GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani THE JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION of the Academy of Music in Ljubljana ZVEZEK / VOLUME 23 LJUBLJANA 2015 Univerza v Ljubljani Akademija za glasbo GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani THE JOURNAL OF MUSIC EDUCATION of the Academy of Music in Ljubljana Izdala in zaloila / Published by: Akademija za glasbo Univerze v Ljubljani, Oddelek za glasbeno pedagogiko Zanjo: Andrej Grafenauer Stari trg 34, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija Telefon: 00386 1 242 73 05 Fax: 00386 1 242 73 20 E-pošta: dekanat@ag.uni-lj.si Uredniški odbor / Editorial Board: Bogdana Borota, Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta (SI) Rvta Girdzijauskienh, Klaiphda University, Faculty of Arts (LT) Darja Koter, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Gabrijela Karin Konkol, The Stanis³aw Moniuszko Academy of Music in Gdansk (PL) Tatjana Markoviæ, Univerzitet umetnosti, Fakultet muzièke umetnosti Beograd (RS) Andrej Misson, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Nicole Molumby, Boise State University (USA) Branka Rotar Pance, Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo (SI) Sabina Vidulin, Muzièka akademija u Puli, Sveuèilište Jurja Dobrile u Puli (HR) Urednica / Editor: Branka Rotar Pance Asistentka uredništva / Assistant Editor: Tina Bohak Oblikovanje in tehnièna ureditev / Design and typesetting: Darko Simèiè Tisk / Printed by: Sonèica, d.o.o Naklada 150 izvodov / Printed in 150 copies Èlanke je recenziral uredniški odbor. Za znanstveno vsebino èlankov in lekturo odgovarjajo avtorji. GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani je indeksiran v mednarodnih bibliografskih bazah Abstracts of Music Literature RILM, ProQuest, EBSCO. ISSN 1318-6876 VSEBINA / CONTENTS Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè: Pomen ustvarjalnosti vzgojiteljev s poudarkom na glasbeni ustvarjalnosti The Importance of Preschool Teachers’ Creativity with an Emphasis on Musical Creativity ....................................................................................................... 5 Jelena Blaškoviæ: Uèinki pevskega izobraevanja na nekatere glasbene doseke študentov predšolske vzgoje The Effect of Singing Education on Some Preschool Education Students’ Music Achievements ...................................................................................... 17 Marina Bizjak, Patrick K. Freer: Ali se zavedamo pomena vokalne tehnike v adolescenci? Do We Realize the Importance of Vocal Technique in Adolescence? ........................... 39 Katarina Zadnik: Funkcionalna glasbena pismenost v nijih razredih Nauka o glasbi Functional Musical Literacy in the Lower Grades of Music Theory ............................ 49 Friedhelm Brusniak: Glasbena pedagogika / izobraevanje, Quo vadis? Impulzi za razpravo o glasbeni pedagogiki / izobraevanju s perspektive Karla Heinricha Ehrenfortha Music Pedagogy / Education, Quo Vadis? Discussion about Music Pedagogy / Education from the Perspective of Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth ..................................... 73 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ: Pouèevanje glasbe v reformiranem izobraevalnem sistemu: izkušnje iz Hrvaške in Èrne gore Music Teaching in a Reformed Education System: Experience of Croatia and Montenegro ............................................................................................... 79 Jelena Blaškoviæ: Pevsko izobraevanje študentov predšolske vzgoje na pedagoških fakultetah v Sloveniji in na Hrvaškem (povzetek doktorske disertacije) Dissertation ................................................................................................................... 95 3 Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta POMEN USTVARJALNOSTI VZGOJITELJEV S POUDARKOM NA GLASBENI USTVARJALNOSTI Izvleèek Vzgojitelj ima pri spodbujanju ustvarjalnosti predšolskih otrok pomembno vlogo. Nastopa tudi v vlogi ustvarjalnega modela, zato je za spodbujanje ustvarjalnosti otrok kljuèno, da se zaveda lastne ustvarjalnosti. Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kako vzgojitelji ocenjujejo svojo ustvarjalnost na razliènih podroèjih (osebnem, gibalnem, jezikovnem, prostorskem, logièno-matematiènem in glasbenem) ter kakšna je povezanost med ocenami ustvarjalnosti na razliènih podroèjih. Posebno pozornost namenjamo oceni glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Rezultati kaejo, da vzgojitelji najnije ocenjujejo svojo glasbeno ustvarjalnost, pri èemer vzgojitelji višje ocenjujejo svojo glasbeno ustvarjalnosti kot pomoèniki vzgojiteljev. Ocena glasbene ustvarjalnosti pa se statistièno pomembno povezuje z vsemi ostalimi podroèji ustvarjalnosti, najbolj pa z jezikovno in gibalno ustvarjalnostjo. Ugotovili smo tudi, da ni statistièno pomembnih razlik v oceni glasbene ustvarjalnosti glede na vrsto vrtca, delovno dobo vzgojiteljev, oceno klime v vrtcu ter glede na okolje vrtca. Kljuène besede: vzgojitelj, model, ustvarjalnost, razlièna podroèja ustvarjalnosti, glasbena ustvarjalnost Abstract The Importance of Preschool Teachers’ Creativity with an Emphasis on Musical Creativity Preschool teacher has an important role in fostering preschool children’s creativity. He also has a role of a creative model and thus it is very important how he perceives his own creativity. The aim of the research study was to determine how preschool teachers perceive their own creativity in different fields (personal, physical, linguistic, spatial, logical and musical) and what the link between the assessments of these fields is. Special attention was paid on musical creativity. The results show that preschool teachers perceive to be the least creative in the musical field with preschool teachers perceiving their musical creativity higher than the preschool teachers’ assistants. The perceived musical creativity is statistically significantly linked to all other fields of creativity, with the highest and positive connection with linguistic and spatial creativity. We also established there are no statistically significant differences in preschool teachers’ perceived musical creativity according to their work experience, their working position or the perceived atmosphere in kindergarten, as well as according to type of kindergarten or environment of the kindergarten in which they work. Key words: preschool teacher, model, creativity, fields of creativity, musical creativity 5 Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè, POMEN USTVARJALNOSTI VZGOJITELJEV... Uvod Z normativnega vidika velja, da je za vzgojiteljski poklic potreben zakljuèen visokošolski strokovni program Predšolska vzgoja (Pravilnik o izobrazbi vzgojiteljev predšolskih otrok in drugih strokovnih delavcev v programih za predšolske otroke in v prilagojenih programih za predšolske otroke s posebnimi potrebami, 2012). Vzgojitelj predšolskih otrok pa je obièajno tudi prva oseba, ki ji je otrok zaupan po domaèem okolju oz. domaèi oskrbi (Lepiènik Vodopivec, 2010), je tudi oseba, na katero se otrok navee (Cugmas, 2009) in s svojim delovanjem pomembno vpliva na otrokov razvoj. Lahko reèemo, da vzgojitelj deluje tudi kot model ali vzor, po katerem se otroci ravnajo. Zato je toliko bolj pomembna njegova profesionalna, pa tudi osebnostna naravnanost. Vse bolj pa se poudarja tudi vzgojiteljeva ustvarjalnost, saj naj bi vrtci bili ustvarjalne delavnice (Vonta et al., 2006). 1 Od pedagoških delavcev se tako prièakuje, da bodo razvijali ustvarjalnost ter spodbujali monosti za inovativnost (Hargreaves 2003, v Peklaj et al. 2009, str. 13). Pri tem pa igra pomembno vlogo tudi vzgojiteljevo preprièanje ali stališèe o njegovi ustvarjalnosti. 2 V besedilu se usmerjamo na razlièna podroèja ustvarjalnosti: na osebno, gibalno, jezikovno, prostorsko, logièno-matematièno in glasbeno, o èemer je pisal Gardner (1995) v svoji teoriji o mnogoterih »inteligencah« oz. o razliènih podroèjih ustvarjalnosti. V kasnejši knjigi z naslovom Pet umov prihodnosti (2007, v Štirn, Štirn in Jeznik, 2007), pa je ustvarjalnost opredelil kot enega izmed »umov« prihodnosti. V tej povezavi se dotikamo tudi glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Izhajamo iz razmišljanja Kratsborna (2007), ki poudarja, da se glasba dotika bistva realnosti na neposreden in konkreten naèin. To povezavo poimenuje »metuljev dotik«. Navaja sedem podroèij vpliva glasbe na razvoj odnosa posameznika do resniènosti, ki jih opredeljuje tudi kot sedem korakov skozi glasbo: glasba kot odpiranje èutov, glasba kot znak èasa, glasba kot reševanje problemov, glasba kot ustvarjalnost, glasba kot predstavitev in glasba kot refleksija in povezovanje. O glasbi kot ustvarjalnosti pišejo tudi razlièni naši avtorji, npr. Borota, 2013; 2014; Denac, 2010; Lešnik, 2011; Sicherl – Kafol, 2011 in drugi. Vloga vzgojitelja pri spodbujanju ustvarjalnosti otrok Menimo, da sta vzgojitelj in pomoènik vzgojitelja kljuèni osebi v vrtcu. V Beli knjigi (2011, str. 75) je kot eden izmed ciljev na podroèju predšolske vzgoje zapisan cilj »zagotoviti spodbujanje razliènih podroèij razvoja v skladu z zakonitostmi razvojnega obdobja ter znaèilnosti posameznega otrok«, pri èemer je v luèi ustvarjalnosti vzgojiteljeva naloga, da (prav tam): 6 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 1 O šolah kot o delavnicah je pisal e leta 1632 Komen ský, ko je predlagal: »Šole naj ne bodo niè drugega kot delavnice, v katerih vre od delovne vneme.« (Komenský, 1995, str. 129). 2 Stališèe, da nismo ustvarjalni je lahko prisotno tudi zato, ker šolski sistem daje veèjo prednost analitiènosti, logiènosti, linearnemu zaporedju ipd., ne pa ustvarjalnosti, slikovitosti, èustvenosti, celostnemu uèenju, intuiciji ipd. (Marentiè Poarnik, 2000, str. 24). Kot ovire za ustvarjalnost omenjajo tudi iskanje le enega samega pravega odgovora, slepo sledenje pravilom, strah, da bomo izpadli nevedni, strah pred napakami in neuspehom, nesprejemanje igre (Kirby, 2003, str. 139), lahko bi dodali pa tudi nesprejemanje in nerazvijanje domišljije v èasu šolanja. – spodbuja razvoj in uèenje govora za uèinkovito sporazumevanje, ustvarjalno rabo govora in fleksibilno mišljenje; – neguje in spodbuja radovednost, domišljijo, raziskovalni duh ter neodvisno mišljenje ter – spodbuja umetniško doivljanje in ustvarjalno izraanje. Vzgojitelj bi moral spodbujati vsa podroèja ustvarjalnosti, vendar pa je, kot poudarja Marentiè Poarnikova (2000), v našem vzgojno-izobraevalnem sistemu navadno tako, da se poudarja predvsem ustvarjalnost na umetniškem podroèju, ostala podroèja pa so v primerjavi z umetnostjo manj zastopana, kar je razvidno tudi iz Kurikuluma za vrtce (Bahovec et al., 1999). V slednjem so opredeljena razlièna podroèja (jezik, narava, umetnost, prostor, gibanje, druba), v zvezi z ustvarjalnostjo pa je najveè zapisano prav za umetniško podroèje, v katerega sodijo likovna, glasbena, plesna ter dramska umetnost. Za podroèje umetnosti je navedeno, da mora vzgojitelj poskrbeti, da umetniške dejavnosti potekajo tako, da otrok sam išèe, raziskuje in najde odgovor, rešitev ali idejno rešitev. Vzgojitelji zaznajo in podprejo vsako otrokovo napredovanje. Otroških del ne ocenjujejo, komentirajo ali grajajo in nikoli ne spodbujajo k oblikovanju shematiènega, všeènega, obièajnega ter prilagojenega izdelka. Otroka opazujejo pri odzivanju na sreèanja z umetnostjo in na osnovi tega prono ter iznajdljivo naèrtujejo in oblikujejo nadaljnje otrokove izkušnje. Izoblikujejo bogato in raznovrstno glasbeno, plesno ter gledališko okolje z razliènimi spodbudami, ki otroku omogoèajo doivljanje sebe in drugih, okolice in umetnosti. Pestri, zabavni, zanimivi ter presenetljivi viri izzivajo otrokovo eljo po ustvarjanju in udejstvovanju. Pri tem ne gre zanemariti dejstva, da se (kurikularna) podroèja oz. vse vrste ustvarjalnosti prepletajo (Gardner, 1995). V tej povezavi Kratsborn (2007, str. 79–80) izpostavlja glasbo kot »manjkajoèi èlen«, ki je povezana s èimer koli, z besedami, slikami, gibanjem, pripovedjo ipd., z namenom, kot slikovito pravi (prav tam), »da drugim stvarem dodaja vrednost z dodajanjem sebe, a sama nièesar ne izgubi, ko se od njih oddalji.« Menimo, da sta za spodbujanje ustvarjalnosti otrok zelo pomembna vzgojiteljevo razumevanje ustvarjalnosti ter njegova pripravljenost za spodbujanje in dopušèanje ustvarjalnosti (Krofliè in Gobec, 1995). Èe namreè med vzgojitelji prevladuje mnenje, da so ustvarjalni le redki posamezniki, bodo ustvarjalnost spodbujali le pri njih. Nasprotno pa preprièanje, da je ustvarjalna veèina otrok in da so ustvarjalni na razliènih podroèjih, poveèuje vlogo vzgojitelja in njegovo odgovornost za identifikacijo in spodbujanje ustvarjalnosti pri slehernem otroku (Diakidoy in Kanari, 1999). Podobno je tudi s preprièanjem, da je ustvarjalnost prirojena, ali da se jo da razvijati, o èemer nas preprièuje tudi De Bono (2009). Od preprièanja pa je odvisno tudi delovanje. Strinjamo se, da vzgojitelj bolj kot z besedami deluje s svojim vedenjem. Ali kot je zapisal Kovaèiè Peršin (2007), besedna komunikacija ni dovolj, potreben je tudi zgled in vzgojiteljevo ravnanje. Uporablja se tudi pojem prikriti kurikulum, ki ga povezujejo s posrednimi sporoèili, ki jih otroci dobijo o sebi in drugih preko vzgojiteljevih stališè, vrednot, predsodkov ipd. (Prikriti kurikulum, 2002). 7 Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè, POMEN USTVARJALNOSTI VZGOJITELJEV... Omenili smo vzgojiteljevo vlogo ustvarjalnega vzora oz. identifikacijskega modela ali zgleda, s katerim se otroci bolj ali manj identificirajo. Menimo tudi, da je prav v predšolskem obdobju vzgojiteljev vpliv modela ali zgleda izredno velik. O tem je pisal tudi Jaušovec (1987, str. 4), ki pravi: »Menim, da je prav uèiteljeva in vzgojiteljeva ustvarjalnost tisto, kar najbolj koristi otroku, da tudi sam razvije svoje ustvarjalne potenciale.« Ustvarjalen, širok, fleksibilen in iznajdljiv vzgojitelj bo dosegal lastno samoaktualizacijo in omogoèal transfer teh lastnosti tudi na otroke (Krofliè in Gobec, 1995). Prièakovati je, da bo vzgojitelj, ki posveèa dovolj èasa samorefleksivnemu razmisleku o svoji vzgojni praksi, našel številne monosti za omogoèanje in spodbujanje razvoja ustvarjalnosti pri otrocih (Krofliè et al. 2001). Vzgojitelj je v vrtcu tisti, ki v najveèji meri uredi in strukturira neposredno okolje, izbira vsebine, uporablja uène metode, torej v najveèji meri determinira dogajanje, dejavnosti, aktivnosti v oddelku. Zato pri spodbujanju ustvarjalnosti ne more delati po receptih, ampak je ustvarjalec vzgojno-izobraevalnega procesa (Krofliè in Gobec, 1995). Njegova naloga je, da oblikuje tako uèno okolje, socialno in materialno 3 (Kovaè, 2003), ki bo naklonjeno ustvarjalnosti, kar pomeni, da mora biti to okolje pripravljeno sprejeti razliènost, biti mora odprto in tolerantno, vzgojitelj pa ne uporablja rigidnih sankcij za neškodljive napake (Cropley, 2001, str. 150). Vzgojitelj mora zagotoviti otrokom uèno okolje, kjer bodo lahko raziskovali, eksperimentirali, ustvarjali in jim na ta naèin omogoèa, da bodo lahko gradili svoje znanje (Kemple in Nissenberg, 2000) ali vzgojiteljeva naloga je, da oblikuje varno, spodbudno in inkluzivno uèno okolje, v katerem si otroci upajo tvegati, in ki otroke spodbuja k raziskovanju, ustvarjanju in dajanju pobud (Vonta et al., 2006). Ker ustvarjalnost vzgojitelja deluje kot vpliv, vzor ali model in ker vzgojitelji lahko skozi vsakodnevno interakcijo z otroki spodbujajo tudi ustvarjalnost otrok (Woolfolk, 2002) nas je zanimalo, kako vzgojitelji ocenjujejo svojo ustvarjalnost, s poudarkom na glasbeni ustvarjalnosti. Problem raziskave in cilji Izhajamo iz preprièanja o velikem pomenu vzgojitelja za razvoj otrok, 4 da delujejo vzgojitelji kot model ali vzor za otroke in da so zato zelo pomembna njihova preprièanja ali stališèa o svoji lastni ustvarjalnosti. Kot smo navedli, pogosto trèimo na stališèe, da so osebe bodisi ustvarjalne ali pa ne, po drugi strani pa smo tudi navedli, da nas preprièujejo in dokazujejo (npr. De Bono, 2009), da se lahko nauèimo biti ustvarjalni, pa èeprav dodajajo, da so nekateri ustvarjalnejši od drugih (Kirby, 2003). V nadaljevanju se usmerjamo na razlièna podroèja ustvarjalnosti, s poudarkom na glasbeni ustvarjalnosti. Cilji so bili ugotoviti: – kako vzgojitelji ocenjujejo svojo ustvarjalnost na posameznih podroèjih; – ali obstaja povezanost med ocenami posameznih podroèij ustvarjalnosti: 8 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 3 Za materialno uèno okolje uporabljamo tudi pojem fizièno ali grajeno uèno okolje. 4 Pamela Sims (1999, str. 139) je zapisala misel Henrya B. Adamsa, ki je leta 1918 dejal, da: »Uèitelj vpliva na veènost.« Dodali bi, da to še toliko bolj velja za vzgojitelja. – ali ocene ustvarjalnosti na drugih podroèjih lahko napovedo ustvarjalnost na glasbenem podroèju in v kakšni smeri; – ali obstajajo razlike v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti glede na vrsto vrtca, delovno mesto, delovno dobo, oceno klime v vrtcu ter glede na okolje vrtca. Raziskovalna metoda Uporabili smo deskriptivno in kavzalno-neeksperimentalno metodo empiriènega pedagoškega raziskovanja. Vzorec V raziskavo smo nesluèajnostno in namensko vkljuèili 366 respondentov, od tega je bilo 255 (69,7 %) vzgojiteljev in 111 (30,3 %) pomoènikov vzgojiteljev. 5 Zajeti namenski vzorec na ravni inferenène statistike predstavlja enostavni sluèajnostni vzorec iz hipotetiène statistiène mnoice. Zbiranje podatkov Anketiranje je potekalo preko spleta, in sicer oktobra in novembra 2013. Podatke smo zbrali z vprašalnikom, ki je bil namenjen širši raziskavi, v tem prispevku pa se osredotoèamo na rezultate, ki smo jih dobili na osnovi podatkov, ki smo jih zbrali s 5-stopenjsko ocenjevalno lestvico. Sodelujoèi so z ocenami od 1 (pomeni, da ocenjujejo nizko) do 5 (pomeni, da ocenjujejo visoko) ocenjevali stopnjo lastne ustvarjalnosti na šestih podroèjih: 6 (1) jezikovno, (2) glasbeno, (3) logièno-matematièno, (4) prostorsko, (5) gibalno in (6) osebno. Vkljuèili smo tudi podatke, ki smo jih zbrali z anketnimi vprašanji zaprtega tipa, in sicer: (1) delovno mesto, (2) delovna doba, (3) vrsta vrtca, (4) okolje vrtca, (5) ocena klime v vrtcu. Uporabljen vprašalnik ustreza kriteriju konstruktne veljavnosti, saj prvi izmed desetih dobljenih faktorjev pojasni 39,7 % variance, kar je veè od predpostavljene spodnje meje 20 % (Èagran, 2004). Zanesljivost smo preverili s postopkom faktorizacije, ki je pokazal, da je spodnja meja zanesljivosti r tt =0,847 ter s Cronbachovimc koeficientom (c = 0,938), ki je prav tako pokazal, da gre za zelo zanesljiv instrument. Objektivnost smo zagotovili z uporabo anketnega vprašanja zaprtega tipa (delovna doba) ter s številènimi ocenjevalnimi lestvicami. Dodatno so k objektivnosti pripomogla enotna, enopomenska in natanèna navodila za izpolnjevanje ter nevodeno zbiranje podatkov. Obdelava podatkov Podatke smo obdelali s pomoèjo statistiènega programa SPSS (20.0). Za analizo ocen lastne ustvarjalnosti na razliènih podroèjih smo uporabili osnovno deskriptivno statistiko (aritmetièno sredino - , standardni odklon - s), povezanost med ocenami posameznih podroèij ustvarjalnosti pa smo preverjali s Pearsonovim korelacijskim koeficientom (r). S 9 Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè, POMEN USTVARJALNOSTI VZGOJITELJEV... 5 V prispevku uporabljamo termin vzgojitelj, pri èemer imamo v mislih tako vzgojiteljice kot vzgojitelje. Enako velja za uporabo terminov vzgojitelj/pomoènik vzgojitelja, ki ju enotno poimenujemo vzgojitelj, razen v primerih, kjer elimo poudariti raz liko med vzgojitelji in pomoèniki vzgojiteljev. 6 Podroèja smo oblikovali na podlagi Gardnerjeve (1995) teorije mnogoterih inteligenc. pomoèjo multiple regresije (metoda Stepwise) smo skušali napovedati ocene katerih podroèij ustvarjalnosti vplivajo na oceno podroèja glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Morebitne razlike v oceni lastne ustvarjalnosti na glasbenem podroèju smo preverjali s t-preizkusom za neodvisne vzorce (glede na vrsto vrtca), z Welchovo aproksimativno metodo t-preizkusa 7 (glede na delovno mesto) ter s preizkusom analize variance (glede na delovno dobo, oceno klime v vrtcu in okolje vrtca). Rezultati in interpretacija Èeprav smo izpostavili, da razumemo umetnost kot celoto, nas je zanimalo, kako vzgojitelji ocenjujejo svojo ustvarjalnost na posameznih podroèjih in kakšna je povezanost med ocenami posameznih podroèij ustvarjalnosti (tabela 1). Tabela 1: Deskriptivna statistika za posamezna podroèja ustvarjalnosti in korelacijski koeficienti med podroèji Kot vidimo iz aritmetièni sredin (tabela 1), vzgojitelji najvišje ocenjujejo osebno in gibalno ustvarjalnost. Visoke povpreène ocene smo dobili tudi glede jezikovne ustvarjalnosti, nije pa pri prostorski ustvarjalnosti in še nije pri logièno-matematièni ustvarjalnosti. Najnije, v primerjavi z ostalimi podroèji ustvarjalnosti, pa so vzgojitelji ocenili svojo glasbeno ustvarjalnost, èeprav je aritmetièna sredina še vedno nad sredino na petstopenjski ocenjevalni lestvici ( = 3,77). Standardni odklon pa je pri glasbeni ustvarjalnosti najvišji, kar kae na razpršenost odgovorov, oz. v primerjavi z drugimi podroèji ustvarjalnosti, na najveèje razlike med vzgojitelji glede samoocen glasbene ustvarjalnosti. V tabeli 1 tudi vidimo, da se glasbeno podroèje ustvarjalnosti pozitivno povezuje z vsemi ocenjenimi podroèji ustvarjalnosti. Korelacijski koeficient pa je najvišji in statistièno pomemben med glasbenim podroèjem ustvarjalnosti in jezikovnim podroèjem 10 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 7 Welchovo aproksimativno metodo t-preizkusa smo uporabili, ker za primer razlik v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti glede na delovno mesto, predpostavka o homogenosti varianc (Leveneov preizkus) ni bila upravièena. ustvarjalnosti (r = 0,265). Povezanost med tema dvema podroèjema je, v primerjavi z drugimi podroèji ustvarjalnosti, morda najvišja zato , ker je tudi glasba komunikacija, oz. »odlièen naèin komuniciranja« (Kratsborn, 2007, str. 75), pa tudi »traskulturni medij za izmenjavo in integracijo« (prav tam). Glasbo in govor se tudi uèimo na podoben naèin (Gordon, 1997, v Borota, 2011), za glasbeno pismenost pa skrbijo ustrezni vzgojno-izobraevalni zavodi (Lešnik, 2011). Tabela 2: Regresijska analiza vplivov na glasbeno ustvarjalnost Shema 1: Prikaz vplivov na oceno lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti Regresijska analiza (tabela 2, shema 1) kae, da ocene ustvarjalnosti na jezikovnem in gibalnem podroèju lahko napovedo ustvarjalnost na glasbenem podroèju. Rezultati niso presenetljivi, saj je tudi gibanje, npr. ples, ustvarjalno izraanje in komuniciranje (Geršak, 2007) in pomemben element glasbene dejavnosti, ki ima vlogo pri glasbeni produkciji, reprodukciji in percepciji (Pucihar in Rotar Pance, 2014, str. 93). Zato se govori o ustvarjalnem gibu kot o izraznem sredstvu, igri in uèenju razliènih uènih vsebin (Geršak, 2007). 11 Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè, POMEN USTVARJALNOSTI VZGOJITELJEV... Zanimalo nas je tudi, ali obstajajo razlike v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti glede na vrsto vrtca in delovno mesto (tabela 3) ter glede na delovno dobo, oceno klime v vrtcu ter glede na okolje vrtca (tabela 4). Tabela 3: t-preizkus razlik v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti glede na vrsto vrtca in delovno mesto Tabela 3 predstavlja rezultate t-preizkusa oz. Welchovega preizkusa, ki kaeta statistièno pomembne razlike v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti le glede na delovno mesto (vzgojitelji ali pomoèniki vzgojiteljev). S pregleda opisne statistike (rezultati aritmetiène sredine in standardnega odklona) razberemo, da so vzgojitelji v povpreèju višje ocenili svojo glasbeno ustvarjalnost kot pomoèniki vzgojiteljev in da je razpršenost odgovorov vzgojiteljev manjša v primerjavi z razpršenostjo odgovorov pomoènikov vzgojiteljev. Razliko v oceni glasbene ustvarjalnosti bi morda lahko pripisali tudi izobraevanju, saj naèeloma velja, da pomoèniki vzgojiteljev zasedejo to delovno mesto s srednješolsko izobrazbo, medtem ko morajo vzgojitelji zakljuèiti visokošolsko izobraevanje, v okviru katerega se bolje seznanijo s podroèjem glasbenega ustvarjanja in se tako na tem podroèju èutijo bolj suvereni. Tudi razliène druge raziskave so pokazale, da so vzgojitelji z višjo stopnjo izobrazbe bolj obèutljivi do otrok, manj uporabljajo avtoritarne metode nadziranja otrok ipd., o èemer poroèa Cugmas (2009). 12 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Tabela 4: Analiza variance razlik v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti glede na delovno dobo, oceno klime v vrtcu in okolje vrtca Analiza variance s predpostavko enakosti varianc pa kae, da delovna doba, ocena klime v vrtcu in okolje vrtca statistièno nepomembno vplivajo na oceno lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Vzgojitelji (in pomoèniki) z veè let delovne dobe nekoliko višje ocenjujejo svojo glasbeno ustvarjalnost kot vzgojitelji (in pomoèniki) z manj let delovne dobe, a razlike niso statistièno pomembne. Rezultate bi lahko pripisali temu, da manj izkušeni vzgojitelji in pomoèniki niso dovolj samozavestni in sigurni na podroèju glasbene ustvarjalnosti ter da si to postopoma pridobivajo z leti prakse in/ali z dodatnim usposabljanjem. Lahko pa rezultat razlagamo tudi na naèin, da se najveè nauèimo iz same prakse ali dela, kar sta poudarila tudi Dryden in Vos (2001, str. 154), ko sta zapisala: »Najbolje se je uèiti z dejanji!« Tudi razliène druge raziskave (v Cugmas, 2009) so pokazale, da višje standarde kakovosti dosegajo tiste vzgojiteljice, ki imajo veè izkušenj z otroki. 13 Tina Štemberger, Majda Cenciè, POMEN USTVARJALNOSTI VZGOJITELJEV... Glede ocene klime v vrtcu tudi nismo dobili statistièno pomembnih razlik pri ocenah ustvarjalnosti. Preteno spodbudna klima prednjaèi pri vplivu na oceno lastne ustvarjalnosti pred »niti spodbudno, niti nespodbudno« klimo ter seveda tudi pred »preteno nespodbudno klimo«. Tudi glede na okolje vrtca skoraj ni razlik v oceni lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Neprièakovano pa vidimo, da je aritmetièna sredina mestnega okolja za malenkost nija od aritmetiènih sredin, ki se nanašajo na anketirance primestnega in vaškega okolja vrtca. Izgleda, da tudi primestno in vaško okolje nudita dovolj spodbud in da podpirata razvoj glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Sklep Vzgojitelji imajo pomembno vlogo pri prepoznavanju in spodbujanju ustvarjalnosti otrok, delujejo pa tudi kot ustvarjalni model, zato naj bi se zavedali tudi svoje lastne ustvarjalnosti. Ustvarjalnost vkljuèuje razlièna podroèja (osebnostno, gibalno, jezikovno, prostorsko, logièno-matematièno in glasbeno), pri èemer je pomembno razumevanje, da ni mogoèe govoriti o »èistih« podroèjih ustvarjalnosti, saj se ta medsebojno prepletajo, kar so pokazali tudi rezultati naše raziskave. Hkrati se je nekoliko presenetljivo pokazalo, da je med vsemi podroèji ustvarjalnosti najnije ocenjena prav glasbena ustvarjalnost. Za glasbeno ustvarjalnost velja, da se najbolj povezuje s podroèjem jezika, ki je hkrati z gibalnim podroèjem pomemben prediktor ocene ustvarjalnosti na glasbenem podroèju, ali: prièakovati je, da bodo vzgojitelji, ki visoko ocenjujejo lastno jezikovno in gibalno ustvarjalnost, visoko ocenili tudi glasbeno ustvarjalnost. Med ostalimi rezultati velja izpostaviti ugotovitev, da vzgojitelji v primerjavi s pomoèniki vzgojiteljev više ocenjujejo lastno glasbeno ustvarjalnost in pa tudi, da je ta ocena v splošnem višja pri starejših vzgojiteljih in pomoènikih. Slednje po našem preprièanju kae na pomen izobraevanja na glasbenem podroèju, tako izobraevanja v procesu pridobivanja ustrezne kvalifikacije kot tudi dodatnega strokovnega izpopolnjevanja. Vzgojitelji se namreè v procesu dodiplomskega izobraevanja v primerjavi s pomoèniki (ki zakljuèijo srednješolsko izobraevanje) dodatno seznanijo in opolnomoèijo na podroèju glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Višje ocene vzgojiteljev z daljšo delovno dobo pa tudi nakazujejo, da samozavest in s tem povezano višje samovrednotenje na glasbenem podroèju vzgojitelji pridobijo z leti izkušenj, morda pa tudi z dodatnim strokovnim izobraevanjem na tem podroèju. Vsekakor pa dejstvo, da je med vsemi podroèji ustvarjalnosti najnie ocenjena glasbena ustvarjalnost opozarja na potrebno po dodatnem izobraevanju, ki pa naj bi bilo usmerjeno predvsem v razvijanje ustvarjalnosti in pozitivno vrednotenje lastne glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Literatura Bahovec Dolar, E., Èas, M., Domicelj, M., Japelj Pavešiæ, B., Jontes, B., Kastelic, L., Kranjc, S., Marjanoviè Umek, L., Poar Matijašiè, N., Vonta, T., Vršèaj, D. (1999): Kurikulum za vrtce. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport in Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo. 14 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraevanju v Republiki Sloveniji. (2011). Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport. Borota, B. 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Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut, Razvojno-raziskovalni center pedagoških inciativ Korak za korakom. Wolkfolk, A. (2002): Pedagoška psihologija. Ljubljana: Educy. 