dif-
ferentiates them from the lozenge-shaped and also 
the spindle-shaped points from the French sites 
at Abri Blanchard des Roches, La Ferrassie and 
Abri Castanet, which are widest (and thickest?) 
at mid-length (Leroy-Prost 1975, 121f; 1979, 277, 
281; Knecht 2000), but also from almost all of the 
points from the Hungarian site at Istállóskő (Dobosi 
2002). The medial part enabled several repairs of 
the apex without altering the 1:2 ratio between 
the length of the base and that of the active part 
(Turk 2002). The repairs potentially shortened 
some of the points and caused the medial part 
to gradually become one with the base, i.e. the 
hafted part. Points with these characteristics and 
properties only come from a stratified sequence 
in a high enough number at P. z. (ib.). S. and M. 
Brodar (1983, 125) state 84 such points (roughly 
2/3 of the whole collection), while our sample 
includes 65 flat and only 39 spindle-shaped such 
points. The two authors did not distinguish the 
spindle-shaped points, which are certainly a special 
feature of P. z., from the widely used flat points. 
The proposed complementary definition of the 
Potočka zijalka type point is consistent with the 
definition of the ideal Potočka zijalka type point 
according to S. and M. Brodar (1983, 128) and 
with the last comprehensive description that M. 
Brodar offered for the points from P. z. (2009, 
274f, Pls. 20–22) accompanied by illustrations that 
21
  Only rare split-based and triangular points have 
sharp edges (see Leroy-Prost 1975).
Fig. 12.5: Relationship between the width and thickness 
of the flat and spindle-shaped points from P. z. (total n 
= 104; partial n = 65 – flat, 39 – spindle-shaped). Some 
of the points with outlying measures are marked with 
inventory numbers.
Sl. 12.5: Odnos med širino in debelino ploščatih in vrete-
nastih konic iz P . z. (skupni n = 104; delni n = 65 – ploščate, 
39 – vretenaste). Številke označujejo nekatere konice s 
skrajnimi merami.

53 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
present almost exclusively spindle-shaped points. 
It is a variant of massive-based points advanced in 
design and technique that is numerically superior 
to any other Aurignacian site.
22
 For that reason, P . 
z. can justifiably be determined as their type site.
The numerous flat points with a spear-shaped 
face and a massive, either rounded or pointed base 
in the P. z. sample could be, broadly speaking, of 
the Mladeč type (Fig. 3.1: 53); a single point (No. 
56) corresponds best with to this type (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983, Pl. 13). The Mladeč type cannot be 
equated with the Potočka zijalka type according to 
the definition proposed above (also see Horusitzky 
2008; Doyon 2017; 2019). M. Brodar’ s claim (1985a; 
1985b) that the P . z. sample consists of a single type 
of points was based on a deficient methodology. 
His proposition to replace the name Mladeč point 
with that of Potočka zijalka point is not valid for 
the widely used flat points with a lance-shaped face 
and blunt edges sometimes bearing cuts. The large 
point from the eponymous Mladeč site is likely a 
monotype and as such a poor choice for the name 
of the osseous points of a certain shape (T urk 2002; 
M. Brodar 2009, 335; Horusitzky 2008). There is 
a similar problem in naming the Mokriška type 
point after M. Brodar (1985a; 1985b), which is 
characteristically flattened and stands apart from 
the points of the P . z. sample in greater width and 
lesser thickness.
13. CONCLUSIONS
The statistical analysis of the stratified sample of 
Aurignacian points from P . z. has revealed several 
previously less known characteristics related to 
typology, evolutionary trends and technology. It 
has confirmed, in a methodologically more suitable 
manner, what has already been known on their 
measures and provided additional evidence in 
support of a special type of osseous points named 
the Potočka zijalka point. 
The comparison of our results with those of 
other authors who used different analytical ap-
proaches has shown that there are more questions 
22
  Knecht (2000) only states 30 spindle-shaped points 
from French sites in comparison with 101 lozenge-shaped 
ones. If the ratio between the former and the latter (1: 3,4), 
by disregarding triangular points, is compared with the 
ratio between the spindle-shaped and flat points from P . z. 
(1: 1,7), P . z. is revealed as the site with by far the highest 
number of recovered spindle-shaped points.
pertaining to the points from P. z. than there are 
convincingly argued answers. The same questions 
can have different answers, depending on how we 
tackle them. In this contribution, we have tackled 
the questions of manufacture, use and maintenance 
of points in a manner not employed before and 
established the following.
The spindle-shaped points thickest roughly 
at one third of their length are a special type of 
points for which M. Brodar suggested the name 
the Potočka zijalka point. He did, however, ascribe 
all the points from P. z. to this type.
The different sizes of points are the result of 
repairs to damaged pieces. Points thus became 
smaller and less useful at least for hunting large 
animals. The frequent finds of large game remains 
at Aurignacian sites and individual examples of 
200–250 mm long points show that there may have 
been many more such weapons in use than what 
survives today. The cause of the surviving small 
numbers may lie in the repairs and the fact that 
such long points were more valuable than others 
and were cared for accordingly. It was not possible 
to obtain blanks longer than 230 mm from cave 
bear bones. It has not yet been explained how they 
obtained such long blanks. Their manufacture must 
have been quite challenging, particularly if made of 
bone. Some of the thick medium-sized points may 
have originally been very long points that broke 
off at the apex and at the shaft-point junction. The 
base was then discarded as unusable (Figs. 3.4 and 
3.5), while the distal part was given a new base and 
re-sharpened, thus made into a medium-sized point 
(Fig. 10.7: 66). There is no compelling evidence of 
manufacture and repair at the site. This poses the 
question of why the people visiting P . z. left behind 
the differently damaged points together with the 
more or less complete ones.
It is generally accepted that the points of bone 
and antler, similarly as the lithic points, were 
hafted onto shafts and used for hunting as lances 
and javelins. Because of the differences in the 
properties of the different materials and conse-
quently different shapes, effects, possibilities of 
repair and lifespan, they could have been used in 
a complementary fashion. It would therefore be 
useful to aim future research at comparatively and 
functionally analysing the length of the points from 
bone and antler, as well as lithic points and the 
remains of hunting prey with regards to the size 
of animals at individual sites, with the intention 
of explaining the unusually great variability of the 

54 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
lengths of antler and bone points. The suitably long 
osseous points could penetrate internal organs 
and kill or at least paralyse the prey. This was not 
possible with stone points; a mortally wounded 
animal could run away before dying and had to 
be tracked down. Hence osseous points represent 
advancement in hunting weapons. They did need 
to be long enough to achieve this. We should take 
into account all other advantages and drawbacks 
of osseous versus lithic points. Lithic points were 
manufactured quicker, but also got damaged beyond 
repair quicker. It was more difficult to securely haft 
them. Hafting required more work in comparison 
with some of the osseous points that were simply 
pushed into the soft pith of elder sticks. Because 
the manufacture of osseous points required con-
siderably more effort and time compared with the 
lithic ones, it also makes sense that osseous points 
would be repaired, particularly as their size and 
shape allowed it.
S. and M. Brodar (1983), as well as later au-
thors observed differences in the condition of the 
points from different areas of the P. z. cave and 
connected them to the differences in the use of 
space and types of activities taking place there. 
In spite of the many recovered fragments, only 
two could be joined into a complete point (Nos. 
86 and 125) (Fig. 3.4). There are also significant 
and previously undetected differences between the 
points from the entrance and the back of the cave 
in their size, more precisely the length of the distal 
part. The dark back of the cave yielded all size 
classes of points in fairly even numbers regardless 
of type, though medium-sized points predominate. 
In contrast, the entrance area shows a distinctly 
uneven distribution of point sizes, with large 
points twice as numerous as medium-sized ones 
and only a handful of small points. The situation 
at the back may be the result of intentional storage 
of unused points and distal fragments intended to 
be reworked into medium-sized points. Certain as 
yet unexplained metric differences between the two 
areas were also established for the spindle-shaped 
and even more so the flat points.
The analysis of the stratigraphic position only 
provided results as expected in terms of techno-
logical advancement in a limited measure. It is a 
question that even S. and M. Brodar (1983) before 
us left unanswered. The reason may lie in a poor 
temporal resolution between the points from in-
dividual layers, particularly those from the back. 
The low numbers of points in some of the layers, 
which are far below the minimum required units 
for a statistical analysis, may also seriously blur the 
results. We would need more points from clearly 
distinguishable layers or Palaeolithic levels. The 
analysis has shown that a larger sample could 
offer results that make sense in terms of point 
evolution. Evolution took place through technical 
improvements that eventually led to an optimal 
rod-shaped point, such as No. 92. In the course 
of the Upper Palaeolithic, they probably arrived at 
this shape via a coincidental shape of points, such 
as No. 105, that performed better in all aspects 
compared with other points in regular use at the 
time. It would naturally have taken time for the 
new shape to replace the old ones. 
The frequent cuts on the edges of points and 
the rare incisions on their faces are considered 
a feature particular to the points from P. z., but 
do occur, albeit rarely, on the points from other 
Aurignacian sites. At P . z., they are present on just 
over one third of all points, which is much more 
than at any other site. Cuts can be found on both 
spindle-shaped and flat points of all sizes, least on 
small and most on spindle-shaped points. They are 
most common on the strongest and most durable, 
flat points. Of all the different interpretations of 
cuts, we tend towards the opinion that the hunter 
made them to symbolically mark those points that 
proved most reliable during hunting regardless of 
their type. It may not be a coincidence that none 
are to be found on complete, unused or insuffi-
ciently tested points with the exception of No. 65. 
The incisions on the faces have been commonly 
interpreted as decoration, but may also have had a 
symbolic significance as indicated by those found 
on the surface of the medullary cavity that can have 
no practical value in terms of point manufacture 
(Fig. 2.1). The rare decorative (?) features related 
to cuts and incisions are always located on the left 
edge and on the medullar side of the bone cortex. 
The results of the statistical analysis show cuts to 
be an important and as yet poorly studied feature 
of the osseous points from P. z.
The points from the sites that yielded compa-
rable numbers of points than P. z. survive in a 
much poorer condition. This is particularly true 
of the points from Istállóskő, which we personally 
examined and also drew. Based on the publications, 
the impression is that the points from comparable 
French sites show a less elaborate manufacture in 
comparison with the points from P . z., though we 
lack the data to perform a comparative analysis 
and objectively evaluate their condition and the 
elaboration of manufacture. 

