CAVE-DWELLING BATS CARRY ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA SALMONELLA SPP. THAT POSE A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA NETOPIRJI, KI ŽIVIJO V JAMAH, PRENAŠAJO BAKTERIJE SALMONELLA SPP., ODPORNE PROTI ANTIBIOTIKOM, KI OGROŽAJO JAVNO ZDRAVJE V PROVINCI ZAHODNA NUSA TENGGARA, INDONEZIJA Alfiana LAILI DWI AGUSTIN 1 , Mustofa HELMI EFFENDI 2* , Wiwiek TYASNINGSIH 3 & Hani PLUMERIASTUTI 4 Abstract UDC 599.4: 579.842.1/.2(24)(594) Alfiana Laili Dwi Agustin, Mustofa Helmi Effendi, Wiwiek Tyasningsih & Hani Plumeriastuti: Cave-dwelling Bats Carry Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Salmonella spp. That Pose a Public Health Threat in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia Salmonella spp. is a bacteria that can be transmitted between humans and bats through feces, food, and water contamina- tion in the environment, causing foodborne illness. This bac- terial infection will be more hazardous if the bacteria become resistant to antibiotics. Bats are wild animals that have the po- tential to spread resistant germs into the human environment because the habitat where they live and forage is shrinking, forcing bats to migrate from their natural habitat to the hu- man environment. Although bats do not receive antibiotics, they can be contaminated by bacteria that are resistant to anti- biotics because they have close contact with humans, animals, and the environment. They are contaminated with resistant bacteria when they look for food and drink. Our research focuses on identifying the antibiotic resistance that exists in Salmonella spp. in bats in caves because it can endanger public health. The mist net is set at the cave’s mouth between 4 to 10 pm and the mist net is checked periodically. If a bat is caught, it is swabbed with a sterile cotton bud and then examined for Gram staining and biochemistry to identify bacteria. Salmo- nella spp. isolates were evaluated for antibiotic sensitivity with tetracycline, azithromycin, cefotaxime, amoxicillin, gentami- cin, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, and ciprofloxacin. We Izvleček UDK 599.4: 579.842.1/.2(24)(594) Alfiana Laili Dwi Agustin, Mustofa Helmi Effendi, Wiwiek Tyasningsih & Hani Plumeriastuti: Netopirji, ki živijo v ja- mah, prenašajo bakterije Salmonella spp., odporne proti anti- biotikom, ki ogrožajo javno zdravje v provinci Zahodna Nusa Tenggara, Indonezija Salmonella spp. so bakterije, ki se lahko prenašajo med ljudmi in netopirji z iztrebki, hrano in onesnaženo vodo v okolju ter povzročajo bolezni, ki se prenašajo z živili. Bakterijska okužba bo še nevarnejša, če bodo bakterije postale odporne proti anti- biotikom. Netopirji so prostoživeče živali, ki lahko v človekovo okolje širijo odporne mikrobe, saj se njihov življenjski prostor, v katerem živijo in se prehranjujejo, krči, zaradi česar se netopirji iz svojega naravnega okolja selijo v človekovo okolje. Netopirji ne prejemajo antibiotikov, a se lahko okužijo z bakterijami, ki so odporne proti antibiotikom, saj so v tesnem stiku z ljudmi, dru- gimi živalmi in okoljem. Ko iščejo hrano in vodo, se okužijo z odpornimi bakterijami. Naša raziskava se osredotoča na ugotav- ljanje odpornosti bakterij Salmonella spp., s katerimi so okuženi netopirji v jamah, proti antibiotikom, saj lahko to pomeni grožnjo za javno zdravje. Mreža, ki se uporablja za ujetje ptic, je bila na vhodu v jamo nameščena med 16. in 22. uro in se je redno preverjala. Ko se netopir ujame, s sterilno vatirano palčko odvza- memo vzorec, nato pa se z barvanjem po Gramu in biokemično analizo identificirajo bakterije. Izolati bakterij Salmonella spp. so bili ocenjeni glede občutljivosti za antibiotike s tetraciklinom, azitromicinom, cefotaksimom, amoksicilinom, gentamicinom, ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1, 107-118, POSTOJNA 2025 1 Doctoral Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Jl. Dr. Ir. H. Soekarno, Kampus C Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60115, East Java, Indonesia, email: alfiana.laili@gmail.com 2 Division of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Jl. Dr. Ir. H. Soekarno, Kampus C Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60115, East Java, Indonesia, email: mhelmieffendi@gmail.com 3 Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Jl. Dr. Ir. H. Soekarno, Kampus C Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60115, East Java, Indonesia, email: witya_kh@yahoo.com 4 Division of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Jl. Dr. Ir. H. Soekarno, Kampus C Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60115, East Java, Indonesia, email: hani-p@fkh.unair.ac.id Received/Prejeto: 31. 