16 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Jelena Blaškoviæ University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education, Department Petrinja THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION ON SOME PRESCHOOL EDUCATION STUDENTS’ MUSIC ACHIEVEMENTS Abstract Singing education is an important segment of educating students – future preschool teachers at faculties of preschool teacher education. Singing is an elementary mode of children’s music expression. The task of future preschool teachers is to gain knowledge and awareness about the importance and influence of singing on children’s development. Because children learn through imitation, there is a strong effect to be found in the preschool teacher’s singing which entails intonational stability, steady rhythm and text articulation. This research was founded on quasi-experimental method of pedagogic research and it examined the way in which various modes of learning influence the intonational and melodic abilities development and the voice range of the subjects. Female students of Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb – Department of Petrinja (N=36) participated in the research which lasted two academic years (2012/2013 and 2013/2014). They were divided into two groups, experimental and control group. The research lasted fifteen-weeks. According to Mann Whitney U test results, we found statistically significant progress in intonational and melodic accuracy, and widening the voice range of the experimental group, in comparison with the control group. The research yielded the conclusion that singing activity through a certain time period, whether led by expert vocal instructions, or intuitive singing, leads to progress in intonational and melodic accuracy and widening the voice range. Key words: intonational accuracy, learning modes, melodic accuracy, singing education, students of preschool teacher education faculty, voice range, research Izvleèek Uèinki pevskega izobraevanja na nekatere glasbene doseke študentov predšolske vzgoje Pevsko izobraevanje je pomemben del izobraevanja študentov predšolske vzgoje – bodoèih vzgojiteljev. Petje je osnovna oblika glasbenega izraanja otrok, zato morajo bodoèi vzgojitelji pridobiti ustrezno znanje in se zavedati pomena in vpliva petja na otrokov razvoj. Vzgojiteljevo petje, ki vkljuèuje intonanèno stabilnost in enakomerno izvajanje ritma ter besedila moèno vpliva na otroka, saj se otroci uèijo s posnemanjem. Z raziskavo, ki je temeljila na kvazi-eksperimentalni metodi pedagoškega raziskovanja, smo preuèevali, kako razliène oblike uèenja vplivajo na razvoj intonanènih in melodiènih sposobnosti ter obseg glasu udeleenk. V raziskavi, ki je potekala v dveh šolskih letih (2012/2013 in 2013/2014) so sodelovale študentke Pedagoške fakultete v Zagrebu – oddelek Petrinja (N=36). Razdeljene so bile v dve eksperimentalni in eno kontrolno skupino. Raziskava je potekala v 15 tednov. Po rezultatih Mann Whitney U testa sta eksperimentalni skupini pokazali statistièno pomembnejši napredek v intonanèni in 17 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... melodièni toènosti ter širitvi glasovnega obsega od kontrolne skupine. Z raziskavo smo ugotovili, da pevska dejavnost, bodisi vodena s strokovnimi vokalnimi navodili bodisi intuitivno petje v doloèenem èasovnem obdobju prinese napredek v intonanèni in melodièni toènosti in širitvi obsega glasu. Kljuène besede: intonanèna toènost, melodièna toènost, oblike uèenja, obseg glasu, študenti predšolske vzgoje, raziskava Introduction The basic goal of education is the autonomy in shaping an independent and responsible individual who knows how to think. According to the Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraevanju (White Book of Education; 2011), education in schools and kindergartens should follow the principle of objectivity, plurality and criticism. Autonomy and competences are important components of preschool teachers, teachers and other professional staff. The autonomy of educational institutions in the system of education prides itself in righteousness, solidarity and availability of knowledge for all. Linking the basic goal of education, music education entails professional conduct and appropriate training of the preschool teacher, the one who nourishes the positive attitude towards music activities; music achievements and his/her own music abilities. The goal of music education in universities is: to educate and widen their music abilities, skills and possibilities; to build a positive attitude towards music and its implementation in working with children; to comprehend the reach of music’s function in children’s development. University’s task is to take care of the planned, humanly just and educated future of a competent and self-confident preschool teacher for the performance of music activities, especially singing. Children’s music education is the key to society’s development on all levels of functioning. Careful and appropriate care in the preschool period is of essential importance for individual children’s growth, which in turn contributes to society’s betterment (Lee, 2009). UNESCO’s Guidelines in Road Map for Arts Education (2006) advocates the development of aesthetic sense, creativity and the ability of critical thinking. It also upholds reflectiveness as an innate human ability, and all through artistic education as a fundamental right of every child and young person. The awareness of music’s intrinsic attributes carries within itself the responsibility of persons of authority for implementing music and its positive attitude about the self-efficiency in teaching music into the educational process, considering children’s backgrounds (Özgül, 2009; Bond, 2012). Quality education of preschool teachers is of the utmost importance for future work in preschool institutions (Nichols, Honig, 1995; Temmerman,1998; de L’Etoile, 2001; Vannatta-Hall, 2010).Singing education is a part of students’- future preschool teachers’ music education, and an indispensable activity with children in kindergartens. Forms of learning in singing education Music education applies certain methods and forms of learning (Denac, 2010). Singing education is one of the action methods of work. Such working method is designed for 18 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek achieving a specific goal (Pranjiæ, 2005), and it is singing. Learning through imitation or learning by succession is a method which transfers singing knowledge from preschool teachers to children (Denac, 2002). Preschool teachers demonstrate how to do something, and children imitate and repeat what was demonstrated. This method has a goal of acquiring skills and developing motor abilities such as singing. Imitation is inner succession, i.e. inner performance of some activity (Pranjiæ, 2005). According to Terhart (2001), it resembles the imitation method – when, during work, an expert demonstrates and explains certain work operations or procedures which are to be mastered. He/she simplifies (adjusted for the age in question) the performance of hard actions and checks the practice process and the degree to which the learner has acquired the desired procedures. Singing is a psycho-motor component, working and practical part of the educational aspect. It includes affective as the impression of what is heard, and cognitive process as learning and analysing a song, learning about art in general. Certain learning strategies can be closely linked to singing education. Singing is taught through teaching, discovery, experiencing through methods of music reception, expression -interpretation, practicing and creation. Due to mutual intertwining of various working methods, singing education is very complex, but all in the purpose of achieving a goal and sensitising the individual through psycho-motor, sensory (auditory), cognitive and affective segment. The quality of music matter presentation to the learners depends on social forms of learning. One of the simplest forms of work, due to its all-time efficiency and information’s availability, according to Stevanoviæ (2001), is frontal way of working. Such form of work has its drawbacks. Frontal teaching neglects individuality, interests and needs of the individual. Group form of work is characterised by uniqueness of goal, discipline, work division, system of communication, culture of dialogue, education for cooperation and respecting the interlocutor, and equality in participation. Considering the fact that it is a social-psychological process, its results are both individual and social (Vukasoviæ, 1995; Bognar, Matijeviæ, 2002). Working in pair is marked by togetherness and student’s independence. In it, characteristics of personality are noticed, such as friendship, mutual trust, and communication’s development, realisation of self, one’s own ambitions, interests and identity. Individual form of work encompasses individual activity according to his/her intellectual capacities and psychological-emotional predispositions. Because it relies on internally conditioned individual’s personality, individualisation is a tool for teaching optimalisation (Bognar, Matijeviæ, 2002). Individual work is productive by character because of the self-education taking place and making the acquired knowledge more lasting (Stevanoviæ, 2001). Considering the diversity of the learning forms, their advantages and disadvantages, Terhart (2010) considers they are best used in combination, with the purpose of greater efficiency. The stated forms of work are not always present in singing education. This greatly depends on the attitude of people who constitute a group. In kindergartens, children sing in group more often, individually or in a pair less often. Frontal way of working is present mostly when the preschool teacher demonstrates a song. 19 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... Forms of work are ways of organising the relationship of the teacher and learner (Pranjiæ, 2005). All social forms of work should be nourished and combined so that the learning process becomes more versatile, richer and more productive. The simplest form of work for the person who teaches is the frontal, while group work, work in pairs or individual work requires more effort (Jelaviæ, 2008). The research will show the effect of using individual and group work mode on the singing abilities of students of faculties for preschool teachers. In the area of tertiary education, the use of learning modes depends on their inclusion in the study programmes, considering programme’s design of certain courses. Methodology Research problem, goal and hypothese Research problem is based on the singing education inclusion into course programmes on teacher education faculties, considering the differentiation of music and singing abilities of students at faculties of preschool teacher education. The goal is to observe the effect of shaping the voice of these students, with the use of individual and group modes of learning, in relation to the control group. More specific goal is to examine how much additional work, through singing education of the voice with basic techniques, contributes to the betterment of intonation, accuracy in singing melodic patterns, and widening the voice range in students of preschool teacher education faculties. The hypothesis is set according to the research problem and goal: H: We assume that, in the experimental groups, in which a certain singing treatment will be applied, there will be progress in the intonational accuracy, accuracy of performing melodic patterns and widening the voice range, in relation to the control group. The sample The sample was deliberate and not random. 36 students of Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb, Department of Petrinja, participated. Two generations of students were included in the research, because Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb-Department of Petrinja enrols 25 students in the Early and Preschool Education department every year. Students in the academic years 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 participated. 1 The method of research groups equalization was realised according to relevant factors (Mesec, 1997), which are the same population, considering the year of study, and subjects’ gender. 20 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 1 The students who participated in the research in 2011/2012 attended expert preschool education college at the time. Students who participated in the research in the academic year 2012/2013 enrolled at the faculty with university programme of early and preschool education. The difference between university and expert studies is non existent in the number and the content of the courses. The difference lies in the time frame of the courses. Instrumental accompaniement with singing I started in the third term for the programme of expert preschool teacher studies, while it is being taught in the fourth term of university programme. Table 1: Structure of students in regards to the research group Group Work mode Abbreviation N Experimental 1 Individual E1-In 12 Experimental 2 Group E2-Gr 12 Control Cg 12 The research was conducted in the frame of Instrumental accompaniment with singing 1 which is a second year course of preschool education studies at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb. Each group had 12 subjects (table 1). All 36 subjects of the sample were of the female gender. Research structure plan This research is a quasi-experiment or not a real experiment (Mesec, 1997). It is an action research consisting of one action step in which there were no deflections from the planned design (15 weeks of singing treatment). The quasi-experimental research observed the effect of a certain singing treatment on the singing development, based on the basics of vocal technique and different learning modes. Two experimental and one control group were included in the research concept. Experimental groups had a certain singing treatment. One group worked individually, and the other as a group. Control group had no particular singing treatment, but was included into the regular study programme of early and preschool education. All three groups had the same initial and final testing. Singing lessons work course Singing lessons lasted 30 minutes and they were designed in three phases. The first phase was singing warm-up. Second phase was applying vocal techniques in singing children songs. Lastly, the third phase was vocal settling. The applied singing warm-up was based on the interval method, and the interval is the static of each melody. The interval method is known from the 18 th century. Such concept was laid out by Nicola Vaccai (1790–1848), Italian composer and opera composer. He designed short, clear and useful exercises, which are enjoyable and medically justified from the physiological and anatomic aspect. These exercises are based on the range which is pleasant to most voices, and it is from c 1 to f 2 (for male voices it is an octave lower; Vaccai, 1878). The laid out principles of the singing warm-up and interval exercises with various syllables (mi, po, pa, vi, li, ju, je, ma…) were use in working with students who encountered the basics of singing techniques for the first time. The use of consonants in the singing warm-up, according to Špiler (2012), gives a vocal the character of a syllable, which is an integral part of a word. Vowels and consonants carry within themselves the changes of the colour of the voice sound, which creates a sense of divergence and contrast, alongside logical word accentuation. The combination of vowels and consonants enables the vocal apparatus’ habituation to some particular activity, and certainly is a recommendation against holding on to one vocal for too long, in order not to create a fixation of the vocal organ and stiffening of the muscular mechanism of the whole instrument. 21 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... Testing procedure The testing of music abilities was done individually, and the subjects were distributed in research groups. The testing, singing treatments with the individual group and the group, was noted by dictaphone. The dictaphone wasn’t used with the control group, except in the initial and final testing. The research was carried out in the venues of Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb- Department of Petrinja. Instrument The research used a measuring instrument designed for it particularly, and in was in the form of testing music elements. The testing was based on the hearing test principle, because faculties for teacher education don’t include music abilities testing. 2 It consists of three elements. The first tested element is the intonation of individual notes in the middle register of most subjects (ten notes from h to c 2 ). The second element tested was the accuracy of repeating the melodic patterns of five notes. Ten melodic patterns were composed according to the interval principle and separated triads in ascent, descent or in combinations (major and minor fifth chords and twists). The testing was done in a way that the examiner sang a certain note with the neutral syllable »na«, with the piano, and the subject had to repeat it without the piano. The third element of testing examined the voice range. The initial tone was c 1 . The testing was done chromatically, in ascension and descent, according to the scale principle. The reliability of music abilities testing was measured by three elements for the initial and final testing. Reliability coefficient Cronbach Alfa has shown satisfactory level in checking music elements (c=0.810). Data analysis and the used statistical methods The basic research method is descriptive and quasi-experimental method of pedagogic research. For basic data analysis, descriptive statistics was used and expressed in frequencies (f), percentages (%), arithmetic means (M), dominant values (mod), middle values (Md), standard deviation (SD) and measures of normal distribution (skewness, kurtosis). Because the prerequisite for normal distribution wasn’t fulfilled, we used nonparametric Mann Whitney U Test and Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test (p=0.05) to test the hypothese. The assessment scale for testing music abilities of intonation, melodic patterns and voice range For the sake of simpler systematisation and easier processing of the gathered data, the scale of test assessment has clearly defined degrees. Ten notes and ten melodic patterns were categorised into a scale of six items (0-1-2-3-4-5) with corresponding meanings. 22 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 2 Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb started testing music, art and kinesthetic abilities in 2014 for the academic year 2014/2015. The testing isn’t eliminatory in character, but is awarded with extra points. Table 2: Assessment scale for intonational and melodic accuracy Intonational accuracy Melodic accuracy 0 - nothing Not one note has been sung Not one melodic pattern has been sung 1 - very weak One or two tones repeated One or two melodic patterns repeated 2 - weak Three or four tones repeated Three of four melodic patterns repeated 3 - good Five or six notes repeated Five or six melodic patterns repeated 4 - very good Seven or eight notes repeated Seven or eight melodic patterns repeated 5 - excellent Nine or ten notes repeated Nine or ten melodic patterns repeated The voice range is expressed in the number of notes sung by the subjects in their ambitus, according to which four categories of the voice range were made. Table 3: Voice range distributed according to the categories and number of notes Category I (the range couldn't be measured because not one note has been sung) Category II (the range of one octave or less) up to 13 tones and the 13th tone Category III (the range more than one octave and up to the second octave, including the first note of the second octave) 14 - 25 notes and the 25th note Category IV (the range bigger than two octaves) from 26th tone further Interpretation of the results Subjects’ results, divided into three groups, are shown in the tables according to the initial and final results. The results are presented according to each tested music element in regards to the particular group of subjects, and between all subjects, regardless of the research group. Tested music elements are intonation, melodic patterns and voice range. Intonational accuracy of all subjects The results in intonation were measured by the number of accurately repeated notes. Subjects repeated the group of ten notes, which was categorised according to the assessment scale (0-5). In the initial testing (IT), from 36 subjects, the most (27.8%) have shown themselves excellent in intonation (nine or ten notes repeated), while 8.3% of the subjects haven’t sung any notes. In the final testing (FT) the greatest percentage (47.2%) have repeated nine or ten notes. There aren’t any subjects who haven’t repeated even one note, while 22.2% of the subjects repeated the intonation in the weak or very weak degree. Figure one presents the comparative results of the initial and final testing for intonational accuracy according to the individual note. 23 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... Figure 1: Comparison of the intonational accuracy in IT and FT with all subjects By comparing the initial and final testing, we notice a progress in the intonational accuracy. After a certain time, all of the subjects have shown progress, regardless of the research group they belonged to. In the initial testing, three subjects haven’t sung even one note, while there were no such subjects in the final testing. In the category with one or two notes sung the number of subjects remained the same. In the weak category (three or four notes repeated) there were eight subjects in the initial testing, while in the final testing that number was reduced to four. The greatest difference in progress is visible in the category of nine or ten notes repeated. In that category, the number of subjects in the initial testing (27.8%) has risen to 47.2% in the final testing. The progress in the intonational accuracy of all subjects is closely connected with continuous singing. Accuracy of repeated melodic patterns of all subjects in the initial and final testing According to the same principle as with the intonational accuracy of individual note, subjects were tested in the accuracy of repeated melodic patterns. 19.4% out of 36 subjects sang nine or ten melodic patterns in the initial testing. The least subjects, 11.1%, hasn’t sung even one melodic pattern. The same percentage of the subjects is in the category with seven or eight sung melodic patterns. Most subjects have accurately sung three or four given melodic patterns (22.2%). In the final testing, 27.8% of the subjects did well in repeating melodic patterns, while 25% of them did very well. The least number of the subjects have repeated the melodic patterns weakly (5.6), while 13.9% of the subjects haven’t repeated even one melodic pattern. 24 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Figure 2: Accuracy of the repeated melodic patterns in IT and FT with all subjects Certain progress is noticeable when the initial and final states are compared. There is progress in most categories. In the category of not one sung note, final testing shows progress (from 11.1% to 13.9%). In the category 1 (very weak), there were 16.7% of the subjects in the initial testing, while in the final testing that number decreased to 8.3%. Category weak (three or four melodic patterns repeated) decreased from 22.2% to 5.6% accuracy in the final testing. The decrease of the number of subjects in weaker categories has resulted in the increase of melodic samples repetition accuracy in higher categories. A significant shift happened in the category well (five or six melodic patterns repeated). 19.4% of the subjects were successful in that category in the initial testing and 27.8% in the final testing. In the category of seven or eight melodic patterns repeated, a jump from 11.1% to 25% of the subjects occurred in the final testing. No shifts have happened in the last, highest, category (nine or ten tones repeated). The number of the subjects remained the same in the final as in the initial testing, 19.4%. Subjects’ range according to the number of sung notes The range is shown in two ways. It is presented in the number of notes according to initial and final note, with respect for semitone differences between the notes. At the same time, the range is shown according to the intervals which are distributed by quantity, because of the difference between the subjects, without stating the highest or lowest note. 25 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... Table 4: Subjects’ voice range according to the number of notes sung IT Number of notes sung Interval f % 0-12 . 8 4m 312 . 8 8P 525 . 6 13 p8 1 2,8 17 M10 1 2.8 18 P11 2 5.6 19 A11 1 2.8 20 P13 3 8.3 21 Octave + m6 2 5.6 22 Octave + M6 1 2.8 23 Octave + m7 1 2.8 25 Two octaves 3 8.3 26 Two octaves + m2 2 5.6 27 Two octaves + M2 2 5.6 28 Two octaves + m3 6 16.7 29 Two octaves + M3 1 2.8 30 Two octaves + P4 2 5.6 31 Two octaves + A4 1 2.8 32 Two octaves + P5 3 8.3 Total 36 100 According to the number of notes, the range between all subjects is from 0 to 32 notes at most. The most subjects (16.7%) have sung 28 tones (two octaves and minor third). One subject (2.8%) has sung 0, 4, 13, 17, 19, 22, 23, 29, 31 notes within her range. Three subjects have sung 25 notes (two octaves), and the same number 32 notes (two octaves and perfect fifth). 26 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Table 5: Subjects’ voice range according to the number of sang notes –FT Number of notes sung Interval f % 4m 312 . 8 13 P8 1 2.8 15 M9 1 2.8 18 P11 1 2.8 19 A11 1 2.8 21 Octave + m6 1 2.8 22 Octave+ M6 4 11.1 23 Octave + m7 1 2.8 24 Octave + M7 3 8.3 25 Two octaves 2 5.6 26 Two octaves + m2 3 8.3 27 Two octaves + M2 4 11.1 28 Two octaves + m3 4 11.1 29 Two octaves + M3 3 8.3 30 Two octaves + P4 1 2.8 31 Two octaves + A4 1 2.8 32 Two octaves + P5 2 5.6 33 Two octaves + m6 2 5.6 Total 36 100 In the final testing, the lower number of notes sung by one subject (2.8%) is 4 notes (minor third). The most notes, 33 notes (two octaves and minor sixth), was sung by 5.6% of the subjects. The difference in the voice range can be applied in the initial and final testing. The progress in widening the range is present. There were no subjects who weren’t able to sing even one note in the final testing. The maximum number of notes increased from 32 (two octaves and perfect fifth) in the initial testing to 33 (two octaves and minor sixth) notes in the final testing. The number of the subjects who sang 22 notes (octave and major sixth) has risen from 2.8% to 11.1%. The same percentage of the subjects have sung 27 (two octaves and major second), i.e. 28 notes (two octaves minor third). Figure 3 shows the notes sung by the subjects. 27 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... Figure 3: Voice range in IT and FT to the octaves and the whole range of subjects Voice range has deepened from C in the initial testing to B 1 in the final testing, while it remained the same in pitch. The highest sung tone was c 3 . Most frequently, the range of the subjects was between a and c 2 in the initial testing, and in the final testing from G sharp to e 2 in the final testing. This note range covers most subjects, while measured notes on the extremes were represented the least. Only one subject has displayed great range, which reached the depth of B 1 , and it was an example of a student with very low alto. The highest note c 3 was sung by two subjects. Subjects’ voice range according to the determined categories Measured subjects’ voice range was distributed in four categories. The first is the one in which the range couldn’t be measured, i.e. in which the subjects haven’t sung any notes rendering the range impossible to measure. The subjects with the range less than an octave and with an octave (to 13 notes and the 13 th note) comprised the second category. The third category includes the subjects with the voice range larger than one octave, and reaching to two octaves, including the upper note of the second octave (14-15 notes, and 25 th note). The fourth category is made of the subjects whose voice range is greater than two octaves (from 26 th note), but doesn’t cross into the third octave. 28 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Table 6: Subjects’ voice range according to the categories IT Voice range category f % I (not measured) 1 2.8 II (octave) 4 11.1 III (two octaves) 14 38.9 IV (over two octaves) 17 47.2 Total 36 100 All four categories are present in the initial testing of the range. One subject’s range couldn’t be measured (2.8%). Most subjects (47.2%) have the voice range greater than two octaves. Table 7: Subjects’ voice range according to the categories FT Voice range category f % I (not measured) 0 0.0 II (octave) 2 5.6 III (two octaves) 14 38.9 IV (over two octaves) 20 55.6 Total 36 100 Final testing has shown the increase in the subjects’ voice range in comparison to the initial testing (Table 7). After the singing treatment, the subject whose voice range couldn’t be measured managed to sing the notes in her range. So, the first category isn’t present in the final testing. The second category, which was 11.1% in the initial testing, has dropped to 5.6% in the final testing. The third category has remained the same (38.9 %). The greatest progress is visible in the fourth category. Subjects’ voice range has risen from 47.2% to 55.6% in the final testing. Tested music elements according to the groups Table 8 shows the descriptive statistics results of all the elements initially and finally tested in groups. In the continuation of the presented results, the range of the measured elements according to the number of tones won’t be displayed. The stated results are for voice range according to the categories because such presentation is musically simpler and clearer. 