55 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
The damage on the points from P . z. can tell us 
something of their use. We were able to exclude 
post-sedimentary processes as the cause of the 
damage. It is difficult to explain a repeating break-
age pattern on the same spot of the point using 
post-sedimentary damage and only two of the 
multitude of fragments that belong to the same 
point. An additional difficulty is the distribution 
of the point fragments in the two areas of the 
cave. This led scholars to interpret the basal and 
distal fragments in relation to different activities 
in different areas, the repairs of lances or javelins 
and primarily storage of damaged, but repairable 
points (Brodar, Brodar 1983; Verpoorte 2012). 
The types of damage show that large points were 
subjected to greater stress than the medium-sized 
or small points. Because of greater leverage, it is 
mainly they that broke at the shaft-point junction, 
resulting in basal and distal fragments. When the 
shaft was strong enough, it was the flat points that 
broke more often at the point-shaft junction than 
spindle-shaped ones; in the case of the latter it is 
the shaft that broke more often than the points. 
The large and small points were used in the 
same manner, either as projectiles such as javelins 
or arrows or as thrusting weapons such as lances. 
Projectile use mainly pertains to spindle-shaped 
points. Some of the medium-sized spindle-shaped 
points were shaped so as to be readily and effec-
tively hafted into the soft pith of an elder stick 
that served as a highly durable shaft to light lances 
and javelins, or as the foreshaft of arrowheads, i.e. 
small points. The use of elder would also enable 
quick and easy replacement of a damaged point. 
The large flat points may also have been used as 
lanceheads. Learning from the damage that the 
points sustained during hunting enabled the hunt-
ers to gradually come to the technically elaborate 
Potočka zijalka type point. 
The division between split- and massive-based 
points has been generally accepted. All but one of 
the points from P . z. are massive-based. The shape 
of the basal face is more or less the same on both 
types. A massive base reduced the base’s sensitivity 
to stress and in certain cases enabled simple and 
effective hafting in the soft pith of an elder shaft. 
The points were strengthened at the shaft-point 
junction in a way that least affected the penetrative 
force of their active part, which was achieved by 
thickening that increased the strength twice more 
than widening. This is why the older flat contours of 
wide points were then joined by the spindle-shaped 
contours of narrow points and the basal split, a weak 
spot, was abandoned. The split- and massive-based 
points only differ in the hafting manner and how 
they were strengthened at the shaft-point junction, 
by either widening or thickening.
What remains unexplained is the origin and 
significance of the rounded or pointed bases on the 
two basic types of points (Doyon 2019). In these 
shapes of bases, the force from point to shaft acts 
more or less pointwise. In hafting spindle-shaped 
points with a massive base, which could not be 
hafted into an elder shaft because of their width, the 
rounded or pointed base was more a problem than 
a benefit, as it increased the possibility of lateral 
movement together with the convexity of the base.
The statistical analysis of the points from P. z. 
clearly shows that there are multiple and more or 
less convincing answers to the frequently posed 
questions. We believe that one-way solutions not 
accompanied by in-depth and comprehensive 
analyses of the finds are not well thought through 
(see Odar 2011 and archery). W e also do not agree 
with overly complex statistical analyses that do 
not provide simple, transparent and meaningful 
results with regards to the hafting manner and 
mechanical properties (see Doyon 2017; 2019 and 
his morphotypes determined on the basis of the 
shape of the base on the massive-based points, 
some of which include both flat and spindle-
shaped points from P. z. that required different 
hafting methods and have different mechanical 
properties – App. 3). Hypotheses that cannot be 
verified either experimentally or analytically are 
inappropriate (see Odar 2015 and the sanctuary 
of Palaeolithic hunters).
The results of our analyses and their interpretation 
largely depend on carefully selected and arbitrarily 
determined factors representing qualitative traits 
such as size, shape, degree of bone cortex trans-
formation, type of damage and others. This leaves 
open possibilities for further studies based on dif-
ferently determined factors. The contribution also 
does not discuss all the possibilities that statistical 
programmes have to offer. The analyses that were 
performed could be repeated on standardised 
samples of points (see Turk 2002; 2005; Brodar 
2003). It would also be useful to use the method of 
multidimensional scaling (see Turk 2014). A good 
knowledge of the properties of the P. z. sample, a 
respect for the scientific standards and ethics that 
dictate comprehensive publications of all informa-
tion relating to a research are prerequisites for the 
confidence in the accuracy of an archaeological 
interpretation, but not also its correctness. 

56 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
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Acknowledgements
W e would like to thank Darja Pirkmajer, Maja Bausovac 
and Nina Sovdat, curators at the Pokrajinski muzej Celje 
(Celje Regional Museum), for allowing us to examine the 
osseous points in their collection, Peter Turk from the 
Narodni muzej Slovenije (National Museum of Slovenia) 
for showing us the adult cave bear femora from Divje 
babe I and Zoltán F. Horusitzky for constructive advice.
Translation: Andreja Maver

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58 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
V jami Potočki zijalki (1650 m) (odslej P. z.) 
je bilo pri izkopavanjih v letih 1926–1928 (M. 
Brodar 1994), 1928–1935 (Brodar, Brodar 1983) in 
1997–2000 (M. Brodar 2000; Pacher, Pohar, Rabeder 
2004) ter reviziji manjšega dela deponije S. Bro-
darja leta 2012 (Odar 2014) najdenih največ dobro 
ohranjenih, predvsem koščenih konic z masivno 
bazo (Brodar, Brodar 1983; Pacher 2010; Doyon 
2017) iz obdobja orinjasjena v Evropi. Glavnina, 
127 konic (vse, razen ene, imajo masivno bazo), je 
prišla na dan med izkopavanji Srečka Brodarja v 
letih 1928–1935. Primerljivo število precej slabše 
ohranjenih konic orinjasjenske starosti z masivno 
ali razcepljeno bazo, skoraj izključno iz rogovja 
jelenjadi, imajo samo naslednja najdišča: Istállóskő 
na Madžarskem (Dobosi 2002) ter Abri Blanchard 
des Roches, La Ferrassie in Abri Castanet v Franciji 
(Leroy-Prost 1979; Doyon 2017).
Zbirko P . z., ki trenutno šteje 135 konic, je naj-
temeljiteje sistematično obdelal Mitja Brodar na 
podlagi opisne metode (Brodar, Brodar 1983; M. 
Brodar 1985a; 1985b; 2009). Iz različnih pogledov 
so jo obravnavali in navajali tudi številni drugi 
avtorji (Bayer 1929; Albrecht, Hahn, Torke 1972; 
Hahn 1988; Turk 2002; 2005; 2014; Horusitzky 
2006; Odar 2008; 2011; Pacher 2010; Verpoorte 
2012; Jéquier 2016; Doyon 2017; 2019). Šest konic 
je bilo doslej direktno datiranih z metodo AMS 
14
C (Rabeder, Pohar 2004; Moreau et al. 2015).
Vzorec konic iz P. z. je zaradi velikega števila 
dobro ohranjenih primerkov, najdenih v dveh 
arheoloških nivojih v dveh delih jame z različni-
mi bivalnimi razmerami (Brodar, Brodar 1983) 
in možnostmi za statistično stratifikacijo, nadvse 
primeren za celovito statistično obdelavo. Zato sva 
se avtorja pričujočega članka odločila nadaljevati 
začeto analitsko delo drugega avtorja (Turk 2002; 
2005; 2014) in celoten vzorec sistematično proučiti 
in razložiti z uporabo standardnih opisnih in ana-
litskih statistik, kamor sodi tudi analiza variance 
(ANOV A). Pri tem je treba poudariti, da nihče od 
naštetih avtorjev ni vsestransko statistično anali-
ziral vseh konic P. z. in da je analitsko statistiko 
za Ivanom Turkom (2002; 2005; 2014) uporabil 
samo še Luc Doyon (2017; 2019).
Glavni cilj raziskave je bil odkriti in pojasniti 
značilnosti vzorca konic P. z., ki so povezane z 
izdelavo, uporabo, vzdrževanjem in morebitno 
hrambo konic. Zanimali so naju predvsem dejav-
niki, ki so vplivali na razvoj konic kot lovskega 
Orinjasjenske koščene konice iz Potočke zijalke.
Razlaga novih rezultatov morfometrične
statistične analize
Povzetek
Članek posvečava spominu na Srečka in Mitjo Brodarja,
ki sta nam zapustila dragoceno zbirko paleolitskih najdb iz Potočke zijalke.
/ V: B. Toškan (ed. / ur.), Drobci ledenodobnega okolja 
/ Fragments of Ice Age environments, Opera Instituti 
Archaeologici Sloveniae 21, 209–217.
VERPOORTE, A. 2012, Caching and retooling in Potočka 
zijalka (Slovenia). Implications for Late Aurignacian 
land use strategies. – Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 
42/2, 135–151.
VÉRTES, L. 1955, Neuere Ausgrabungen und paläolithische 
Funde in der Höhle von Istállóskő. − Acta Archaeologica 
Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 5, 113–131.
WITHALM, G. 2004, New evidence for cave bear hunting 
from Potočka zijalka (Slovenia). – In / V: M. Pacher, 
V. Pohar, G. Rabeder (eds. / ur.), Potočka zijalka. 
Palaeontological and archaeological results of the cam-
paigns 1997–2000, Mitteillungen der Kommission für 
Quartärforschung der Österreichischen Akademie der 
Wissenschaften 13, 219–234.
WOLF  et al. 2016 = Wolf, S., S. C. Münzel, K. Dotzel, M. 
M. Barth, N. J. Conard 2016, Projectile Weaponry from 
the Aurignacian to the Gravettian of the Swabian Jura 
(Southwest Germany): Raw Materials, Manufacturing 
and Typology. – In / V: M. C. Langley (ed. / ur.), Os-
seous Projectile Weaponry. Towards an Understanding 
of Pleistocene Cultural Variability, 71–87, Dordrecht, 
New York.