9. 2024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/ac.v54i1.13939 ALFIANA LAILI DWI AGUSTIN, MUSTOFA HELMI EFFENDI, WIWIEK TYASNINGSIH & HANI PLUMERIASTUTI 1. INTRODUCTION Bats (order Chiroptera) are natural creatures that are ex- tensively investigated to detect dangerous infectious agents like viruses, parasites, and bacteria (Szentivanyi et al., 2023). Bats are considered to spread pathogens because they live in different environments such as caves, human buildings, ravines, trees, and bridges. They move from ru- ral areas to urban areas (Lima et al., 2018). The diversity of species, good adaptability, wide distribution, ability to survive against pathogens without showing pathology, and ability to fly to move long distances allow bats to be- come reservoirs of infectious agents (Ferreira et al., 2024). Guano is an excrement excreted by bats that is often used by farmers to fertilize plants, as it contains a lot of magne- sium phosphate and calcium (Mozdzer, 2024). Apart from being rich in minerals that farmers need for crops, bat guano contains also many zoonotic bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella spp. (Dimkic et al., 2021). Salmonella spp. are bacteria that can be transmitted between humans and bats through feces, food, and water contamination in the environment (McDougal et al., 2023). In several coun- tries in Africa and Asia, an estimated 33 million cases of salmonellosis threaten public health every year (Ugbo et al., 2023a). Foodborne disease infection caused by bacte- rial infection is transmitted through the food production chain (Ansharieta et al., 2021a; Wibisono et al., 2023). The food industry has used biological, chemical and physical methods of Salmonella decontamination of food products, but these methods can have a negative impact on food products (Sun et al., 2024). Salmonella spp. family Enterobacteriaceae is as- sociated with foodborne illness that causes Salmonel- losis, the ability of Salmonella to enter M cells causing gastrointestinal disease (Alenazy, 2022). Manifestations of salmonellosis depend on virulence factors, serotype involved, host immunity, and infective dose (Castro- Vargas et al., 2020). Salmonellosis generally causes two diseases: Typhoid fever and non-typhoidal salmonellosis (NTS), Salmonella can cause symptomatic or asymptom- atic infections, a bacterial infection of 10 6 -10 8 CFU NTS is required to cause disease in an adult human (Xu et al., 2021). Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella typhimuri- um are the most common serotype isolated from humans and animals (Roasto et al., 2023). Generally, Salmonella in wild animals is asymptomatic and latent, the bacte- ria come out with feces so that wild animals can act as a natural reservoir, Salmonella contamination in livestock and humans can occur, especially on farms and human environments close to the area where they live (dos San- tos et al., 2022). Salmonella spp. can survive in a variety of environments including mud and soil that has mini- mal nutrients for years with Salmonella can survive for years in a variety of environments, including mud and nutrient-poor soils (Mafizur et al., 2024). Salmonellosis is estimated to cause 93.8 million cases of gastroenteri- tis worldwide annually with a death rate of 155,000 per year (Galan-Relano et al., 2023). According to the World Health Organization, 60% of zoonotic infectious diseas- es worldwide are caused by wild animals. From 1979 to 2019, antibiotic resistance in wild animals increased by 7% each year (Smoglica et al., 2024). Misuse of antibiotics to control Salmonella infec- tions as treatment and prophylaxis can result in antibi- otic resistance (AMR). Poorly controlled use of antibi- otics can result in multi-drug resistance (MDR) (Chu et al., 2024). Salmonella bacteria are pathogenic bacteria identified in bats in Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, Indo- nesia (Agustin et al., 2019). The emergence of resistance requires special attention if the Extended Spectrum Beta- lactamase (ESBL) enzyme produced by bacteria is detect- ed (Wibisono et al., 2021). ESBL is an enzyme that causes resistance to a broader spectrum of antibiotics, mono- bactams except cephamycin and carbapenems, third gen- eration cephalosporins which make these antibiotics no longer effective (Wibisono et al., 2020a). Antibiotic resis- tance was found in Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolates from bats in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia (Mustika et al., 2024b), in Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) from Tanjung Ringgit Cave (Kinasih et al., 2024) and in E. coli isolates from bats from Lawah Cave and Saung Pengem- bur Cave (Agustin et al., 2024). Human anthropogenic activities trigger the presence of antibiotic residues in the environment, wild animals that do not come into direct successfully isolated nine isolates Salmonella spp. bacteria from 135 samples.The sensitivity test results showed that Salmonella spp. bacteria from cave bats in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, were resistant to the antibiotics azithromycin 77.7%, amoxicillin 22.2%, and tetracycline 11.1%. Keywords: Salmonella spp., bats, public health, antibiotic resis- tance. sulfametoksazolom/trimetoprimom in ciprofloksacinom. Iz 135 vzorcev smo uspešno izolirali devet izolatov bakterij Salmonella spp. Rezultati testa občutljivosti so pokazali, da so bakterije Sal- monella spp., s katerimi so okuženi jamski netopirji v provinci West Nusa Tenggara v Indoneziji, odporne proti antibiotikom azitromicin: 77,7 %, amoksicilin: 22,2 % in tetraciklin: 11,1 %. Ključne besede: Salmonella spp., netopirji, javno zdravje, odpornost proti antibiotikom. 108 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 CAVE-DWELLING BATS CARRY ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA SALMONELLA SPP . THAT POSE A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA contact with antibiotics can carry resistant bacteria when they look for food and drink (Riwu et al., 2024). Human activities such as making forests into tourist attractions, deforestation, bat hunting have increased interactions between humans and bats (Esposito et al., 2023). Bats are assumed to acquire bacteria that are resistant to an- tibiotics when they forage for food and drink in human environments and livestock (Ingala, 2024). Bats can act as sentinels for environmental pollution due to human activities as the existence of antibiotic resistance in bats is due to contamination from humans and livestock (Rojas- Sereno et al., 2023). Antibiotic resistance arises due to the disruption of bacterial life due to antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance can have long-term impacts on humans (Effendi et al., 2021). The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in bat guano increases the potential for the spread of antibiotic resistance in humans, livestock, and the environment (Castelo-Branco et al., 2023). Salmonella bacteria have been resistant to the antibiotics tetracycline (82%), tri- methoprim-sulfamethoxazole (59%), chloramphenicol (29%), ciprofloxacin (11,8%) and aztreonam (5,8%) on chickens sold in the traditional market in Surabaya, In- donesia (Fanissa et al., 2022). Salmonella bacteria in bats in several countries have shown resistance to antibiotics amoxicillin (Islam, 2014), tetracycline, Sulphamethox- azol-Trimethoprim, Azithromycin, Chloramphenicol, Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid, Cefotaxime (Uddin et al., 2021), augmentin, cefuroxime, and ceftazidime (Alade- jana et al., 2024). One Health is a concept used to solve the problems human, animal, and environmental health (Horefti, 2023). Although E. coli and K. pneumoniae in bats in West Nusa Tenggara have been detected to be resistant to several antibiotics, there has been no com- prehensive research regarding the sensitivity of Salmo- nella bacteria in bats in West Nusa Tenggara. The risk of zoonotic disease is higher with the transmission of Sal- monella spp. which is resistant to antibiotics, the pres- ence of transposons, integrons, plasmids, and insertion sequences which all contributes to increasing antibiotic resistance (Mlangeni et al., 2024). Data on the sensitivity of Salmonella spp. bacterial isolates from bats from West Nusa Tenggara is important to know in relation to the description of the distribution of antibiotic resistance in wildlife, which can have an impact on human, animal, and environmental health. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS ETHICAL APPROV AL In our study, we performed rectal swabs from bats ap- proved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Veteri- nary Medicine of Airlangga University under the num- ber 1.KEH.046.03.2023. STUDY PERIOD AND LOCATION This research was conducted from December 2023 until May 2024. Samples were obtained from live bats caught from Lawah cave and Saung Pengembur cave in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Isolation, identification and sensitivity testing of Salmonella spp. bacteria were car- ried out in the Bacteriology laboratory, Faculty of Veteri- nary Medicine, Airlangga University, Surabaya. STUDY AREA AND SAMPLE COLLECTION A total of 135 bats (50 samples from Lawah cave and 85 samples from Saung Pengembur cave) were caught to collect guano using rectal swabs used as a sample, bats were caught using 20x20 mm mist nets, catching was car- ried out from 4 pm to 10 pm (McDougal et al., 2021). Samples were obtained by swabbing the bat's rectum by cleaning the fur around the anus using 70% isopropyl al- cohol to avoid contamination of bacteria on the fur. The cotton swab was inserted into the rectum and rotated for a few moments to ensure the bacteria stuck to the cotton swab (Adesiyun et al., 2009). The swab results are placed on a Blair carry transport medium (Oxoid, UK) and dis- tributed to the laboratory using a coller box. ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION SALMONELLA S P P. Bat guano resulting from rectal swabs was inoculated in tetrathionate broth (Merck®) as a fertilizer and incubated overnight. The growing organisms were inoculated on Salmonella-Shigella agar (Merck®) media and incubated at 37 0 C for 18 to 24 hours. Colonies that do not ferment lactose with a round black center on Salmonella-Shigella agar media are suspected of Salmonella spp. and separate colonies of suspected salmonella were replanted on SSA media to obtain pure suspects. Gram staining is used to determine the Gram char- acteristics and morphology of bacteria. Individual colo- nies of bacteria were taken using a tube and placed on a glass object plus sterile physiological NaCl, allowed to dry, then fixed in a Bunsen flame. Crystal violet was ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 109 dropped and left for two minutes then washed with run- ning water, the second stage was dripped with Lugol for 1 minute, washed with 95% alcohol, the third stage, sa- franin was added, left for 30 seconds and washed thor- oughly using running water. Finally dried with paper, the dried glass object was supplemented with emersion oil and was observed using a microscope with a magnifica- tion of 1000 (Mustika et al., 2024a). Biochemical tests were carried out using Triple Sugar Iron Agar (TSIA) (Merck®), Sulfide Indole Motility (SIM) (Merck®), citrate (Merck®), urea (Merck®) and sugars (glucose, lactose and sucrose) ( Merck®) (Hanifa et al., 2022). ANTIMICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TEST OF ANTIBIOTIC Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Salmonella spp. isolates was carried out using the Kirby-Bauer disk dif- fusion test. The antibiotics used were amoxicillin 25µg (AML) (Oxoid, UK), azithromycin 15µg (AZM) (Oxoid, UK), cefotaxime 30µg (CTX) (Oxoid, UK), ciprofloxacin 5µg (CIP) (Oxoid, UK), gentamicin 10µg (CN) (Oxoid, UK), sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim 25µg (SXT) (Ox- oid, UK), tetracycline 30µg (TE) (Oxoid, UK). Mueler Hinton Agar (MHA) (Merck®) was used as a medium, Salmonella spp. isolates were smeared on MHA medium with a concentration equivalent to 0.5 McFarland using a sterile cotton swab. Seven (7) different antibiotic discs were carefully placed in the MHA media on the Petri dish, the Petri dish was left for 10 minutes before being turned over and incubated for 24 hours at 37 0 C (Dame- anti et al., 2023). The diameter of the inhibition zone formed was measured and interpreted according to the guidelines of Clinical and Laboratory Standards (CLSI) (CLSI, 2020). 3. RESULTS Salmonella spp. bacteria which was successful isolated from bats Rhinolophus sp. on SSA media showed round colonies with a black dot in the middle and clear sur- roundings, the black color on the colony shows H 2 S produced by Salmonella spp. (Figure 2A). Identify gram staining bacteria with microscopic examination showed red color and rod-shaped bacteria (Figure 2B). The re- sults of the biochemical test showed that the bacteria on the TSIA media were red on the slanted side (basic) which indicated that the bacteria did not ferment lactose, ALFIANA LAILI DWI AGUSTIN, MUSTOFA HELMI EFFENDI, WIWIEK TYASNINGSIH & HANI PLUMERIASTUTI Figure 1: Sampling locations in La- wah cave -8.539453, 116.276576 in West Lombok and Saung Pengem- bur cave -8.812872, 116.273968 in Central Lombok, Indonesia. 