29 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... Table 8: Music elements of all groups Group N Min Max Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis E1 –In Intonation IT 12 0 5 3.17 1.749 -0.426 0.637 -1.101 1.232 Intonation FT 12 1 5 4.00 1.477 -1.219 0.637 -0.061 1.232 Melodic pattern T 12 0 5 2.75 1.712 0.073 0.637 -1.169 1.232 Melodic pattern FT 12 0 5 3.25 1.603 -0.805 0.637 -0.002 1.232 Range (categories) IT 12 1 3 2.00 0.739 0.000 0.637 -0.856 1.232 Range(categories) FT 12 2 3 2.67 0.492 -0.812 0.637 -1.650 1.232 E2– Gr Intonation IT 12 0 5 2.08 1.505 0.408 0.637 -0.111 1.232 Intonation FT 12 1 5 3.42 1.564 -0.499 0.637 -1.355 1.232 Melodic pattern IT 12 0 5 1.67 1.435 0.926 0.637 1.542 1.232 Melodic pattern FT 12 0 5 2.42 1.621 -0.205 0.637 -0.981 1.232 Range (categories) IT 12 0 3 2.08 0.900 -1.082 0.637 1.492 1.232 Range(categories) FT 12 1 3 2.08 0.669 -0.086 0.637 -0.190 1.232 C Intonation IT 12 1 5 3.92 1.311 -1.270 0.637 0.946 1.232 Intonation FT 12 1 5 4.08 1.240 -1.558 0.637 2.454 1.232 Melodic pattern IT 12 1 5 3.42 1.379 -0.666 0.637 -0.218 1.232 Melodic pattern FT 12 0 5 3.33 1.723 -1.260 0.637 0.807 1.232 Range (categories) IT 12 2 3 2.83 0.389 -2.055 0.637 2.640 1.232 Range(categories) FT 12 2 3 2.75 0.452 -1.327 0.637 -0.326 1.232 The range of items on the scale for intonation element is maximal (0-5) for the group of individuals and the group, while the range of items for the control group is 1-5 in the initial testing. The range of the items for all three groups is in range of 1-5 scale in the final testing. According to the arithmetic mean, intonation in E1-In is 3.17 in the initial testing, and after the individual singing treatment it has risen to 4.00. The rise is also visible in E2-Gr. The average intonation is 2.08 in the initial testing, and it has risen to 3.24 in the final testing. C group had the greatest arithmetic value in the intonational accuracy between all groups in the initial testing, and it was 3.92%. Intonational accuracy has risen to 4.08% in the final testing. The dispersion of items on the scale for melodic pattern element is maximal (0-5) in the experimental groups, besides the control group (1-5). The items dispersion is maximal 30 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek (0-5) in all groups in the final testing. Arithmetic mean of the E1-In of 2.75 in the initial testing has risen to 3.25 in the final testing. For E2-Gr it rose from 1.67 to 2.42 in the final testing. For C group the difference in the initial and final testing goes in the opposite direction. It has slightly decreased from 3.42 in the initial testing to 3.33 in the final testing. There is a noticeable difference between the initial and final testing in the range. Group E1-In has increased the average range of up to two octaves in the initial testing to the range of more than two octaves in the final testing. In the group E2-Gr there hasn’t been any shift between the initial and final testing, but it remained within the same range – to two octaves. In C group the average in range categories was greater than two octaves in the initial and final testing. These results show that a certain time of singing practice leads to hearing stabilisation improvement, intonational accuracy betterment and voice range increase. A very small, almost insignificant, drop is noticeable in melodic patterns in C group almost in the final testing. Subjects’ vocal range hasn’t increased in comparison with the initial testing, but has slightly dropped in the final testing. It is visible that singing treatment increases vocal abilities in all measured areas (intonation, melodic patterns and range). Intonation has improved in both groups, experimental and control group as well. Vocal technical practice, whose role is to widen the range and stabilise the intonational accuracy in persons with unstable singing abilities, has progressed the singing betterment in all the tested segments. Phases in the singing process are of utmost importance. Each singing treatment should be initialised with singing warm-up. According to the American research (Gish et al., 2012), more than half (54%) of the Masters of Music, Doctors of Music and singing teachers (N=117) exercise the singing warm-up for 5-10 minutes before singing, and only 22% uses vocal settling after singing. Singing warm-up is a type of warm-up for the vocal apparatus which includes technical vocal drill. That research hasn’t shown that education’s degree influences the effect of singing warm-up. Singing warm-up exercises have an important effect on raising awareness of the vocal apparatus and the way it functions, on the hearing stabilisation and widening of the range. According to Harvey (1997), singing warm-up is the key to maintaining vocal motor skills and health, but it also has a preventive character in vocal chords injuries. The research done by Barnes-Burroughs and Rodriguez (2012) has shown that singing warm-up is a very useful practice before the lecture, and not exclusively before singing. Experimental group (individual and group singing treatment) in comparison with the control group Considering the problem question about the difference in the singing between experimental groups and the control group over a certain period of time, the following hypothesis was set: 31 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... H: It is assumed that in the experimental groups, in which a certain singing treatment will be used, there will be progress in intonational accuracy, accuracy of performing melodic patterns, and widening the voice range, in relation to the control group. To test the hypothesis, Mann Whitney U Test was used first in order to test the existence of the difference between the control and experimental group in certain items, where the measure of statistical significance is p 0.05 (table 9). Music element range is only presented according to the categories because it is musically more significant and clearer than presentation according to the number of tones. Table 9: Mann Whitney U test Intonation IT Intonation FT Melodic pattern IT Melodic pattern FT Range (categories) IT Range (categories) FT Mann-Whitney U 82.000 129.000 81.500 114.500 61.000 99.000 p 0.016 0.296 0.016 0.156 0.001 0.043 According to Mann-Whitney U Test and the ranks, the difference between experimental groups and the control group in all tested items is visible (table 10). These items show the initial results in intonational accuracy of individual tones, melodic patterns and voice range. It is noticeable that the control group had significantly better results in the initial testing from both experimental groups in all tested areas. The results show a positive growth for the experimental group in the final testing, while this can’t be said for the control group according to the areas of testing. Table 10: Differences between experimental groups and the control group in the measured item Skupina N M rank Intonation IT E1- In E2 – Gr 24 15.92 C 12 23.67 Melodic pattern IT E1- In E2 – Gr 24 15.90 C 12 23.71 Range (categories) IT E1- InO E2 – Gr 24 15.04 C 12 25.42 Range (categories) FT E1- In E2–G r 24 16.63 C 12 22.25 Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was used with the goal of determining whether the changes in certain items occurred between the initial and final state (in the experimental and 32 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek control group). Table 11 shows the results of the nonparametric test for related samples – Wilcoxon test (p 0.05). Table 11: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Group M rank E1-In E2-Gr Intonation FT – IT Negative Ranks 4.50 Positive Ranks 9.28 Melodic pattern FT - IT Negative Ranks 6.00 Positive Ranks 7.62 Range (categories) FT – IT Negative Ranks 5.50 Positive Ranks 5.50 C group Intonation FT – IT Negative Ranks 0.00 Positive Ranks 1.50 Melodic pattern FT – IT Negative Ranks 3.00 Positive Ranks 3.00 Range (categories) FT – IT Negative Ranks 2.00 Positive Ranks 2.00 Table 12: Differences in the initial and final testing in the experimental groups and the control group Group Intonation FT - Intonation IT Melodic pattern FT – Melodic pattern IT Range (categories) FT – Range (categories) IT E1- In E2–G r Z -3.478 a -3.095 a -2.530 a p 0.001 0.001 0.006 C group -1.414 a -0.447 b -0.577 b 0.079 0.328 0.282 As Table 12 shows, the statistically significant difference between the initial and final state has been confirmed in the experimental groups, i.e. there has been a change in all items in the final testing (intonation, melodic patterns and widening the voice range) in relation to the control group. That confirms the hypothesis which assumed that in the experimental groups, in which a certain singing treatment will be used, there will be progress in the intonational accuracy, accuracy of performing melodic patterns and widening the voice range in relation to the control group. The results of the research done by Siupsinskieneova, Lyckeova (2011) also confirm the findings of this research. According to the mentioned authors, vocal training has positive quantification effects on voice abilities. Trained singers show an increase in vocal abilities in range for the pitch, because practise hardens muscles of the larynx, which can then in turn endure greater vocal demands. Vocal practice has great influence on the respiratory capacity and mobility of the larynx. It is confirmed that singers, in relation to non-singers, show a difference in the singing profile. For adults and for kids as well, training has 33 Jelena Blaškoviæ, THE EFFECT OF SINGING EDUCATION... influence on the voice range and intensity. Vocal profiles show clinically and statistically significant difference between singers and non-singers. Vocal training has positive influence on singing, but also on vocal abilities. Scientific and exact approach to singing educates students for controlled singing, self-control and differentiating quality singing features. Latukefu (2010) points out that knowing the anatomy, physiology and the functioning of the vocal apparatus, leads to understanding one’s own singing. Such knowledge contributes to singing competence of preschool education students – future preschool teachers Conclusion The research with preschool education students at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb – Department of Petrinja shows that singing treatment gives results over a certain period of time. It’s been shown that no expert guidance is necessary for intonational accuracy’s betterment. Intonation can be improved by intuitive singing over a longer time period. It would be expected that intonational accuracy’s betterment is also linked with the accuracy in singing melodic patterns, but this research hasn’t shown so in the control group. For the voice range category, the improvement in the control group wasn’t expected because no appropriate singing method, which would lead to widening the range, was applied. Singing is a developmental skill dependent on the vocal and mental capacity of the learner, time interval and the individual’s engagement. That fact is confirmed by a research done by Aaron (1993) in Pennsylvania. This research showed that vocal progress was made as a result of directed singing exercises in classes for 40 minutes a week. With the expert guidance, the insecure singers have bettered their quality of singing. Singers who worked individually and in a group also displayed progress in achieving intonational stability and widening the voice range. This action research, according to its features, can be set as a trial theory which is contextually linked to the singing treatment with the non-random group of preschool education students at the Faculty of Teacher Education in Zagreb – Department of Petrinja. From this reason, it can’t be a general theory because the results should be substantiated with additional research by dividing and defining additional research problems, questions and goals, and a bigger sample. The research results have shaped the trial background theory of a narrower range which can be applied in certain areas or under certain conditions (Valenèiè Zuljan et al., 2007). Time interval of active singing engagement influences the development of music and singing skills. Special singing treatment, with individual and group approach, influences the development of singing skills in the short period. Progress in singing skills development is possible through intuitive singing, because continuous singing without expert instruction also yields betterment in intonational accuracy and widening the voice range. The finest progress is achieved with individual singing, then through group approach, and finally by intuitive singing. Singing treatment enables stability in singing 34 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek intervals and leads to widening the voice range. Singing can be a taught skill, and the speed of singer’s perception and progress depends on the predispositions of the singer himself/herself. Much research has affirmed that singing can be taught and improved over time, and that the invested time and regular technical drill influence the quality of performance and intonational stability (Atterburry, Sicox, 1993; Persellin et al., 2002; Richards, Durrant, 2003; Rutkowski, Snell Miller, 2003; Hornbach,Taggart, 2005; Lešnik, 2009; Mitchell et al., 2010). Singing is a developmental skill which depends on the vocal and mental capacity of the learner, time interval and the individual engagement (Richards, Durrant, 2003; Rutkowski, Snell Miller, 2003). As a developmental skill, singing requires time, work continuity and maturity. As such, it is an indispensable part of music education on faculties of teacher education. References Aaron, J. (1993). Using Vocal Coordination Instruction to Help the Innacurate Singer. In: Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 11 (2), pp. 8–13. Atterbury, B. W. and Sicox, L., (1993). 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Music practices and teachers’ needs for teaching music in public preschools of South Korea. In: International Journal of Music Education, 27 (4), pp. 356–371. Lešnik, I. (2009). Vokalna tehnika uèiteljev in kakovost petja uèencev v prvem triletju osnovne šole. Doctoral dissertation. Univerza v Ljubljani: Pedagoška fakulteta, Ljubljana. Mesec, B. (1997). Metodologija raziskovanja v socialnem delu. Univerza v Ljubljani. Visoka šola za socialno delo. Available: https://sites.google.com/site/ kvalitativnametodologija/ metodologija-ii/skripta-ii [1.9.2014.] Mitchell, H. F., Kenny D. T., Ryan, M. (2010). Percieved improvment in vocal performance following tertiary – level classical vocal training: do listeners hear systematic progress? In: Musicae Scientiae 14 (1), pp. 73–93. Nichols, B. L., Honig, A. S. (1995). The influence of an inservice music education program on young children’s responses to music. In: Early Child Development and Care, 113, pp. 19–29. Özgül. I. (2009). An analysis of the elementary school music teaching course in Turkey. In: International Journal of Music Education 27 (2), pp. 116–127. Persellin, D. C., Smith, L., Klein, M., & Taguiam E. (2002). An Investigation of the Effects of Vocal Modeling on the Development of Singing Ability in Kindergarten Children. In: Texas Music Education Research. Available: www.tmea.org/080_ College/Research/ Per2002.pdf (26. 2. 2013). Pranjiæ, M. (2005). Didaktika. Zagreb: Golden marketing – Tehnièka knjiga. Richards, H., Durrant, C. (2003). To Sing or Not to Sing: A study on the development of `non-singers’ in choral activity. In: Research Studies in Music Education 20 (1), pp. 78–89. Rutkowski, J. and Snell Miller, M. (2003). A Longitudinal Study of Elementary Children`s Acquisition of Their Singing Voices. In: Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 22 (1), pp. 5–14. 36 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Siupsinskiene, N. and Lycke, H., (2011). Effects of Vocal Training on Singing and Speaking Voice Characteristics in Vocally Healthy Adults and Children Based on Choral and Nonchoral Data. In: Journal of Voice, 25 (4), pp. 177–189. Stevanoviæ, M. (2001). Didaktika. Rijeka: Express digitalni tisak. Špiler, B. (2012). Umjetnost solo pjevanja. Reprint izdanje iz 1972. Novi Herceg: NVO »BRUNA«. Temmerman, N. (1998). A survey of childhood music education programs in Australia. In: Early Childhood Education Journal, 26 (1), pp. 29–34. Terhart, E. (2001). Metode pouèavanja i uèenja. Zagreb: Educa. UNESCO (2006). Road Map for Arts Education World Conference on Arts Education: University Press. Vaccai, N. (1878). Practical Method of Italian Singing (tran. Badger, H.). Boston: G.D.Russels & Co. Available: https://ia600808.us.archive.org/28/items/imslp- pratico-de-canto-vaccai-nicola/PMLP85474-Vaccai--Practical_Method_of_Italian_Sin ging_text.pdf (15. 3. 2014). Valenèiè Zuljan, M., Vogrinc, J., Bizjak, C., Krištof, Z., Kalin, J. (2007). Izzivi mentorstva. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani. Pedagoška fakulteta. Vannatta-Hall, J. E. (2010). Music education in early childhood teacher education: The impact of a music methods course on pre-service teachers’ perceived confidence and competence to teach music. Doktorska disertacija. Urbana, Illinois. Available: https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/16854/1_VannattaHall_Jennifer. pdf?sequence=4 (15. 6. 2013). Vukasoviæ, A. (1995). Pedagogija. Zagreb: Alfa d.d., Hrvatski katolièki zbor „MI“. 37 38 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Marina Bizjak 1 , Patrick K. Freer 2 1 Osnovna šola Idrija, Slovenija 2 Georgia State University, USA DO WE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL TECHNIQUE IN ADOLESCENCE? Abstract If we want a person's behaviors to include participation in singing and choral music, we need to provide students with the knowledge and skills to sing successfully through the voice change in adolescence and into adulthood. There is increasing evidence that adolescents who view themselves as unsuccessful singers will only rarely seek choral music experiences in adulthood. The purpose of the study was to determine whether teachers are aware of the importance of vocal technique during adolescence. The results of the empirical research, which included 29 music teachers of Slovenian elementary schools from different Slovenian regions who taught in school year 2014/2015, reveal that more than half of the teachers participating in the research do not devote enough time to prepare adolescent singers before singing and only a good tenth of them consider individual characteristics of singers. Research suggests that institutions that offer training to future music teachers should devote more attention to educate them to be more sensitive concerning the needs and the abilities of adolescent voice. A basic approach for the work with adolescent voices is presented. Key words: adolescence, voice change, vocal exercises, warm-ups, pedagogical approaches, research Izvleèek Ali se zavedamo pomena vokalne tehnike v adolescenci? Èe ima mladostnik eljo po vkljuèevanju v aktivno petje in zborovsko glasbo, mu moramo zagotoviti znanje in spretnosti za uspešno petje v obdobju glasovnih sprememb, ki se pojavijo v adolescenci. Vedno veè je dokazov, da se bodo mladostniki, ki se doivljajo kot neuspešni pevci, v odraslosti le redko vkljuèili v zbore. Namen študije je bil ugotoviti, ali se uèitelji zavedajo pomena vokalne tehnike v èasu adolescence. Rezultati empiriène raziskave, ki je vkljuèevala 29 osnovnošolskih uèiteljev glasbene umetnosti iz razliènih slovenskih regij, ki so predmet pouèevali v šolskem letu 2014/2015, kaejo, da veè kot polovica sodelujoèih uèiteljev ne posveèa dovolj èasa za pripravo mladostnikov na petje. Le dobra desetina upošteva individualne glasovne znaèilnosti pevcev. Raziskava kae, da bi morale institucije, na katerih se usposabljajo bodoèi uèitelji glasbe, posvetiti veèjo pozornost njihovemu izobraevanju v smeri, da bi bili obèutljivejši glede potreb adolescentskega glasu in individualnih glasovnih znaèilnosti v tem obdobju. V èlanku so predstavljeni osnovni pristopi dela z razvijajoèimi se glasovi. Kljuène besede: adolescenca, sprememba glasu, vokalne vaje, upevalne vaje, pedagoški pristopi, raziskava 39 Marina Bizjak, Patrick K. Freer, DO WE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL TECHNIQUE... Introduction Adolescence is a critical stage of development pedagogically, physiologically, and psychologically (McPherson, 2006). Body experience a lot of changes, but one of the most noticeable changes occurs is the development of the voice. What is going on? Puberty begins between 10 and 14 years and is associated with increasing levels of hormones (testosterone in boys and estrogen in girls). Accelerating growth of the larynx is most pronounced in boys. The size of the entire laryngeal skeleton is in boys after puberty greater. In boys, vocal cords increase in both length and thickness. The resonating tube and lung function increase, which also affects the voice. The development of the vocal cords during puberty is accompanied by the growth of all structures of the throat (Hoèevar Boltear, 2008). During voice change or vocal mutation adolescent voice may go through insecurity of pitch, main fundamental frequency lowers, vocal range is limited, voice cracks and register "breaks" can appear, increased breathiness or hoarseness, huskiness in voice quality may occur, singing can become uncomfortable for the singer (Gackle, 1991). Before voice change begins (before puberty) both boys and girls have similar vocal pitch, during puberty the male voice lowers for nearly an octave, while female voice lowers for a few notes (3-4 semitones; Gackle, 1991). Lynn Gackle in her article "The adolescent female voice: Characteristics of change and stages of development" describes that teachers who work with adolescent voices need: "1. an understanding of how the adolescent voice matures in order to give proper guidance to the development of voice skills and the selection of music; 2. an understanding of the potentials, limitations, characteristics, and unique qualities that may be encountered in individual adolescent voice; 3. a working knowledge of ways to assess the present vocal and musical abilities of each young singer, and ways to help them develop healthy, efficient personal voice skills; 4. a working knowledge of how to choose music that is within the physiological capabilities of young changing voices; 5. the ability to aurally recognize when adolescent voices are speaking and singing efficiently and healthy within their developmental capabilities, or are speaking and singing inefficiently and unhealthy" (Gackle, 1991). Does this mean that we need to give up singing during the voice change? The knowledge about voice change which occurs in adolescence which the future music teachers get during their studies is not enough for proper work with the developing voices. Many teachers are later dependent only on their own activity in getting more information. In 2014 only two lectures about adolescent voices and voice changes in puberty were organized for music teachers, singers and choral directors in Slovenia, which we believe is not enough. This is a reason why we were interested in the experiences that Slovenian teachers have in working with changing voices. 40 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Problem Definition "Because of the continuing growth in the size of the thorax and associated muscles (intercostal, diaphragmatic and abdominal) during puberty, proper coordination between these muscles during singing is difficult to achieve" (Cooksey, 1999). Teachers are often in a dilemma what to do with the voice they hear. How to teach singers through the process of mutation? The purpose of the research With this research we wanted to verify whether music teachers are aware of the importance of vocal technique during adolescence. We set the following research questions: 1. Do teachers prepare adolescents before singing with breathing and vocal exercises? 2. How much time teachers devote to prepare adolescents for singing? 3. Do teachers train boys and girls together or separately? 4. What experiences do teachers have with working with the voice during mutation? Based on the research questions we have formed the following hypothesis: H1: Teachers rarely prepare adolescents before singing with breathing and vocal exercises. H2: Teachers do not devote enough time to prepare adolescents for singing. H3: Most teachers train boys and girls together regardless to the voice change and individual singing abilities. H4: Most teachers find it more important that adolescents warm up their voices and not how the selected vocal exercises will develop their voices. Methodology We performed non-experimental empirical research on a sample of 29 Slovenian music teachers. Results were obtained on the basis of a questionnaire; questions were related to the singing in the classroom. Teachers, who participated, answered a questionnaire on preparation of adolescent singers before singing with breathing and vocal exercises, on time which they devote to prepare adolescents for singing. Teachers responded to the question if they teach girls and boys together or separately, which breathing and vocal exercises do they use and what are their experiences with working with youth choirs and individual adolescent singers. Sample In the school year 2014/2015, we performed non-experimental empirical research on a sample of 29 music teachers from different Slovenian regions, who taught in elementary schools. The questionnaire was sent to 541 music teachers who taught in elementary schools, but only 29 (5,4%) of them answered. 41 Marina Bizjak, Patrick K. Freer, DO WE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL TECHNIQUE... Measurement Instrument Questionnaires were sent to teachers who taught music in the third triad of elementary school. The questionnaires were anonymous and voluntary. For descriptive statistical analysis of the results Excel was used. Results Preparation before singing Teachers responded to a question about the preparation of adolescents for singing with breathing and vocal exercises. 26 (90%) teachers prepare adolescents for singing with breathing and vocal exercises, 2 (7%) teachers occasionally prepare adolescents, and 1 (3%) teacher does not prepare adolescents before singing. Time teachers devote to prepare adolescents before singing Teachers estimated time which they devote to prepare adolescents with breathing and vocal exercises before singing. 7 (24%) teachers use 5 minutes, 15 teachers (52%) 10 minutes, 6 (21%) teachers 15 minutes, and only one teacher (3%), more than 15 minutes. Awareness of individual singing abilities of adolescents Teachers estimated their understanding of individual singing and vocal capabilities of adolescents. 26 (90%) teachers train boys and girls together regardless to the voice change and individual singing and vocal capabilities. Only 3 (10%) teachers train boys and girls separately. Vocal exercises for adolescent voice Teachers wrote the vocal exercises which they use when working with adolescent singers. 25 (86%) of them use "platoon" style of warm-ups. Experiences in working with voices during voice change (mutation) 13 (45%) teachers answered that adolescents in their class do not sing, teachers also advise them not to sing, or even worse, teachers do not pay any attention, adolescent singers are left to fend for themselves and often develop incorrect and harmful vocal technique as a result of the lack of instruction. 5 (17%) teachers consider individual characteristics of singers. Their pedagogical work includes vocal exercises in a proper vocal range, where singers can sing comfortable. Teachers also educate adolescent singers about the physiology and acoustics of singing and speaking. They teach them to understand the process of voice mutation. 3 (10%) teachers allow boys to sing the selected literature an octave below the basic intonation. 2 (7%) teachers encourage singing high tones in head register, singing with an open throat, then gradually encourage singers to sing in a chest register. 2 (7%) teachers avoid singing in a low register. 2 (7%) teachers said that their singers during voice change don't have problems. 1 (3%) teacher points out that she is not sure whether she teaches correctly, 1 (3%) teacher claims that the voice change does not exist. She asks in which sex the voice change occurs. 42 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Discussion We were unpleasantly surprised by the number of received responses. It is sad that only a few music teachers responded to the questionnaire. Does this mean that only 29 music teachers found this topic interesting? Is a lack of knowledge and ignorance of teaching adolescent singers a much wider problem as demonstrated by the results of these 29 music teachers? A small percentage (5,4%) of responses indicates a low interest of the professional public to this problem. The results show that music teachers included in the research are insufficiently aware of the importance of carefully selected vocal exercises for adolescents, in some cases, also lack of hearing and recognizing the voice changes. There are no similar studies on the importance of vocal technique in adolescence to find with which we could compare the results we obtained. The analysis of the collected data show that music teachers included in the research are insufficiently aware of the importance of vocal exercises which they use to prepare adolescent voice before singing and the specific characteristics that occur during the voice development. A majority (87%) of teachers prepare adolescents for singing with breathing and vocal exercises. Some music teachers do understand the unique characteristics of young adolescent males and their changing voices. All of the success whether the voice will develop properly in a healthy way depends upon the knowledge and musical sensitivities of the individual music teacher. A singer needs to take good care of the voice and his or her entire body before singing even begins otherwise incorrect vocal coordination may develop and lead to unhealthy voice and speech habits (Bizjak, Brodnik, Hoèevar, 2013). With proper preparation before singing we can reduce the risk of injury. The hypothesis H1 in which we assume that teachers rarely prepare adolescents before singing with breathing and vocal exercises cannot be confirmed. We found a little bit worse results on the question about the time that teachers devote to prepare adolescents before singing. 