59 Orinjasjenske koščene konice iz Potočke zijalke (Slovenija). Razlaga novih rezultatov ...
orožja, ki se je uporabljalo v obdobju več tisoč 
let trajajočega orinjasjena. Pri tem naj bi ključno 
vlogo odigrali trdnost (zanesljivost) in prebojnost 
(učinkovitost) konic, kot splošno priznani lastnosti 
(Doyon, Knecht 2014). Oboje je nedvomno tesno 
povezano z obliko, ki je osnova za tipologijo. Za 
učinkovito rabo konic je poleg oblike pomembna 
še velikost, ki mora biti prilagojena velikosti plena, 
pa tudi napadalni ali obrambni vlogi.
Številni primerljivi terminalni in bazalni odlomki 
(sl. 3.4 in 3.5) nakazujejo, da so se dobro nasajene 
konice pri obremenitvi rade odlomile ob toporišču 
(Brodar, Brodar 1983; M. Brodar 2009, 340; Horu-
sitzky 2008).
1
 Zato je bilo smiselno ta del ojačati in 
prenesti poškodbo na kopjišče, ki ga je bilo lažje 
popraviti kot konico. To je bilo mogoče doseči s 
širitvijo in/ali odebelitvijo trupa konice. V endar je 
bilo treba pri tem paziti, da se ni preveč zmanjšalo 
prebojnosti terminalnega dela konice. Domnevne, 
bolj ali manj vzporedne, razvojne smernice konic, 
povezane z njihovo uporabo, so bile zato sledeče:
– 1. Konice so se debelile in ožile ter tako postale 
hkrati trdnejše in prebojnejše.
– 2. Konice so se širile in tanjšale ter tako postale 
hkrati prebojnejše in manj trdne.
– 3. Konice so se širile in debelile ter tako po-
stale trdnejše, vendar manj prebojne.
Za vse najdbe konic z raznih najdišč je značil-
no, da so konice bolj ali manj poškodovane. Za 
statistično analizo je bilo zato treba rekonstruirati 
osnovne dolžinske mere: prvotno dolžino konice, 
njenega nasajenega dela (baze) in aktivnega (ter-
minalnega) dela (pril. 2; sl. 5.1). Oba dela lahko 
vključujeta medialni del, če ga konica ima. Medialni 
del je objektivno težko razmejiti od bazalnega in 
terminalnega dela. Z njim se je posebej ukvarjal I. 
T urk (2002). Baza, kot ključni analitski podatek, je 
bila arbitrarno določena tako, da je predstavljala 
1/3 celotne dolžine konice, kar pomeni optimalno 
nasaditev osti projektila ali orodja v kopjišče (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983). Podlaga za takšno določitev baze so:
– 1. Vrezi na robovih ter na sprednji in hrbtni 
strani terminalnega dela konic, ki jih je praviloma 
najti samo na dveh tretjinah razdalje od apeksa, 
medtem ko jih na bazi ni (sl. 2.1).
– 2. Bazalni odlomki, ki so praviloma brez 
vrezov (sl. 3.4).
– 3. Terminalni odlomki z vrezi po njihovi 
celotni dolžini (sl. 2.1: 47; 10.7: 66).
1  Vse številke konic se nanašajo na številke konic, 
objavljenih v monografiji S. in M. Brodarja (1983).
– 4. Predvsem prelomljena konica, sestavljena iz 
bazalnega in terminalnega odlomka (sl. 3.4: 86+125).
Konica št. 86+125 se je na mestu, kjer je štrle-
la iz toporišča, lahko prelomila samo pri naletu 
na trdo oviro. Prelom, kot posledica upogiba v 
sedimentu, ne pride v poštev, zaradi značilne 
poškodbe (odloma) apeksa, ki nastane pri naletu 
kopja v trdo oviro (glej Horusitzky 2008). Poleg 
tega sta bila dela najdena daleč narazen (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983). V opredelitvi baze so med analitiki 
precejšna razhajanja (sl. 2.2). Nekatere opredelitve 
se nama zdijo z vidika uporabnosti konic kot osti 
kopij, sulic ali morda puščic nesmiselne (sl. 2.3).
Konice P. z. se na podlagi oblike stranskega 
profila delijo na ploščate in vretenaste (Horusitzky 
2004; 2006; Turk 2005) (sl. 3.1). Analitski ločeval-
ni kriterij je debelina konice na prehodu baze v 
terminalni del (sl. 12.5). Glede na velikost sva vse 
konice razdelila v tri velikostne razrede (tab. 1). 
Percentila 10 in 90, ki zajemata 80 % vseh dolžin, 
imata pri majhnih konicah razmik 43–65 mm, pri 
srednjih 69–92 mm in pri velikih 97–150 mm.
Statistična analiza stratificiranega vzorca orin-
jasjenskih konic P . z. je razkrila nekatere prej manj 
znane značilnosti vzorca, povezane s tipologijo 
konic, razvojnimi težnjami in tehnologijo. Na me-
todološko ustreznejši način je potrdila že znano o 
merah konic (sl. 4.1) in dodatno utemeljila obstoj 
tipa konice Potočka zijalka po rahlo spremenjenem 
predlogu M. Brodarja (Brodar, Brodar 1983; M. 
Brodar 2009).
Primerjava najinih izsledkov z izsledki drugih 
avtorjev, temelječih na drugačnih analitskih pri-
stopih, je pokazala, da je v zvezi s konicami P. z. 
več vprašanj kot dobro utemeljenih odgovorov. Na 
enaka vprašanja lahko dobimo različne odgovore, 
odvisno od tega, kako jih rešujemo. V prispevku 
sva se vprašanja izdelave, rabe in vzdrževanja konic 
lotila na način, ki doslej še ni bil uporabljen, in 
ugotovila naslednje:
Vretenaste konice (sl. 3.1), ki so najdebelej-
še približno na eni tretjini dolžine, utemeljeno 
predstavljajo poseben tip konice, za katerega je 
M. Brodar predlagal naziv konica Potočka zijalka.
Različne velikosti konic, ki zvezno naraščajo 
(sl. 5.1), so lahko nastale zaradi popravkov po-
škodovanih primerkov. Konice so tako postale vse 
krajše in manj uporabne, vsaj kar zadeva lov na 
veliko divjad. Pogosta prisotnost ostankov velike 
divjadi na orinjasjenskih najdiščih in posamezni 
primerki konic, dolgih 200–250 mm, kažejo, da 
je bilo lahko takšnih konic v uporabi precej več, 
kot se jih je ohranilo. Vzrok za pomanjkljivo arhe-

