c e p s Journal Assessing Student Engagement Pre-, During and Post- COVID-19 Alenka Žerovnik 1 • This study examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student satisfaction, perceived knowledge usefulness and mentorship ratings in a project-based learning digital competence course over six academic years, divided into pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID pe - riods. Adopting a mixed methods approach, survey data from 201 stu - dents were analysed through quantitative Likert-scale responses and a qualitative thematic analysis of open-ended feedback. The results indi - cate that student satisfaction peaked during COVID-19 and declined post-pandemic, while knowledge usefulness ratings remained consist - ently high and mentorship ratings remained stable. A positive corre - lation was found between satisfaction and the perceived usefulness of knowledge. Thematic analysis identified themes such as support and guidance, knowledge and skill acquisition, and course structure feed - back. These findings emphasise the importance of continuous teacher support and effective mentorship in sustaining student satisfaction and engagement, and highlight the necessity of ongoing investment in digi - tal literacy professional development for educators to ensure equitable post-pandemic learning experiences. Keywords: pre-, during and post-COVID-19 education, pre-service teacher’s education, student satisfaction, knowledge usefulness, mentorship ratings, project-based learning 1 Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Alenka.Zerovnik@pef.uni-lj.si. DOI: https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.1952 Received: 5 August 2024, Accepted: 10 February 2025, Published on-line as Recently Accepted Paper: April 2025 assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 2 Ocenjevanje vključenosti študentov v učni proces pred obdobjem covida-19, med njim in po njem Alenka Žerovnik • Ra�iskava preučuje vpliv pandemije covida-19 na �adovoljstvo študen- Ra�iskava preučuje vpliv pandemije covida-19 na �adovoljstvo študen - tov, njihovo �a�navanje uporabnosti pridobljenega �nanja ter ocene ka - kovosti mentorstva pri projektnem učenju, s katerim študentje ra�vijajo digitalne kompetence. V ra�iskavo so vključeni podatki, �brani sko �i šest študijskih let, ki jih ra�delimo na tri obdobja: pred pandemijo covida-19, med njo in po njej. Uporabili smo pristop mešanih metod in anali�irali podatke 201 študenta. Kvantitativni podatki so bili pridobljeni � Liker - tovimi lestvicami, kvalitativni pa s tematsko anali�o odprtih vprašanj, v katerih so študentje i�ražali povratne informacije. I �sledki ra�iskave kažejo, da je bilo �adovoljstvo študentov najvišje v obdobju pandemije covida-19, nato pa je nekoliko upadlo. Ocene uporabnosti pridobljenega �nanja so bile v vseh obdobjih dosledno visoke, ocene kakovosti men - torstva pa so ostale stabilne. Anali�a je poka�ala po �itivno korelacijo med �adovoljstvom študentov in �a�nano uporabnostjo �nanja. S kva - litativno anali�o smo identificirali naslednje ključne teme: podpora in usmerjanje, pridobivanje �nanja in spretnosti ter povratne informacije glede sestave predmeta. Ugotovitve ra�iskave poudarjajo pomen kon - tinuirane podpore učiteljev in učinkovitega mentorstva �a v�drževanje �adovoljstva in visoke stopnje vključenosti študentov v učni proces. Prav tako opo �arjajo na nujnost sistematičnega vlaganja v profesionalni ra - �voj digitalne pismenosti i�obraževalcev, da bi lahko �agotovili enako - pravne in učinkovite učne i�kušnje tudi v popandemičnem obdobju. Ključne besede: i�obraževanje pred covidom-19, med njim in po njem, i�obraževanje učiteljev pred �ačetkom dela, �adovoljstvo študentov, uporabnost �nanja, ocene mentorstva, projektno učenje c e p s Journal 3 Introduction Before the COVID-19 pandemic, education systems primarily relied on traditional in-person instruction methods, with digital tools serving as sup - plementary resources rather than central components of the learning process (Iglesías-Pradas et al., 2021; Maphalala & Ajani, 2023). The COVID-19 pandem - ic significantly altered education systems globally, necessitating a rapid shift to - wards online and remote learning (Stecuła & Wolniak, 2022; Zawacki-Richter, 2020). This change underscores the essential nature of digital competencies for both students and educators (Rashid & Yadav, 2020). Digital competencies en - compass a range of abilities, including the effective use of digital technologies, critical evaluation of digital content, and the capacity to communicate and col - laborate using digital tools (Voogt et al., 2018). As education systems transition to the post-pandemic era, it is vital to understand the consequences of this change on student satisfaction, the perceived usefulness of acquired knowl - edge, and mentorship experiences within a student-centred project-based learning approach. Symeonidis et al. (2021) highlight the significance of digital transforma - tion as a key component of the European Union’s education policy response to the COVID-19 pandemic, stressing the importance of digital skills in edu - cational recovery. This aligns with the framework guiding the present study, which focuses on digital literacy and competency development through a stu - dent-centred approach and project-based learning. The integration of digital skills into education curricula is critical for enhancing student engagement and equipping students for the digital workforce. Digital competencies have become increasingly vital for academic success and future employability (Eu - ropean Commission, 2020a, 2020b; Voogt et al., 2018). These skills are essential for creating meaningful learning experiences and preparing students to meet the evolving demands of the digital