76% teachers devote 10 minutes or less for preparation. Due to minor vocal capabilities we suggest to devote about 10 - 15 minutes daily for warm-ups. "Warm-up is the process by which the individual prepares his or her body for the demands of a practice session, rehearsal or performance. Physically it prepares muscles and joints for heavier and specific use. Mental preparation enables the coordination of the constituent details necessary. The techniques of singing are rehearsed and refreshed in a non-stressful way" (Williams, 2013). The hypothesis H2 in which we assume that teachers do not devote enough time to prepare adolescents for singing can be confirmed. Third question was related to awareness of individual singing abilities of adolescents. Most teachers (90%) train boys and girls together regardless to the voice change and individual singing abilities. We believe that boys and girls should be trained separately, because every individual adolescent matures differently. Training boys on their own in small groups will help them focus on their own voice and changes which will occur during different stages of voice development (Freer, 2009b). By training boys and girls together, 43 Marina Bizjak, Patrick K. Freer, DO WE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL TECHNIQUE... boys can become confused because of the struggle to find the right octave (Jorgenson, Pfeifer, 2008). Teachers need an understanding of the potentials, limitations, characteristics, and unique qualities that may be encountered in individual adolescent voices. Listening to each adolescent singer is important in order to assess vocal development (Gackle, 1991). The hypothesis H3 in which we assume that most teachers train boys and girls together regardless to the voice change and individual singing abilities can be confirmed. In the field of knowledge of the intention of vocal exercises we obtained worse results than expected. The research confirms that teachers working with adolescent singers often use "platoon" style of warm-up favored by most choral directors without knowing the aim of the exercises, which naturally may or may not conflicts with the concept of the individual nature of the adolescent voice (Titze, 2008). The problem is that most exercises are not suitable for developing adolescent voice because they often include a tessitura (not range) too high for the female changing voice. For this reason, boys sing "down the octave", which is too low. "All warm-up exercises need to have a direct relationship to singing; they are not just "for fun". If you don´t know exactly what the exercise is achieving, leave it out" (Williams, 2013). The hypothesis H4 in which we assume that most teachers find it more important that adolescents warm up their voices and not how the selected vocal exercises will develop their voices can be confirmed. Teachers have different experiences in working with voices during voice change (mutation). A little less than half of the teachers (45%) advice adolescents not to sing, or simply don´t pay any attention. Adolescent singers are usually left to fend for themselves and often develop incorrect and harmful vocal technique as a result of the lack of instruction (Haston, 2007). Many of the problems adolescents encounter result from ignorance regarding correct vocal technique. Some of these problems include a forced, harsh tone, jaw tension, high larynx, breathy tone, nasality or hoarseness. Educating students about using proper technique can rectify these problems before they automatically cause incorrect use of laryngeal muscles. The results shows that only 17% of teachers consider individual characteristics of singers by educating about the physiology, acoustics of singing and speaking voice and the process of voice development. One of the music teachers showed incomplete knowledge about a voice change during adolescence. Generally speaking, the results of the study showed a great lack of knowledge about music teacher's work with adolescent voices. For this reason, some basic principles of the approach to the work with the developing voices are presented. Approaches for working with adolescent voices In the literature we can find appropriate vocal exercises which can be used when working with adolescent voices. As the most important warm-ups, Titze recommends phonation through lip and tongue trills, humming, and the use of the [o] vowel (Titze, 2008). Cooksey states that while exercising voice in its mutational stages, establishing good postural habits is of the utmost importance. Vocalizing in the most comfortable range at the outset of warm-ups is essential, with attention gradually given to all registers in an 44 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek effort to blend them. Additionally, educating young singers about the mutational process, its implication for the voice, and the physiology and acoustics of singing and speaking are ways to highlight the uniqueness of the changing voice while helping adolescents understand that they are not alone in this phenomenon. Cooksey describes in detail numerous exercises in the following areas: (a) breath management; (b) kinesthetic and vocal warm-ups; (c) tone quality and resonance; and (d) intervallic, dynamic, and rhythmic flexibility. Exercises are developed specifically for the different needs of female and male singers (Cooksey, 1999). There is increasing evidence that adolescents who view themselves as unsuccessful singers will only rarely seek choral music experiences in adulthood (Ruddock, Leong, Widden; 2005, 2008). Adolescent boys undergo a more dramatic vocal maturation process than adolescent girls, and this may account for the declining number of adult males who sing in choirs worldwide - the so-called "missing males" phenomenon in choral music (Freer, 2007). Students view themselves as unsuccessful when they experience embarrassment while singing, are asked not to sing because of their changing voice, or are not given opportunities to sing in choirs. It is the student's perception of these issues that is most influential in future decisions about participation in musical activities (Freer, Ververis, 2011). If we want to teach young people about their voices we have to choose musical activities that are optimal for them. Teachers and students both need to be knowledgeable about what vocal change involves and the challenges it presents (Freer, Ververis, 2011). The adolescent vocal change is prompted by hormonal changes in the body that may begin as early as age 9 and are associated with puberty. During puberty, the male vocal folds increase in both length and thickness. The average increase in length of about ten millimeters lowers the range an octave or more. Of concern to the music educator is that the lengthening occurs at different rates in different boys (Cooksey, 2000). The male adolescent voice isn't the only one that changes. So does the female voice, but it changes more in quality than in range. Because male adolescent singers will experience changes in both range and the sensation of vocal coordination, choral music teachers need to take these issues into account when selecting repertoire and rehearsal methods (Freer, Ververis, 2011). Changing voices are affected by many easily overlooked musical issues. For example, boys, usually "tenors," who have been reading pitches from the treble staff for years are suddenly presented with the conundrum of singing those pitches an octave lower than they are printed. "Baritones" may have to learn to sing in a completely new clef-the bass clef. Also, the standard warm-ups at the beginning of the rehearsal may need to be adapted for changing pitch levels (Freer, 2009a). The following are some key points about warming up choirs with changing voices. Warm-ups are singing, and the unison singing that won't work for repertoire won't work for warm-ups. The composite unison range of any middle school choir is approximately a sixth, from G3 to E4 (U.S.A Standards Association) or from g-e1 (Helmholtz system) 45 Marina Bizjak, Patrick K. Freer, DO WE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL TECHNIQUE... (Cooksey, 1999). Even when beginning with a pitch that every student can sing, any Do-Mi-Sol vocalise by half steps up will have left some students behind after the third ascending repetition. At the most basic level, a choral warm-up is a sequence of activities focused on the coordination of vocal skills in preparation for the challenges of a specific rehearsal. Key components of a successful warm-up session for young adolescents include a logical sequence that remains consistent from day to day (daily regimen), an allowance for student choice and experimentation within the procedures, a clear pedagogical relationship between the tasks of the warm-up session and the repertoire to follow, and an allowance for a variety of student groupings, body movements, and physical locations within the warm-up session (Freer, 2009b). There are five sequential stages of an effective choral warm-up session. Beginning with relaxation, teachers should use imagery such as the weather (tapping different parts of the body hard or soft, fast or slow), getting ready for school, sporting events, etc. Teachers might ask students to act out some actions that stem from these ideas, such as shivering, wiping sweat off of the brow, opening and closing an umbrella, and so forth. Carefully chosen physical activities will both relax the musculature of the students and gradually draw their focus toward following the directions of the teacher. These are essential for the effective functioning of a choral ensemble (Freer, 2009b). Following relaxation activities, students will be ready to focus on physical pousuture and body alignment. Some choral conductors insist on strict posture for singing, but the extreme variations in adolescent bodies makes this impractical (Freer, Ververis, 2011). The establishment of an optimal physical alignment will then make breathing easier. Choral conductors should always remember to have students exhale before inhalation. If they do not exhale first, an excess of air may accumulate in the lungs, resulting in a raised chest and shoulder position. Rather, use a motion such as an underhand softball toss where the toss is the exhalation and the wind-up is the inhalation. This motion also both relaxes the shoulder muscles and reinforces the concept of breathing low in the body. There is one more step before the singing of vocal exercises begins. Students need to coordinate their breath flow with their vocal mechanism. This can begin by having students quietly laughing then hum on a pitch of their own choosing. This will accommodate voices at all stages of change. From a pitch in the middle of the range, have students descend in pitch by half step before ascending. This will gradually coordinate the breath and vocal folds in producing the balanced voice with necessary pitch and rhythm. Finally, vocalizes can be introduced as the final step. These vocalizes may not always be sung in unison when there are many different voice parts represented by the students. Look for ways that students can achieve the intended goals even though they don't sing on the same pitch. One approach is to have students sing a national song or folksong starting on a pitch of their choice. The result may sound like cacophony, but it's also a challenge for 46 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek students to maintain their own part while others are singing something similar but not identical. For all sequences of vocalizes, it is wise to gradually move toward higher pitches, to gradually sing at louder volumes, to gradually increase the speed of singing (especially when there are leaps and skips in the exercise), and to end with a calming vocalize that relaxes the voice into the lower range (Freer, 2009b). Some choral teachers find it helpful to repeat a vocalize when they get to the moment in rehearsal where that vocalize would help students with a musical passage in the repertoire. This will help students understand the relationship between the vocal techniques experienced in the warm-up process and the technique used to sing passages in the repertoire. The choral warm-up sequence presents an opportunity for teachers to teach skills and present solutions to problems that will arise as students learn their repertoire. In other words, the warm-up process offers an opportunity to prepare for the rehearsal to follow (Freer, 2009b). Conclusion With the results of the research made on a sample of 29 Slovenian music teachers, we found that teachers spend too little time preparing adolescents before singing. They pay little or no attention to individual voice abilities of singers and are insufficiently aware of the meaning and purpose of vocal exercises which they use to train adolescents during voice development. Results of the importance of vocal technique in adolescence open many questions and dilemmas that should be further examined in future researches. The lack of scientific studies from a physiological and a pedagogical point of view highlights the need of research in this field in Slovenia. We see the need for educating future music teachers on the proper voice function, correct vocal technique; train their ears to recognize the specific characteristics of changing voices and the ability to teach adolescents about the changes that occur during the voice development. We believe that despite the changes which occur during puberty, we should not abandon singing, but thoughtfully and with available knowledge work with adolescent voices with planned pedagogical approaches, conscious use of vocal exercises, designed to build healthy sound and technique. Some basic principles for the work with adolescent voices are presented. To compare the impact of vocal exercises on the voice of adolescent singers who sing during the voice change and develop their voices with vocal exercises and adolescents who don´t sing during the voice change, it is necessary to perform a pilot study. References Bizjak, M., Brodnik, P., Hoèevar-Boltear, I. (2013): Glasovne in govorne navade mladostnikov. In: Glasba v šoli in vrtcu, 17/4, pp. 22-27. 47 Marina Bizjak, Patrick K. Freer, DO WE REALIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF VOCAL TECHNIQUE... Cooksey, J. (1999): Working with adolescent voices. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. Cooksey, J. (2000): Voice transformation in male adolescents. In Bodymind & Voice: Foundations of Voice Education. Revised edition. (Leon Thurman & Graham Welch Ed). St. John's University, Collegeville, In: MN: Voice Care Network Publication, pp. 718-738. Freer, P. K. (2007): Between Research and Practice: How Choral Music Loses Boys in the Middle. In: Music Educators Journal, pp. 28-34. Freer, P. K. (2009a): Getting Started with middle School Chorus, 2nd edition. R&L Education / National Association for Music Education (NAfME). Freer, P. K. (2009b): Choral Warm-Ups for Changing Adolescent Voices. In: Music Faculty Publication, 16, pp. 1-8. http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/music_facpub/16 (8. 7. 2015). Freer, P. K. & Ververis, A. (2011): Methaphonisi and Choral Music Education in the United States: Research and Philosophical Perspectives. In: Music Faculty Publications, 32, pp. 5-23. http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/music_facpub/32 (9. 7. 2015). Gackle, L. (1991): The adolescent female voice: Characteristics of change and stages of development. In: The Choral Journal, 31/8, pp. 17-25. Haston, L. G. (2007): Physiological Changes in the Adolescent Female Voice: Applications for Choral Instruction. Tennessee: The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Music. Hoèevar Boltear, I. (2008): Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta. Jorgenson, N. & Pfeifer, C. (2008): Successful Single-Sex Offerings in the Choral Department. In: Music Educators Journal, 5, pp. 36-40. McPherson, G. (2006): The child as musician: A handbook of musical development. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Ruddock, E. & Leong, S. (2005): I Am Unmusical!: The Verdict of Self-Judgement. International Journal of Music Education, pp. 9-22. Titze, I. (2008): Getting the Most from the vocal instrument in a choral setting. Choral Journal, 49/5, pp. 34-41. Williams, J. (2013): Teaching Singing to Children and Young Adults. Compton Publishing Ltd, Oxford. 48 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Katarina Zadnik Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST V NIJIH RAZREDIH NAUK O GLASBI Izvleèek Funkcionalna glasbena pismenost je skupek glasbenih sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanj, ki jih razvijamo, preverjamo in vrednotimo na razliènih dejavnostnih podroèjih Nauka o glasbi. Njena pomembna sestavina je sposobnost branja in zapisovanja glasbenih vsebin. Razvoj funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti smo prouèevali na podroèjih slušnega zaznavanja glasbenih vsebin, izvajanja glasbenih vsebin po metodi imitacije in na podroèju a vista izvajanja v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi. Primerjava rezultatov je pokazala boljše rezultate na ritmiènem podroèju. Ugotavljamo, da v praksi prevladuje koncept ozkega pojmovanja funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti, ki se navezuje na sposobnost razumevanja in uporabe glasbenega zapisa. Razvoj slušne pozornosti in obèutljivosti, ki podpira razvoj slušno-analitiènih zaznav, pa je še vedno zapostavljen. Kljuène besede: funkcionalna glasbena pismenost, sposobnost slušnega zaznavanja, a vista izvajanje, Nauk o glasbi, raziskava Abstract Functional musical literacy in the lower grades of Music theory Functional musical literacy is a set of musical abilities, skills and knowledge that are developed, verified and evaluated in various musical activities in Music theory. The ability of reading and writing musical content is exposed within it. The development of functional musical literacy was studied in the field of the auditory perception of musical content, in the field of performing musical contents by the method of imitation and in the field of a vista performing in the 2nd grade of Music theory. The comparison of the results showed better results in the rhythmical field. The results show that the concept of narrow understanding of the functional musical literacy has a dominant role, which is reffering to the ability to understand and use music notation. The development of auditory attention and sensitivity, which supports the development of auditory-analytical perception, however, is still neglected. Key words: functional musical literacy, ability of auditory perception, a vista performing, Music theory, research Uvod V zgodnjem obdobju glasbenega izobraevanja pri pouku predmeta Nauk o glasbi v glasbenem šolstvu je simbolni glasbeni zapis opora v razvoju glasbenega mišljenja. Uèenec z njim osmišlja in poglablja pridobljene glasbene izkušnje in doivetja na dejavnostnih podroèjih izvajanja, poslušanja in ustvarjanja. V glasbenih dejavnostih je vselej sprva udeleen preden se spozna s standardnim glasbenim zapisom glasbenih 49 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... vsebin. Z njimi razvijamo temeljne glasbene sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanja, v fazi uporabe zapisovalne glasbene simbolizacije pa vplivamo na razvoj glasbenega mišljenja in funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti. Temeljni cilj sodobnih glasbeno-izobraevalnih sistemov je razviti posameznikovo glasbeno funkcionalno pismenost, ki se kae v razumevanju in sposobnosti uporabe glasbenega zapisa kot temeljne vezi med glasbeno ustvarjalnostjo in poustvarjalnostjo. Razvoj glasbenega opismenjevanja v zahodnem glasbeno izobraevalnem sistemu tei predvsem h konkretni ozvoèitvi, estetskemu oblikovanju in doiveti interpretaciji glasbeno simbolnega zapisa. V tem primeru je glasbeno-simbolni zapis opora pri priklicu usvojenih glasbenih predstav v obliki predhodnega notranjega slišanja. Usvojene glasbene izkušnje, ki se kot glasbene predstave postopno vkljuèujejo v glasbenokategorialni sistem (Motte Haber, 1990), so v glasbenem spominu ponovno priklicane na temelju glasbenega zapisa. To pomeni, da se glasbena pismenost ne navezuje ozko na bralne ali zapisovalne spretnosti glasbenega zapisa, temveè vkljuèuje široko strukturo razvitih glasbenih sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanj, ki podpirajo razvoj glasbenega opismenjevanja in obratno. Kompleksnost standardnega glasbenega zapisa zahteva postopno in sistematièno uvajanje uèenca v razumevanje in uporabo le-tega, s slehernim izhodišèem v glasbenem jeziku. Funkcionalna glasbena pismenost kot temeljna kompetenca zahodnega glasbenika se razvija v daljšem èasovnem obdobju. Pri pouku Nauka o glasbi je razvoj funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti spodbujan na dejavnostnih podroèjih solfeggio, interpretacija in izvajanje primerov iz glasbene literature, poslušanje, ustvarjanje, glasbenoteoretièna in oblikovna znanja. V prispevku bomo izpostavili dejavnostno podroèje solfeggio kot temeljno podroèje v razvoju glasbene funkcionalne pismenosti. Omejili se bomo na problematiko razvoja funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju v zaèetnih razredih Nauka o glasbi. Kaj je funkcionalna glasbena pismenost? Vprašanja, kdo je glasbeno pismen, kako je definirana glasbena pismenost in katere kompetence vkljuèuje, so izhodišèa v diskusijah o pojmovanju termina glasbene pismenosti. Mills in McPherson (2006) zagovarjata uporabo mnoinskega pojma glasbene pismenosti. Menita, da glasbena pismenost ni enovita sposobnost, temveè kompleks sposobnosti. Pravita, da glasbena pismenost ni ozko povezana s sposobnostjo dekodiranja glasbenega zapisa v notnem èrtovju in njegove precizne zvoène izvedbe. Pojmujeta jo kot skupek veè zmonosti, in sicer: izvajanja glasbe; izvajanja glasbe po notnem zapisu; izraanja pogledov in stališè glede izvajane, poslušane ali ustvarjene glasbe; zapisovanja slišane glasbe v obliki notnega zapisa; razumevanja in interpretiranja glasbenega zapisa. Green in Bray (1997, v Mills in McPherson, 2006) povezujeta pojem glasbena pismenost s sposobnostjo igranja po posluhu, razvito sposobnostjo glasbenega spomina, spontanostjo in sprošèenostjo ustvarjanja in izraanja glasbe, fiziènimi spretnostmi igranja na razliène inštrumente, sposobnostjo prilagajanja razliènim zvoènim barvam inštrumentov in z razvitim odnosom do skupinskega muziciranja. 50 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek V zahodnem sistemu glasbenega izobraevanja je razumevanje in uporaba simbolnega zapisa glasbenega jezika pogosto ozko povezana s pojmovanjem, da posameznik razume in zna uporabljati glasbeni zapis tako, da ga pevsko ali inštrumentalno korektno ozvoèi. Izhodišèa tega ozkega pojmovanja glasbene pismenosti izhajajo iz zgodovinskih razvojnih stopenj glasbene notacije, ko se je iskal natanèen nedvoumen zapis glasbenih vsebin in s tem monost avtentiène interpretacije glasbenega zapisa. V sodobnem zahodnem sistemu glasbenega izobraevanja je simbolni glasbeni zapis opora za razliène oblike glasbene komunikacije in podpora razvoju funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti (Borota, Kovaèiè, 2015). Funkcionalna glasbena pismenost pri pouku Nauk o glasbi Predmet Nauk o glasbi spodbuja razvoj funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti na razliènih glasbeno-dejavnostnih podroèjih. Na vsakem izmed podroèij zastavlja specifiène operativne cilje, s katerimi spodbuja razvoj ritmiènega, melodiènega, harmonskega in glasbeno-estetskega posluha. Temeljno podroèje solfeggio poudarja in razvija funkcionalno glasbeno pismenost z razvojem sposobnosti izvajanja po glasbenem zapisu in sposobnosti zapisovanja slišanih glasbenih vsebin z glasbenim zapisom. Podroèje izvajanje in interpretacija primerov iz glasbene literature razvija funkcionalno glasbeno pismenost z estetskim in doivetim izvajanjem glasbenih primerov v povezavi z zapisanimi dinamiènimi in agogiènimi oznakami in oznakami za tempo. Podroèje poslušanje razvija funkcionalno glasbeno pismenost z razvojem sposobnosti analitiènega in kombiniranega poslušanja glasbenih elementov, podroèje ustvarjanje pa s sposobnostjo zapisovanja glasbenih idej in ustvarjenih glasbenih vsebin z glasbenim zapisom. Rezultat razvite funkcionalne glasbene pismenost je odraz in skupek razliènih glasbenih sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanj, ki jih razvijamo, preverjamo in vrednotimo na razliènih dejavnostnih podroèjih Nauka o glasbi in Solfeggia. Konèni rezultat razvite funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti pa se odraa na podroèju glasbenoteoretièna in oblikovna znanja. Izhodišèe za razvoj funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti so glasbene izkušnje in doivetja, ki jih otrok usvaja v predšolskem obdobju. Te skupaj z glasbenimi znanji tvorijo glasbene predstave v obliki notranjega slišanja glasbenih vsebin. Izgrajene glasbene predstave in znanja, ki se postopno vkljuèujejo in nadgrajujejo v glasbenokategorialnem sistemu v obliki notranjega slišanja (Motte Haber, 1990), so most k razumevanju in ustrezni uporabi standardnega glasbenega zapisa ter predstavljajo temelj v razvoju funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti. Stopnje v razvoju funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti v nijih razredih Nauka o glasbi Sposobnost funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti se razvija postopno v daljšem èasovnem obdobju. V zaèetni fazi razvoja glasbenega opismenjevanja (v nijih razredih Nauka o glasbi) izstopajo naslednje sposobnosti in stopnje: 1) prepoznavanje in razumevanje glasbenih simbolov v notnem èrtovju; 51 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... 2) povezava glasbenih predstav v notranjem slišanju z vizualnim elementom glasbene notacije; 3) samostojno dekodiranje in izvajanje ritmiène in melodiène strukture glasbenega zapisa. Sedemletni uèenec, v 1. razredu Nauka o glasbi, hitro slušno in teoretièno usvoji zaporedje tonskih višin v tonski abecedi, veè ovir se pojavlja pri prepoznavanju in razumevanju glasbenih simbolov teh višin v notnem èrtovju. Ime tonske višine ni le ime za nekaj, je odnos, ki kae na mesto znotraj tonske abecede, ki jo je uèenec zvoèno usvojil kot celoto. Zato je lahko izhodišèe pri obravnavi posameznih tonskih višin lestvièno zaporedje teh višin znotraj tonske abecede v notnem èrtovju, ki uèencu nudi smiselno glasbeno predstavno celoto. Od te celote pa ga vodimo v slušno in vidno razumevanje njenih delov in posameznosti v notnem èrtovju. Oblak (2002) ugotavlja, da otrok pridobi sposobnost orientacije v okviru doloèenega tonskega lika. Ta lik je lahko interval ali neko tonsko zaporedje. Ker veèji del slovenskih ljudskih in umetnih pesmi izvira iz dura, je pogostokrat ta glasbeni lik durova lestvica. Ta predstavlja izhodišèe za razvoj analitiènih zaznav pevskih izkušenj, iz katerih naj izhaja obravnava tonskih višin v notnem zapisu. Glasbeni simboli v notnem èrtovju rabijo kot uporabni oznaèevalci šele takrat, ko je uèenec zgradil odnos do njih prek glasbenih izkušenj in s pomoèjo mnemotehniènih sredstev izvenglasbenih vsebin, ki so se v glasbenem spominu vsidrale kot izoblikovane glasbene predstave. Èeprav si je sedemletnik vse bolj sposoben predstavljati glasbene aktivnosti in dejavnosti v obliki notranjih glasbenih predstav – svojo misel je vse bolj sposoben odtrgati od konkretne dejavnosti – pa mu predstavlja glasbeni zapis novo obliko predstavitve e usvojenih glasbenih izkušenj in predstav, ki ga povzdigne na višjo raven v glasbenemu mišljenju – na raven formalnologiènega glasbenega mišljenja (po Piaget, 1930 v Labinowicz, 1989). Nadaljnji razvoj glasbenega opismenjevanja je lahko oviran, razen èe se je uèenec nauèil povezati glasbene predstave v notranjem slišanju z vizualnim segmentom glasbene notacije. V tej fazi se razvija zmonost prepoznavanja motivov in glasbenih vzorcev kot enakih, podobnih, razliènih ali kot sekvenènega gibanja, uèenec se sooèa s pulzacijo, metrumom, ritmom in tonaliteto. Te relacije ustvarjajo osnovo za uèenje predhodnega notranjega slišanja glasbenega zapisa in ozavešèanja sintakse glasbenega dela. Osnova za povezavo med notranjim slišanjem glasbenega dela in njegovim glasbenim zapisom izhaja iz predhodno usvojenih glasbenih izkušenj in predstav. Dekodiranje glasbenega zapisa v obliki predhodnega notranjega slišanja vkljuèuje višje stopnje procesov na kognitivnem podroèju, ne le razumevanja glasbenega zapisa, temveè predvsem njegovo uporabo, analizo, sintezo in vrednotenje. Na zaèetni stopnji glasbenega opismenjevanja prihaja do številnih zapletov, ki izhajajo iz nepovezanosti notranjega slišanja glasbenega zapisa in njegovega vizualnega segmenta. Uèitelj ima v tej fazi pomembno vlogo. S sistematiènim izborom instruktivnih vaj, primerov iz glasbene literature in z ustreznimi postopki in metodo dela z notnim zapisom lahko vodi uèenca na višjo stopnjo mentalnih operacij. Ker pri glasbenemu pouku izstopata uèni fazi urjenja/vadenja in ponavljanja, ponavljajoèe se vaje prinašajo prednosti in slabosti. Na eni strani pomagajo k hitremu in pravilnemu reagiranju na glasbene simbole v notnem èrtovju, po drugi strani pa lahko 52 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek vodijo v nemotiviranost in tako v neuèinkovitost uèenja. Zato je potrebno smiselno vodenje v procesu dekodiranja ritmiène in melodiène strukture glasbenega zapisa. Bamberger (2006) pravi, da zgodnje uèenje glasbene notacije lahko povzroèi pojemanje motivacije za glasbo in slušne obèutljivosti. Naslednja faza v razvoju glasbenega opismenjevanja je, da uèenec zaène samostojno spremljati detajle v glasbenemu zapisu in se nauèi dekodirati ritmièno in melodièno strukturo. V primeru, da je uèenje glasbenega zapisa osredotoèeno na poimenovanje tonov in ritmiènih vrednosti brez njihove glasbene ozvoèitve, postane to uèenje naporno in utrudljivo. S povezavo glasbenega zapisa in njegovo glasbeno ozvoèitvijo, v uèencu postopno raste zavedanje, kako naj glasba zveni. Zmotno je preprièanje, da bi si uèenec moral zapomniti široko vrsto glasbenih simbolov, ki bi vodili v uèinkovito branje in razumevanje glasbene notacije. Uèni proces branja glasbene notacije je lahko izredno poèasen, èe glasbeni elementi, ki so predstavljeni v glasbenemu zapisu, niso neposredno ozvoèeni. Mills in McPherson (2006) poroèata, da se v glasbenopedagoški praksi še vedno pojavljajo tenje po uèenju uporabe glasbenega zapisa brez ustrezne zvoène podlage. Pomembno je, da ne zaidemo v stereotipno urjenje bralnih vešèin notnega zapisa, temveè da domišljeno izbiramo postopke, ki vodijo k vzpostavitvi in povezavi notranjih glasbenih predstav z zapisom glasbenih vsebin, kar podpira prehod na višjo raven glasbenega mišljenja (Oblak, 2002; McPhersson in Gabrielsson, 2002 v Mills, McPherson, 2006). Otrok se lahko z glasbenim zapisom sreèa e v zgodnjem otroštvu. Note prepoznava kot znakovni sistem za glasbo, zato mu ta ni vizualno abstrakten in tuj. Glasbeni zapis mu je tuj z vidika priklica glasbenih predstav v notranjem slišanju in njegove ozvoèitve. Zaèetniške ovire ozvoèevanja glasbenega zapisa pri predmetu Nauk o glasbi Uèenec se v 1. razredu Nauka o glasbi najprej zaène zavedati znaèilnosti notnega èrtovja, zaène razvijati odnos do pomena glasbenega zapisa in se zaène uèiti, kako je glasba zapisana v partituri. Ovire se pojavljajo pri prepoznavanju glasbenih simbolov v notnem èrtovju: poèasi prepoznava tonske višine in trajanja, kljuèe, taktovske naèine, tonalitete, dinamiène oznake, predznake itd. Na zaèetni stopnji branja glasbenega zapisa je pomembna velikost zapisa v notnem èrtovju. Ko uèenec procesira glasbeno notacijo in svoje oèi osredotoèa na èrte èrtovja, lahko majhna velikost zapisa glasbenih simbolov, èe so si ti preblizu, povzroèa teave v zaznavi razlik in preskakovanje pomembnih detajlov kot so višaji in niaji. Tudi Piaget (1930 v Labinowicz, 1989) poroèa, da imajo 7-letniki teave oziroma omejitve pri zaznavanju sveta, ki so povezane z bralnimi sposobnostmi. Pravi, da obstajajo med mlajšimi in starejšimi otroki razlike