60 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
ološko evidenco so lahko popravki poškodovanih 
konic (sl. 5.2; 10.7; 12.3) in pa dejstvo, da so bile 
zelo dolge konice dragocenejše od vseh ostalih in 
temu primerno čuvane. Iz medvedjih kosti ni bilo 
mogoče dobiti nastavkov konic, daljših od 230 mm. 
Za to, kako so izdelovalci prišli do tako dolgih 
koščenih nastavkov, obstaja praktična rešitev, ki še 
ni eksperimentalno popolnoma preverjena. Gre za 
izvirno tehniko s pomočjo luknjanja in sredinskega 
vzdolžnega gozdenja namesto predlaganega ceplje-
nja s konca, kot predlagajo Tejero, Christensen in 
Bodu (2012). Izdelava takšnih nastavkov konic je 
pomenila velik izziv, posebno če so bile konice 
izdelane iz kosti, ki se težje vzdolžno cepijo kot 
rogovje. Nekatere debele srednje velike konice so 
lahko nastale iz prvotnih zelo dolgih konic, ki so se 
odlomile apikalno ter na stiku terminalnega dela in 
baze (sl. 10.7: 51). Bazo so kot neuporabno zavrgli 
(sl. 3.4), terminalnemu delu pa so naredili novo 
bazo, ga ošilili in dobili srednje veliko konico (sl. 
5.2: 76; 12.3: 30). Za izdelavo in popravilo konic na 
kraju samem ni prepričljivih dokazov. To zahteva 
odgovor na vprašanje, zakaj so ljudje v P . z. pustili 
različno poškodovane konice skupaj z bolj ali manj 
celimi konicami. Utemeljen odgovor bo težko najti.
Domneva, da so se konice iz kosti in rogovja ob 
kamnitih konicah nasajene uporabljale kot lovsko 
orožje, je splošno sprejeta. Primerno dolge koščene 
konice so lahko prodrle do notranjih organov in 
plen v hipu ubile ali ohromile. S kamnitimi ko-
nicami to ni bilo mogoče. Smrtno ranjena žival 
je lahko zbežala, preden je poginila, in treba jo 
je bilo izslediti. Zato so koščene konice pomenile 
napredek v lovskem orožju. So pa morale biti 
konice v ta namen čim daljše. Upoštevati je treba 
tudi druge prednosti in slabosti prvih in drugih 
konic. Kamnite konice se je dalo hitreje izdelati, 
vendar so se tudi hitreje poškodovale do te mere, 
da se jih ni dalo več popraviti. Bilo jih je tudi 
težje solidno nasaditi. Samo nasajanje je bilo za-
htevnejše kot pri nekaterih koščenih konicah, ki 
se jih je dalo enostavno potisniti v stržen bezgove 
palice. Ker je izdelava koščenih konic zahtevala, 
v primerjavi s kamnitimi, bistveno več truda in 
časa, je bilo smiselno poškodovane koščene koni-
ce popravljati, zlasti ker sta to dopuščali njihova 
velikost in oblika. Popravke nakazuje, poleg naj-
večje debeline konice nad njeno aktualno bazo (sl. 
10.6), predvsem neskladje med maso in velikostjo 
številnih konic (sl. 10.5).
S. in M. Brodar (1983) ter drugotni avtorji (npr. 
Verpoorte 2012) so ugotavljali razlike v ohranje-
nosti konic iz obeh delov jame in jih povezovali z 
različno rabo prostora in različnimi dejavnostmi. 
Kljub številnim najdenim odlomkom konic (Brodar, 
Brodar 1983; Odar 2014) teh, razen v enem primeru 
(št. 86 in 125) (sl. 3.4), ni bilo mogoče sestaviti. 
Značilne, prej nezaznane razlike med lokacijo spre-
daj in zadaj so tudi v zastopanosti konic glede na 
njihovo velikost, natančneje dolžino terminalnega 
dela. V temnem ozadju jame so dokaj enakomerno 
zastopane vse velikosti konic ne glede na tip, pri 
čemer je največ srednje velikih, medtem ko so pri 
vhodu tri velikosti konic izrazito neenakomerno 
zastopane. Največ je velikih konic, polovico manj 
je srednje velikih in samo za vzorec majhnih (sl. 
7.1; tab. 1). Stanje v ozadju jame bi lahko razložila 
z namenskim shranjevanjem še uporabnih konic 
in terminalnih odlomkov, namenjenih predelavi v 
srednje velike konice. Nekaj razlik merske narave 
sva ugotovila med lokacijama tudi pri vretenastih 
konicah in predvsem pri ploščatih. Njihov pomen 
ni znan.
Analiza stratigrafske lege konic je dala pričako-
vane rezultate v smislu tehnoloških izboljšav samo 
v omejenem obsegu. Nad njo sta obupala že S. in 
M. Brodar (1983). Vzrok je lahko slaba časovna 
ločljivost med konicami iz posameznih geoloških 
plasti, kar še posebno velja za konice iz ozadja 
jame. Resno motnjo lahko pomeni tudi skromna 
zastopanost konic v posameznih stratumih vzorca, 
ki je daleč pod zahtevanim minimumom enot. Za 
boljše rezultate bi potrebovali več konic v različ-
nih geoloških plasteh ali paleolitskih horizontih, 
ki bi bili časovno dobro ločeni. Najina analiza je 
pokazala, da bi bilo pri večjem vzorcu mogoče 
dobiti razvojno smiselne rezultate. Razvoj pome-
nijo tehnične izboljšave, ki so na koncu privedle 
do vsestransko optimalne paličaste oblike konice, 
kakršna je št. 92 (Brodar, Brodar 1983; t. 10: 92). 
Do nje so v mlajšem paleolitiku verjetno prišli na 
podlagi naključne oblike konice, kakršna je npr. 
št. 105, ki se je v vseh pogledih obnesla bolje od 
takratnih splošno rabljenih konic. Seveda je trajalo, 
da je nova oblika izpodrinila staro.
Pogoste, komaj vidne zareze na robovih konic 
in redki urezi na licih veljajo za nekakšno po-
sebnost konic P. z. (Brodar, Brodar 1983), čeprav 
oboji izjemoma nastopajo tudi na drugih mlajše-
paleolitskih najdiščih s konicami. Ima jih dobra 
tretjina konic, kar je resnično veliko v primerjavi 
z drugimi najdišči. Zareze imajo tako vretenaste 
kot ploščate konice vseh velikosti, pri čemer jih je 
na majhnih konicah le za vzorec (sl. 9.2). Največ 
jih je na vretenastih konicah, ki jih enačimo s 
tipom konice Potočka zijalka. Značilne so pred-

61 Orinjasjenske koščene konice iz Potočke zijalke (Slovenija). Razlaga novih rezultatov ...
vsem za najbolj trdne in trpežne konice, kot je 
razvidno na ploščatih konicah (sl. 9.4b,c). Zato se 
med različnimi razlagami, ki se tičejo vloge zarez, 
nagibava k mnenju, da je lovec z njimi simbolno 
zaznamoval tiste konice, ki so se pri lovu izkazale 
kot najbolj zanesljive (najmanj lomljive), ne glede 
na tip konice. Morda ni naključje, da jih na celih, 
še neuporabljenih ali še nezadostno preizkušenih 
konicah ni, razen na konici št. 65. Urezi na licih 
konic so imeli poleg večkrat poudarjene okrasne 
vloge lahko tudi simbolni pomen. To kažejo urezi 
na ploskvi medularnega kanala, ki so brez vsake 
praktične vrednosti, kar se tiče izdelave konic (glej 
sl. 2.1). Redke posebnosti, povezane z zarezami in 
urezi, so vedno na levem robu in na medularni 
strani kostne lupine. Leva je srčna stran in me-
dularna stran, ki je le redko umetno popolnoma 
spremenjena, je življenjsko pomembnejša, kot 
zunanja stran kostne lupine. Izsledki statistične 
analize kažejo, da so zareze pomemben, trenutno 
slabo proučen element za razumevanje vzorca 
koščenih konic P. z.
Poškodbe konic P . z. nam lahko povedo, kako so 
se konice uporabljale. Ker nama je v danem primeru 
uspelo izključiti možnost nastanka posedimentnih 
poškodb, sva lahko na podlagi analize poškodb 
naredila nekaj novih sklepov o rabi konic v jami 
in njeni soseščini. Velike konice so bile izpostavl-
jene večjim obremenitvam kot srednje velike in 
majhne. Zaradi večjega vzvoda so se pri izhodu iz 
toporišča lomile predvsem velike konice. Nastali 
so bazalni in terminalni odlomki (sl. 3.4 in 3.5). 
Če je bilo kopjišče trdno, so se ploščate konice 
lomile bolj kot vretenaste, pri katerih se je bolj 
kot konica lomilo kopjišče. Ponavljajoči se vzorec 
preloma na določenem mestu na konici si težko 
razložimo s posedimentnim dogajanjem in z eno 
samo sestavljenko vseh odlomkov. Dodatna težava je 
porazdelitev različnih delov konic po plasteh v dveh 
predelih jame (sl. 11.2). Zato se je poskušalo bazalne 
in terminalne odlomke razložiti tudi v povezavi z 
različnimi dejavnostmi na različnih lokacijah in 
popravili osti kopij ali sulic ter predvsem hrambo 
poškodovanih konic, ki se jih je dalo še popraviti 
(Brodar, Brodar 1983; Verpoorte 2012).
V elike in majhne konice so se uporabljale enako. 
Po eni od možnosti kot izstrelki (kopja, puščice), kar 
pride v poštev predvsem pri vretenastih konicah. 
Nekatere izmed srednje velikih so bile dimenzioni-
rane tako, da so se dale enostavno in učinkovito 
nasaditi v stržen bezgove palice, ki je služila kot 
izjemno trpežno kopjišče lahkih kopij in sulic ali kot 
vmesnik puščic (Odar 2011), beri majhnih konic. 
Vse posebej označene konice v prilogi 2, ki so ožje 
in tanjše od 12 mm, se je dalo brez težav nasaditi 
v stržen bezgove palice. Domnevna uporaba bezga 
je omogočala tudi enostavno in hitro zamenjavo 
poškodovane konice z rezervno. Velike ploščate 
konice so se lahko uporabljale tudi kot sulične osti. 
Poškodbe, ki so nastale pri lovski rabi konic, so 
izdelovalcem pomagale odpraviti njihove tehnične 
pomanjkljivosti in izdelati tehnično izpopolnjen 
tip konice Potočka zijalka.
Konice se splošno sprejeto delijo na konice z 
razcepljeno in masivno bazo. Slednjim pripadajo 
vse konice P . z., razen ene. Oblika lica baze je bolj 
ali manj enaka pri konicah z razcepljeno in masivno 
bazo. Masivna baza je zmanjšala občutljivost baze 
za obremenitev in v določenih primerih omogočila 
enostavno in trdno nasaditev v stržen bezgove palice. 
Konica je bila ojačana na izhodu iz toporišča, na 
način, ki je najmanj prizadel prebojnost njenega 
aktivnega dela. To je bilo doseženo z odebelitvijo 
tega mesta, ki bolj kot širitev povečuje trdnost ko-
nice. Tako so se poleg prvotnih ploščatih profilov 
širokih konic pojavili vretenasti profili ozkih konic. 
Razcep baze, ki je pomenil šibko točko, je bil po-
stopno opuščen. Konice z razcepljeno in masivno 
bazo se razlikujejo samo v načinu nasaditve in v 
tem, kako so bile ojačane na izhodu iz toporišča: 
z razširitvijo ali z odebelitvijo.
Statistična analiza vzorca konic P . z. je nazorno 
pokazala, da je na že večkrat postavljena vprašanja 
možnih več bolj ali manj utemeljenih odgovorov. 
Ponujene enoznačne rešitve ključnih vprašanj, 
brez poglobljene vsestranske analize gradiva in iz 
tega izhajajoče sinteze, zavračava kot preuranjene 
(glej Odar 2011 in lokostrelstvo). Zavračava tudi 
preveč zapletene statistične analize, ki ne dajo 
enostavnih, preglednih in smiselnih rezultatov, 
povezanih z nasaditvijo konic (glej Doyon 2017; 
2019 in morfotipe, določene na podlagi oblike 
masivne baze konic, kjer posamezne morfotipe 
nedopustno predstavljajo tako ploščate kot vrete-
naste konice P. z., ki so zahtevale različen način 
nasaditve – pril. 3). Neprimerne so domneve, ki 
se jih ne da eksperimentalno ali analitsko preveriti 
(glej Odar 2015 in svetišče paleolitskih lovcev).
Izsledki tu predstavljene analize in njihova raz-
laga so odvisni predvsem od slučajno izbranih in 
arbitrarno opredeljenih faktorjev, ki predstavlja-
jo kakovostne oznake konic, kot so velikost, tip, 
stopnja preoblikovanja kostne lupine oziroma 
nastavka, vrsta poškodbe ipd. (glej pril. 2). To 
pušča odprte možnosti za nadaljnje raziskave na 
podlagi drugače opredeljenih faktorjev. V prispevku 