workforce (Günay, 2022; Howard et al., 2020; Pažur Aničić et al., 2022; Selwyn, 2020). Therefore, both educators and policymakers emphasise the need to incorporate digital skills into curricula to ensure students are prepared for the rapidly changing digital landscape (Re - decker, 2017). A student-centred project-based learning approach The use of student-centred project-based learning (PBL) in higher edu - cation for pre-service teachers is an effective pedagogical approach that empha - sises active student engagement and the development of digital competencies assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 4 (Chen & Yang, 2019; Guo et al., 2020). In the student-centred PBL approach, students actively participate in real-world projects that necessitate the use of digital tools and critical thinking skills. This method fosters a learner-centric environment where students take charge of their learning, collaborate with peers and solve problems. Integrating digital competencies is crucial for pre - paring future teachers to navigate and effectively utilise digital technologies in their professional practice (Chanpet et al., 2020; Kokotsaki et al., 2016). PBL enhances students’ conceptual understanding and critical thinking by involv - ing them in active participation in projects or problem-solving activities (Guer - ra et al., 2017; Maros et al., 2021; Ribeiro et al., 2023). Research demonstrates that PBL increases student motivation and satisfaction, as well as the perceived value of knowledge, all of which are essential for future educators (Al-Busaidi & Al-Seyabi, 2021; Granado-Alcón et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2020). PBL also im - proves learning outcomes, academic achievement, affective attitudes and think - ing skills (Zhang & Ma, 2023). Effective mentorship and ongoing support are vital to the success of PBL, enhancing students’ academic performance and satisfaction (Kokotsaki et al., 2016). The flexibility of PBL allows it to be applied in both online and face-to-face settings, making it particularly relevant in the post-pandemic era, where digital literacy is essential (Koh et al., 2022). Key components of effective mentorship include open communication, goal setting and emotional support, particularly in digital learning environments where students may feel isolated (Dennen & Burner, 2017; Eller et al., 2014). The quality of mentorship during the pandemic varied and was influenced by mentors’ familiarity with digital tools and adaptability to online teaching (Mishra et al., 2020). The adoption of a student-centred PBL approach in pre-service teacher education not only enhances digital competencies but also significantly im - proves student satisfaction, recognition of mentorship and the perceived use - fulness of knowledge, equipping future educators to effectively integrate tech - nology into their teaching practices. The impact of COVID-19 on education The COVID-19 pandemic forced a rapid transition to online learn - ing, creating both opportunities and challenges. This shift required significant changes in educational delivery, with Anderson (2021) noting the improvi - sational nature of Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT), which caused stress among educators due to a lack of preparedness. The pandemic led to school closures, decreased learning and increased student debt (Sinha, 2020), while c e p s Journal 5 inadequate infrastructure and digital skills further widened the digital divide (Onyema et al., 2020; Kamrujjaman et al., 2024; Liu, 2021; Maguraushe et al., 2022; Tate & Warschauer, 2022). However, it also accelerated higher education digitisation with varying readiness (Tadesse & Muluye, 2020). Opportunities and challenges of online learning The transition to online learning presents both opportunities and chal - lenges. Benefits include improved quality of education through the integra - tion of traditional and online methods, increased accessibility for students in remote locations, and the utilisation of digital tools for specialised learning (Mina-Raiu & Oprea, 2023; Thane, 2022). However, online learning also poses significant challenges, such as the need for adequate technical infrastructure, self-discipline among students and teachers, and the potential exacerbation of inequalities due to disparities in access to technology (Huang, 2023; Kotrikad�e & Zharkova, 2021). The effectiveness of online learning is contingent on stu - dents’ digital competencies and the quality of their online instructional designs (Bao, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). In order to address these challenges, it is crucial to consider strategies for “humanising” online learning. This concept involves creating connections between learners and instructors despite the physical distance inherent in vir - tual environments. One extensively used framework in online teaching and learning is the Community of Inquiry (CoI) model (Castellanos-Reyes, 2020), which emphasises three core elements: teaching presence, social presence and cognitive presence (Akyol & Garrison, 2013; Arbaugh et al., 2010; Garrison et al., 2000; Garrison et al., 2001; Rourke et al., 1999). Teaching presence involves clear course design and facilitation, ensuring transparent learning expectations and providing prompt, constructive feedback (Garrison et al., 2000). Social presence focuses on fostering a sense of community among learners and help - ing them to perceive themselves and others as active participants. Cognitive presence encourages deep learning through reflection and critical thinking (Garrison et al., 2000). It involves designing activities that prompt students to reflect on their learning experiences and share insights (Swan & Ice, 2010). By focusing