110 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 while the bottom of the media was black which indicated H 2 S production. A positive SCA test result shows that the bacteria use citrate as carbon, where the media changes color to blue. The SIM test results show that motile bac- teria do not form indole rings (red rings) and produce H 2 S. The MRVP test results showed that the MR media remained red after being dropped using methyl red re- agent and the VP media remained yellowish after being dropped using alpha napthol + 40% KOH. Negative ure- ase test results are indicated by a yellowish colored me- dium. Based on morphological tests, Gram staining and biochemical tests, the results showed that from 135 sam- ples (50 samples from Lawah cave and 85 samples from CAVE-DWELLING BATS CARRY ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA SALMONELLA SPP . THAT POSE A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA Figure 2: A) Salmonella spp. bacte- rial colonies on Salmonella Shigel- la Agar media; B) the morphology of the Gram test bacteria is red. Figure 3: Antibiotic sensitivity test Salmonella spp. bacteria. Saung Pengembur cave) Salmonella spp. isolates were ob- tained in 6.66% (9/135) of the samples (Table 1). Table 1: Prevalence of Salmonella spp. isolates from bats West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Lokation Number of samples Salmonella spp. Positive samples Gua Lawah 50 7 Gua Saung Pengembur 85 2 Total sample 135 9 The sensitivity test (Figure 3) results we obtained from Salmonella spp. isolates from West Nusa Tenggara cave bats from 9 isolates (Table 2) had resistance to the antibiotic azithromycin (77.7%), amoxicillin (22.2%) and tetracycline (11.1%) and from Table 3 we can know that azithromycin that the antibiotic dominant resistance in bats caught from Lawah cave and Saung Pengembur cave. Table 2: Antibiotic susceptibility profile Salmonella spp. bacteria from cave bats in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Antibiotic Susceptibility test profile Resistant Intermediate (%) Susceptible (%) Amoxicillin 22.2% (2) 11.1% (1) 66.6% (6) Azithromycin 77.7% (7) - 22.2% (2) Cefotaxime 0 % 0 100% (9) Ciprofloxacin 0 % 66.6% (6) 33.3% (3) Gentamicin 0 % 11.1% (1) 88.8% (8) Sulfamethoxazole/ trimethoprim 0 % 0 % 100% (9) Tetracycline 11.1% (1) 0% 88.8% (8) ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 111 4. DISCUSSION Bacterial cultivation is the "gold standard" for detecting Salmonella, but it takes quite a long time if it is used to detect this bacteria in food sources, significant losses will impact the transportation of food to market (Yang et al., 2024). The identification results in our research are in line with research by Wibisono et al., (2023) on biochemical tests to differentiate bacteria Salmonella and Proteus are urease tests, Salmonella bacteria show negative results in the urease test because Salmonella cannot convert urea into ammonia. The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test method can be used as another option to detect com- plex sample substances in food (Y anestria et al., 2019). We succeeded in identifying nine sample Salmo- nella spp. bacteria from 135 samples. According to Al- tissimi et al., (2024) in a study, the number of Salmonella spp. samples that are successfully isolated depends on the sample matrix, the proximity of livestock and human settlements, and the geographical area where the samples are taken. Feces are the samples most often used as re- search objects because Salmonella spp. predilection is in the digestive tract (Yada, 2023). Updating Salmonella spp. prevalence data is necessary in relation to the inci- dence of salmonellosis from wild animals that are hunted (Oludairo et al., 2023). Reports on the identification of Salmonella spp. isolates from bats are quite scarce, one of 302 Salmonella spp. isolates from bats in Bangladesh (Is- lam et al, 2013), 4 of 400 (3.5 %) Salmonella spp. isolates from bats in Benin (Armelle et al., 2021), one of 254 (0.39 %) Salmonella isolates from bats in Australia (McDou- gal and Power, 2021) and 9 of 45 (20 %) Salmonella spp. isolates from bat guano samples from Thailand (Nicolas, 2024). Results of our research are in agreement with pre- viuos researches showing 9 of 135 (6,66%) Salmonella spp. isolates, isolated from bats in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Bats do not make special dwellings as a place to live, they live in caves as a place to rest and hiber- nate, but food shortages and deforestation force them to move to villages or cities such as empty buildings, under bridges, and on farms allowing