62 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (P6-0283 and P6-0064). We also 
thank ZRC SAZU Institute of Archaeology for part-financing the research from its current assets.
Doseženi raziskovalni rezultati so nastali s podporo raziskovalnega programa P6-0283 in P6-0064, ki ju sofinancira 
Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz državnega proračuna. Zahvaljujeva se tudi ZRC SAZU 
Inštitutu za arheologijo, ki je raziskavo delno finančno podprl iz tekočih sredstev.
tudi nisva izčrpala vsega, kar ponujajo statistični 
programi. Zato se bo dalo še marsikaj postoriti. 
Prikazano v tem prispevku bi se splačalo pono-
viti na standardiziranih vzorcih konic (glej Turk 
2002; 2005; M. Brodar 2003). Dobrodošla bi bila 
tudi metoda večdimenzionalnega skaliranja (glej 
Turk 2014). Dobro poznavanje lastnosti vzorca 
konic P. z., upoštevanje znanstvenih standardov 
in etike, ki narekuje pregledno objavo vseh z ra-
ziskavo povezanih podatkov, sta temeljna pogoja 
za zaupanje v točnost arheološke razlage, ne pa 
tudi za pravilnost razlage.
Zahvale
Avtorja se za ogled konic iz Potočke zijalke zahvaljujeva 
kustosinji Darji Pirkmajer, Maji Bausovac in Nini Sovdat 
iz Pokrajinskega muzeja Celje, kustosu Petru Turku iz 
Narodnega muzeja Slovenije, Ljubljana, za ogled femurjev 
jamskega medveda iz Divjih bab I ter Zoltánu F . Horusitz-
kemu za konstruktivne nasvete. 
Matija Turk
Narodni muzej Slovenije
Prešernova 20
SI-1000 Ljubljana
and/in
Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU
Inštitut za arheologijo
Novi trg 2
SI-1000 Ljubljana
matija.turk@zrc-sazu.si
Ivan Turk
ivan.turk.46@gmail.com

63 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
F.
Preserved
length
(mm)
F.
Width
(mm)
F.
Thickness
(mm)
F.
Complete
length
(mm)
F.
Width
(mm)
F.
Thickness
(mm)
P . z.
Complete
length
(mm)
P . z.
Width
(mm)
P . z.
Thickness
(mm)
. 98.5 9.7 6.5 98.5 9.7 6.5 102 15.0 9.0
. 100.9 12.1 8 122.4 9.1 7.7 109 15.5 8.5
. 92.5 11.9 8.1 106.3 23.8 9.7 174 22.0 7.0
. 122.4 9.1 7.7 68.5 9.3 5.2 135 14.5 9.0
. 89.3 7.3 4.1 94.4 9 6.7 99 13.5 9.0
. 36.8 6.3 2.9 98.2 9.3 4.8 80 8.7 4.0
. 106.3 23.8 9.7 118.1 14.8 7.2 112 14.5 7.0
. 139.5 25.7 6.5 153.1 9.8 4.6 113 17.8 9.9
. 145.5 24.7 9.2 106.7 14.4 6.6 86 10.0 6.0
. 71.5 8.1 7.9 132.7 15.7 7.9      
. 63.6 8.4 5.4 130.7 20.9 7.4      
. 68.5 9.3 5.2 95 15.2 7.7      
. 94.4 9 6.7 64.6 10.3 5.6      
. 60.6 10.3 6.3 147.1 17.2 8.9      
. 116.8 20.7 10 95.1 9.7 6.6      
. 147.9 16.5 8.3 146.5 15.9 7.9      
. 98.2 9.3 4.8 121.3 10.3 7.6      
. 91.5 16 7.3 182.1 15.9 6.3      
. 72.4 6.5 5.7 163.7 19.3 6.4      
. 137.2 18.3 9 178.4 17 10.5      
. 178.6 32.6 8.4 169 15.6 7.4      
. 122 26 10.7            
. 145.4 25 7.9            
. 148.3 22.9 10.3            
. 89.4 15.7 7.7            
. 77.8 7.4 4.5            
. 70.6 10.2 6.8            
. 67.4 7.4 5            
. 49.6 10.1 3.8            
. 81.7 9.2 5.2            
. 118.5 9 4.4            
. 82.3 7.1 5.7            
. 115.1 14.6 8.4            
. 117.3 13.8 6.8            
. 125.1 14.1 8.4            
. 118.1 14.8 7.2            
. 62.1 10.6 6.6            
App. 1: Basic measures and descriptive statistics for the massive-based points from La Ferrassie (F.) including complete 
examples (Doyon 2017, Annexe 2) and for the complete points from Potočka zijalka (P. z.).
Pril. 1: Osnovne mere in opisne statistike konic z masivno bazo z najdišča La Ferrassie (F.), vključno s celimi (Doyon 
2017, Annexe 2) in celih konic iz Potočke zijalke (P. z.).

64 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
F.
Preserved
length
(mm)
F.
Width
(mm)
F.
Thickness
(mm)
F.
Complete
length
(mm)
F.
Width
(mm)
F.
Thickness
(mm)
P . z.
Complete
length
(mm)
P . z.
Width
(mm)
P . z.
Thickness
(mm)
. 153.1 9.8 4.6            
. 199 22.5 9.3            
. 106.7 14.4 6.6            
. 93.1 19.3 7.4            
. 132.7 15.7 7.9            
. 112.3 18.3 6.1            
. 136 23 10.8            
. 147.1 22.3 11.4            
. 132 21.4 7.2            
. 92.3 15.7 5.6            
. 180.2 25.8 9.8            
. 84.1 15.8 7.4            
. 90.6 17.1 9.3            
. 193.6 23.5 8.5            
. 123.9 20.6 8.7            
. 153.4 29.8 11.3            
. 129.4 27.1 7.9            
. 120.2 17 8.9            
. 106.9 20.3 9.3            
. 130.7 20.9 7.4            
. 129.2 25.9 10            
. 141.4 21.5 11.4            
. 157.7 26.6 10.7            
. 160.9 21.6 8.9            
. 95 15.2 7.7            
. 88.7 19.9 9            
. 92.2 18.9 7.8            
. 64.6 10.3 5.6            
. 71.4 21.4 10            
. 75.4 18.3 9            
. 130.1 25.3 9.2            
. 138 18.7 7.8            
. 124.5 23.3 8.9            
. 108.4 11.6 8.1            
. 86.3 9.7 7.7            
. 147.1 17.2 8.9            
. 95.1 9.7 6.6            
. 146.5 15.9 7.9            
. 83.9 11.3 9.3            
. 121.3 10.3 7.6            
. 182.1 15.9 6.3            

65 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
F.
Preserved
length
(mm)
F.
Width
(mm)
F.
Thickness
(mm)
F.
Complete
length
(mm)
F.
Width
(mm)
F.
Thickness
(mm)
P . z.
Complete
length
(mm)
P . z.
Width
(mm)
P . z.
Thickness
(mm)
. 163.7 19.3 6.4            
. 178.4 17 10.5            
. 111.3 15.9 6.5            
. 169 15.6 7.4            
. 103.2 18.5 11.3            
. 175.8 23.1 9            
Statistics                  
MEAN 115.3 16.6 7.8 123.4 13.9 7.1 112.1 14.6 7.7
MEDIAN 116.0 16.0 7.9 121.3 14.8 7.2 109.0 14.5 8.5
SD 35.8 6.3 1.9 34.0 4.4 1.5 28.1 3.9 1.9
V ALID_N 84 84 84 21 21 21 9 9 9
MIN 36.8 6.3 2.9 64.6 9.0 4.6 80.0 8.7 4.0
MAX 199.0 32.6 11.4 182.1 23.8 10.5 174.0 22.0 9.9
_25
th
% 89.4 10.3 6.5 98.2 9.7 6.4 99.0 13.5 7.0
_75
th
% 140.5 21.5 9.0 147.1 15.9 7.7 113.0 15.5 9.0
.                  
SW-W test 
(p)
0.087 0.054 0.263 0.455 0.072 0 0.072 0.274 0.014