on these elements, educators can create a more engaging and support - ive online learning environment, mitigating feelings of isolation and enhancing the overall learning experience. assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 6 Long-term implications for higher education The COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted higher education worldwide, leading to a widespread shift towards online teaching (Abdulka - reem & Eidan, 2021; Muftahu, 2020; Musa & Adamu, 2023; Riadi et al., 2022). This transition prompted a reassessment of traditional education models, ex - posing vulnerabilities and offering an opportunity for reform (Inciso, 2021; Muftahu, 2020; Musa & Adamu, 2023). As institutions adapt to the post- pandemic landscape, there is growing consensus on adopting hybrid learning models that combine online and in-person instruction (Means et al., 2009). These models enhance adaptability and resilience, better preparing institutions for future disruptions (Hodges et al., 2020). The focus on digital competen - cies will likely continue, aiming to equip students and educators with the skills needed in digital learning environments (Trust & Whalen, 2020). Student satis - faction, which is a key indicator of the effectiveness of education programmes, was heavily influenced by the quality of online instruction, resource availability and instructor support during the pandemic (Rapanta et al., 2020). Research suggests that students’ satisfaction with online learning is closely tied to their digital skills and the support they receive from educators (Alqurashi, 2019). The pandemic’s long-term implications for higher education are expected to include the continued integration of online learning, the development of more adaptable educational models, and a heightened focus on addressing digital in - equality and ensuring quality education. Research gaps and study objectives While extensive research exists on the impact of digital competencies and online learning on student outcomes, limited empirical evidence is avail - able on how these factors evolved from the pre-COVID to post-COVID pe - riods. The present study aims to fill this gap by analysing data from a digital competency development course over six academic years, encompassing the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods. The research problem addressed by this study is a longitudinal inves - tigation spanning six years, comprising three distinct two-year periods: pre-, during and post-COVID-19. The study focuses on final-year pre-service teach - ers. In the current era of digitisation, it is crucial for aspiring educators to pos - sess advanced digital literacy skills. In Slovenia, compulsory courses in com - puter science and informatics are taught only during the first year of secondary education. Although educators incorporate digital competencies into their c e p s Journal 7 subjects, this is done inconsistently, as there is no formal assessment of these skills. During the pandemic, both educators and students were forced to adapt rapidly to exceptional circumstances, which, for some students, resulted in a disinclination towards technology and the digital world, thereby intensifying the differences between them. The present study aims to investigate whether these conditions have a specific impact on student satisfaction, perceived usefulness of knowledge and quality of mentorship in a student-centred project-based learning digital com - petency development course before, during and after the pandemic. Consid - ering the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods, we aim to answer the following research questions: RQ1: How did student satisfaction ratings and the perceived usefulness of knowledge evolve longitudinally across the pre-COVID, during-COV - ID and post-COVID periods? RQ2: How do student evaluations of mentorship quality differ between the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods? RQ3: What are the relationships between mentorship quality, student satisfac - tion and perceived knowledge usefulness, and to what extent do these factors predict student satisfaction and knowledge usefulness? RQ4: What recurring themes and insights emerge from student feedback in open-ended inquiries conducted across the three distinct periods? The study elucidates the evolving educational landscape post-COV - ID-19 and offers practical recommendations for enhancing student satisfaction, knowledge usefulness and the quality of mentorship. By analysing data from a digital competency development course over six academic years, the study aims to provide actionable insights into the future of education. Method The research adopts a mixed-methods approach, combining both quan - titative and qualitative methods, in order to offer comprehensive insights into the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on student satisfaction, the perceived usefulness of knowledge, and mentorship ratings in the context of a digital competency development course. The study spans six academic years, divided into three phases: pre-COVID (2018/19 and 2019/20), during-COVID (2020/21 and 2021/22), and post-COVID (2022/23 and 2023/24). assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 8 Participants The study included 201 students enrolled in a digital competency de - velopment course at a higher education institution, distributed across six aca - demic years as follows: pre-COVID (2018/19, 34 students; 2019/20, 33 students), during-COVID (2020/21, 34 students; 2021/22, 34 students), and post-COVID (2022/23, 33 students; 2023/24, 33 students). The participants were selected us - ing a targeted sampling method, focusing on students enrolled in a digital com - petency development course across specified