v oèesnih gibih, ki jih zahteva branje. Mlajši otrok tei h globalni fiksaciji. Tako dobi celostni vpogled kompleksne konfiguracije, ne pa podrobnosti. Gibanje oèi je sluèajno in ne kae sistematiènega gledanja. Okoli sedmega leta starosti upada tenja po globalnem gledanju in gibi oèi izraajo boljši nadzor. Buzan (1980) navaja, da se oèi med branjem ne gibljejo enakomerno, temveè skokoma z veè postanki. Poèasni bralci s slabimi bralnimi navadami pri branju omejujejo pogled le na eno besedo, nezavedno preskakujejo nazaj, se zagledajo 53 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... drugam ali zavestno vraèajo k besedam. Uspešnejši bralci usmerijo svojo pozornost v skupino besed, izogibajo se preskokom, vraèanjem ali blodenju pogleda. S podobnimi teavami se sreèujemo tudi na podroèju branja in ozvoèevanja glasbenega zapisa. Veèina otrok ni vajena branja notnega zapisa »vnaprej«, ampak gre za branje »od note do note«, kar prepreèuje tekoèo glasbeno izvedbo. To pomeni, da vsako noto posebej pogleda, identificira in nazadnje poimenuje (Hrobat, 2004). Šele, ko je uèenec sposoben pravilno identificirati in poimenovati notne znake, lahko zaènemo razvijati avtomatizem »vnaprejšnega branja«. Ta avtomatizem omogoèa nadgradnjo povezave tonskih odnosov v notnem zapisu s predhodnim notranjim slišanjem le-teh, ki temelji na oblikovanih glasbenih predstavah. Na zaèetni stopnji uèenja pravilnega branja glasbenega zapisa, se mora uèenec najprej nauèiti branja z gibanjem oèi z leve proti desni in od vrha do dna strani. Pogosto se zaèetnik zaradi še neusvojene orientacije v notnem èrtovju izgublja v zapisu ali pri prehodu v novo notno èrtovje. Delo z notnim zapisom ga hitro utrudi, ker ne vkljuèuje le prepoznavanja glasbenih simbolov, temveè tudi mentalne procese na višjih nivojih spoznavnega podroèja. Z izvajanjem razliènih glasbenih del usvaja poleg glasbenih predstav tudi simbolne notne vzorce v notnem èrtovju, ki jih hrani v glasbenemu spominu. Usvojene vizualne podobe notnih vzorcev mu pomagajo razlikovati in povezovati podobne notne vzorce v njegovem glasbenem repertoarju. Tako bo vizualne podobe notnih vzorcev medsebojno loèeval, z njimi predvideval nadaljevanje ali pa bo spoznal nov vzorec. Velika nevarnost pri tem je, da ne zaidemo v stereotipno urjenje bralnih vešèin notnega zapisa brez ustrezne zvoène podlage. Longitudinalne študije (McPherson, 1993, 2005 v Mills, McPherson, 2006) so pokazale, da se uèenci razlièno hitro razvijajo in napredujejo v sposobnosti branja in ozvoèevanja glasbenega zapisa. Na zaèetni stopnji razvoja glasbene pismenosti se kaejo razlike na tem podroèju e v prvih tednih. Nekateri uèenci vlagajo veliko naporov v branje in ozvoèevanje glasbenih zapisov, drugi pa se s tem podroèjem spoprijemajo z relativno lahkoto. Uèinkovita uporaba glasbenega zapisa vkljuèuje kompleks razvitih glasbenih sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanj, zato prihaja do individualnih razlik v razvoju funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti. Sposobnost a vista izvajanja v nijih razredih Nauka o glasbi Pri sleherni uri Nauka o glasbi se uèenec sreèa z a vista izvajanjem. Termin a vista (uèni naèrt, 2003) oznaèuje sposobnost ozvoèevanja glasbenega zapisa na »prvi pogled«. Zlasti na zaèetni stopnji, ko je uèenec uveden v uporabo glasbenega zapisa in postopno pridobiva izkušnje na podroèju prepoznavanja znakov v glasbenem zapisu in njihovem ustreznem ozvoèevanju, je zanj vsaka nova glasbena vaja povezana z a vista izvajanjem. Uèni naèrt (2003) doloèa uvajanje v a vista izvajanje v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi s ciljem, »da bo uèenec zavestno pel po notah« (Habe, 1993, str. 5). Ta sposobnost zahteva postopno in sistematièno obravnavo tonskih odnosov na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju, ustrezno uèno gradivo glede na teavnostno stopnjo glasbenega razvoja in 54 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek uèiteljevo ustrezno uporabo metodiènih postopkov. V izvedbeni fazi jih mora voditi tako, da uèenci vaje solfeggirajo in ne imitirajo. Z ustreznim izborom ritmiènih in melodiènih vaj, sistematiènim vkljuèevanjem le-teh v uèni proces in z ustreznimi postopki dela je omogoèen postopen razvoj funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti. A vista izvajanje glasbenih vsebin sodi med procesnorazvojne cilje, kar pomeni, da bodo rezultati na podroèju a vista izvajanja vidni v kasnejšem èasovnem obdobju. Izvajanje po glasbenem zapisu zahteva veliko pozornosti in zbranosti, saj se izvedba zapisa vselej odvija v glasbenem èasu. Izvajanje ritmiènih vsebin vkljuèuje identifikacijo ritmiènih gibanj v doloèenemu taktovskemu naèinu in izbranem ali doloèenemu tempu. Ovira na zaèetni stopnji glasbenega izobraevanja je ravno v obèutenju mere in enakomernega ritmiènega izvajanja, ker uèenec še nima pregleda nad èasovno dimenzijo glasbe, ki pogojuje zaznavanje glasbenega ritma. Na melodiènem podroèju ima uèenec teave s prepoznavanjem in pomnenjem tonskih višin in trajanj. Dejavniki, ki oteujejo korektno izvajanje melodiènih vsebin po notnem zapisu so: intenziven razvoj melodiènega posluha, neobvladovanje pevskega aparata, nerazviti pevski obseg, pomanjkljiva slušna zaznava in kontrola. Sloboda (1985) pravi, da je a vista izvajanje pogosto domena izkušenih in izurjenih glasbenikov, medtem ko je v uènem procesu to prva stopnja obravnavanja in usvajanja novega glasbenega gradiva. Najveèji dele glasbenega izobraevanja zajema podroèje glasbenih vaj, saj veèina glasbenikov porabi najveè èasa in energije v fazi ponavljanja in utrjevanja, ki vodi v estetsko in doiveto glasbeno izvedbo. Sposobnost zapisovanja glasbenih vsebin v nijih razredih Nauka o glasbi Sposobnost zapisovanja slišanih glasbenih vsebin z glasbenim zapisom je obseen in zapleten proces, ki zahteva sistematièno uèenje in urjenje. Edino izhodišèe za zapis slišane glasbene vsebine je njena zvoèna podoba, kar zahteva njen ponovni priklic po doloèenem èasovnem obdobju. Zvoèna podoba, ki se ohranja v kratkoroènem spominu, se s ponovno aktivacijo neposredno prenese v središèe zavesti, v delovni spomin. Tu potekajo ponovitve zvoènih podob in mentalne operacije zavestne analize, sinteze in vrednotenja tonskih odnosov. V teh fazah se predelana informacija glasbene vsebine asociativno povee z e ohranjenimi glasbenimi predstavami v dolgoroènemu spominu, ki vodijo do konènega zapisa slišane glasbene vsebine. Posebej opazna teava na podroèju zapisa glasbenih vsebin ni povezana le s èasovnim, temveè tudi z vsebinskim pomnenjem. Snyder (2000) ugotavlja, da v kratkoroènem spominu, ki traja od 3 do 5 sekund, ohranjamo od pet do devet elementov, Piaget (1930 v Labinowicz, 1989) pa, da veèina sedemletnikov lahko ohranja osem ali devet elementov. Glasbenopedagoška praksa kae, da se z ustreznimi vajami glasbeni spomin krepi in še nadalje razvija. Na pomnenje glasbenih vsebin poleg doline nareka (ta je odvisna od glasbeno-razvojne stopnje) vpliva tudi zgradba glasbenega nareka. Zaokroena glasbena misel, ki jo uèenec sprva celostno zazna, je izhodišèe za zaznavo njenih posameznih delov in za ponovno zdruitev njenih delov v celoto. 55 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... Proces zapisovanja glasbenih vsebin poteka na spoznavni ravni, ki zahteva ustrezno orientacijo in razumevanje uporabe notnega èrtovja. Zapis glasbenih vsebin je zadnja faza pretvorbe »slišane« glasbene vsebine v »vidno«. Pred njo je faza ali veè faz, ki pogojujejo uspešen zapis. Èe pri branju glasbenih vsebin glasbeni zapis sproi priklic zvoène podobe, je pri zapisu glasbene vsebine njena predhodna zvoèna podoba tista, ki si jo moramo po nekem èasovnem obdobju ponovno priklicati v spomin. Z uspešnim priklicom zvoène podobe lahko nastopi faza zavestne analize in sinteze tonskih odnosov in v konèni fazi tudi njen zapis (Borota, 2007). Rojko (2004) svetuje izvajanje ustnih glasbenih narekov pri sleherni uri in to od prvega dne dalje. Zapis glasbenega gradiva je »tehnièni« problem, ki pa se ne navezuje na glasbeno-spoznavni del procesa. Podoben koncept razvijanja sposobnosti zapisovanja slišanih glasbenih vsebin je vkljuèen v uèbeniška gradiva v nijih razredih Nauka o glasbi (Torniè Milharèiè, 2003, 2004). Ker se uèenec zaène šele sooèati z uporabo notnega èrtovja, se v glasbenopedagoški praksi pogosto sreèujemo z nalogami tipa melodiènih in ritmiènih ugank, dopolnjevank ali sestavljank. Praksa vkljuèuje ustne nareke na melodiènem podroèju s tihim nakazovanjem tonov na modulator, s petjem in nakazovanjem tonov na modulator, s tihim nakazovanjem fonomimiènih znakov, s petjem in nakazovanjem fonomimiènih znakov. Zaradi zahtevnosti zapisovanja glasbenih vsebin, se v 1. in 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi pogosto obravnava zapis ritmiènih in melodiènih vsebin loèeno. Raziskava Opredelitev problema Z raziskavo elimo prouèiti stopnjo razvitosti funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti pri osemletnih uèencih v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi. V fazi merjenja ravni razvitosti funkcionalne pismenosti smo upoštevali kompleksnost te sposobnosti na podroèju slušnega zaznavanja ritmiènih in melodiènih vsebin, z izvajanjem ritmiènih in melodiènih motivov po metodi imitacije in na podroèju a vista izvajanja ritmiènih in melodiènih vsebin. Cilji raziskave Z raziskavo smo eleli odgovoriti na naslednja raziskovalna vprašanja: – Kakšna je stopnja razvitosti slušnega zaznavanja glasbenih vsebin na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi? – Kakšna je stopnja razvitosti izvajanja po metodi imitacije na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi? – Kakšna je stopnja razvitosti a vista izvajanja na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi? – Ali se pojavljajo razlike v stopnji razvitosti funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju pri uèencih 2. razreda Nauka o glasbi? 56 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Metoda Raziskavo smo izvedli po deskriptivni in kavzalno-neeksperimentalni metodi pedagoškega raziskovanja. Vzorec V raziskavo je bilo vkljuèenih 39 uèiteljev in 165 uèencev Nauka o glasbi iz cele Slovenije: 66.6% iz ljubljanske regije, 23.0% iz štajerske in 10.2% iz primorske regije. Uèenci, ki so bili stari 8 let, so obiskoval program Glasba – 2. razred predmeta Nauk o glasbi in inštrumentalni pouk. Merski inštrumenti in karakteristike Podatki so bili zbrani z baterijo testov za preverjanje stopnje razvitosti slušnega zaznavanja enakih ali razliènih glasbenih vzorcev na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju, izvajanja ritmiènih in melodiènih vzorcev po metodi imitacije in a vista izvajanja glasbenih vsebin na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju. Naloge so bile oblikovane skladno z javnoveljavnim uènim naèrtom za Nauk o glasbi (2003). Stopnjo razvitosti slušnega zaznavanja smo preverjali s predvajanjem (pripravljeni primeri so bili posneti na zgošèenki) dveh enakih ali razliènih glasbenih vzorcev. Uèenci so poslušali štiri pare melodiènih/ritmiènih vzorcev in se na podlagi slušno-analitiène percepcije pisno odloèili, ali so predvajani pari enaki ali razlièni. Ugotavljali so, na katerem mestu se pari razlikujejo: na zaèetku, na sredini ali na koncu. Vsako pravilno rešitev smo toèkovali z dvema toèkama, delno pravilno z eno toèko in nepravilno rešitev z 0 toèkami. Stopnjo razvitosti izvajanja po metodi imitacije in a vista izvajanja melodiènih in ritmiènih motivov smo vrednotili na podlagi predhodno pripravljenih opisnih kriterijev. Na ritmiènem podroèju smo oblikovali naslednje kriterije: 1) netoèno ritmièno izvajanje: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili vse tiste primere, pri katerih je prihajalo do nepravilnih izvajanj posameznih ritmiènih trajanj. 2) neupoštevanje izbranega tempa: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili tiste primere, ko uèenec ni upošteval izhodišènega tempa v fazi izvajanja – motiv izvede prehitro ali prepoèasi. 3) izvajanje v neenakomernem tempu: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili tiste primere, ko uèenec ni ohranil enakomernega tempa od zaèetka do konca izvajanja – med izvajanjem pohiteva ali upoèasnjuje. Na melodiènem podroèju smo oblikovali naslednje kriterije: 1) petje v svojem pevskem obsegu: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili vsako pevsko izvajanje, ki ni bilo odpeto v absolutno podani intonaciji (C-dur). 2) intonanèno nezanesljivo: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili tisto pevsko izvajanje, pri katerem je bila smer gibanja melodije ohranjena, vendar pa je bil posamezni ton v seriji ali veè njih spremenjenih, tako da je bil izvirni melodièni motiv še prepoznan. Sem smo uvrstili tudi tiste pevske izvedbe, pri katerih so bili posamezni toni v motivu intonanèno neèisto zapeti – absolutna tonska višina je bila zapeta nekoliko previsoko ali prenizko. 57 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... 3) melodièno netoèno: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili tisto pevsko izvajanje, pri katerem smer gibanja melodije ni bila pravilno izvajana ali ohranjena. Sem smo uvrstili tudi tisto izvajanje, pri katerem so bili osnovni melodiji dodani novi toni tako, da je bila ta še vedno prepoznavna ali pa so jo ti popolnoma spremenili. 4) tonalno nestabilno: v to kategorijo smo uvrstili tisto pevsko izvajanje, pri katerem je bil en del motiva izveden v predpisani tonaliteti, v nadaljevanju je sledila modulacija v drugo tonaliteto. V fazi modulacije je bilo petje tonskih odnosov pravilno glede na izvirni melodièni motiv. Sem smo uvrstili tudi tiste primere, ko je prišlo do spremembe tonalitete med pevskim izvajanjem, vendar se je zakljuèek motiva ponovno pojavil v izhodišèni intonaciji. Izvajanje po metodi imitacije in a vista izvajanje ritmiènih in melodiènih motivov smo toèkovali: pravilno izvajanje (2 toèki), delno pravilno (1 toèka) in nepravilno (0 toèk). Na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju je lahko uèenec dosegel maksimalno 24 toèk. Stopnjo razvitosti ritmiènega in melodiènega posluha smo ocenjevali s štiristopenjsko ocenjevalno lestvico: zelo razvit, razvit, manj razvit, slabo razvit. Objektivnost in diskriminativnost baterije testov je bila zagotovljena, zanesljivost testov je bila preverjena s Cronbachovim koeficientom (0.83), trije neodvisni eksperti pa so potrdili njihovo vsebinsko zanesljivost. Postopek zbiranja in obdelave podatkov Vsak uèitelj (39), ki je ustno ali pisno potrdil sodelovanje v raziskavi, je vkljuèil osem uèencev iz 2. razreda Nauka o glasbi po naslednjih kriterijih: 2 uèenca z dobro razvitimi glasbenimi sposobnostmi, 3 uèence s povpreèno razvitimi in 3 uèence s slabo razvitimi glasbenimi sposobnostmi. Uèitelji so po klasièni pošti prejeli baterije testov za slušno zaznavanje glasbenih vsebin s posnetki ritmiènih/melodiènih parov, izvajanje po metodi imitacije, a vista izvajanje in navodila za izvedbo preverjanja ritmiènega in melodiènega posluha z opisnimi kriteriji toèkovanja za vsako posamezno nalogo. Uèenci so bili testirani izven pouka Nauk o glasbi. Testiranje glasbenih sposobnosti je izvajal razredni uèitelj. Nalogo slušnega zaznavanja glasbenih vsebin so izvedli v skupinski obliki, naloge izvajalskega tipa pa individualno. Ta tip nalog smo tonsko dokumentirali (mini disk, kasetofon, video kamera). Tako smo imeli prilonost ponovnega poslušanja in preverjanja uèiteljevega vrednotenja uèenèevih izvedb. S tem naèinom smo se izognili uèiteljevim subjektivnim vrednotenjem in zagotovili objektivnejše vrednotenje nalog izvajalskega tipa. Èasovna izvedba preverjanja se je izvajala v 3. in 4. tednu marca 2008. Vse zbrane podatke smo obdelali v raèunalniškemu programu za statistièno analizo SPSS. Pri obdelavi podatkov smo uporabili frekvenène distribucije spremenljivk (f, f%). Rezultate smo prikazali v tabelah in grafih. 58 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Rezultati in interpretacija Interpretacija rezultatov na ritmiènem podroèju Pri pouku Nauka o glasbi razvijamo ritmiène sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanja preteno na temeljnem podroèju solfeggio. V 1. in 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi se ritmièna vzgoja navezuje na ritmièno izreko besedil, izvajanje instruktivnih ritmiènih vaj z ritmiènim zlogom TA ali v obliki solfeggia parlata, izvajanje ritmiènih vsebin v igrani obliki, ustvarjanje in zapis ritmiènih vsebin. V raziskavi smo ritmiène sposobnosti preverjali skozi slušno zaznavanje ritmiènih vsebin, z izvajanjem ritmiènih vzorcev v igrani obliki (s ploskanjem) po metodi imitacije in z ritmièno izreko ritmiènih vzorcev pri a vista izvajanju. Slušno zaznavanje ritmiènih parov S prvo nalogo smo preverjali slušno zaznavanje štirih ritmiènih parov. Uèenci so morali primerjati dva ritmièna vzorca v paru in doloèiti, ali sta si enaka ali razlièna. Vsak ritmièni par so poslušali najveè trikrat. V primeru, da sta bila ritmièna vzorca razlièna, so morali doloèiti še mesto spremembe: na zaèetku, na sredini ali na koncu. Slika 1: Slušno zaznavanje ritmiènih parov Z nalogo smo preverjali sposobnost konzervacije dveh ritmiènih vzorcev v glasbenem spominu na kognitivnem podroèju. Sposobnost konzervacije se izkazuje skozi miselno ohranitev zvoènega gradiva v notranji predstavi in njegovo primerjavo z novim gradivom. V našem primeru so morali testirani uèenci ohraniti oba slušno zaznana ritmièna vzorca v paru v glasbenem spominu, na tem temelju so analizirali, ali sta bila ta enaka ali razlièna. Ugotavljamo, da je bil najveèkrat pravilno slušno zaznan (90.9%) drugi ritmièni par, v katerem sta bila ritmièna vzorca identièna. Ostali pari – prvi, tretji in èetrti – so vkljuèevali dva razlièna ritmièna vzorca. Veèina testiranih uèencev je pravilno slušno zaznala, da sta si ritmièna vzorca v paru razlièna, teave so imeli pri lociranju mesta spremembe. 89.7% uèencev je pravilno slušno zaznalo mesto spremembe (na koncu) v prvem ritmiènem paru. 78.2% uèencev je pravilno doloèilo mesto spremembe (na zaèetku) v tretjem ritmiènem paru in 68.5% uèencev je pravilno slušno zaznalo spremembo na sredini v èetrtem paru. Glasbeni spomin je temeljni dejavnik v fazi slušne percepcije glasbenih vsebin. V tem obdobju sposobnost pomnjenja napreduje in se izboljšuje. Zvoène informacije se v kratkoroènem spominu èasovno ohranjajo od 3 do 5 sekund, kolièinska kapaciteta ohranjanja je med 5 in 9 elementov (Snyder, 2000). Po Piagetu je osemletnik spominsko 59 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... sposoben ohraniti od osem do devet elementov. Ritmièni pari, ki so se pojavili v èasovnem okviru kratkoroènega spomina, niso zbledeli iz spomina, temveè se je v predstavi notranjega slišanja izvršila primerjava prvega slišanega ritmiènega vzorca s trenutno slišanim drugim vzorcem v paru. Predvidevamo, da sta osemletniku ob prvem poslušanju oba ritmièna vzorca predstavljala eno celoto. Po drugem in tretjem poslušanju mu je prvi ritmièni vzorec v paru predstavljal eno frazo (en element), drugi vzorec pa drugo frazo nov element (drug element). Grupaciji ritmiènih vzorcev, ki sta se oblikovali z organizacijo zvoènih dogodkov v notranjem slišanju, in njuna konzervacija v kratkoroènem spominu, sta omogoèali primerjavo med vzorcema in ugotavljanje, ali sta enaka ali razlièna. Z drugim in tretjim poslušanjem se je v delovnem spominu, v katerem se odvijajo spoznavni procesi, izvedla analiza mesta spremembe, èe je uèenec prepoznal, da sta si vzorca razlièna. Serafine (1988) je ugotovila, da je razvoj glasbeno-mentalnih procesov (prepoznavanje, razlikovanje, primerjanje) v porastu med osmim in desetim letom, izrazitejši porast teh procesov pa izstopa med 10. in 11. letom. Na vzorcu testiranih uèencev ugotavljamo, da so mentalne sposobnosti presojanja enakih ali razliènih elementov preteno dobro razvite, vendar pa se veèje teave pojavljajo pri toènem doloèanju mesta sprememb. Predvidevamo, da so te teave lahko izhajale iz še nerazvite sposobnosti konzervacije in pomanjkljivih spominskih kapacitet. Sklepamo, da je bilo veè toènejših slušnih zaznav v prvem ritmiènem paru (89.7%) zaradi gostote zvoènih dogodkov (9), ki niso presegale spominskih kapacitet uèencev. Morda je k deleu pravilnih slušnih zaznav pri prvem ritmiènem paru prispevalo tudi mesto spremembe – na koncu. Èe izhajamo iz opaanj glasbenopedagoške prakse, si uèenec na predšolski stopnji pri uèenju novih glasbenih vsebin, kar potrjujejo tudi znanstvene raziskave (Harrison, Pound, 2003), najprej zapomni njihove zakljuèke, nato zaèetke, èisto na koncu pa njihove vmesne dele. Tudi v našem primeru se je najmanj toènih slušnih zaznav (68.5%) pojavilo pri zadnjem ritmiènem paru, v katerem se je mesto spremembe pojavilo na sredini, višji dele toènejših slušnih zaznav (78.2%) se je pokazal pri tretjem ritmiènem paru, v katerem se je mesto spremembe pojavilo na zaèetku. Izvajanje ritmiènih motivov po metodi imitacije Toènost izvajanja ritmiènih motivov po metodi imitacije smo preverjali v igrani obliki s ploskanjem. K natanèni ritmièni reprodukciji na tem podroèju prispevajo razvite fiziène spretnosti, glasbeni spomin, koncentracija, notranje slišanje in samoposlušanje. Slika 2: Izvajanje ritmiènih motivov po metodi imitacije 60 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Uèenci so najtoèneje s ploskanjem izvedli prvi ritmièni motiv (95.8%), nato drugi (75.8%) in tretji (69.1%) ritmièni motiv. Najveè netoènih izvedb se je pojavilo pri èetrtem ritmiènem vzorcu (31.5%). Na podlagi predhodno oblikovanih kriterijev (glej Merski inštrumenti 1 ) smo ugotovili, da so uèenci najpogosteje ritmièno netoèno izvajali: prvi ritmièni motiv v 1.2%, drugi v 21.8%, tretji 28.5%. Najveè ritmiènih netoènosti se je pojavilo pri izvajanju èetrtega ritmiènega motiva, in sicer v 65.5%. Ritmièni motiv je vkljuèeval ternarno (triola) in binarno delitev dobe. Izhodišèe ritmiènega izvajanja je bila triola. Uèenec je moral svoje slušne zaznave v krajši èasovni enoti usmeriti od ternarne k binarni delitvi dobe. Ta prehod je povzroèal teave v toènosti ritmiène izvedbe. Ritmiène netoènosti so se pojavljale pri izvajanju triole, ki je bila izvedena prehitro ali prepoèasi, pogosto sta bili tudi zadnji dve osminki izvedeni v augmentirani obliki (spremenjeni sta bili v dve èetrtinki) ali v diminuirani (spremenjeni v dve šestnajstinki). Zelo pogosto pa je pri ritmiènih izvedbah prihajalo do spremembe triole v štiri šestnajstinke. Te spremembe potrjujejo, da je osemletniku še vedno blie binarna delitev dobe, èeprav naj bi se po glasbeno-psiholoških dognanjih obèutek za tridelnost v tem obdobju dokonèno razvil. Z dobljenimi rezultati lahko potrdimo smiselnost uèno-snovne umešèenosti triole, ki jo obravnavamo kot ritmièno posebnost, v 4. razredu Nauka o glasbi. Ker testirani uèenci pri pouku Nauka o glasbi še niso usvojili ritmiène posebnosti triole in ker so imeli manj glasbenih izkušenj s to ritmièno vsebino, je slišani ritmièni motiv obstal na ravni slušne zaznave. Predvidevamo, da zaradi neizgrajenih glasbenih predstav o trioli, ki temeljijo na predhodno usvojenih glasbenih izkušnjah in znanjih, uèenci niso imeli monosti povezati slušne zaznave triole v odmevnem spominu s pomenskimi strukturami slišane tvarine v glasbenokategorialnemu sistemu v dolgoroènem spominu. Èeprav se perceptualne kategorije, kot pravi Snyder (2000), odvijajo na najniji stopnji kognicije, so utemeljene in identificirane z nauèenimi kategorijami, ki so shranjene v dolgoroènem spominu. Vzroki teav pri izvajanju ritmiènih motivov po metodi imitacije so bili v 3.6% povezani s kriterijem tempa izvajanja – neupoštevanje izbranega tempa. Uvršèanje izvedb v to kategorijo je pomenilo, da so uèenci v fazi posnemanja motiv izvedli v augmentirani obliki (enkrat prepoèasna izvedba z ozirom na uèiteljev tempo izvajanja) ali v diminuirani obliki (enkrat prehitra izvedba z ozirom na uèiteljev tempo izvajanja). V primeru vrednotenja kriterija izvajanje v neenakomernem tempu (9.5%) so uèenci med potekom izvajanja ritmiènih motivov spreminjali tempo izvajanja. Najpogosteje se je neenakomernost izvedb v tempu pojavljala ob koncu ritmiènih fraz – uèenci so obièajno pohitevali. Ugotavljamo, da je bilo veè teav na podroèju ritmièno toène izvedbe tonskih trajanj kot na podroèju ohranjanja enakomernega tempa izvajanja. Rezultati potrjujejo glasbeno-psihološko dognanje, da je osemletnik vse bolj sposoben ohranjati tempo izvajanja, ker ima vse veèji pregled nad potekom èasa. V primeru, da so bili uèiteljevi 61 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... 1 Kriteriji na podroèju ritma: netoèno ritmièno izvajanje; neupoštevanje izbranega tempa; izvajanje v neenakomernem tempu. ritmièni motivi izvedeni v hitrejših tempih, so bile uèenèeve imitacije ritmiènih motivov toèneje izvedene kot v primerih, èe je uèitelj le-te izvajal v poèasnem tempu. Ta ugotovitev potrjuje glasbeno-psihološko dejstvo, da osemletniki še vedno bolje obdrijo ritem v hitrih kot poèasnih tempih. Predvidevamo, da se je netoènost ritimiènih izvedb pojavljala tudi zaradi nepovezanosti predhodnega notranjega slišanja ritmiènih motivov v glasbenem spominu, ki bi vzpostavil soèasno kontrolo med procesom samoposlušanja in fazo izvajanja v igrani obliki. Prièakovali smo, da bodo rezultati na podroèju izvedb ritmiènih motivov v igrani obliki po metodi imitacije višji. Predvidevamo, da uèitelji preteno razvijajo ritmiène sposobnosti na podroèju ritmiène vzgoje v obliki ritmiène izreke ritmiènih vsebin in da se izvajanje ritma v obliki igranega ritma redkeje pojavlja. A vista izvajanje ritmiènih motivov Uèenci so samostojno a vista izvedli štiri ritmiène motive v 2/4 taktu ob merjenju z ritmiènim zlogom TA. Slika 3: A vista izvajanje ritmiènih motivov Ugotavljamo, da so testirani uèenci zelo dobro izvajali ritmiène motive. Najveè natanènih a vista izvedb (91.5%) se je pojavilo pri drugem ritmiènemu motivu, prvi ritmièni motiv je a vista natanèno izvedlo 89.7% uèencev, treji motiv 81.8%. Najmanj natanènih a vista izvedb (63.0%) se je pojavilo pri zadnjem vzorcu. Po Piagetu je osemletnik na stopnji konkretnologiènega mišljenja, medtem ko glasbeni zapis predstavlja obliko formalnologiènega mišljenja. V fazi a vista izvajanja je glasbeni zapis izhodišèe v priklicu usvojenih glasbenih predstav in znanj v glasbenokategorialnemu sistemu v obliki notranjega slišanja predhodno izvedenih glasbenih vsebin v glasbeni stvarnosti. Uèenci so morali najprej prepoznati notne simbole tonskih trajanj v glasbenem zapisu, si priklicati glasbene predstave njihovih trajanj v notranjem slišanju, nato pa povezati v procesu samoposlušanja predhodno slišane glasbene predstave s soèasno izvedbo le-teh. Ugotavljamo, da so se vzroki teav v primerih netoènih izvedb preteno pojavljali na podroèju natanènih izvedb tonskih trajanj. V tretjem ritmiènem vzorcu, ki ga je pravilno ritmièno izvedlo 81.8% uèencev, so se teave pojavile pri toèni izvedbi èetrtinske pavze. Obièajno uèenci niso izdrali cele dobe, temveè so jo skrajšali ali podaljšali. V teh primerih smo izvedbo ritmiènega vzorca ovrednotili s kriterijem ritmièno netoèno, èeprav so takšne izvedbe prinašale obèutek neenakomernega tempa. 62 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Zadnji ritmièni vzorec, ki je bil a vista najmanjkrat pravilno izveden (63.0%), so uèenci pogosto izvedli v augmentirani obliki: namesto osmink in osminskih pavz so izvajali èetrtinke in èetrtinske pavze. Sklepamo, da notranja glasbena predstava o osminski pavzi še ni dovolj izgrajena in vkodirana v glasbenokategorialni sistem, da bi omogoèila ustrezen spominski zvoèni priklic iz dolgoroènega spomina. Uèenci se seznanijo in utrjujejo osminsko pavzo po uènem naèrtu v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi, kar pomeni – predvidevamo –, da so imeli v tem obdobju malo glasbenih izkušenj s tem ritmiènim elementom. Kot pravi Snyder (2000), naj bi se dolgoroèni spomin, v katerem so shranjene glasbene predstave in znanja, oblikoval pod vplivom ponavljajoèih se glasbenih simulacij. Ugotavljamo, da so uèenci pri a vista izvajanju ritmiènih motivov preteno ohranjali tempo izvedbe – neupoštevanje izbranega tempa: 0.6%, izvajanje v neenakomernem tempu: 5.4%. Predvidevamo, da so k takšnim rezultatom prispevali kratki dvotaktni ritmièni vzorci v 2/4 taktu. Redkeje smo pri ritmiènem izrekanju ritmiènih motivov naleteli na odsekane izreke posameznih tonskih trajanj. Na primer èetrtinka je bila izvedena kot osminka in osminska pavza. Primere odrezave ritmiène izreke smo obèutili kot nemuzikalne izvedbe. Ob tem se zastavlja vprašanje, ali so te izvedbe posledica stopnje branja »note za noto« na individualni ravni, kar sproa zatikajoèe se reprodukcije, ali pa je to posledica uèiteljevega dela na ritmiènem podroèju, ki ne izhaja iz muzikalnega vidika obravnavanja ritmiènih vsebin, pri katerem bi usmerjal uèence v korektno izvajanje tonskih trajanj v odnosu do obèutenja tekih in lahkih dob v doloèenem metrumu. Ker je bilo takšnih primerov zelo malo, sklepamo, da gre za individualna odstopanja v razvoju glasbenega opismenjevanja na ritmiènem podroèju. Interpretacija rezultatov na melodiènem podroèju Pri pouku Nauk o glasbi razvijamo melodiène sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanja preteno na osrednjem podroèju solfeggio. V 1. in 2. razredu se melodièna vzgoja navezuje na pevsko izvajanje tonskih višin in odnosov, melodiènih vzorcev in krajših melodiènih vaj (primeri iz ljudske in umetne glasbene dedišèine, instruktivne melodiène vaje), izvajanje melodiènih vsebin v igrani obliki, (so)ustvarjanje in zapis melodiènih vsebin. V raziskavi smo melodiène sposobnosti preverjali ob slušnem zaznavanju melodiènih vsebin, z izvajanjem melodiènih motivov po metodi imitacije in s samostojnim a vista petjem melodiènih vzorcev. Slušno zaznavanje melodiènih parov Na melodiènem podroèju smo sposobnost slušnega zaznavanja preverjali z nalogo, v kateri so morali uèenci primerjati dva melodièna vzorca v paru in doloèiti, ali sta si enaka ali razlièna. Spremembe so primerjali v štirih melodiènih parih. Vsak melodièni par so poslušali najveè trikrat. V primeru, da sta bila melodièna vzorca razlièna, so uèenci morali doloèiti še mesto spremembe: na zaèetku, na sredini ali na koncu. 63 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... Slika 4: Slušno zaznavanje melodiènih parov Ugotavljamo, da je bil najveèkrat pravilno slušno zaznan drugi melodièni par (92.1%), nato èetrti (83.6%) in prvi melodièni par (83.0%), najmanjkrat pravilno slušno zaznan pa je bil tretji melodièni par (63.0%). Zanimivo je, da so uèenci nekoliko bolje slušno zaznavali mesto spremembe na sredini v zadnjem melodiènem paru (83.6%) kot identièno ponovitev melodiènih vzorcev v prvem melodiènem paru (83.0%). Ker se je melodièni par z dvema identiènema melodiènema vzorcema pojavil kot prvi primer in ker se takšni tipi nalog pri pouku Nauka o glasbi ne obravnavajo, je bila to prva uèenèeva izkušnja, s katero si je vzpostavil miselno strategijo reševanja nalog. 