66 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inv.
No. 
Preserved 
length
(mm)
Reconstructed 
total length
(mm)
Reconstruction
(%)
Reconstructed 
distal length
(mm)
Reconstructed 
basal length
(mm)
Width
(mm)
Thickness
(mm)
Mass
(g)
Section
(mm
2
)
2 154 163 6 109 54 18.5 8.0 19.2 148
3 147 189 22 126 63 20.0 11.0 33.3 220
4 142 160 11 107 53 18.0 9.0 23.5 162
5 135 140 4 93 47 16.4 10.5 21.6 172
6 115 124 7 83 41 17.5 11.0 19.0 193
7 114 140 19 93 47 14.0 9.0 13.7 126
8 110 187 41 125 62 17.8 9.0 16.5 160
9 108 165 35 110 55 19.0 8.1 16.9 154
10 102 102 0 68 34 15.0 9.0 12.1 135
11 98 110 11 73 37 11.0 8.2 9.6 90
12 97 120 19 80 40 20.0 8.5 18.7 170
13 97 150 35 100 50 14.5 8.6 9.0 125
14 93 95 2 63 32 14.0 7.0 8.5 98
15 91 97 6 65 32 11.0 6.0 5.8 66
16 88 135 35 90 45 15.2 5.1 6.4 78
17 87 150 42 100 50 22.0 6.0 12.3 132
18 87 122 29 81 41 13.0 8.0 9.1 104
19 85 90 6 60 30 12.4 6.0 5.6 74
20 79 95 17 63 32 9.0 6.0 4.7 54
21 78 - - - - 16.0 8.5 12.8 136
22 71 80 11 53 27 10.7 6.0 4.6 64
24 56 130 57 87 43 11.3 6.3 4.6 71
25 53 65 18 43 22 10.0 4.6 2.4 46
28 137 167 18 111 56 18.0 8.0 18.6 144
29 101 115 12 77 38 15.7 7.0 10.9 110
30 122 132 8 88 44 16.0 11.0 19.0 176
31 180 188 4 125 63 19.0 8.6 25.7 163
32 123 145 15 97 48 16.5 8.0 17.8 132
33 71 105 32 70 35 11.0 6.2 5.2 68
34 95 130 27 87 43 17.0 8.5 14.1 145
35 124 144 14 96 48 12.5 9.0 12.9 113
36 65 70 7 47 23 8.0 3.0 1.4 24
37 174 184 5 123 61 19.5 10.0 31.7 195
38 140 162 14 108 54 14.0 10.0 18.2 140
39 85 92 8 61 31 14.0 6.0 6.2 84
40 70 80 13 53 27 8.0 6.0 3.2 48
41 93 97 4 65 32 9.5 8.5 6.4 81
42 180 190 5 127 63 16.5 8.5 23.2 140
43 74 84 12 56 28 8.5 3.6 2.5 31
44 105 130 19 87 43 16.5 9.0 16.8 149
45 112 117 4 78 39 13.5 8.0 10.6 108
46 73 88 17 59 29 11.2 4.9 3.4 55
App. 2: Metric and descriptive characteristics of the points from the P. z. sample and their statistics. Given in bold are: 
– 1. The preserved length of large distal and basal fragments and their reconstructed length (Columns 1, 4 and 5). – 2. 
Reconstructions over 20% deemed less reliable (Column 3). – 3. Maximum width and thickness under 11.5 mm that 
enable hafting into a soft pith of an elder stick (Columns 6 and 7). The measures of complete points are shaded. (The 
points Nos. 1, 23, 83, 93, 98, 107, 110, 118, 119 and 131 are not included, either because they could not be reconstructed 
or were not available for measurement).

67 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Inv. 
No.
Size
Side contour /
Type
Location
Layer
Brodar
Layer 
Var. 0
Layer 
Var. 1
Layer 
Var. 2
Cuts / 
Incisions
Transform. 
bone
cortex
Breakage
Edges of 
breakage
2 large flat back - - - - no insignificant apical-distal rounded
3 large spindle-shaped back - - - - no - apical-distal rounded
4 large flat back - - - - yes substantial apical-distal rounded
5 medium spindle-shaped back - - - - no insignificant apical-distal -
6 medium spindle-shaped back - - - - yes substantial apical-distal sharp
7 medium spindle-shaped back - - - - no insignificant apical-distal sharp
8 large flat back - - - - yes - basal-distal rounded
9 large spindle-shaped back - - - - no - basal-distal sharp
10 medium spindle-shaped back - - - - no - - -
11 medium spindle-shaped back - - - - no - apical-distal sharp
12 medium flat back - - - - yes insignificant apical-distal sharp
13 large - back - - - - yes - - -
14 small flat back - - - - no insignificant - -
15 small flat back - - - - no insignificant apical-distal rounded
16 medium flat back - - - - yes - basal-distal rounded
17 large flat back - - - - no insignificant basal-distal sharp
18 medium spindle-shaped back - - - - no substantial apical-distal sharp
19 small flat back - - - - no insignificant apical-distal rounded
20 small flat back - - - - no substantial apical-distal rounded
V - - back - - - - yes - - -
22 small spindle-shaped back - - - - yes substantial apical-distal rounded
24 medium - back - - - - no - - -
25 small flat back - - - - yes insignificant apical-distal rounded
28 large flat back 5 lower Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal sharp
29 medium flat back 5 lower Lower back Lower Middle yes substantial apical-distal rounded
30 medium spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle yes substantial apical-distal rounded
31 large spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no - apical-distal rounded
32 large flat back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant apical-distal rounded
33 medium flat back 5 lower Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal sharp
34 medium flat back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no - apical-distal rounded
35 large spindle-shaped back 4 upper Upper back Upper Upper yes substantial apical-distal rounded
36 small flat back 4 upper Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant apical-distal rounded
37 large flat back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper yes - apical-distal rounded
38 large spindle-shaped back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no substantial apical-distal rounded
39 small flat back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant - -
40 small spindle-shaped back 5 middle Lower back Lower Upper yes substantial apical-distal sharp
41 small spindle-shaped back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no substantial apical-distal rounded
42 large flat back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper no substantial apical-distal rounded
43 small flat back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant apical-distal sharp
44 medium flat back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper yes substantial apical-distal sharp
45 medium flat back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal rounded
46 small flat back 4 Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant apical-distal sharp
Pril. 2: Metrični in opisni znaki konic vzorca P . z. ter njihove statistike. Krepko so izpisane: –1. Največje dolžine velikih 
terminalnih in bazalnih odlomkov (stolpci 1, 4 in 5). – 2. Rekonstrukcije, večje od 20 %, ki veljajo za manj zanesljive 
(stolpec 3). – 3. Največje širine in debeline, manjše od 11,5 mm, ki omogočajo nasaditev v votlo bezgovo palico (stolpca 
6 in 7). Mere celih konic so v rastru. (V tabeli manjkajo konice št. 1, 23, 83, 93, 98, 107, 110, 118, 119 in 131, ker se jih, 
ali ni dalo rekonstruirati ali nama niso bile dostopne).

68 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inv.
No. 
Preserved 
length
(mm)
Reconstructed 
total length
(mm)
Reconstruction
(%)
Reconstructed 
distal length
(mm)
Reconstructed 
basal length
(mm)
Width
(mm)
Thickness
(mm)
Mass
(g)
Section
(mm
2
)
47 126 210 40 140 70 17.0 9.0 18.2 153
48 134 161 17 107 54 17.5 6.0 15.9 105
49 182 - - - - 21.5 11.0 46.0 237
50 109 109 0 73 36 15.5 8.5 13.7 132
51 107 115 7 77 38 16.0 10.5 17.8 168
52 92 98 6 65 33 9.8 6.0 4.8 59
53 174 174 0 116 58 22.0 7.0 24.2 154
54 91 160 43 107 53 17.2 8.1 8.1 139
55 104 154 32 103 51 13.3 9.0 12.2 120
56 127 146 13 97 49 18.0 6.0 13.8 108
57 59 75 21 50 25 8.2 4.0 2.2 33
58 66 69 4 46 23 6.5 4.0 1.7 26
59 46 65 29 43 22 7.3 4.0 4.0 29
60 135 135 0 90 45 14.5 9.0 16.0 131
61 121 123 2 82 41 13.0 6.5 10.5 85
62 101 104 3 69 35 14.0 7.5 9.0 105
63 118 180 34 120 60 16.0 9.2 16.3 147
64 156 166 6 111 55 17.0 9.0 22.1 153
65 99 99 0 66 33 13.5 9.0 4.4 122
66 129 210 39 140 70 15.6 6.8 13.3 106
67 73 90 19 60 30 10.6 4.6 3.2 49
68 124 138 10 92 46 13.5 9.0 13.8 122
69 62 80 23 53 27 9.0 4.0 2.6 36
70 121 132 8 88 44 12.0 7.0 10.1 84
71 86 89 3 59 30 13.0 7.0 7.3 91
72 96 98 2 65 33 9.0 5.5 4.1 50
73 83 125 34 83 42 16.0 7.5 10.6 120
74 83 94 12 63 31 10.5 7.0 6.5 74
75 198 230 14 153 77 31.0 13.0 74.6 403
76 124 132 6 88 44 16.5 10.0 17.6 165
77 80 80 0 53 27 8.7 4.0 2.7 35
78 99 108 8 72 36 13.0 5.0 5.9 65
79 90 97 7 65 32 11.0 6.0 5.7 66
80 114 117 3 78 39 20.0 10.0 20.7 200
81 101 106 5 71 35 15.0 8.6 11.8 129
82 134 140 4 93 47 20.0 9.0 22.8 180
90 107 126 15 84 42 19.0 8.0 15.9 152
91 91 138 34 92 46 22.0 7.5 15.6 165
92 132 185 29 123 62 12.5 10.5 16.4 131
95 117 176 34 117 59 17.5 7.0 12.3 123
96 95 144 34 96 48 17.5 7.2 11.1 126
97 60 105 43 70 35 9.0 6.0 3.3 54
99 93 103 10 69 34 15.0 7.5 8.4 113
100 112 112 0 75 37 14.5 7.0 11.0 102
101 113 113 0 75 38 17.8 9.9 18.5 176
102 38 40 5 27 13 6.0 5.0 0.8 30
103 114 - - - - 18.0 6.0 18.0 108
104 84 150 44 100 50 20.0 7.7 12.4 154