academic years. This approach ensured the inclusion of students who experienced the transition during the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods, thus providing a ro - bust dataset for longitudinal analysis. The sample si�e of 201 students was con - sidered adequate to detect significant differences and trends across the periods, based on prior studies of similar scope and context. Instruments Data were collected through pre-service teacher feedback surveys ad - ministered at the end of the winter semester of each academic year. The survey comprised both Likert-scale and open-ended questions to capture quantita - tive and qualitative data, respectively. The quantitative components to answer RQ1, RQ2 and RQ3 included measures of satisfaction (using a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = very dissatisfied and 5 = very satisfied), knowledge usefulness (5-point Likert scale where 1 = not useful at all and 5 = very useful) and qual - ity of mentorship (5-point Likert scale where 1 = very poor and 5 = excellent). In order to address RQ4, qualitative data were obtained through open-ended inquiries such as, “Kindly elaborate on the rationale behind your rating of the course’s usefulness, providing specific details”, “Could you identify the most valuable aspects of the course that you encountered?” and “In your opinion, what adjustments would be appropriate for enhancing future editions of the course?” The reliability and validity of the instruments were confirmed through several measures. Reliability was assessed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha for Likert-scale questions, resulting in an alpha value of 0.732 for satisfaction, knowledge usefulness and mentorship ratings, indicating acceptable reliabil - ity. Validity was ensured through content validity, established by subject matter experts, who evaluated the survey items for relevance and comprehensiveness, and construct validity, assessed by correlating the survey items with related constructs from existing validated instruments. c e p s Journal 9 Research design As part of a one-year second-cycle master’s study programme, the one-semester long elective course ICT in Education focuses on developing pre-service teachers’ digital competencies. Learning outcomes include master - ing digital tools for teaching, fostering critical thinking and problem-solving, creating rich media open educational resources (OER), and reflecting on the role of technology in education. Key topics are digital literacy, project-based learning principles, integrating digital tools in pedagogy and addressing ethical challenges. As part of the course, students are required to develop a comprehensive website-based course with media-rich content, including interactive video lec - tures and formative assessments with detailed feedback tailored to the students’ knowledge levels. The students worked in small groups on projects of designing digital learning modules using Arnes Splet (WordPress), H5P and other applications for the creation of interactive content. They designed and developed their own website, and created video lectures and interactive assignments for primary school students, incorporating formative assessment and feedback. These tasks combined technical and pedagogical knowledge with collaboration and critical thinking. The list of final projects can be openly accessed as a website collection of projects (Žerovnik, 2024). Descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used to analyse the quantitative data. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard devia - tions, were calculated for each construct to summarise the data. Normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test and homogeneity of variances was evaluated using Levene’s test. The Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that all variables across all periods deviated significantly from normality ( p < 0.05). The Levene’s test showed homogeneous variances for satisfaction ( F = .993, p = .423) and knowledge usefulness ( F = 1.241, p = .291), but heterogeneous variances for mentorship ratings ( F = 2.704, p = .022). Given the non-normal data distribution, the Kruskal-Wallis H-test was used to compare ratings across the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods, with post-hoc pairwise comparisons performed using Mann-Whitney U tests with Bonfer - roni correction. For inferential analysis, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the strength and direction of the relationships between mentorship quality, student satisfaction and perceived usefulness of knowledge. Simple lin - ear regression analysis was performed to explore the predictive relationships assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 10 between these variables. Regression models were developed to quantify the ex - tent to which mentorship quality predicts student satisfaction and knowledge usefulness, as well as the extent to which student satisfaction predicts knowl - edge usefulness. These analyses were performed using SPSS software to ensure rigorous statistical processing and accuracy in the interpretation of results. Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2020) and data processing was conducted using Microsoft Excel. Open-ended responses were coded to capture meaningful text segments and related codes were grouped into broader themes that were reviewed for coherence and dis - tinctness. Representative quotes were identified to support each theme and a peer debriefing was conducted to ensure the credibility of the thematic analysis. The study adhered to ethical guidelines for research involving human participants. Informed consent was obtained from all of the participants to en - sure that they were aware of the study’s purpose and their right to withdraw at any time. Data were collected in an anonymised form to protect participants’ privacy. Results The following section presents findings from both quantitative and qualitative analyses, exploring the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on stu - dent satisfaction, perceived usefulness of knowledge and mentorship ratings in a student-centred project-based learning course focused on digital competency development. Longitudinal analysis of student satisfaction, perceived knowledge usefulness and mentorship quality across the pre- COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for student satisfaction, per - ceived knowledge usefulness and mentorship ratings across the six academ - ic years, categorised into pre-COVID (2018/19, 2019/20), during-COVID (2020/21, 2021/22) and post-COVID (2022/23, 2023/24) periods. c e p s Journal 11 Table 1 Descriptive statistics for student satisfaction, perceived knowledge usefulness and mentorship ratings across the six academic years Category Academic year Satisfaction Knowledge usefulness Mentorship rating M SD M SD M SD Pre-COVID 2018/19 4.45 .57 4.32 .65 5.00 .00 2019/20 4.57 .65 4.31 .72 4.86 .35 During-COVID 2020/21 4.70 .64 4.67 .54 4.88 .41 2021/22 4.58 .66 4.36 .70 4.94 .34 Post-COVID 2022/23 4.10 .76 4.37 .81 4.67 .65 2023/24 4.31 .73 4.46 .55 4.92 .27 Overall 2018/19–2023/24 4.45 .69 4.42 .67 4.88 .39 Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation. Across the six academic years, student satisfaction, knowledge useful - ness and mentorship ratings displayed notable trends. Satisfaction and knowl - edge usefulness peaked in 2020/21, while mentorship ratings remained consist - ently high (Table 1, Figure 1). Figure 1 Mean satisfaction, knowledge usefulness and mentorship ratings across the six academic years assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 12 Student satisfaction ratings The Kruskal-W allis H-test revealed significant differences in satisfaction ratings across the three periods ( χ² = 14.650, p = .001), with the highest ratings during-COVID and the lowest post-COVID. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons using the Mann-Whitney U test with Bonferroni correction showed no sig - nificant difference between the pre- and during-COVID periods (corrected p = .404) or between the pre- and post-COVID periods (corrected p = .051). However, there was a significant difference between the during-COVID and post-COVID periods (corrected p = .001). These results show that satisfaction ratings remained stable from the pre-COVID period to the during-COVID period, but decreased significantly in the post-COVID period compared to the during-COVID period (Figure 2). Figure 2 Mean satisfaction ratings across the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post- COVID periods Knowledge usefulness The Kruskal-Wallis H test ( χ² = 3.140, p = .208) showed no significant differences in knowledge usefulness ratings across the three periods. This indi - cates that perceived knowledge usefulness remained consistently high through - out all three periods, reflecting an enduring recognition of the value of the ac - quired knowledge (Figure 3). c e p s Journal 13 Figure 3 Mean knowledge usefulness ratings across the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods Mentorship ratings The Kruskal-Wallis H test results for mentorship ratings ( χ² = 3.213, p = .201) indicated no significant differences across the three periods. This stabil - ity suggests that the quality of mentorship was consistently perceived as high, despite the challenges posed by the pandemic (Figure 4). Figure 4 Mean mentorship ratings across the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post- COVID periods assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 14 The quantitative results revealed that student satisfaction ratings were highest during the COVID period and decreased significantly in the post- COVID period, while perceived knowledge usefulness and mentorship ratings remained consistently high across all three periods. These findings highlight the dynamic nature of student satisfaction and the enduring value of ac - quired knowledge and mentorship quality despite the challenges posed by the pandemic. Relationships between mentorship quality, satisfaction and knowledge usefulness in predicting student satisfaction and knowledge usefulness Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed moderately positive relation - ships between the studied variables. Specifically, mentorship quality and stu - dent satisfaction had a correlation coefficient of r = .345 (p < .001), indicating a moderately positive correlation. Similarly, mentorship quality was moderately correlated with the perceived usefulness of knowledge ( r = .324, p < .001), and student satisfaction had a similar correlation with knowledge usefulness ( r = .411, p < .001). A simple linear regression analysis was used to further elucidate these relationships. The regression equation for predicting student satisfaction based on mentorship quality was as follows: student satisfaction = 1.495 + .606 × mentorship quality ( R² = .119, p < .001), indicating that mentorship quality ex - plains 11.9% of the variance in student satisfaction. The equation used to predict knowledge usefulness was: knowledge usefulness = 1.748 + .547 × mentorship quality ( R² = .105, p < .001), accounting for 10.5% of the variance. Finally, the prediction of knowledge usefulness based on student satisfaction was described by the following equation: knowledge usefulness = 2.653 + .396 × student sat - isfaction ( R² = .169, p < .001), explaining 16.9% of the variance. These findings highlight the significant role of mentorship