direct and indirect con- tact with bacteria between humans, animals, and wildlife which allows zoonotic infections to occur (Skarzynska et al., 2020). At the Sukahaji market in Bandung, Java, Indonesia, mammals are sold live and only killed if there is a buyer. The mammals that are mostly sold are bats and squirrels. The trade in wild animals not only results in outbreaks in humans but also affects livestock, rural livelihoods, eco- system health, and wildlife populations (Nijman et al., 2023). Food sources that are not handled and processed properly can endanger consumers due to bacterial con- tamination (Peratasari et al., 2022; Ugbo et al., 2023b). A total of 16 million cases of fever due to salmonellosis re- sulted in deaths of up to 3 million worldwide (Wibisono et al., 2020b), 3-5% of patients who recover from Salmo- nella infection will become carriers with chronic bladder infections and the bacteria will be excreted periodically through feces and urine throughout the patient's life (Li, 2020), If bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics contami- nate the environment, it can have a negative impact on human and animal health (Ansharieta et al., 2021b). Bats are order Chiroptera which consists of 1482 species and have different eating habits (Simons and Cirranello, 2024) Half of these bat species spend part of their lives in caves. The presence of AMR bacteria in bats indicates anthropogenic contamination such as expo- sure to human waste, livestock waste, hospital or factory wastewater treatment drugs and antimicrobial residues (Devnath et al., 2022). Antibiotic therapy is widely rec- ognized as the most successful therapy, the golden age of antibiotics began in 1940 with more than 40 antibiot- ics discovered, excessive use resulted in the emergence of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, this impact was seen in the early 1990s, since then AMR is considered a global problem impact on environmental, animal, and human health (Smoglica et al., 2023). The existence of antibiotic resistance in wild animals that have never received anti- biotic therapy needs to be considered carefully because it is a sign of AMR contamination in the environment due to the close relationship between wild animals, the hu- man environment, and livestock (Ramey et al., 2020). In Asia, in 2019 Salmonella antibiotic resistance increased not only in humans but also in poultry (Takaichi et al., 2022). In our research (Table 2), Salmonella spp. was resis- tance to azithromycin (77.7%), amoxicillin (22.2%), and tetracycline (11.1%). In line with our research, Salmonel- la isolates from Bangladesh were resistant to the antibiot- ics tetracycline (93%), sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprime (80%), azithromycin (76%), chloramphenicol (62%) and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (42%) (Uddin et al., 2020). In contrast to the results of research from bats in Nigeria, antibiotic resistance to Salmonella spp. was high in the antibiotics third generation of cephalosporins ceftazi- dime (68.42%), cefuroxime (83.84%) and amoxicillin/ clavulanic acid (93.37%), low resistance occurred in the antibiotics gentamicin, meropenem, ertapenem, ofloxa- cin, tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole and nitrofurantoin (Aladejana et al., 2024). It's also different from research by Eugen (2019) Salmonella mikawasima and Salmonella bochum isolates from bats in Côte d'Ivoire were still sus- ceptible to all tested antibiotics. The horizontal spread of antibiotic resistance in Enterobactericeae is initiated by ALFIANA LAILI DWI AGUSTIN, MUSTOFA HELMI EFFENDI, WIWIEK TYASNINGSIH & HANI PLUMERIASTUTI 112 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 mobile genetic elements that are often found in livestock (Witaningrum et al., 2022). In our study, the antibiotic resistance was the highest among azithromycin. Treatment of the antibiotic azithro- mycin in obese patients accumulated a lot in adipose tis- sue (Yu et al., 2022). In America, 86.2% of Salmonella spp. bacteria isolated from animals have experienced MDR including the antibiotics azithromycin and ceftri- axone, but antibiotic azithromycin is not recommended as a treatment in animals because if there is an allergy to this drug, the antibiotic azithromycin is metabolized in the liver so the use of this antibiotic requires caution in patients who have liver problems (Ge et al., 2024). WHO categorizes macrolides as high priority antibiotics, mac- rolides are used as beta-lactam support in patients