69 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Inv. 
No.
Size
Side contour /
Type
Location
Layer
Brodar
Layer 
Var. 0
Layer 
Var. 1
Layer 
Var. 2
Cuts / 
Incisions
Transform. 
bone
cortex
Breakage
Edges of 
breakage
47 large flat back 4 Upper back Upper Upper yes - basal-distal rounded
48 large flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal sharp
49   flat front 5 Upper back Upper Middle no substantial - -
50 medium spindle-shaped back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no substantial - -
51 medium spindle-shaped back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper yes substantial apical-distal rounded
52 small spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal sharp
53 large flat back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant - -
54 large - back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no - basal-distal sharp
55 large - back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal rounded
56 large flat back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal rounded
57 small flat back 4 Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant apical-distal sharp
58 small spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal sharp
59 small flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal sharp
60 medium flat back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant - -
61 medium spindle-shaped back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper no - apical-distal -
62 medium spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal rounded
63 large flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal rounded
64 large spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle yes - apical-distal rounded
65 medium spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle yes - - -
66 large flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle yes insignificant basal-distal rounded
67 small flat back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant - -
68 medium spindle-shaped back 4 lower Upper back Upper Upper yes substantial apical-distal rounded
69 small flat back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper no insignificant apical-distal sharp
70 medium flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle yes substantial apical-distal rounded
71 small flat back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no - apical-distal rounded
72 small spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal rounded
73 medium flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal sharp
74 small spindle-shaped back 4 middle Upper back Upper Upper yes substantial apical-distal rounded
75 large flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle yes - apical-distal rounded
76 medium spindle-shaped back 5 upper Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal rounded
77 small flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant -  
78 medium flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal rounded
79 small flat back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no insignificant apical-distal rounded
80 medium spindle-shaped back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle yes substantial apical-distal rounded
81 medium spindle-shaped back 5 middle Lower back Lower Middle no substantial apical-distal rounded
82 medium flat back 5 lower Lower back Lower Middle no - apical-distal rounded
90 medium flat front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no insignificant - -
91 medium flat front 5 Upper front Upper Middle yes insignificant - -
92 large - front 5 Upper front Upper Middle yes substantial - -
95 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no insignificant basal-distal -
96 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes insignificant basal-distal rounded
97 medium - front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes substantial - -
99 medium flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - - -
100 medium flat front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no substantial - -
101 medium spindle-shaped front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no   - -
102 small spindle-shaped front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no substantial - -
103 - flat front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no substantial - -
104 large flat front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no insignificant basal-distal rounded

70 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inv.
No. 
Preserved 
length
(mm)
Reconstructed 
total length
(mm)
Reconstruction
(%)
Reconstructed 
distal length
(mm)
Reconstructed 
basal length
(mm)
Width
(mm)
Thickness
(mm)
Mass
(g)
Section
(mm
2
)
105 90 100 10 67 33 12.0 8.0 9.0 96
106 139 225 38 150 75 17.0 10.0 20.8 170
108 84 225 63 150 75 18.0 9.5 13.2 171
109 135 150 10 100 50 16.0 9.0 20.3 144
111 109 135 19 90 45 14.0 8.0 10.6 112
112 61 180 66 120 60 18.0 10.0 10.0 180
113 88 165 47 110 55 19.0 8.0 15.3 152
114 66 208 68 139 69 17.0 7.5 11.4 128
116 61 70 13 47 23 10.0 7.0 3.2 70
117 96 108 11 72 36 12.5 5.5 7.1 69
120 125 155 19 103 52 17.0 10.0 21.2 170
121 57 171 67 114 57 21.5 7.0 7.0 151
122 110 165 33 110 55 23.0 12.5 30.5 288
123 73 165 56 110 55 15.0 7.5 9.5 113
124 141 145 3 97 48 15.0 11.0 21.7 165
125
+86
164 185 11 123 62 19.0 9.0 19.5 171
126 49 149 67 99 50 15.0 5.0 5.8 75
127 80 240 67 160 80 16.0 9.0 13.8 144
128 81 240 66 160 80 18.0 6.0 6.3 108
129 81 110 26 73 37 13.0 7.0 8.1 91
130 161 185 13 123 62 19.0 8.5 27.3 162
132 46 129 64 86 43 9.5 6.0 2.1 57
133 75 225 67 150 75 16.0 6.0 5.6 96
134 153 168 9 112 56 25.0 11.2 44.3 280
135 37 110 67 73 37 9.7 5.5 2.3 53
136 124 245 49 163 82 17.7 7.7 22.7 136
s.n. 
(Gross)
86 86 0 57 29 10.0 6.0 - 60
Statistics                  
MEAN 103 136 21 90 45 15.0 7.7 13.3 121
MEDIAN 99 132 13 88 44 15.2 8.0 12.0 122
SD 33 44 20 29 15 4.2 2.0 10.2 58
V ALID N 117 114 114 114 114 117 117 116 117
MIN 37 40 0 27 13 6.0 3.0 0.8 24
MAX 198 245 68 163 82 31.0 13.0 74.6 403
25
th
% 81 102 6 68 34 12.0 6.0 6.1 75
75
th
% 124 165 34 110 55 17.8 9.0 18.1 153
.                  
SW-W 
test 
(sqrt p) 
0.94 0.59 0.00 0.59 0.59 0.13 0.07 0.00 0.01

71 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Inv. 
No.
Size
Side contour /
Type
Location
Layer
Brodar
Layer 
Var. 0
Layer 
Var. 1
Layer 
Var. 2
Cuts / 
Incisions
Transform. 
bone
cortex
Breakage
Edges of 
breakage
105 medium spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no substantial apical-distal rounded
106 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - basal-distal rounded
108 large - front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes - basal-distal rounded
109 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes insignificant apical-distal rounded
111 medium spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no substantial apical-distal sharp
112 large spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes - basal-distal sharp
113 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes insignificant apical-distal sharp
114 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - - -
116 small spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - apical-distal sharp
117 medium flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no insignificant apical-distal rounded
120 large spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no insignificant apical-distal rounded
121 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - basal-distal sharp
122 large spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no substantial basal-distal rounded
123 large - front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - - -
124 large spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes substantial apical-distal rounded
125
+86
large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no insignificant basal-distal -
126 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - basal-distal sharp
127 large - front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - basal-distal rounded
128 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no   basal-distal rounded
129 medium spindle-shaped front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes insignificant apical-distal sharp
130 large flat front 5 Upper front Upper Middle no - apical-distal -
132 medium - front 7 Lower front Lower Lower yes - basal-distal sharp
133 large flat front 7 Lower front Lower Lower no - basal-distal -
134 large flat front - - - - yes - apical-distal sharp
135 medium - front - - - - yes - basal-distal sharp
136 large flat front - - - - yes insignificant basal-distal rounded
s.n. 
Gross
small - back - - - - no substantial - -

72 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
1 2 3 4 5 6
P . z. Inv. No. 
(Doyon‘s No.)
Side contour / Type
Turk
Morphotype
Doyon
Preserved 
length
Brodar      
(mm)
Preserved 
length
Doyon      
(mm)
Reconstructed 
distal length
T urk                  
(mm)
Length           
distal
Doyon      
(mm)
3 (3034) spindle-shaped M05 147.0 144.6 126.0 -
7 (3035) spindle-shaped M02 114.0 113.7 93.3 -
8 (3036) flat M01 110.0 109.1 124.7 -
9 (3037) spindle-shaped M07 108.0 108.0 110.0 -
10 (3038) spindle-shaped M02 102.0 100.5 68.0 55.7
11 (3039) spindle-shaped M02 98.0 97.8 73.3 -
12 (3040) flat M02 97.0 97.2 80.0 -
14 (3042) flat M02 93.0 92.7 63.3 51.0
15 (3043) flat M01 91.0 90.9 64.7 -
17 (3045) flat TDB 87.0 87.1 100.0 -
18 (3046) spindle-shaped M07 87.0 86.2 81.3 -
19 (3047) flat M01 85.0 85.5 60.0 -
20 (3048) flat M01 79.0 79.0 63.3 -
22 (3050) spindle-shaped M01 71.0 71.3 53.3 -
28 (3052) flat M07 137.0 136.3 111.3 -
29 (3053) flat M02 101.0 100.7 76.7 -
32 (3054) flat M02 123.0 123.3 96.7 -
33 (3055) flat M01 71.0 70.9 70.0 -
34 (3056) flat M05 95.0 94.7 86.7 -
35 (3057) spindle-shaped M02 124.0 123.8 96.0 -
39 (3059) flat M01 85.0 85.3 61.3 56.0
44 (3060) flat M02 105.0 104.8 86.7 -
45 (3061) flat M02 112.0 110.9 78.0 63.6
46 (3062) flat M01 73.0 72.8 58.7 -
48 (3064) flat M02 134.0 133.6 107.3 -
49 (3065) M05 182.0 180.0 - -
50 (3066) spindle-shaped M02 109.0 108.6 72.7 80.0
51 (3067) spindle-shaped M05 107.0 107.1 76.7 -
55 (3069) M02 104.0 104.0 102.7 -
56 (3070) flat M04 127.0 126.6 97.3 -
62 (3071) spindle-shaped M02 100.5 100.3 69.3 59.9
63 (3072) flat M05 118.0 118.3 120.0 -
65 (3073) spindle-shaped M02 99.0 98.1 66.0 59.6
67 (3075) flat M01 73.0 72.4 60.0 -
71 (3076) flat M02 86.0 85.2 59.3 45.6
App. 3: Points from P. z. that Doyon (2017, Annexe. 2) analysed in his sample of split- and massive-based points, with 
added Doyon’s serial numbers and comparable data from App. 1. The morphotypes in bold are those that Doyon estimated 
without explaining how. The lengths given in bold signify complete points. Doyon lists eleven, we list three (shaded). 
The points Nos. 9, 28, 39, 48, 49, 55, 73, 81, 105 and 117 are noted as made of antler, No. 134 of ivory, others of bone. 
The table also gives three versions of base lengths: by us, by Doyon (2017) and by Horusitzky (2008).