quality and student satisfaction in influencing students’ perceived usefulness of knowledge. Recurring themes and insights from student feedback across the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods A thematic analysis of the open-ended responses identified five key themes: support and guidance, knowledge and skills, achievement and quality, innovation in learning, and feedback on course structure (Table 2). c e p s Journal 15 Table 2 Theme frequencies across the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods Theme Pre-COVID frequency During-COVID frequency Post-COVID frequency Support and guidance 37 41 39 Knowledge and skills 29 31 20 Achievement and quality 4 3 0 Innovation in learning 2 3 2 Feedback on course structure 2 1 2 The analysis conducted on data collected prior to the COVID-19 pan - demic revealed that the theme of “Support and guidance” was most frequently mentioned, with 37 instances. This was followed by “Knowledge and skills”, mentioned 29 times. Themes related to “ Achievement and quality” (four men - tions) and “Innovation in learning” and “Feedback on course structure” (two mentions each) were less frequent, suggesting that these areas were less central to the students’ feedback at that time (Table 2). The findings indicate that during the COVID-19 pandemic, “Support and guidance” emerged as the most recurrent theme, with 41 mentions, high - lighting the significance of the availability and responsiveness of mentors and instructors. Additionally, “Knowledge and skills” also gained prominence, with 31 mentions, emphasising the continuing need for practical knowledge and skills acquisition through remote learning. However, “ Achievement and qual - ity” and “Innovation in learning” were mentioned only three times each, sug - gesting minimal focus on these aspects. Moreover, there was only one mention of concern regarding the course structure (Figure 5). assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 16 Figure 5 Theme frequencies in the pre-COVID, during-COVID and post-COVID periods In the post-COVID period, “Support and guidance” remained a key theme, with 39 mentions indicating its enduring importance. However, the “Knowledge and skills” theme experienced a noticeable drop, with only 20 mentions. This finding suggests a potential shift in students’ priorities and satis - faction with this aspect of their education. The themes “Innovation in learning” and “Feedback on course structure” were mentioned twice, indicating persis - tent yet lower concerns in these areas. Interestingly, the theme “Achievement and quality” was not mentioned in this period, suggesting a possible reduction in its emphasis after the pandemic. The analysis of the frequency of themes across the three periods demon - strated several trends. The theme “Support and guidance” consistently ranked highly, indicating its ongoing significance to students. The sentiment for this theme was consistently positive. Students praised the helpful and solution-ori - ented nature of the support they received, highlighting clear presentations and the availability of guidance. In contrast, the theme “Knowledge and skills” ex - hibited a decline in the post-COVID period compared to the pre- and during- COVID periods, potentially indicating shifts in students’ experiences or expec - tations. The overall sentiment for this theme was still positive, with a smaller proportion of answers indicating a need for more explicit instructions. Students c e p s Journal 17 mentioned satisfaction with the acquired knowledge and skills and their practi - cal future applications. The theme “Achievement and quality” was mentioned in the pre- and during-COVID periods only, while the theme “Innovation in learning” re - ceived consistently few mentions throughout all three periods. The sentiment for “ Achievement and quality” was highly positive. Students mentioned pride in their work and achievements, valuing the professional and high-quality execu - tion of project-based learning. The sentiment for “Innovation in learning” was also highly positive. Students praised student-centred project-based learning methods, while a few of them mentioned that the quality of the course would increase if more work were explicitly conducted during face-to-face meetings. Lastly, the theme “Feedback on course structure” was the least frequent - ly mentioned theme in all three periods, with mostly negative sentiments ex - pressing the heavy workload and the need for better synchronisation with other course requirements. Students stated that the project work was too complex for the credits earned within the subject. Suggestions included more frequent and detailed checkpoints, clearer deadlines and more structured guidance during seminars. The positive sentiments suggested that students found the lectures well organised and the tasks systematically designed to progressively build their skills. Discussion The present study investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student satisfaction, perceived knowledge usefulness and mentorship rat - ings in a student-centred project-based learning digital competency develop - ment course over six academic years. The findings provide valuable insights into how these educational outcomes evolved across the pre-COVID, during- COVID and post-COVID periods. The main findings showed that satisfaction ratings were highest dur - ing the COVID period and decreased significantly in the post-COVID peri - od, highlighting the challenges faced by students as they transitioned back to in-person learning. This drop in ratings during 2022/23, coinciding with in - structors’ absence, underscores the importance of continuous teacher support, a view reflected in previous research emphasising the critical