63.0% uèencev je pravilno slušno zaznalo in doloèilo mesto spremembe v tretjem melodiènem paru, 30.9% uèencev je pravilno slušno zaznalo, da sta si melodièna vzorca v tretjem paru razlièna, medtem ko so mesto spremembe napaèno doloèili. V tem paru se je mesto spremembe pojavilo na zaèetku drugega melodiènega vzorca. Ugotavljamo, da so uèenci bolj toèno slušno zaznavali spremembo mesta na sredini v èetrtem melodiènem paru (83.6%) kot spremembo mesta na zaèetku v tretjem melodiènem paru (63.0%). V tretjem melodiènem paru se je sprememba zgodila na drugi poddelitvi prve dobe. Par osmink, ki se sicer pojavlja na prvo teko dobo v zapisu, je lahko v notranjih slišanjih predstavljal rastoè ritem 2 s prenosom prve teke dobe na drugo dobo v taktu. Èe je prihajalo v glasbeni zavesti do tovrstnih organizacij ritmiène strukture slišanega glasbenega gradiva, je lahko ritmièna grupacija v notranjem slišanju zameglila slušno percepcijo spremembe prvotno melodiènega prehajalnega tona (prvi melodièni vzorec) v njegov terèni skok na drugi poddelitvi (drugi melodièni vzorec). Druga mona razlaga bi lahko bila, da je uèenec par osmink, ki sta si bili èasovno blizu, po psihološkem naèelu bliine, medsebojno povezal in ju dojel kot eno enoto, ki pa je v tem primeru onemogoèila slušno zaznavo spremembe na njeni drugi poddelitvi. Naèelo bliine ima najmoènejši vpliv na stopnji ritmiènih in melodiènih grupacij. To pomeni, da bo e minimalna èasovna razlika med dvema zvoènima dogodkoma prispevala k oblikovanju dveh grupacij v naši notranji slušni predstavi (Snyder, 2000; Marentiè Poarnik, 2000; Peèjak, 2001; Peèjak, Musek, 2001). V tretjem melodiènem paru prva grupacija zajema prvo in drugo dobo (par osmink in èetrtinka), druga grupacija se zgodi na tretjo in èetro dobo (dve èetrtinki). Ker se zakljuèek prve grupacije zgodi na drugo dobo, na kateri ni bilo spremembe v tonski višini oziroma se je ta zgodila na drugi poddelitvi prve dobe, sklepamo, da je bil to vzrok slabšim slušnim zaznavam in posledièno nepravilnemu doloèanju mesta spremembe. Gordon 64 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 2 Voglar (1989) opredeljuje s pojmom rastoèa ritmièna usmerjenost zaèetek pesmi z lahko, nepoudarjeno dobo (pesmi s predtaktom). (2000) pravi, da ni povsem jasno, kako organiziramo glasbene vzorce. Zdi se, da ritmièno in melodièno komponento dojemamo in organiziramo loèeno, vendar pa naj bi ritmièna komponenta ustvarila temelj za organizacijo melodiène. Izvajanje melodiènih motivov po metodi imitacije Toènost izvajanja melodiènih motivov po metodi imitacije smo preverjali s pevsko ponovitvijo. Z nalogo smo preverjali stopnjo razvitosti melodiènih sposobnosti in spretnosti, zbranosti, glasbenega spomina, notranjega slišanja in samoposlušanja. Slika 5: Izvajanje melodiènih motivov po metodi imitacije Ugotavljamo, da je prvi melodièni vzorec natanèno posnemalo 75.8% uèencev, drugi melodièni vzorec 59.4%, tretji melodièni vzorec 35.2% in èetrti melodièni vzorec 34.5%. Na podlagi predhodno oblikovanih kriterijev (glej Merski inštrumenti 3 ) smo ugotavljali vzroke teav, nastalih pri posnemanju melodiènih motivov. Ugotavljamo, da so uèenci najpogosteje intonanèno nezanesljivo izvajali melodiène motive: prvi motiv (19.4%), drugi motiv (36.4%), tretji motiv (60.0%), èetrti motiv (56.4%). Intonanèno nezanesljivo izvajanje smo vrednotili v primerih, ko je bil en ali veè tonov v melodiènem motivu spremenjenih, vendar je bil izvirni motiv še vedno prepoznan. Manjkrat smo v to kategorijo vkljuèili pevske primere, v katerih so bili posamezni toni glede na absolutne višine zapeti nekoliko previsoko (višanje) ali prenizko (nianje). Obièajno je k tovrstni intonanèni neèistosti prispevala slabša pevska izreka besedila ali slabše zdravstveno stanje uèenca (prehlajenost, hripavost). Morda je k temu prispevala tudi stresna situacija pri testiranju. Najpogosteje se je intonanèno nezanesljivo petje pojavljalo pri petju tretjega (60.0%) in èetrtega (56.4%) melodiènega motiva. Pri tretjem melodiènem motivu so uèenci poltonsko razdaljo (e1-f1-e1), v drugem taktu, pogosto spremenili v petje male terce navzgor (e1-g1-e1). Predvidevamo, da so se intonanène teave pri petju poltonske razdalje pojavile zaradi poltonskega menjalnega tona (f1), ki se je vraèal v e1. Domnevamo, da je k intonanèno netoènemu petju, pri èetrtem motivu, prispevala kombinacija skokovitih intervalov. V kategorijo melodièno netoèno petje smo uvrstili tiste pevske primere, ko prvotna smer gibanja melodiènega motiva ni bila pravilno izvajana ali ohranjena ali pa so bili osnovni melodiji dodani novi toni tako, da je bila ta še vedno prepoznavna. Najveèji dele pevske melodiène netoènosti se je pojavil pri petju tretjega melodiènega motiva (48.5%). Zelo 65 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... 3 Kriteriji na podroèju melodije: petje v svojem pevskem obsegu; intonanèno nezanesljivo; melodièno netoèno; tonalno nestabilno petje. pogosto so uèenci ohranili ritmièno strukturo motiva in njegov zaèetni ton (izhodišèno intonacijo), v nadaljevanju pa je bila melodija v celoti spremenjena. Imeli smo obèutek, da so si uèenci izmislili svoj melodièni motiv. Predvidevamo, da je do tovrstnih izvajanj prišlo zaradi nerazumevanja podanega navodila ali pa da si ti uèenci radi pevsko izmišljajo. Morda je na te pevske spremembe vplivala tudi uèenèeva nezbranost pri uvodnem poslušanju melodiènega motiva. Nepozorno poslušanje vodi v napaèno pomnenje slišanih glasbenih vsebin in napaèno reprodukcijo le-teh. V uvodnem enkratnem poslušanju je moral svojo slušno pozornost usmeriti v smer gibanja melodije, tonske odnose in tonske višine. Ker se je petje melodiènih motivov izvajalo z besedilom, je lahko uèenec svojo pozornost usmeril samo v besedilo. Mirkoviè Radoš (1983) poudarja, da je napredek v razvoju melodiènih sposobnosti v tesni povezavi z otrokovimi analitiènimi zaznavami, ki poleg razlikovanja intervalov zadevajo tudi formirajoèo zavest o tonaliteti. Razvita zavest o tonaliteti omogoèa nadzor nad gibanjem melodije, intervalnimi odnosi, posameznimi tonskimi višinami in ohranjanjem tonalitete pri petju melodiène fraze. Predvidevamo, da se je veèji dele vrednotenja intonanènega netoènega petja pojavljal zaradi razvijajoèe se zavesti o tonaliteti. Ker sta se drugi in èetrti melodièni motiv zakljuèila na II. stopnji C-dura (na dominanti – nepopolna kadenca), predvidevamo, da so se pevske intonanène spremembe dogajale tudi zaradi notranje potrebe po logiènem zakljuèku v obmoèju tonalnega centra. Serafine (1988) je raziskovala percepcijo tonalnih zakljuèkov melodiènih fraz v razliènih starostnih skupinah. Ugotovila je, da se obèutenje za tonalni center postopno razvija in dokonèno ustali med 10. in 11. letom. V primerih intenzivnega glasbenega izobraevanja pa se lahko zavest za tonaliteto razvije e pri 8-ih letih. Tudi Borota (2006) pravi, da lahko e pri 5-letnikih pri petju izmišljarij opazimo logiène zakljuèke v obmoèju tonalnega centra. Glasbenopedagoška praksa kae, da se zavest za tonaliteto oblikuje med osmim in devetim letom, vendar pa se pojavljajo odstopanja v tem razvoju na individualni ravni. Sposobnost samoposlušanja, ki se zaène razvijati med sedmim in osmim letom, predstavlja temelj zanesljivemu melodiènemu, intonanènemu in tonalnemu petju. Dobljeni rezultati so pokazali, da so uèenci zelo redko prepevali v svojem pevskem obsegu in da vzroki za melodièno netoèno in intonanèno nezanesljivo izvajanje ne izhajajo iz nerazvitega pevskega obsega ali neobvladovanja pevskega aparata. Otroški glasovi so bili po veèini pevsko razviti, odprti in postavljeni. A vista izvajanje melodiènih vzorcev Uèenci so samostojno a vista izvedli štiri melodiène vzorce. Peli so jih po tonski abecedi v poljubnem ritmu in tempu, brez klavirske spremljave in pevske pomoèi uèitelja. Pred a vista izvedbo je uèenec zapel C-dur s tonsko abecedo, lahko tudi skupaj z uèiteljem in ob klavirski spremljavi. Z uvodnim petjem je uèenec skupaj z uèiteljem poiskal in intoniral izhodišèni ton posameznega melodiènega vzorca. 66 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Slika 6: A vista izvajanje melodiènih motivov Ugotavljamo, da je veè kot polovica testiranih uèencev natanèno a vista izvedla prvi (75.2%) in drugi (55.8%) melodièni vzorec in manj kot polovica tretji (34.5%) in èetrti melodièni vzorec (38.2%). Pri vrednotenju vzrokov nastalih teav se je najpogosteje izpostavljal kriterij intonanèno nezanesljivo petje. Pri postopnem petju prvega melodiènega vzorca od c1 do g1 se je intonanèna netoènost (20.6%) pogosto pojavljala v obliki nekoliko prenizkega petja absolutnih tonskih višin, kar je pogost pojav pri petju v smeri navzgor. Intonanèna netoènost (34.5%) pri drugem melodiènem vzorcu se je pojavljala pri petju melodiène linije v smeri navzdol. Uèenci so prve tri tone (g1-a1-g1) zapeli intonanèno toèno, v nadaljevanju pa so lahko bile absolutne tonske višine nekoliko prenizko zapete ali pa so bili ti toni po absolutnih višinah popolnoma napaèno zapeti, vendar je uèenec zakljuèni ton (c1) intonanèno èisto zapel. Pri a vista petju tretjega melodiènega vzorca je k intonanèno netoènemu petju (59.4%) prispevalo veè dejavnikov. Uèenci so pogosto intonanèno netoèno zapeli zadnjo tonsko višino v melodiènem vzorcu, ker niso ohranili zaèetnega izhodišènega tona v glasbenem spominu. K intonanèno nezanesljivemu petju je prispevalo tudi petje v svojem pevskem obsegu (10.3%) in melodièna netoènost (19.4%). V primerih vrednotenja v svojem pevskem obsegu uèenci niso upoštevali podane izhodišène intonacije, ampak so izbrali svojo izhodišèno intonacijo (obièajno so bile te tonske višine nije od g1, npr. uèenci so zaèeli z izhodišèem v c1) in od tod zapeli zapisani melodièni vzorec melodièno in tonalno pravilno – izvedli so ga v realni transpoziciji. V èetrtem melodiènem vzorcu so testirani uèenci prve tri tonske višine najveèkrat intonanèno toèno zapeli, veè intonanènih teav (57.6%) pa so imeli pri petju tonskih višin na sredini motiva. Vzroki teav so izhajali iz nepomnjenja izhodišènega tona v melodiènem vzorcu v notranjem slišanju v glasbenem spominu. Uèenci so sicer ohranili smer gibanja melodije, vendar so namesto pevske vrnitve na ton e1, nadaljevali s tonom f1 ali c1. Èeprav smo pri poslušanju takšnih primerov imeli obèutek, da so uèenci izgubili obèutek za C-dur, je bil zadnji ton v vzorcu c1 najveèkrat intonanèno toèno zapet. Tudi v primerih – teh je bilo zelo malo (2.4%) – èe je uèenec »recitirajoèe« odpel vmesni del, se je na koncu vzorca pojavilo toèno intoniranje c1. S takšnim pevskim izvajanjem smo se sreèevali tudi pri petju drugega melodiènega vzorca, ki se je zakljuèil na c1. Skladno z glasbenopsihološkimi dognanji ugotavljamo, da je uèenec vse bolj sposoben zapomniti si doloèene tonske višine in jih ponovno zapeti oziroma priklicati v spomin po nekem doloèenem èasu. Primeri, ko so uèenci pri petju èetrtega vzorca izgubili pevsko intonacijo in na koncu intonanèno toèno zapeli c1, kaejo na to, da je petje osnovnega tona 67 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... v lestvici omogoèil tudi razvit obèutek za obmoèje tonalnega centra v notranjih glasbenih predstavah. Gotovo je k temu pripomogla predhodna priprava na a vista petje. Pri a vista petju èetrtega melodiènega vzorca se je razvijajoèa zavest o tonaliteti pojavljala tudi pri petju poltonske zaèetne razdalje. Uèenci so imeli teave z intoniranjem zaèetnega tona v motivu, ki se je zaèel s terco tonike (e1) in njenega poltonskega nadaljevanja v f1. Ugotavljamo, da se je tonalna nestabilnost (24.2%) najpogosteje pojavljala pri petju èetrtega vzorca. Petje v svojem pevskem obsegu se je redkeje pojavljalo. V teh primerih so uèenci toèno poimenovali posamezne tonske višine in intonanèno toèno odpeli razdalje med tonskimi odnosi, vendar so melodiène motive zapeli izven doloèene tonalitete (C-dura), za pol- ali celton nije (H-, B-dur). K izvedbam v svojem pevskem obsegu je vodilo tudi to, da uèitelji kljub podanim navodilom pred zaèetkom petja niso podali izhodišène intonacije. Pri a vista izvajanju melodiènih vzorcev smo naleteli na primere, ko so uèenci nastalo pevsko napako slušno zaznali in jo samostojno popravili. Pojavljali so se tudi primeri, ko so uèenci slušno zaznali nastalo napako, vendar je v nadaljevanju niso uspešno intonanèno popravili. S samostojnim popravljanjem nastalih napak se je izkazoval razvoj sposobnosti samoposlušanja in notranje izgrajenih glasbenih predstav na melodiènem podroèju. Sklep V prièujoèi raziskavi smo prouèevali razvoj funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti na podroèju slušnega zaznavanja glasbenih vsebin, izvajanja glasbenih vsebin po metodi imitacije in na podroèju a vista izvajanja v 2. razredu Nauka o glasbi. Primerjava rezultatov na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju kae, da so uèenci boljše rezultate dosegali na ritmiènem kot melodiènem podroèju. Ugotavljamo, da ima 19.4% testiranih uèencev razvit ritmièni posluh in veè kot polovica (80.6%) zelo razvit ritmièni posluh. Rezultati na podroèju melodiènega posluha so bili pri vseh testiranih uèencih slabši kot na podroèju ritmiènega posluha. S frekvenèno distribucijo ugotavljamo, da ima 49.1% testiranih uèencev zelo dobro razvit melodièni posluh, 38.8% ima razvit melodièni posluh, 10.9% ima manj razvit posluh in 1.2% ima slabo razvit melodièni posluh. Z raziskavo ugotavljamo, da so bili rezultati boljši na podroèju slušnega zaznavanja ritmiènih parov kot melodiènih parov. Tudi Pfledererjeva (1964, 1967 v Motte-Haber, 1990) je ugotovila, da konzervacija ritma povzroèa manj teav kot konzervacija melodije. Slabše slušne percepcije na melodiènem podroèju v primerjavi z ritmiènim podroèjem lahko pojasnimo in utemeljimo z znaèilnim intenzivnim razvojem melodiènih sposobnosti v tem obdobju, tempo tega razvoja pa je na individualnem nivoju razlièen. Primerjava med rezultati izvajanja na podroèju ritmiènih in melodiènih motivov po metodi imitacije kae, da so uèenci dosegali boljše rezultate na podroèju ritma kot na melodiènem podroèju. Uèenec si je moral po enkratnem slišanju v odmevnem spominu zapomniti slišani motiv in ga v naslednji fazi ponoviti. Predvidevamo, da je k slabšim pevskim izvedbam po metodi imitacije prispeval glasbeni spomin, ki je èasovno in 68 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek vsebinsko omejen. Iz glasbenopedagoške prakse je znano, da h kakovostnemu pomnenju glasbenih vsebin prispeva njihova veèkratna ponovitev in glasbeno zaokroene glasbene misli. Menimo, da je na slabše pomnjenje melodiènih motivov vplivalo zakljuèevanje nekaterih motivov v obliki nepopolne kadence na dominanti in ne s popolnim zakljuèkom v okviru tonalnega centra. Na podroèju a vista izvajanja so testirani uèenci veliko bolje a vista izvajali ritmiène kot melodiène vzorce. Presenetljiva je primerjava rezultatov nalog med a vista izvajanjem in izvajanjem po metodi imitacije. Na ritmiènem podroèju so bili ti rezultati za 53.8% boljši pri a vista izvajanju, na melodiènem podroèju pa so bili ti rezultati pri tej nalogi le za 1.2% slabši kot pri nalogi izvajanja po metodi imitacije. Skladno z rezultati ugotavljamo, da je glasbenopedagoška praksa preteno usmerjena v koncept razumevanja in sposobnosti uporabe glasbenega zapisa – metoda dela po notnem zapisu – kot temeljne vezi med glasbeno ustvarjalnostjo in poustvrajalnostjo. Dobljeni rezultati napeljujejo k misli, da je s prevladujoèim konceptom glasbenega opismenjevanja, od glasbenega zapisa preko fiziène akcije k zvoku, zapostavljeno avditivno doivljanje glasbenih vsebin in s tem razvoj slušne pozornosti in obèutljivosti. Kae se potreba po veèjih poudarkih na podroèju razvoja slušne pozornosti in obèutljivosti na temeljnih podroèjih Nauka o glasbi. Obe podroèji podpirata razvoj slušno-analitiènih zaznav, ki se kot glasbene predstave in znanja vgrajujejo v glasbenokategorialni sistem. Ugotavljamo, da v glasbenopedagoški praksi prevladuje koncept ozkega pojmovanja funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti, ki se navezuje na sposobnost razumevanja in uporabe glasbenega zapisa. Metoda dela z notnim zapisom vkljuèuje obravnavo posameznih glasbenih elementov, ki se postopno zdruujejo v zvoèno celoto. Neposredna izhodišèa v glasbenem zapisu odtujujejo doivljanje glasbene umetnine kot celote. Izhodišèa v ivih oblikah glasbenega jezika vodijo v razvoj slušne obèutljivosti in zaznavanja, v celostna doivljanja glasbenih vsebin in doivljanja v obliki notranjega slišanja. Funkcionalna glasbena pismenost, ki je skupek razliènih glasbenih spososbnosti, spretnosti in znanj, se razvija v daljšem èasovnem obdobju. Doseki funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti se ne izkazujejo le z znanjem uporabe glasbenega zapisa in neposredne pretvorbe tega zapisa v ustrezne zvoène podobe glasbenih vsebin ter s pretvorbo slišanih glasbenih vsebin v glasbeni zapis. Razvoj glasbenih sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanj je spodbujen na vseh dejavnostnih podroèjih Nauka o glasbi. Razvite glasbene sposobnosti in spretnosti na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju ne podpirajo nujno razvoja funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti. V izogib napaèni presoji in vrednotenju stopnje razvitosti funkcionalne glasbene pismenosti moramo upoštevati razliène vidike razvoja glasbenih sposobnosti, spretnosti in znanj na ritmiènem in melodiènem podroèju. Na teh podlagah ugotavljamo vzroke teav na posameznih podroèjih, da bi odpravili ovire v celostnem glasbenem razvoju na individualni ravni. 69 Katarina Zadnik, FUNKCIONALNA GLASBENA PISMENOST... Literatura Bamberger, J. (2006): What develops in musical development? V: McPherson, Gary (ur.): The Child as Musician. A Handbook of Musical Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 69–93. Borota, B. (2006): Vloga simbola pri razvijanju glasbene predstavljivosti v zgodnjem obdobju. 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(2011): Razvoj ritmiènega in melodiènega posluha pri 8-letnih uèencih v glasbeni šoli. Doktorska disertacija. Akademija za glasbo, Univerza v Ljubljani. 71 72 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Friedhelm Brusniak Universität Würzburg, Lehrstuhl für Musikpädagogik MUSIC PEDAGOGY / EDUCATION, QUO VADIS? IMPULSES FOR A DISCUSSION ABOUT MUSIC PEDAGOGY / EDUCATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF KARL HEINRICH EHRENFORTH Abstract: In 2005, German music pedagogue Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth (born 1929) published a Geschichte der musikalischen Bildung (The history of Musical Education) "from a historic perspective on culture and ideas", which concludes with the essay "Ausblick – Musikalische Bildung, quo vadis?" ("Prospects – Music Pedagogy / Education, quo vadis?"; Ehrenforth, 2005). The presented theses as well as Ehrenforth’s current, subsequent thoughts from a speech given at the Musikhochschule Lübeck on October 5 th , 2015 contain valuable impulses for a reflection on the future of music pedagogy in Europe. The main goal of the paper is to sum up some of the central thoughts of Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth’s essay and to pass them on as impulses for discussion. Key words: Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth, definition of music, music pedagogy, music education, listening, listening culture Izvleèek Glasbena pedagogika / izobraevanje, Quo vadis? Impulzi za razpravo o glasbeni pedagogiki / izobraevanju s perspektive Karla Heinricha Ehrenfortha Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth (*1929) je leta 2005 objavil Geschichte der musikalischen Bildung (Zgodovina glasbenega izobraevanja ) ''s historiène perspektive na kulturo in ideje'', ki se konèa z esejem ''Ausblick - Musikalische Bildung, quo vadis?'' (''Prospects - Music Pedagogy / Education, quo vadis?''; Ehrenforth, 2005). Predstavljene teze ter Ehrenforthove nedavne misli z govora na Visoki šoli za glasbo Lübeck (5. oktober 2015) vsebujejo pomembne impulze za refleksijo na prihodnost glasbene pedagogike v Evropi. Glavni cilj prièujoèega prispevka je povzeti nekaj temeljnih misli Karla Heinricha Ehrenfortha kot danih impulzov za razpravo. Kljuène besede: Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth, definicija glasbe, glasbena pedagogika, glasbeno izobraevanje, poslušanje, kultura poslušanja Preface From May 21 st to May 23 rd 2015, an international music pedagogical congress had taken place at the Akademia Muzyczna im. Stanis³awa Moniuszki w Gdañsku for the third time. Its topic was Systematic and Pragmatism in Music Pedagogy. I had been invited to give a presentation on the standpoint of musical education (musikalische Bildung) from the 73 Friedhelm Brusniak, MUSIC PEDAGOGY / EDUCATION, QUO VADIS?... perspective of Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth, the now 86 year old authority on music pedagogy in Germany (Richter, 2001), and I had chosen to give my presentation under Ehrenforth's motto ''Music is a Symbol of Freedom'' (Brusniak, 2016). The encounter between teachers and students of music pedagogy at the Academy of Music of the University of Ljubljana and at the chair of music pedagogy at the University of Würzburg 1 poses the opportunity to build on the Gdañsk presentation and to both pursue and intensify the fundamental thoughts of Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth, who has also influenced me in my own methodological positioning. As a member of Forum Europäische Musikpädagogik (FEMP), I have attended several congresses mainly in Austria, Germany and Luxembourg and come to the conclusion, that, as is the case in many other parts of educational sciences, the array of ''music pedagogical research'' in the contexts of Historical Music Pedagogy, Empirical Music Pedagogy, Comparative Music Pedagogy and Systematic Music Pedagogy has become very broad. The question ''Music Pedagogy / Education, quo vadis?'', which Ehrenforth posed in the closing essay of his now ten year old book Geschichte der musikalischen Bildung, is more pressing than ever (Ehrenforth, 2005). The scientific approach of Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth's book is the outline of a ''history of culture, society and ideas from antique advanced civilizations to the present'', in which he seeks answers to the two following questions: on the one hand after the future of the German school system ''in an increasingly globalized information society'', and on the other hand after ''the role which arts are given in such a society''. For orientation Ehrenforth makes use of his definition of ''music as a symbol of freedom''. His historical retrospection starts in the time of reform pedagogy around 1900 in order to be able to better understand the role of Leo Kestenberg in the 1920s from the point of view of modern Kestenberg research and the discussion about the ''Kestenberg-reform'' from the end of World War II until today. He also points towards the ''breaches and bridges'' of music education in the 20 th century. His first thesis promotes the idea that the cultural process of secularization of christian-European modernity strikes the arts ''at their core of historically grown identity''. Ehrenforth, other than Theodor W. Adorno, is of the opinion that ''the religious-cultic roots of music are still present'', since music has a ''deep psychological dignity'', which opens the door ''towards an open world of hope for happiness, which not even the song of grief and death would be able to boycott''. The fact that art has been given the role of an ''art religion'' amidst the process of secularization strenghthens this claim. It is about the key question whether ''music as art'' will be viable in the future, while it is ''undeniable'' that ''this deep crisis'' will endure ''music educational concepts being hit by more or less grave earthquakes as well''. The central question whether ''music as art'' has any future is surely viable. It should, in the context of both formal and informal teaching contexts, be discussed in the spirit of Ehrenforth’s definition of music as "a symbol of freedom" and also in regard to 74 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 1 This paper is a slightly altered version of a short speech given on November 19 th , 2015 at the Academy of Music, University of Ljubljana, on occasion of the opening of an encounter between The University of Würzburg, Department of Music Science and The Academy of Music, University of Ljubljana, Department of Music Education. perspectives which for example the international and transnational music education offer. It should be discussed cross-disciplinarily (as for example in interreligious dialogues) and with the utmost openness and tolerance, so that one can better understand foreign musical cultures and (musical) realities of life and the respective dealing with religious traditions and social as well as artistic-aesthetic contexts. Against the backdrop of an increasingly globalized musical world it would soon become apparent that cultural processes of secularization strike the arts "at their core of historically grown identity" in other parts of the world as well and that there is a need for solutions to this problem. Furthermore, Ehrenforth takes this observation as cause for the fact that the "acceleration of not only technical-economical development, but of all processes of life and production" are "in growing tension with our knowledge about the ‘natural’ timespans of growth and maturity". School is in the midst of this increasing contrast between accelerated progress and the conservation of humanity. In the face of a "tendency to ‘presentism’ with a high amount of fun" in musical education (musikalischer Bildung), the task of teaching about "the coming-from (Her-Kunft), arriving-at (An-Kunft) and going-to (Zu-Kunft)" is in jeopardy. Pointing towards "the universally lamented devaluation of humane sciences" which has its origin in the "turn from history" (Wolfgang Frühwald, quoted from Ehrenforth, 2005), which "seems to underestimate the identity-creating, relaxing and the correcting safe function of knowing about the coming-from and to ignore the relieving repetition of ones own traditions in celebration and feast", Ehrenforth pleads for an "inevitable ‘de-celeration’ of our pace of life and development" which schools and music education (musikalische Bildung) could support. Someone listening to music (or making it) has to take the respective time and "be prepared for a silent dialogue with it": "He (or she) has to get off the ‘jet plane’ and decide on a mode of progress which is centred more on the inside and knows the word ‘silence’. This could be the future of musical education (musikalischer Bildung)." Education towards Listening and Listening Culture A key requirement for a change in education is a new (not only) musical education towards listening and a listening culture, which Ehrenforth himself pleads for in his latest book Hinhören Zuhören Durchhören. Musik als Einladung zum Dialog (Ehrenforth, 2014). A differentiated ''education towards listening'' has been a survival strategy of humanity since its earliest days. It is at the same time - if you want to say so - the oldest and noblest task of music pedagogy. The demand for a more intensive dealing with the old/new demand for an up-to-date ''listening-, singing- (or choir) and pedagogy'' is growing, and not only according to my own observations. More and more authors from different disciplines address themselves to the ''listening human being'', since a ''self-sounding'', ''singing as a sound from silence'' a ''listening singing, a singing which hears the other'', all these thoughts about ''audire et cantare'', ''sonare'', ''resonare'' and ''personare'', about the ''homo audiens et cantans'', remind at the same time of the founder of modern pedagogy, Johann Amos Comenius (1592-1670), who in his work Orbis Sensualium Pictus (Nürnberg 1658) with regard to 75 Friedhelm Brusniak, MUSIC PEDAGOGY / EDUCATION, QUO VADIS?... the ''homo ludens'' also named the ''instrumenta musica'' as ''sound pieces which have a voice'' (Brusniak, 2013). In the light of ''an unforeseen pluralization of the concept of music and the ways of dealing with it'' as well as a ''plurality of perspectives of perceiving the world'', this is a discussion about the term Bildung (education) in its original sense: ''To gain an image of the world and the self, that means: a stance and an attitude.'' The German term ''musikalische Bildung'' is - as Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth remarked in a presentation given only a few days ago at the Musikhochschule in Lübeck, the text of which he has thankfully provided me with for my speech in Ljubljana - no longer translated, but accepted as a scientific term by international music pedagogues, last but not least to be able to have a differentiated discussion about music pedagogy and music education. In this, Ehrenforth's, spirit a dimension of the world can be experienced through music, ''which is close to us in its depth and at the same time very open and open-hearted'': ''We hear in it our own world, but in completely new and different colours and rhythms. […] Music holds an internal mirror up to us, and opens up a new horizon of freedom at the same time. […] Music is a symbol of freedom. This is the only way its power of transcendence can be understood'' (Ehrenforth, 2005). ''Bildung (education) through music'' is, according to Ehrenforth - with whom I wholeheartedly agree - ''more than any instruction or teaching, even more than education. Bildung is mainly a term for personal character and inner stance, which lives by example, both actively and passively. Bildung therefore has an ethical tonic. It frames and primes the perception of and acting in the world'' (Ehrenforth, 2015). The most important principle of a future concept of Musikalischer Bildung is for Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth therefore ''the invitation to be open for the foreign and the unfamiliar, to express tolerance. […] No system of Bildung (education) can hinder people from staying with Schlager or popular music. And we as friends of classical music should try not to look down on lovers of popular music […]. How we deal with music is deeply connected with the freedom of lifestyle and has its own right on all levels. […] Metaphorically speaking, for many is music a window to openness'' (Ehrenforth, 2015). Conclusion Contrary to the also in Music pedagogy / Music education often misunderstood and school-like ''Bologna-principle'', the understanding of ''music as a symbol of freedom'' and ''openness'' as a pedagogical principle in the spirit of Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth seem to me more hopeful and richer in perspective and therefore able to give better impulses for a discussion about the contemporary idea of Bildung in music pedagogy now and in the future. 