73 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
P . z. Inv. No. 
(Doyon‘s No.)
Reconstructed 
basal length
T urk                  
(mm)
Length 
proximal
Doyon   
(mm)
Reconstructed 
basal length
Horusitzky      
(mm)
Width
Brodar 
(mm)
Width
Doyon 
(mm)
Thickness
Brodar     
(mm)
Thickness
Doyon   
(mm)
3 (3034) 63.0 53.2 50.0 20.0 19.7 11.0 11.3
7 (3035) 46.7 37.6 35.0 14.0 14.0 9.0 8.8
8 (3036) 62.3 - 44.5 17.8 18.9 9.0 8.8
9 (3037) 55.0 - 47.5 19.0 19.0 8.1 8.3
10 (3038) 34.0 44.8 37.5 15.0 14.2 9.0 8.7
11 (3039) 36.7 34.7 27.5 11.0 11.1 8.2 8.3
12 (3040) 40.0 48.9 50.0 20.0 20.7 8.5 8.5
14 (3042) 31.7 41.8 35.0 14.0 14.2 7.0 6.9
15 (3043) 32.3 31.7 27.5 11.0 11.3 6.0 5.5
17 (3045) 50.0 - 55.0 22.0 22.3 6.0 6.2
18 (3046) 40.7 - 32.5 13.0 12.8 8.0 8.5
19 (3047) 30.0 - 31.0 12.4 12.8 6.0 6.2
20 (3048) 31.7 24.3 22.5 9.0 9.5 6.0 6.0
22 (3050) 26.7 35.5 26.8 10.7 10.8 6.0 5.9
28 (3052) 55.7 - 45.0 18.0 18.3 8.0 7.9
29 (3053) 38.3 41.0 39.3 15.7 16.2 7.0 6.8
32 (3054) 48.3 55.1 41.3 16.5 17.2 8.0 8.3
33 (3055) 35.0 38.3 27.5 11.0 11.0 6.2 6.3
34 (3056) 43.3 61.3 42.5 17.0 16.8 8.5 8.5
35 (3057) 48.0 40.4 31.3 12.5 12.4 9.0 9.4
39 (3059) 30.7 29.3 35.0 14.0 14.3 6.0 5.7
44 (3060) 43.3 47.3 41.3 16.5 17.5 9.0 8.6
45 (3061) 39.0 47.3 33.8 13.5 13.8 8.0 7.8
46 (3062) 29.3 43.5 28.0 11.2 11.5 4.9 5.1
48 (3064) 53.7 47.7 43.8 17.5 17.8 6.0 5.7
49 (3065) - 68.1 53.8 21.5 21.7 11.0 10.2
50 (3066) 36.3 28.5 38.8 15.5 15.4 8.5 8.8
51 (3067) 38.3 55.1 40.0 16.0 16.2 10.5 10.5
55 (3069) 51.3 48.9 33.3 13.3 13.1 9.0 8.7
56 (3070) 48.7 31.3 45.0 18.0 18.3 6.0 6.1
62 (3071) 34.7 40.5 35.0 14.0 14.0 7.5 7.4
63 (3072) 60.0 66.6 40.0 16.0 16.4 9.2 9.0
65 (3073) 33.0 38.6 33.8 13.5 13.3 9.0 8.9
67 (3075) 30.0 27.9 26.5 10.6 10.6 4.6 4.4
71 (3076) 29.7 39.6 32.5 13.0 12.5 7.0 6.7
Pril. 3: Vzorec konic P. z., ki ga je v sklopu vseh konic z razcepljeno in masivno bazo analiziral Doyon (2017, Annexe 
2) z dodanimi inventarnimi številkami in primerljivimi podatki iz pril. 1. Morfotipi v krepkem tisku so bili po navedbi 
Doyona ocenjeni (estimé). Kako, nama ni znano. Dolžine v krepkem tisku pomenijo cele konice. Doyon jih ima 11, midva 
samo 3, ki so označene z rastrom. Konice št. 9, 28, 39, 48, 49, 55, 73, 81, 105 in 117 naj bi bile iz rogovja, št. 134 pa iz 
mamutovine. Vse ostale so koščene. V tabeli so navedene tudi tri različice za dolžino baze, in sicer najina, Doyonova 
(2017) in Horusitzkyjeva (2008).

74 Matija TURK, Ivan TURK
1 2 3 4 5 6
P . z. Inv. No. 
(Doyon‘s No.)
Side contour / Type
Turk
Morphotype
Doyon
Preserved 
length
Brodar      
(mm)
Preserved 
length
Doyon      
(mm)
Reconstructed 
distal length
T urk                  
(mm)
Length           
distal
Doyon      
(mm)
73 (3077) flat M02 83.0 82.7 83.3 -
74 (3078) spindle-shaped M02 83.0 83.3 62.7 -
78 (3079) flat M01 99.0 98.8 72.0 -
79 (3080) flat M01 90.0 89.1 64.7 55.9
81 (3081) spindle-shaped M02 101.0 100.6 70.7 63.7
90 (3083) flat M02 107.0 106.6 84.0 -
99 (3084) flat M02 93.0 92.8 68.7 -
104 (3085) flat TDB 84.0 83.6 100.0 -
105 (3086) spindle-shaped M03 90.0 90.3 66.7 -
111 (3088) spindle-shaped M02 109.0 109.6 90.0 -
113 (3090) flat M02 88.0 89.0 110.0 -
117 (3091) flat M01 96.0 96.0 72.0 58.3
120 (3092) spindle-shaped M05 125.0 125.4 103.3 -
129 (3094) spindle-shaped M07 81.0 81.4 73.3 -
130 (3095) flat M05 161.0 160.0 123.3 -
134 (3097) flat M05 153.0 153.5 112.0 -
136 (3098) flat M02 123.8 123.7 163.3 -
Statistics
MEAN 103.9 103.6 85.0 59.0
MEDIAN 99.8 99.6 78.0 58.3
SD 23.3 23.1 22.9 8.7
V ALID_N 52.0 52.0 51.0 11.0
MIN 71.0 70.9 53.3 45.6
MAX 182.0 180.0 163.3 80.0
_25
th
% 87.0 86.7 66.7 55.7
_75
th
% 113.0 112.3 100.0 63.6

75 Aurignacian osseous points from the Potočka zijalka cave (Slovenia). Interpreting the new results ...
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
P . z. Inv. No. 
(Doyon‘s No.)
Reconstructed 
basal length
T urk                  
(mm)
Length 
proximal
Doyon   
(mm)
Reconstructed 
basal length
Horusitzky      
(mm)
Width
Brodar 
(mm)
Width
Doyon 
(mm)
Thickness
Brodar     
(mm)
Thickness
Doyon   
(mm)
73 (3077) 41.7 35.5 40.0 16.0 16.2 7.5 8.1
74 (3078) 31.3 - 26.3 10.5 11.3 7.0 7.0
78 (3079) 36.0 40.3 32.5 13.0 13.7 5.0 5.0
79 (3080) 32.3 33.3 27.5 11.0 10.9 6.0 5.7
81 (3081) 35.3 36.9 37.5 15.0 15.4 8.6 9.3
90 (3083) 42.0 - 47.5 19.0 - 8.0 7.8
99 (3084) 34.3 36.4 37.5 15.0 15.5 7.5 7.3
104 (3085) 50.0 - 50.0 20.0 20.1 7.7 7.7
105 (3086) 33.3 - 30.0 12.0 11.8 8.0 8.2
111 (3088) 45.0 50.6 35.0 14.0 14.0 8.0 7.9
113 (3090) 55.0 46.5 47.5 19.0 19.1 8.0 8.3
117 (3091) 36.0 37.8 31.3 12.5 12.5 5.5 5.5
120 (3092) 51.7 56.6 42.5 17.0 17.6 10.0 12.7
129 (3094) 36.7 - 32.5 13.0 12.8 7.0 7.1
130 (3095) 61.7 59.5 47.5 19.0 19.3 8.5 8.2
134 (3097) 56.0 58.7 62.5 25.0 24.7 11.2 11.2
136 (3098) 81.7 - 44.3 17.7 17.9 7.7 8.7
Statistics
MEAN 42.5 43.5 38.1 15.2 15.3 7.7 7.8
MEDIAN 39.0 40.8 37.5 15.0 14.3 8.0 8.0
SD 11.4 10.8 8.7 3.5 3.5 1.6 1.7
V ALID_N 51.0 40 52 52 51 52.0 52.0
MIN 26.7 24.3 22.5 9.0 9.5 4.6 4.4
MAX 81.7 68.1 62.5 25.0 24.7 11.2 12.7
_25
th
% 33.3 36.0 31.9 12.8 12.5 6.1 6.3
_75
th
% 50.0 49.8 44.4 17.8 17.9 8.8 8.7