role of teacher presence in maintaining student engagement and satisfaction during remote learning (Rapanta et al., 2020; Trust & Whalen, 2020). The stability of satisfac - tion ratings from the pre-COVID period to the during-COVID period suggests that students initially adapted well to the transition to online learning, a finding assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 18 that supports the adaptability of digital competencies in various learning envi - ronments (Dhawan, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). Knowledge usefulness ratings remained stable and high across all three periods, suggesting that students valued the digital competencies they had ac - quired regardless of the learning environment. This supports the idea that digi - tal skills are essential in contemporary educational and professional contexts regardless of the learning environment (Selwyn, 2020; Voogt et al., 2018). High and consistent ratings for knowledge usefulness align with the broader recog - nition of the importance of integrating digital skills into educational curricula to enhance student engagement and prepare students for the digital workforce (European Commission, 2020a; Howard et al., 2020; Voogt et al., 2018). Mentorship quality was also perceived to be consistently high, with no significant differences across the three periods. This stability in mentorship rat - ings indicates that effective mentorship can be maintained, even during disrup - tions, supporting the idea that continuous and responsive mentorship is crucial for student success (Kokotsaki et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2020). However, it is important to note that maintaining these high ratings, especially during sig - nificant changes such as the COVID-19 pandemic, requires additional effort from both mentors and students. Qualitative data further highlight the impor - tance and quality of mentorship, especially during times of transition, which underscores the multifaceted role of mentors in providing both academic and emotional support (Dennen & Burner, 2017). Thematic analysis identified key themes, such as support and guidance, knowledge and skills, achievement and quality, innovation in learning, and feedback on course structure. A comparative analysis across the three periods revealed notable shifts in the students’ experiences and perceptions. In the pre- COVID period, there was a strong focus on the acquisition of practical skills directly applicable to future careers, reflecting the broader trend of emphasis - ing digital competencies for academic success and employability (Günay, 2022; Pažur Aničić et al., 2022). Students praised the accessibility and helpfulness of their mentors, indicating a high level of satisfaction with the support they re - ceived. Additionally, well-organised and structured seminars were highly ap - preciated, contributing to a positive learning environment. During the COVID period, students emphasised the importance of hands-on learning and adaptation to remote platforms. The transition to re - mote learning posed significant challenges, making strong mentorship crucial for success. The Pearson correlation analysis conducted in this study revealed a moderate positive relationship between mentorship quality and student satis - faction ( r = .345, p < .001), as well as between mentorship quality and perceived c e p s Journal 19 usefulness of knowledge ( r = .324, p < .001). These findings underscore the critical role of mentorship in enhancing student experiences, particularly dur - ing times of disruption. Despite the challenges during the COVID-19 period, students continued to appreciate the support from their mentors. However, or - ganisational and structural challenges increased, such as heightened workload and the need for better coordination, highlighting the need for adaptive and resilient educational models (Muftahu, 2020; Musa & Adamu, 2023). In the post-COVID period, students maintained a focus on the prac - tical application of skills, underscoring the enduring importance of practical knowledge. There is an ongoing appreciation for responsive and helpful men - tors, reflecting the sustained value of mentorship. An interesting development during this period was the emergence of greater self-reliance and independence among the students. However, there is also a recognised need for improved or - ganisation, clearer deadlines and more structured guidance, in order to better manage workloads and course integration. These findings suggest that while digital competencies remain crucial, there is a need for better structural sup - port and coordination in hybrid learning environments (Dhawan, 2020; Singh et al., 2021). These findings underscore the dynamic nature of student needs and per - ceptions and provide valuable insights for educators to refine their teaching strategies and support mechanisms to align with evolving student expectations. Conclusions The present study provides a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on educational outcomes. The findings emphasise the importance of continuous support, effective mentorship and the integration of digital competencies in maintaining student satisfaction and engagement. These insights offer practical recommendations for enhancing educational practices in the post-pandemic landscape, ensuring that students are well-pre - pared for future challenges in a rapidly evolving digital world (Dhawan, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020; Redecker, 2017). Educational institutions should develop robust support systems and invest in professional development to enhance students’ satisfaction and en - gagement. The adoption of flexible learning models combining online and in- person instruction