76 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek References Brusniak, F. (2013). "… das es andere auch hören und herzu komen". Zur bildenden Bedeutung der Kirchenmusik. In: Musik und Kirche 83 (1), pp. 40-45. Brusniak, F. (2016). "Musik ist ein Symbol der Freiheit". Anmerkungen zur Standortbestimmung der musikalischen Bildung in Deutschland von Karl Heinrich Ehrenforth. Vortrag anlässlich des 3. Internationalen Musikpädagogischen Kongresses Systematik und Pragmatik der Musikpädagogik an der Akademia Muzyczna im. Stanis³awa Moniuszki w Gdañsku 2015 (Publication in preparation, 2016). Ehrenforth, K. H. (2005). Ausblick - Musikalische Bildung, quo vadis? (Essay). In: Ehrenforth, K. H. Geschichte der musikalischen Bildung, Mainz: Schott, pp. 529-534. Ehrenforth, K.H. (2014). Hinhören Zuhören Durchhören. Musik als Einladung zum Dialog. Hannover: Hochschule für Musik, Theater und Medien. Ehrenforth, K. H. (2015). Irgendwo zwischen Pisa und Bologna verloren? Auf der Suche nach einer Bildungsidee der Musik. Rede zur Studienjahrseröffnung der Musikhochschule Lübeck am 5. Oktober 2015 (Ms.). Richter, Chr. (2001). Ehrenforth, Karl Heinrich. In: Finscher, L. (Hg.). Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 2. Aufl., Personenteil 6, Kassel/Stuttgart: Bärenreiter/Metzler, col. 135-137. 77 Friedhelm Brusniak, MUSIC PEDAGOGY / EDUCATION, QUO VADIS?... 78 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Sabina Vidulin 1 , Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ 2 1 Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Music Academy in Pula 2 University of Montenegro, Music Academy, Cetinje MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION SYSTEM: EXPERIENCE OF CROATIA AND MONTENEGRO Abstract Regardless of occurring separately, reforms of education in Croatia and Montenegro have been gravitating towards the same goal – building a system that shall put the overall development of students to the fore with focus on their competencies. This implied directing the teaching process to goals and outcomes, not just to contents as it was done in the previous practice. Strategy of the reform was based on an open type of teaching programs which allow the teachers to choose the contents on their own, as well as methods and means for achieving specific objectives. In this work, we will show similarities and differences in the curriculum and other educational documents of the two countries, with focus on the field of music. Joint positions on conceiving a new school are found in the field of development of child’s overall identity, the concrete system, teaching process and in connecting the school with local community. By conducting the comparative analysis, we compared music teaching programs in the primary school, as well as the objective, tasks and outcomes of the course program through the music field based on cycles. It is obvious that, even though there are similarities in the music teaching programs in the primary school, primarily in relation with contents presented to students, differences between Croatian and Montenegrin music class are reflected in the focus of music teaching related to covered areas and the number of classes envisaged for realization of teaching contents. Keywords: education system, teaching programs, reform, Croatia, Montenegro, music, primary school Izvleèek Pouèevanje glasbe v reformiranem izobraevalnem sistemu: izkušnje iz Hrvaške in Èrne gore Èeprav so izobraevalne reforme na Hrvaškem in v Èrni gori potekale neodvisno, so bile usmerjene k enakemu cilju – izgradnji sistema, ki ima v ospredju celostni razvoj uèencev ter poudarja njihove kompetence. To je posledièno usmerilo uèni proces k ciljem in uènim izidom in ne veè k vsebinam, kar je bilo znaèilno za predhodno prakso. Reformna strategija je temeljila na odprtem tipu uènih programov, ki uèitelju omogoèajo samostojno izbiro vsebin, metod in sredstev za doseganje konkretnih ciljev. V prispevku predstavljamo podobnosti in razlike med dvema dravama v kurikulumu in drugih dokumentih, osredinjenih na glasbeno podroèje. Skupna stališèa o koncipiranju nove šole zasledimo na podroèjih razvoja celovite otrokove identitete, konkretnega sistema, uènega procesa ter povezovanja šole z lokalno skupnostjo. S komparativno analizo smo primerjali predmetne programe glasbenega pouka v osnovni šoli ter cilje, naloge in uène izide na 79 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... glasbenem podroèju v posameznih ciklusih. Kljub razvidnim podobnostim programov osnovnošolskega glasbenega pouka v uènih vsebinah, ki so posredovane uèencem, obstrajajo tudi razlike med hrvaškim in èrnogorskim poukom glasbe glede zastopanosti posameznih podroèij ter števila uènih ur, namenjenih realizaciji glasbenih vsebin. Kljuène besede: izobraevalni sistem, uèni programi, reforma, Hrvaška, Èrna gora, glasba, osnova šola General Importance of Education System Reform and Basic Curriculum Characteristics The reform process which the two systems went through, both in Croatia and Montenegro, belongs to the group of system reforms that signify simultaneous covering of all of the system aspects and their change (Pastuoviæ, 2012). This kind of reforms usually results from wider social movement determined by progress of technology, economic, cultural and political changes. A part of state-building constitution was also the path towards Euro Atlantic integration and aspirations that the young people prepare to live in multicultural Europe and democratic society (Knjiga promjena, 2001, p.24). Harmonization of the education system with international documents speaks in favor of that, i.e.: United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Declaration of the Rights of the Child, Convention against Discrimination in Education, Resolution on the European Dimension of Education (ibid.). Special attention was paid to research of education system and innovative teaching technologies resulting in many reforms in the last twenty five years in the Republic of Croatia. Numerous proposals, documents, plans, programs, projects and strategies that have been published since 1990 were aimed at changing the structure of education, as well as improvement of performance and effectiveness of the school. The last education document in this process which constitutes the foundation of building the curriculum education system in Croatia has a title National Curriculum Framework for Preschool Education and General Compulsory and Secondary Education. 1 It highlights the focus on students’ competencies and achievements which put the emphasis on “development of innovation, creativity, problem solving, development of critical opinion, enterprise, IT literacy, social and other competencies” (Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opæe obvezno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje, 2011, p. 16). Through its concept of education, Croatian National Curriculum Framework is oriented to the child and student. When we are taking about a curriculum focused on the student, it primarily refers to methodic adaptation, i.e. selection of appropriate teaching forms, methods and resources which are adapted to the needs of an individual, but also stimulative for an overall development of the student. Sekuliæ-Majurec points out that curriculum should be “focused on encouragement of the greatest development possible of 80 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 1 Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opæe obvezno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje / National Curriculum Framework for Preschool Education and General Compulsory and Secondary Education (2011) is a fundamental and developmental document which lays out basic components of preschool, general compulsory and secondary education, including education for the children with special educational needs. student’s existing potential, and this implies encouragement of student’s self-realization, development of awareness of oneself, own capabilities, interests and possibilities, as well as creation of positive image of oneself“ (Sekuliæ-Majurec, 2007, p. 363) The reformed educational system in Montenegro is based on similar principles derived from social and economic patterns, from the awareness of personality development, also from the experience of practical education works, and they are consisted of: principle of scientific and professional soundness, principle of openness and flexibility of the program, horizontal and vertical connectedness of the contents, respect towards cultural and historical heritage, principle of applicability of the knowledge (formative role of the school), principle of quality assurance, principle of equal rights and choice, principle of democracy and pluralism, introduction of diversity of the educational communication form, principle of continuity in the development of education programs and gradualness in their implementation (Osnove za obnovu nastavnih planova i programa, 2002, pp. 22–24). In the reform of the two systems, fundamental principles proclaimed by democratic society and knowledge society were a starting point, so there are many parallels in their basic characteristics. The joint position in conceiving a new school can be found in the field of development of overall child’s identity, but also in the aspirations of the concrete system, features of the teaching process and in establishment of a more significant relation with local community. The intellectual, physical, aesthetic, social, moral and spiritual development of the students is encouraged and harmonized with their capabilities and affinities which makes the focus on students’ competencies visible; innovation, creativity, critical opinion are stimulated, the problem solving and decision making capabilities are developed; talented students and students with learning difficulties are tracked. The system is open and flexible; the goals of education have been changed, as well as contents, methods and the interdisciplinary approach and connecting of the courses. The class is adapted to needs of the students: the tendency is for the students to learn actively and independently; the sources that stimulate research, discovery and conclusion are encouraged. Cooperation of the school and local community is getting stronger, and the attention is focused on preservation of tangible and spiritual historical-cultural heritage and on education of students in accordance with cultural and civilization values and human rights. Primary school in Croatia lasts eight years and is divided in several educational levels and cycles. The first educational level is preschool education, the other is general compulsory education of the primary school and the third level is secondary education. The first educational level is divided into three cycles: the first one includes age of 6 months until child’s first year, the second cycle starts with the first year until the third, and the third cycle covers the period from the child’s third year until six year and a half. The following level is the primary school general compulsory education which also consists of three cycles. The first cycle includes the first four grades in school, the second cycles includes the fifth and sixth grade and the third one refers to seventh and eighth grade of the primary 81 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... school. Even though the third educational level is consisted of secondary education, it is not looked at separately, but it is considered as continuation of the second level, thus being a fourth cycle. This cycle covers the first and second grade of vocational and artistic schools, as well as all four grades of grammar school education. Unlike Croatia where a unique document (Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opæe obvezno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje, 2011) was created, separate documents for all of the levels of education system were created in Montenegro. Structure of the education system which is defined by special laws, is divided into: preschool education (divided into two cycles: until third year which takes place in the nursery and from three years to six years which takes place in kindergartens). 2 Primary school which lasts nine years (students from six to fifteen years) 3 is divided into three cycles of equal duration. General grammar school 4 that lasts four years and vocational schools, 5 i.e.: two-year vocational school, three-year vocational school, four-year vocational school, vocational high school and art school. High school education is not a formal extension of the primary education when it comes to cycle division. The division into educational areas in both curricula is represented by several related courses connected into one thematic entity. These are: linguistic-communication, mathematic, naturalist, technical and IT, social and humanistic, artistic, as well as physical and medical area. Music has its place in the artistic area. 6 Education goals are oriented towards education of students in accordance with general cultural and civilization values, advancement of their overall development based on characteristic capabilities and affinities, enabling acquisition of fundamental and professional competencies, preservation of tangible and spiritual historical-cultural heritage. Curriculum and Music Teaching in Croatia After introduction of the Croatian National Education Standard 7 in primary schools and prescription of the new Teaching Plan and Program (Nastavni plan i program, 2006), the goal of the music teaching has been focused on development of music culture of the students through establishment and adoption of value criteria for critical and aesthetic evaluation of music. Music teaching got a new concept for this reason exactly. It is an open model. Listening and music elaboration with an emphasis on art music has become compulsory, whereas all the other activities: singing, playing, creativity and music literacy 82 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek 2 Zakon o predškolskom vaspitanju i obrazovanju / Law on Preschool Education (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/2013 3 Zakon o osnovnom obrazovanju i vaspitanju / Law on Primary Education (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/ 2013/ 4 Zakon o gimnaziji / Law on Grammar School (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/2013/ 5 Zakon o struènom obrazovanju / Law on Vocational Education (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/2013 6 Beside Music Culture, the following areas fall in the art field: Visual Arts and Design, Film and Media Culture and Art, Drama Culture and Art, as well as the Art of Movement and Dance. 7 It was preceded by the creation of the catalogue of knowledge and skills for primary school (Kurikularni pristup promjenama u osnovnom školstvu, 2002). The project of creation of the catalogue topics became a project of creation of Hrvatski nacionalni obrazovni standard - Croatian National Education Standard (Vodiè kroz Hrvatski nacionalni obrazovni standard za osnovnu školu, 2006). are optional. This means that one of these activities is chosen by the teacher in cooperation with students and in accordance with school capabilities, so they are implemented with more attention and concentration. Beside the selection of one activity, the openness of the program enables the teachers to have the freedom of independent class creation and selection of contents that they consider appropriate for listening, singing, playing. During listening to music and musicology elaboration, students become familiar with Croatian and world music heritage, they adopt fundamental concepts of general music culture. This is a compulsory field, as we mentioned, and is considered to contribute to the final goal – forming the general and music culture of students. Furthermore, through music making and creativity, music skills of the students are trained and improved; their knowledge scope is becoming larger, which consequently affects their understanding of music art. The reform of the music teaching has been continued with elaboration and establishment of the National Curriculum Framework. The Curriculum has only been established in 2010 and, at least for music, it brought slight changes that are even partially contrary to features and tendencies of contemporary music teaching. The purpose of the art according to National Curriculum Framework (Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum za predškolski odgoj i obrazovanje te opæe obvezno i srednjoškolsko obrazovanje, 2011), where music culture and art fall in, is the following: making students capable of understanding art and actively responding to arts with participation; learning different art contents as well and understanding oneself and the world by the means of art works and media; expressing emotions, experience, ideas and positions through art activities and creativity. In this context, we highlight the importance of listening and analysis of music works again, recognizing and comparing music components, expressing ideas, thoughts and feelings, respecting tradition and culture and valuing art works. In the primary school in Croatia (from first to eighth grade) one class a week is envisaged for teaching music. The course program is conceived in such a way that, alongside introductory thoughts, it brings the goal and tasks, remarks and elaboration that includes fields and contents, by grades. Key terms and educational achievements are singled out. With possibilities provided by elective classes and extracurricular music activities, the field of music gets a higher number of classes, from two up to even six classes a week, and a possibility of real achievement of goals and tasks. Among the extracurricular music activities, the most frequent and numerous one is the activity of the singing choir, but the activities of playing instruments, dance and folklore are also highly represented, as well as music and stage projects. 8 The elective classes and extracurricular activities are becoming a part of the teacher’s class load. Music Teaching in the Reformed Education System of Montenegro Through the education reform process that was started in 2000, basic fields of knowledge have been established and the special plans and programs for these fields were later made. The field of Art and its subfields had to contain the interdisciplinary studying approach 83 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... 8 Cp. Vidulin-Orbaniæ, S. (2013), Glazbeno stvaralaštvo: teorijski i praktièni prinos izvannastavnim glazbenim aktivnostima. within their programs, so that art is not reduced to its own uniformity (Osnove za obnovu nastavnih planova i programa, 2002). For music, it meant making the clear methodic and didactic framework to avoid arbitrary interpretations in teaching practice, which was the case in the previous system. Unlike Croatia where the open model was structured both as mandatory and as something that can be chosen by the teacher according to students’ affinities, where the main emphasis is placed on listening to music, in Montenegrin education system all fields are equally represented. It is envisaged, within knowledge outcomes, that students learn how to perform a number of art and folklore songs during a school year, to recognize a certain number of compositions, to become elementary literate in music, which will be presented in the analysis of teaching plans and programs more precisely. Beside the operational goals, the programs contain students’ activities, divided into three fields – performance, listening, creativity, as well as concepts and contents and correlation with other courses. Openness of the course programs in Montenegrin education system implies the possibility for the teachers to create 15 to 20 % of the program contents together with students and local community, in accordance with their needs, which reflects the partial openness of the teaching programs. In the first cycle (from first to fourth grade) music culture is represented in the teaching plan through one class a week. In the second cycle (from fourth to seventh grade), it is represented by two classes, except in the sixth grade where the number of classes returns to one class a week. In the third cycle (from seventh to ninth grade) the students have a class a week until the ninth grade when the total annual class load is reduced from 35 to 25 classes. The course program is conceived in such a way that it contains: operational goals which are achieved through activities (performance, creativity, listening) with aforementioned concepts and proposed contents and with indicated correlation possibilities. At the end of each grade, developmental achievements are given which are divided into: capabilities, skills and information knowledge. The knowledge outcomes are specified as a certain sublimation of developmental achievements, with didactic recommendations to teachers for the implementation of activities as successfully as possible. Expected knowledge outcomes are mentioned out of these categories as their sublimation at the end of each grade and at the end of a cycle. A course program conceived in such a way provides an all encompassing description of the course and its purpose which is connected with both strictly-music and non-music objectives. Focus on individual needs of students is also conducted through introduction of elective courses in the primary school, which allows the student to acquire competencies and skills in the field of interest and predispositions. Education in an open school means that through individual cooperation with students and parents, the school has an insight into needs of students and, in accordance with possibilities, offers the list of elective courses. Elective courses are offered to students in the third cycle of school (seventh, eighth and ninth grade). Students must choose as many elective courses in an individual grade which provides a five-class load per week. The school is obliged to offer at least five elective courses to students of one grade, out of which one must be a foreign language (Primjena reformskih rješenja u osnovnim školama i gimnazijama u Crnoj Gori, 2009). There is no music culture and art in the lists of elective courses offered by primary schools in Montenegro. It is partially represented in the elective course Dance that is often taught by 84 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek music teachers. The expanded part of the teaching plan activities for primary schools are the free activities and facultative classes in the framework of which the choir, orchestra and school band can be active. Free activities do not enter the teacher’s class load which reduces the teacher’s work to personal enthusiasm that is decreasing among the educators due to the general economic standard. Music Teaching as Part of the Teaching Plan and Program and Art Field of the Curriculum – Comparative Overview Beside many parallels, music teaching in the compulsory primary education in the Republic of Croatia and music culture teaching in the primary schools in Montenegro contains numerous differences which will be presented through comparative analysis of the courses programs. If we start with a global approach, we will notice that duration of general primary school, as well as division into cycles, is different in the two systems. In the tables shown below (1 and 2) one can see that primary school in Croatia lasts eight years, whereas in Montenegro it lasts nine years. Number of the education years and differences in dealing with cycles, with regard to child’s age, can also lead to differences in the expected outcome analysis at the end of the cycle. Table 1: Division of General Primary School Education by Duration and Cycle Curricula Enrollment Age Primary School Duration IC ycleb y Grades II Cycle III Cycle Croatia 6/7 years 8 years I, II, III, IV V, VI VII, VIII Montenegro 6 years 9 years I, II, III IV, V, VI VII, VIII, IX Table 2: Division by Cycles and Students’ Years of Age Curricula Years of Age I Cycle II Cycle III Cycle Croatia 6/7 - 14/15 6/7- 9/10 10/11-11/12 12/13-14/15 Montenegro 6-15 6-9 9-12 12-15 Music Teaching Goal and Tasks Croatia: Teaching Plan and Program (Nastavni plan i program, 2006, p. 66) lays out the following music teaching goal: “Music teaching goal in the general elementary school education is introducing the student into music culture, becoming familiar with basic elements of the music language, development of music creativity, establishment and adoption of value criteria (critical and aesthetic) evaluation of music”. Main tasks of the music teaching in accordance with Teaching Plan and Program (2006, p. 67) are as follows: “familiarize the students (by didactically led listening) with different music works, introducing them to basic elements of music language and encouraging them to independent music activity (singing, playing)”. During singing and playing, it is primarily important to actively participate in the activities, whereas the music literacy task is only an informative and basic knowledge on notation. When it comes to listening to music, the 85 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... task is more complex having in mind that in this way specific art works are introduced, music components are being understood and the music taste is developed. Montenegro: In basic features of the course program for music culture in Montenegrin curriculum, explanations on the positions, nature and purpose of the course program are given: “Music course provides the possibility for the students to develop musicality, acquire basic experience for selective and active music listening, participation in choirs and other music activities (events), further education that encourages deeper interest in music. Music is a man’s constant cultural need and as a course it has an important role in development of creativity, directs and develops artistic abilities, skills and knowledge and it affects the capability of thinking and contemporary (multimedia) communication. Music opens the world of elevated cultural needs to students; it raises their awareness on higher artistic values and develops their criticality and aesthetic sensibility” (Predmetni program za muzièku kulturu / Course Program for Music Culture, 2013, p. 4). There is also a remark in this part on mandatory connectedness among courses regarding topics/themes that contribute to integrative approach to general education and connecting the contents of individual courses. General goals of music teaching have both music and non-music features, from development of desire and sense of different forms of participation in music, through desire for belonging to a group, development of communicativeness and being capable of working in a team, development of habit of actively listening to music, feeling it, all the way to developing ability to create music, interpreting it depending on individual affinities and possibilities based on years of age. It is visible from the above mentioned that music is realized in a receptive and perceptive way in both programs, by listening to music and active music making. Moreover, it is visible that not only does music have artistic importance, but it has a cultural one as well. The difference is that non-music connotations are not standing out in the Croatian program and the focus on music as an autonomous art is pronounced. Music Teaching Areas in the First Cycle Croatia: Even though the first education cycle in Croatia includes the first four years of going to school, the field of teaching music is treated differently. Namely, in the first three grades teaching music is led by grade teacher, so there is discrepancy between the Teaching Plan and Program and the Curriculum. In the first, second and third grade of primary school, there are four areas of engaging in music: singing, playing, listening to music, music creativity elements. Each area has its own key concepts, as well as determined educational achievements. Until the end of the third grade, educational achievement related to singing is: singing expressively and pronouncing the text clearly, perceiving, performing and making a distinction between the songs by listening in different tempo and dynamics, perceiving pitch and duration of tones. During playing, the accent is placed on differentiating and performing the rhythm and meter of learning rhymes and songs. Regarding listening to music, until the end of third grade students need to perceive the components by listening, such as: composer, work, instrument/voice (performing group), tempo, dynamics, atmosphere and music form. The following is listed 86 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek as the elements of music creativity: improvisation of rhythm, melody, melodic-rhythmic patterns, improvisation by movement and tone painting. Montenegro: The first cycle includes the first three grades of primary school. Activities of students are divided into: performing, creativity and listening. The order of these activities is changed in the fourth grade when listening to music becomes a more intense activity. In the part which refers to contents there are proposals that the textbook authors and teachers themselves do not have to fully accept. Numerous examples of interdisciplinary connectedness that can be best achieved within the grade teaching are given in correlation. Developmental achievements at the end of the first cycle imply gradual development of singing abilities, so the melodies range within a small scope in the first grade (trichord – tetrachord) which gradually increases in each grade. At the end of first cycle, student should: differentiate sounds, tones and silence, recognize nine classic music compositions, know basic characteristics of the tone, recognize certain instruments by timbre, distinguish between voice types (child’s, female, male), distinguish between concepts loud-silent, fast-slow. It is expected that they know how to sing eight folklore and art songs, to conceive rhythmic background to given melody and to apply three didactic music dances. Pictorial descriptions are shown for the movement of the melody, which the student needs to understand until the end of the first cycle (melody movement, tone duration). 