can ensure adaptability and resilience in education. assessing student engagement pre-, during and post-covid-19 20 Practical recommendations and future research Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations can be made to improve students’ satisfaction and engagement in post-pandemic edu - cation. First, teachers must continue to provide consistent and responsive sup - port, even during the transition back to in-person learning, in order to main - tain high levels of student satisfaction. The decline in satisfaction ratings after the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates the challenges students face during such transitions (Rapanta et al., 2020; Trust & Whalen, 2020). Second, it is es - sential to effectively integrate digital competencies into educational curricula, in order to enhance student engagement and prepare them for the digital work - force. The consistently high ratings for knowledge usefulness across all three periods suggest that digital competencies are perceived as valuable regardless of the learning environment (Selwyn, 2020; Voogt et al., 2018). Third, it is cru - cial to invest in educators’ professional development. Providing educators with the necessary skills to support students in both online and in-person learning environments can help maintain effective mentorship even during disruptions (Voogt et al., 2018). Fourth, institutions should establish robust support sys - tems to ensure equitable and effective learning experiences and address both the technical and emotional needs of students. Qualitative feedback highlights the need for better technical guidance and collaborative support (Al-Fraihat et al., 2020; Omidire & Maroga, 2022; Van Dijk, 2020). Finally, adopting hybrid learning models that combine the strengths of online and in-person instruction can enhance adaptability and resilience in educational delivery (Dhawan, 2020; Eissa, 2022; Singh et al., 2021). Several future research directions can be proposed in order to further understand and improve student satisfaction, knowledge usefulness and the quality of mentorship in student-centred project-based learning approaches. One area of interest is differentiated support mechanisms that focus on identi - fying and implementing tailored support programmes that address the diverse academic, technical and emotional needs of students in the post-pandemic educational landscape. This could involve developing and testing support ini - tiatives specifically designed for different student groups, such as first-year stu - dents, international students and those from underprivileged populations, in order to evaluate their effectiveness. Another important research direction is professional development, which involves investigating the most effective pro - fessional development interventions to equip educators with the skills required to support students in hybrid and online learning environments. This could be achieved by implementing and comparing various professional development c e p s Journal 21 programmes that focus on digital pedagogy, mentorship and student engage - ment strategies, while measuring their impact on teaching effectiveness and student outcomes. Additionally, exploring the role of mentorship in digital educational learning environments is crucial. Future research could identify the key char - acteristics of effective mentorship in these contexts and assess how they impact student satisfaction and academic achievement through qualitative studies in - volving in-depth interviews and focus groups of students and mentors. Finally, there is a need to investigate how educational institutions can better prepare for future disruptions, in order to ensure continuity in student satisfaction and learning outcomes. This could involve developing and testing contingency plans and adaptive strategies across multiple institutions, and simulating vari - ous disruption scenarios to evaluate their efficacy in maintaining educational quality and student satisfaction. These research directions aim to enhance the quality and effectiveness of student-centred project-based learning in a rapidly evolving educational landscape. Limitations of the study Although the present study was comprehensive, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the sample consisted of students enrolled in a higher education institution and a specific digital competency development course, which may limit the generalisability of the findings to other institutions or courses with different demographics or structures. 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Zbirka gradiv, ki so nastala v okviru pedagoškega dela in projektov. Uporabne povezave za delo z IKT in računalništvo za učitelje, starše [A collection of materials produced through teaching work and projects. Useful links for ICT and computing for teachers, parents.] Racunikt. splet.arnes.si. https://racunikt.splet.arnes.si/�birka-gradiv-ki-so-nastala-v-okviru-pedagoskega-dela/#mag c e p s Journal 27 Biographical note Alenka Žerovnik, PhD, is a teaching assistant in computer science in education and computer science didactics at the Faculty of Education at the University of Ljubljana, with extensive teaching and research experience. She integrates innovative technologies, such as generative AI, into learning pro - cesses, emphasising project-based learning, computational thinking, and open educational resources. She utilises formative assessment and multimodal feed - back to support teachers and students, and explores the ethical and pedagogi - cal implications of AI. By contributing to digital transformation strategies and promoting digital literacy, she strives to help shape a fairer, more flexible, and more effective education system for the future.