9 In all nine grades, the students should learn one Albanian song per grade, which contributes to development of respect towards other cultures in Montenegro. It is visible in the aforementioned description that music areas are almost identical, as well as the final outcomes. The differences can be found in the number of songs/music works which are proposed and in the fact that pictorial descriptions, which are linked with specific music components, are not encouraged in the Croatian program. Music Teaching Areas in the Second Cycle Croatia: Music teaching led by music teacher starts in the fourth grade. Even though this is not the second cycle in accordance with National Curriculum Framework, in this case it can be considered a part of the second cycle, for practical reasons. There are four teaching fields that are implemented in the fourth grade: singing, listening and music elaboration, performing music and music literacy, as well as music dances. Educational achievements that are expected in the field of singing are focused on familiarizing with fifteen new compositions, with emphasis on nice and expressive singing, clear pronunciation and understanding of lyrics. In the entire vertical, the songs are learned only by ear and notes are becoming familiar just as a phenomenon, so songs are not learned through the note text. It is important to identify the melody of the songs, as well as meter, rhythm, tempo and dynamics. When it comes to listening and music elaboration, one should know five to ten new compositions, know the composer’s name and title of the composition, identify the instrument, tempo, dynamics, form. It is significant to mention that concepts are taken 87 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... 9 The so-called Slovenian model is taken for the reform in Montenegro. Singing that follows the notation through symbols is present in the Slovenian programs. Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstava / The Institute for Textbooks and Teaching Aids has made an agreement with the publishing house Rokus,andas a result of this cooperation the first textbooks emerged for the reformed system, with many joint contents. out of the nature of the music work, at the level audio recognition. Performing music and music language is oriented on elementary verbal recognition of the notation, i.e. of solmization/alphabetic names, as well as performing simple rhythmic patterns. By singing the scale, one learns the solmization and alphabet, but without the attempt of “using solfeggio”. In the fifth and sixth grade, the field of music dance is replaced by free, improvised rhythmization, music movement, dance and playing, whereas the other areas remain the same. Songs to be sung are not listed. The topics in the fifth grade are as follows: form (two-part song, sentence, period, three-part song, phrase, motive), string instruments, and in the sixth grade: form (complex three-part song, theme with variations, rondo), singing voices, instruments with key, plectrum instruments. Educational achievements depend on specificities of the work itself and on what can a child of certain age recognize by ear and independently conclude. Montenegro: The second cycle encompasses the fourth, fifth and sixth grade. The grade teacher can teach until the end of the fifth grade, but in the majority of schools the music teaching is taken over by the course teacher. Elementary music literacy process begins in the fourth grade. The functional method of M. Vasiljeviæ is used for fixing the pitch through model songs. The program envisages the same activities: performance, listening and creating. The students perform simple songs based on a note text, by measuring (bar 2/4, 3/4, 4/4). They are getting to know the formal music entities in the fifth grade (motive, sentence, period) and the signs for dynamics and tempo. Their knowledge on music folklore increases through recognition of music from different regions of Montenegro. Students are becoming familiar with string (string and plectrum) and wind (wooden and brass) instruments which they need to identify both visually and by listening. Representation of music culture through two classes a week in the fourth and fifth grade also expands the scope of developmental achievements and outcomes at the end of the cycle. In the sixth grade the students are getting to know different music genres, instruments with key and percussion instruments, then with the form of the solo song and canon, singing a cappella, beat-box. Performing the artistic and folklore songs is forecasted within the same scope as in the first cycle, with more expressive means, according to student’s age. Through the experience of singing and listening (recognition level) the music forms include: two-part and three-part song. From the theory of music they extend their knowledge to understanding of triplet and syncope, signs and scales G major, E minor, F major and D minor. Students can play the melodic instruments metallophone and recorder. One of the non-music operational goals is also raising awareness on interculturalism. The first visible differences refer to treating the second cycle in Croatia and Montenegro, depending on the child’s age and the fact that the Master of Arts in Music Education in Croatia already begins teaching in the fourth grade, whereas in Montenegro, the course teacher takes over music culture teaching in the fifth grade and even in the sixth grade. Moreover, music literacy is almost neglected in Croatia: notes are being introduced and rhythmic patterns as music language specificities, so measuring is not given the attention, instead, the meter is eventually tracked with one hand. More attention to music literacy is paid by teachers who chose exactly music literacy as the second field; however this is not 88 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek an option in the most cases. In Montenegro, there is a more specific work regarding music literacy through a defined method (M. Vasiljeviæ, Functional method), so that students can firstly work on a certain tone through a song and then they learn the note by which it is marked. In the model songs, the first syllable of a literary text corresponds to solmization title of the tone. Even though it cannot be expected that students can fix the pitch of the songs in the system of absolute solmization in the music classes (the question is whether it can be done in the music school) it was considered that folklore songs are simple for singing within this method and that students can link a specific song with a certain tone. The classes are also different: only one class per week is carried out in Croatia, whereas in Montenegro, two classes a week are held in the fourth and fifth grade. The fields and activities are identical and the differences in the teaching contents are insignificant. Music Teaching Areas in the Third Cycle Croatia: The teaching fields in the seventh and eighth grade regarding music are: singing, listening and music elaboration and as elected: playing synthesizer, creativity and computer, MIDI equipment. Songs to be sung are not listed. In the seventh grade, the topics are still forming of music work (sonata form), then wind instruments, percussion, instrumental types (sonata, suite, concert, symphony, symphony song) and symphonic orchestra. The music and stage types are included in the eighth grade: opera, operetta, musical, ballet, vocal-instrumental types: oratorio and cantata, popular music, jazz, electronic music, music and style periods. Folklore music as a teaching area is covered from the fifth until the eighth grade with two regions per grade, by free order and based on the principle of nativity: folklore music of Istria and Kvarner; folklore music of Dalmatian Islands, Dubrovnik and Dalmatian Coast; folklore music of Banovina and Lika; folklore music of Croatian Zagorje and Medjimurje; folklore music of Podravina and Posavina; folklore music of Slavonia and Baranja. It is stated in the educational achievements that sound and music traits of the folklore music of the listed counties should be introduced and recognized. Montenegro: Third cycle includes the seventh, eighth and ninth grade and is more focused on musicology contents. Students go through historical development of music in a chronologic manner, thus getting to know style eras and their characteristics. Singing is present to a smaller extent but it implies an equal number of artistic and folklore songs in the outcomes, as it was noted in the previous cycles. 10 Music perception and understanding is reflected in the ability to compare different eras and thereby expand the capability of analytical cognition. They develop awareness on cultural identity by familiarization with development of music culture and art in Montenegro, explore and obtain data. In the seventh grade they perform measuring of the song in the 7/8 bar. In the ninth grade the students are able to recognize different genres (pop, jazz, film music), as well as expressive and formal characteristics of romanticism and movements from the beginning of the twentieth century. At the end of the third cycle they are also introduced to 89 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... 10 Great attention is paid to folklore in teaching music in Montenegro which is introduced to children in the first grade already. In the second cycle, this knowledge is extended to wider ethnomusicology context. Unlike Croatia where the emphasis is put on artistis music. the concept of music therapy and they gain a general knowledge on therapeutic traits of music. The basic difference is reflected in the fact that primary school education lasts nine years in Montenegro, unlike Croatia where it still takes eight years so the contents are distributed differently by the grades. However, the similarity is in the fact that the focus is on musicology contents, and in this cycle it implies greater emphasis on the field of listening to music and music elaboration. This is indicated also in the Montenegrin program through order of introduction of areas where listening takes priority over creativity which is already visible in the second cycle. The material which is envisaged for the eighth grade in Croatia is forecasted for the ninth grade in Montenegro, and also the novelty is that students in Montenegro become familiar with the concept of music therapy. Conclusion Even though there are similarities in the music teaching programs in the primary school, primarily in relation to contents presented to students, the two basic differences between Croatian and Montenegrin music teaching vision in the primary schools are: focus of music teaching and the number of classes envisaged for implementation of teaching contents. Exactly due to an allocated class of weekly classes in all of the grades, a concept of open type has emerged in Croatia (even though calling it semi open is more precise because one field is obligatory) with an intention to define and determine two music areas as a focus of classes in order to achieve the final goal. The emphasis is put on the artistic music. Music literacy which has been one of the most frequent and leading teaching activities since 2006 and was conducted primarily by singing (song interpretation by the notes) declined in importance. The reason for this is the inability of students to obtain proper music literacy in the music lesson, a step back from the solfeggio oriented teaching (there are music schools for that) and the tendency to refer the students to cultural and artistic achievements of human kind in order to acquire general culture and become active participants in the music life of their surroundings. Music literacy is now implemented only and if the teacher selects it as a second field and with the activity of playing by the notes. On the contrary, all of the mentioned fields are equally represented in the Montenegrin education system and the teacher is obliged to distribute them evenly in the framework of the annual plan. Singing songs by the notation did not decline in importance even though students rely more on memorizing the melodies by ear in practice. For this reason, it is recommended that songs that are covered with this methodic approach are simple in their melodic and rhythmic structure. The class load increases in the fourth and fifth grade to two classes per week (it is still one class a week in Croatia), whereas the free activities do not enter the teacher’s class load (in Croatia they do). Openness of the program in Montenegro is partial and refers to free creation of specific number of classes, as well as to choice of the music contents. After almost a decade of introducing the open model in Croatia, we are witnesses of different comprehension of music teaching and understanding and unsystematic 90 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek implementation of the open model. Regardless of all the reforms, advice and proposals, the students are still presented with uninteresting contents, with traditional work methods. Schools are still not materially and technically equipped and the teachers’ efforts and motivation concerning their job is disrupted in a general social apathy and indifference towards arts and culture. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that students are not interested and have weaker music skills. When looking at practical application of the program in music teaching in Montenegro, similar observations can be made. Grade teachers often use the music teaching classes in the first cycle for finalizing the material from the math and mother tongue, treating music as “a less important course”. In this case, the omissions are reflecting on the second cycle where the grade teachers can teach until the fifth grade. In the course teaching, the situation is different and generally there is a positive position towards the reforms. If we take into consideration that free activities do not enter the teacher’s class load, there is an additional enthusiasm through preparation of school events within which the important part are music performances. The constant problem is the insufficiently equipped music classrooms which makes the smooth realization of teaching difficult. Analysis and observation that were pointed out in the work indicate that programs can be improved and made more flexible so that the final outcomes are more realistically set up in accordance with abilities of students and the nature of the course itself. Larger number of music classes would enable better basis in the process of forming a student’s personality and culture and revalorization of contents would lead to new music teaching possibilities. With a clear and achievable goal and tasks, as well as unpretentious contents the students could have a possibility of progress and achieving music potential. On the other hand, having the free activities as a part of the class load would inspire more motivation of the teacher who is the most important carrier of the program. It is a fact that reform or a model is not dominant for the progress of music teaching, it is the teacher who will influence the competencies of the students and will fight for a better status of the course with their work and results. The attention should be paid to greater engagement of teachers in planning of independent and research tasks which will enable the students to examine music in different ways in and outside of the classroom, by encouraging correlation principles and introducing interdisciplinary approach to a class where it is realistically possible and achievable. However, the teacher needs support of the School, the Town, the County and all the institutions that are working in the field of education. Only through joint efforts it will be possible to create a positive environment which will also reflect the positive education outcomes, with an aim of accomplishing (artistic) competencies of the students. 91 Sabina Vidulin, Jelena Martinoviæ Bogojeviæ, MUSIC TEACHING IN A REFORMED EDUCATION... References Knjiga promjena / The Book of Changes (2001). Podgorica: Republika Crna Gora, Ministarstvo prosvjete i nauke. 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Glazbeno stvaralaštvo: teorijski i praktièni prinos izvannastavnim glazbenim aktivnostima./Music Creativity: Theoretic and Practical Contribution to Extracurricular Music Activities. Pula: Udruga za promicanje kvalitete i poticanje izvrsnosti u odgoju i obrazovanju SEM. Vodiè kroz Hrvatski nacionalni obrazovni standard za osnovnu školu / Guide through Croatian National Education Standard for Primary School (2005). Zagreb: Ministarstvo znanosti, obrazovanja i športa. Zakon o gimnaziji / Law on Grammar School (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/2013/ 92 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Zakon o osnovnom obrazovanju i vaspitanju / Law on Primary Education (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/ 2013/ Zakon o predškolskom vaspitanju i obrazovanju / Law on Preschool Education (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/2013 Zakon o struènom obrazovanju / Law on Vocational Education (2013). Sl. list Crne Gore / Official Journal of Montenegro. 39/13 from 07/08/2013 93 94 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Jelena Blaškoviæ Univerza v Zagrebu, Pedagoška fakulteta, Odsek Petrinja PEVSKO IZOBRAEVANJE ŠTUDENTOV PREDŠOLSKE VZGOJE NA PEDAGOŠKIH FAKULTETAH V SLOVENIJI IN NA HRVAŠKEM (povzetek doktorske disertacije) Pevsko izobraevanje je pomemben segment v izobraevanju bodoèih vzgojiteljev na glasbenem podroèju. Petje je temeljni glasbeni izraz otrok v predšolskem obdobju, zato je priporoèljivo, da vsi študenti, bodoèi vzgojitelji, v èasu študija predšolske vzgoje razvijejo svoje pevske sposobnosti ter glasbene vešèine in znanje. Pevske vešèine se odraajo na usposobljenosti bodoèih vzgojiteljev, vplivajo na njihovo samozavest ter na pogostost izvajanja glasbenih dejavnosti z otroki. Pedagoške fakultete imajo pomembno vlogo pri izobraevanju bodoèih vzgojiteljev. Struktura izobraevanja na glasbenem podroèju na fakultetah v Sloveniji in na Hrvaškem poteka v okviru triletnega strokovnega in univerzitetnega študija predšolske vzgoje. Na pedagoških fakultetah petje kot glasbeno podroèje ne obstaja kot samostojni predmet, temveè je vkljuèeno v obvezne in izbirne predmete. Glede na študijske programe, v okviru katerih poteka pevsko izobraevanje bodoèih vzgojiteljev, se število ur teh predmetov razlikuje med posameznimi pedagoškimi fakultetami v Sloveniji (Ljubljana, Koper, Maribor) in na Hrvaškem (Zagreb, Reka, Zadar, Split, Osijek). Pevska usposobljenost študentov predšolske vzgoje predvideva poznavanje in obvladovanje lastnega glasu, ohranjanje glasovnega zdravja in izvajanje higiene glasu ter poznavanje in upoštevanje glasovnega razvoja otrok. Pomembno je, da se vzgojitelj med študijem kar najbolje nauèi petja, saj vemo, da otroci oponašajo petje in se uèijo s posnemanjem modela – vzgojitelja. Na razvoj pevskih sposobnosti študentov predšolske vzgoje vplivata kakovost osnovnošolske in srednješolske izobrazbe na glasbenem podroèju ter sodelovanje v obšolskih glasbenih dejavnostih. V osnovnih šolah v Sloveniji sta predmeta Glasbena vzgoja oz. Glasbena umetnost, na Hrvaškem pa predmet Glasbena kultura, del šolskega programa. V srednjih šolah je kakovost glasbenega izobraevanja odvisna od vrste srednje šole. Tako v Sloveniji kot na Hrvaškem obstajajo gimnazijski ter strokovni in umetniški srednješolski programi. V Sloveniji v okviru splošnega gimnazijskega programa obstaja predmet Glasba, ki pa je obvezen le v prvem letniku, na hrvaških gimnazijah pa predmet Glasbena umetnost traja štiri leta in kronološko obravnava zgodovino glasbene umetnosti (Nacionalni okvirni kurikulum, 2011). V Sloveniji je na srednješolskem strokovnem programu Predšolska vzgoja glasba vkljuèena v predmetnik v vseh štirih letih šolanja (prim. Srednje strokovno izobraevanje. Izobraevalni program Predšolska vzgoja, 2004). V hrvaških strokovnih šolah šolski program ne vkljuèuje nobenega glasbenega predmeta. Na umetniških gimnazijah z glasbeno smerjo pa se uèenci intenzivno ukvarjajo z glasbo, saj je ta program poklicno usmerjen in mladim omogoèa razvoj umetniškega potenciala (Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraevanju , 2011; Umetniško izobraevanje, Ministrstvo za znanost, izobraevanje in šport RH, b.d.). 95 Jelena Blaškoviæ, PEVSKO IZOBRAEVANJE ŠTUDENTOV PREDŠOLSKE VZGOJE... Glasbene in pevske sposobnosti lahko uèenci razvijajo tudi v okviru obšolskih dejavnosti, in sicer najpogosteje v glasbenih šolah, zborih, vokalno-instrumentalnih skupinah, kulturno-umetniških društvih ali pa na zasebnih, individualnih urah. Skladno z Belo knjigo o vzgoji in izobraevanju (2011) v Sloveniji najpomembnejše obšolske dejavnosti temeljijo na glasbi in plesu, ki jih izvajajo v glasbenih šolah, uèence pa spodbujajo, naj se vpišejo v pevski zbor. Na Hrvaškem je dodatno glasbeno izobraevanje najpogosteje usmerjeno v glasbene šole, kulturno-umetniška društva in zbore. Denac (2010) ugotavlja, da pri pevskem izobraevanju uporabljamo doloèene metode in oblike uèenja. Poznamo frontalno, skupinsko in individualno obliko uèenja ter uèenje v paru oz. tandemu. Glede na proces uèenja petja lahko posamezne socialne oblike uèenja tudi kombiniramo, izbiramo pa jih glede na cilj in namen pevske naloge. Frontalno obliko pri uèenju v predšolskem obdobju uporabljamo ob predstavitvi pesmi, ki jo uèitelj izvede pred doloèeno skupino otrok. Skupinska oblika ima enoten cilj za vse sodelujoèe, in sicer, da se otroci nauèijo otroške pesmice. Uèenje otroške pesmi lahko poteka v paru ali individualno. Delo v paru spodbuja uèenje pri introvertiranih osebah, ki se lahko na ta naèin svobodneje pevsko izraajo. Pri individualni obliki uèenja so na optimalen naèin aktivirane intelektualna, senzorièna, praktièna in izrazna raven uèenca. Z njo spodbujamo samoizobraevanje s predznakom pridobivanja trajnejših znanj (Stevanoviæ, 2001; Bognar in Matijeviæ, 2002; Pranjiæ, 2005; Jelaviæ, 2008; Terhart, 2010). Glasba je del posameznikovega vsakdana, ta pa si jo izbere glede na svoje preference. Po mnenju Dobrote in Tomiæ - Feriæeve (2006) ter Schäferja (2008) glasbena preferenca nastane v trenutku, ko moè draljaja, ki ga doloèena glasba izzove, ustvari obèutek vznemirjenja in je posamezniku všeè ali pa ne. Na glasbene preference vplivajo socialno-demografski dejavniki, med katere prištevamo spol (Dobrota, 2008; Reiæ Ercegovac in Dobrota, 2011; Buniè, 2013), vrstnike (Schäfer, 2008; Selfhout in dr. 2009), medije in prosti èas (Szubertowska, 2005; North in Hargreaves, 2007; Dobrota, 2008; Buniè, 2013), druino (Szubertowska, 2005; Hirano, 2010) in izobrazbo (Szubertowska, 2005; Dobrota, 2008; Droe, 2008; Dobrota in Reiæ Ercegovac, 2009; Buniè, 2013). Številne raziskave so pokazale, da na glasbene preference vplivajo tudi osebnostne lastnosti (Rawlings in dr., 1994; Kemp, 1996; Rentfrow in Gosling, 2003; Schwartz in Fouts, 2003; Pearson in Dollinger, 2004; Nater in dr., 2005; North in dr, 2005; Popoviæ, 2006; Perkins, 2008; Rawling in Leow, 2008; Schäfer, 2008; Sigg, 2009; Reiæ Ercegovac in Dobrota, 2011). Na to, katero glasbeno zvrst bo posameznik raje poslušal pa lahko vpliva tudi njegova identiteta (Choen, 1991; Firth, 1996; Hargreaves in dr., 2002; Hudson, 2006; Chamarro – Permuzic in Furnham, 2007; Rice, 2007; Lundberg, 2010). V empiriènem delu smo na osnovi podanih teoretiènih izhodišè predstavili dve raziskavi. Prva je raziskava o glasbenih izkušnjah, znanjih in glasbeni usposobljenosti študentov predšolske vzgoje v Sloveniji in na Hrvaškem, druga pa raziskava o uèinku kultiviranja in oblikovanja glasu študentov predšolske vzgoje z uporabo individualne in skupinske uène oblike. 96 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek Prva raziskava temelji na deskriptivni in kavzalno-neeksperimentalni metodi pedagoškega raziskovanja in je kvantitativnega znaèaja. Izvedli smo jo v šolskem letu 2013/2014, v njej pa so sodelovali študenti 1. in 3. letnika predšolske vzgoje na Pedagoških fakultetah v Sloveniji in na Hrvaškem (N=707). Z vprašalnikom smo preverjali glasbeno znanje in izkušnje bodoèih vzgojiteljev glede na njihovo osnovnošolsko, srednješolsko in univerzitetno izobrazbo. Preuèili smo vkljuèevanje študentov v dodatne glasbene dejavnosti, njihovo poznavanje otroške pesemske literature in naklonjenost do glasbenih zvrsti ter razlike med hrvaškimi in slovenskimi uèenci pri merjenih spremenljivkah. Izsledki so pokazali, da vsi študenti svoje znanje, pridobljeno v osnovni in srednji šoli, ocenjujejo kot dobro, znanje, pridobljeno na fakulteti pa kot zelo dobro. Kljub temu pa so v primerjavi s hrvaškimi študenti slovenski študenti vseeno bolje ocenili svoje poznavanje glasbenega podroèja iz obdobja osnovnošolskega in srednješolskega izobraevanja. Slovenski študenti imajo tudi višjo oceno pri poznavanju osnov glasbenega jezika. So pa hrvaški študenti bolje od slovenskih ocenili svoje poznavanje zgodovine glasbene umetnosti in glasbenih zvrsti. V celotnem vzorcu se je dodatno glasbeno izobraevalo 41,7% študentov. Primerjava med dravama pa je pokazala, da se je pred vpisom na predšolski študij dodatno glasbeno izobraevalo in udejstvovalo 50,5% slovenskih in le 35,2% hrvaških študentov. Slovenski študenti so bili v veèji meri vkljuèeni v glasbene šole, zbore, orkestre in so imeli tudi veè zasebnih glasbenih uènih ur kot hrvaški študenti. Pri spremenljivkah vkljuèenost v folklorno društvo in ostale obšolske dejavnosti pa statistièno pomembne razlike niso bile zaznane. Glede na vse obšolske dejavnosti, ki vsebujejo petje, je 37,9% udeleencev raziskave svoj glas šolalo v zboru, na uènih urah petja v glasbeni šoli ali pri zasebnikih, 62,1% udeleencev pa svojega glasu ni šolalo. V Sloveniji je svoj glas šolalo 37,5% udeleencev, na Hrvaškem pa 38,2%. V osnovni šoli je najveè slovenskih in hrvaških študentov pelo na vsaki uri glasbenega pouka. V Sloveniji je bilo takšnih študentov 36,9%, na Hrvaškem pa 45,1%. V srednji šoli je na urah glasbenega pouka pelo 45,3% udeleencev raziskave. Glede na dravo, v kateri poteka študij, je v èasu svojega srednješolskega izobraevanja pelo 81,7% slovenskih študentov in le 34,7% hrvaških. Pogostost petja je povezana tudi s poznavanjem otroške pesemske literature. Izkazalo se je, da slovenski študenti poznajo veè otroških pesmic iz obdobja osnovne in srednje šole, hrvaški študenti pa iz obdobja univerzitetnega izobraevanja. Slovenski študenti tretjega letnika predšolske vzgoje so pridobljena znanja in sposobnosti na glasbenem podroèju ocenili enako dobro kot hrvaški študenti. Med trinajstimi merjenimi spremenljivkami so slovenski študenti svoje znanje ocenili kot boljše na desetih spremenljivkah. To so oblikovanje glasu, oblikovanje obèutka za ritem, uporaba Orffovega instrumentarija, poznavanje glasbenega ustvarjanja predšolskih otrok, poznavanje metod, naèinov in oblik dela pri glasbenih dejavnostih z otroki, povezovanje glasbenih vsebin z ostalimi podroèji predšolskih dejavnosti, poznavanje osnovnih naèel in naèinov spodbujanja glasbenega izraanja in ustvarjanja, oblikovanje glasbenega okusa pri otrocih, glasbene didaktiène igre (igre petja, rime), naèrtovanje, izvajanje in analiza glasbenih dejavnosti v otroškem vrtcu. Hrvaški študenti pa so bolje ocenili svoje znanje pri spremenljivkah poslušanje glasbe, igranje instrumenta in poznavanje slogovnih znaèilnosti v glasbeni zgodovini. Statistièno pomembna razlika obstaja na sedmih spremenljivkah, pri katerih imajo višjo oceno slovenski študenti. 97 Jelena Blaškoviæ, PEVSKO IZOBRAEVANJE ŠTUDENTOV PREDŠOLSKE VZGOJE... Sodelujoèi v raziskavah najraje poslušajo glasbene zvrsti pop in rock, klasièna (umetniška) glasba pa jim je le delno všeè. Izsledki so pokazali, da statistièno pomembne razlike pri glasbenih preferencah med slovenskimi in hrvaškimi študenti obstajajo pri osmih od osemnajstih navedenih glasbenih zvrsti. Slovenski študenti pogosteje poslušajo klasièno (umetniško) glasbo, svetovno glasbo, pop glasbo, filmsko glasbo in glasbene zvrsti, ki niso posebej omenjene, spadajo pa pod kategorijo ostalo, hrvaškim pa so bolj všeè Rnb, hip hop, soul, elektronska plesna glasba in turbofolk. Na to, kar najraje poslušajo najbolj vplivata druba in vrstniki. Izkazalo se je tudi, da obstaja doloèena povezava med naklonjenostjo zahtevnejšim glasbenim anrom (klasièna, filmska in folklorna glasba) in leti sodelovanja v obšolskih glasbenih dejavnostih, predvsem v povezavi z izobraevanjem v glasbeni šoli. Glede na to, da se na pedagoški študij vpisujejo študenti z razliènimi glasbenimi sposobnostmi in predznanjem, je bil drugi del raziskave usmerjen v preuèevanje uporabe individualne in skupinske oblike uèenja pri pevskem pouku bodoèih vzgojiteljev. Skušali smo ugotoviti, kako kakovostne in uèinkovite so omenjene pedagoške oblike uèenja. Raziskava je potekala kot kvazi-eksperiment, v katerem smo na manjšem vzorcu preuèevali, kako razliène oblike uèenja vplivajo na razvoj intonanènih sposobnosti in obseg glasu sodelujoèih v raziskavi. V raziskavi, ki je bila izvedena v študijskih letih 2012/2013 in 2013/2014 so sodelovale študentke Pedagoške fakultete v Zagrebu, oddelek Petrinja (N=36). Razdeljene so bile v dve eksperimentalni in eno kontrolno skupino. Pevske sposobnosti udeleencev raziskave smo preverjali na podroèju intonanène toènosti, toènega petja melodiènih vzorcev in širitve glasovnega obsega. Raziskava, ki je potekala 15 tednov, je pokazala, da se pevske sposobnosti v doloèenem èasovnem obdobju razvijajo ne glede na to, ali je bilo uèenje petja strokovno vodeno ali pa je temeljilo na intuiciji študentov (torej brez navodil profesorjev). Pri vseh raziskovalnih skupinah je viden bistven napredek v intonanèni toènosti in širitvi glasovnega obsega. Izsledki kaejo, da strokovno vodeno petje, bodisi individualno bodisi v skupini, prinaša boljše rezultate kot so jih imeli tisti v kontrolni skupini, ki se niso dodatno pevsko usposabljali. Pevsko usposabljanje namreè izboljša intonanène sposobnosti in vodi v razširitev obsega glasu. Zagovor: 7. julija 2015 na Akademiji za glasbo Univerze v Ljubljani 98 GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 23. zvezek