allergic to β-lactam antibiotics (Trott et al., 2021). Inappropriate use of antibiotics hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin, weak supervision of buying and selling antibiotics, regu- lations, and policies for controlling AMR are not yet in sync between district and central governments, knowl- edge, habits and behavior of Indonesians regarding the use of antibiotics are still not which result increasing the incidence of AMR in Indonesia, increasing the incidence of AMR in Indonesia (Siahaan et al., 2022). The use of the antibiotic azithromycin increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, this antibiotic is used as an adjuvant antibiotic therapy to treat upper respiratory tract infections even though WHO does not include azithromycin as the main therapy for COVID-19 infection because this antibiotic has a lower artimogenic potential than other macrolides (Andanalusi et al., 2022). Salmonella spp. is a normal flora in pigs and poultry; the source of microbial contamination comes from soil, water, and insects (T enaya et al., 2024). In the abdomen of insects, Salmonella bacteria can survive for 45 days (Fazi- on et al., 2023). Musca domestica is an insect that has been shown to carry Salmonella bacteria which are resistant to ampicillin and tetracycline (31.21%) (Bertelloni et al., 2023). Salmonella spp. bacteria from laying hens in West Lombok Regency, West Nusa Tenggara are known to be resistant to the antibiotics streptomycin, tetracycline and ciprofloxacin (Ramdani et al., 2024). Salmonella enterica, Salmonella livingstone, and Salmonella infantis detected on insects Alphitobius diaperinus on a chicken farm in Chile (Donoso et al., 2020). Salmonella ser. typhimurium dan S. ser. derby isolated from pigs in Tuscany, the bac- teria were resistant to the antibiotics sulfonamide, tetra- cycline, and streptomycin (Nguyen Thi et al., 2020). Re- ducing the use of antibiotics due to discussions between veterinarians, breeders and facilitators who have knowl- edge about antibiotic management can have an impact on reducing antibiotic resistance. Reducing the number of antibiotic resistance can also be achieved through re- search that focuses on resistance genes in agricultural wastewater and animal waste (Jimenez et al., 2023). Low awareness and limited number of veterinarians in low- and middle-income countries regarding AMR can have an impact on increasing the number of worldwide AMR (Coyne et al., 2020). In Indonesia, as many as 12.7% of deaths occurred in patients with bloodstream infections who had experienced resistant bacteria (Taruna et al., 2022). Salmonella spp. isolates from camel meat in Egypt are known to have experienced MDR, from PCR test re- sults it is known that bla OXA is a gene that is always pres- ent in ampicillin-resistant isolates (Sallam et al., 2024). The results of our research show that there is a potential risk for humans and animals who come into contact with bat guano, guano contamination of water and soil which will have an impact on public health. 5. CONCLUSION From 135 samples we isolated 9 Salmonella spp. Bacte- ria. The susceptibility of all isolated from bats from West Nusa T enggara, showed resistance to the antibiotic, tetra- cycline 11.1% (1/9), amoxicillin 22.2% (2/9) and azithro- mycin 77.7% (7/9). Samples still showed sensitivity to the antibiotics ciprofloxacin, cefotaxime, gentamicin, and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. The ability to travel long distances over various vegetation makes bats have the potential to spread antibiotic-resistant Salmonella spp. bacteria in the environment which can be dangerous for public health. CAVE-DWELLING BATS CARRY ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA SALMONELLA SPP . THAT POSE A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 113 ACKNOWLEDGMENT Researchers would like to thank the Faculty of Veteri- nary Medicine, Airlangga University for all the facilities provided during conducting research. This research was supported by funding for Doctoral Dissertation research from Center for Higher Education Fund (BBPT) and In- donesia Endowment Funds for Education (LPDP), with grant number from KEPUTUSAN KEPALA PUSAT LAYANAN PEMBIAYAAN PENDIDIKAN KEMEN- TERIAN PENDIDIKAN, KEBUDAYAAN, RISET, DAN TEKNOLOGI NOMOR 00087/J5.2.3./BPI.06/9/2022. BPI ID Number: 202209090573. CONFLICT OF INTEREST There is no conflict of interest. REFERENCES Adesiyun, A.A., Stewart-Johnson, A., 2009. Thompson, N.N. Isolation of enteric pathogens from bats in Trinidad. Journal of wildlife diseases, 45(4): 952- 961. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-45.4.952 Agustin, A.L.D., Atma, C.D., Munawaroh, M., Ningtyas, N.S.I., Legowo, A.P ., Sukmanadi, M. 2019. Bacterial pathogens from cave-dwelling bats that are a risk to human, animal and environmental health on Lom- bok Island, Indonesia. EurAsian Journal of BioSci- ences, 13(2): 1509-1513. Agustin, A.L.D., Dameanti, F.N.A.E.P., Effendi, M.H., Tyasningsih, W ., Khairullah, A.R., Kurniawan, S.C., Kinasih, K.N. 2024. Multidrug resistance to antibi- otics in Escherichia coli bacteria isolated from bats on Lombok Island, Indonesia. Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research, 14(4): 683-686. Aladejana, O.M., Oluduro, A.O., Ogunlade, A.O., Ba- batunde, S.K., Sanni, O.T. 2024. Isolation, molecu- lar identification and antibiotics susceptibility of Salmonella serotypes isolates from bats in Osun State, Nigeria. Vegetos, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s42535-023-00791 Alenazy, A. 2022. Antibiotic resistance in Salmonella: Targeting multidrug resistance by understanding efflux pumps, regulators and the inhibitors. Journal of King Saud University – Science, 34(7), 102275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.102275 Altissimi, C., Primavilla, S., Roila, R., Gavaudan, S., Morandi, B., Di Lullo, S., Coppini, M., Baldinelli, C., Cai, D., Branciari, R., Valiani, A., Paulsen, P., Ranucci, D., 2024. Salmonella in Wild Boar Meat: Prevalence and Risk Assessment in Central Italy (Umbria and Marche Region). Foods, 13(8): 1156. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13081156 Andanalusia, M., Akbar, S.I.I., Pradiningsihm, A., 2022. IAI SPECIAL EDITION: Drug therapy for CO- VID-19 inpatients in West Nusa Tenggara hospi- tal. Pharmacy Education, 22(2): 180-183. https:// doi.org/10.46542/pe.2022.222.180183 Ansharieta, R., Ramandinianto, S.C., Effendi, M.H., Plu- meriastuti, H., 2021a. Molecular identification of blaCTX-M and blaTEM genes encoding extended- spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) producing Esche- richia coli isolated from raw cow's milk in East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 22(4): 1600-1605. https:// doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d220402 Ansharieta, R., Plumeriastuti, H., Effendi, M.H., 2021b. Genetic identification of shiga toxin encoding gene from cases of multidrug resistance (MDR) Esch- erichia coli isolated from raw milk. Tropical Animal Science Journal, 46(3): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5398/ tasj.2021.44.1.10 Armelle, K., Esther, D., Victorien, D.T., Souaïbou, F., Marc, K.T .T ., Théodore, A.. 2021. Implication of bats in the transmission of zoonotic strains of Salmo- nella in Benin. South Asian Journal of Experimental Biology. 11(5): 583-587. https://doi.org/10.38150/ sajeb.11(5).p583-587 Bertelloni, F ., Bresciani, F ., Cagnoli, G., Scotti, B., Lazzeri- ni, L., Marcucci, M., Colombani, G., Bilei, S., Bossu, T., De Marchis, M.L., Ebani, V .V ., 2023. House flies (Musca domestica) from swine and poultry farms carrying antimicrobial resistant Enterobacteriaceae ALFIANA LAILI DWI AGUSTIN, MUSTOFA HELMI EFFENDI, WIWIEK TYASNINGSIH & HANI PLUMERIASTUTI 114 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 and Salmonella.  Veterinary Sciences,  10(2), 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci10020118 Castelo-Branco, D.S.C.M., Nobre, J.A., Souza, P.R.H., Diógenes, E.M., Guedes, G.M.M., Mesquita, F.P., Souza, P .F .N., Rocha, M.F .G., Sidrim, J.J.C., Cordeiro, R.A., Montenegro, R. C., 2023. Role of Brazilian bats in the epidemiological cycle of potentially zoonotic pathogens.  Microbial Pathogenesis, 177: 106032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106032 Castro-Vargas, R.E., Herrera-Sánchez, M.P., Rodríguez- Hernández, R., Rondón-Barragán, I.S., 2020. An- tibiotic resistance in Salmonella spp. isolated from poultry: A global overview.  Veterinary world, 13(10): 2070-2084. https://doi.org/10.14202/vet- world.2020.2070-2084 Chu, Y., Wang, D., Hao, W., Sun, R., Sun, J., Liu, Y., Liao, X., 2024. Prevalence, antibiotic resistance, virulence genes and molecular characteristics of Salmonella isolated from ducks and wild geese in China. Food Microbiology, 118: 104423. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.fm.2023.104423 Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI)., 2020. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing in CLSI Supplement M100. CLSI. Wayne, PA. Coyne, L., Patrick, I., Arief, R., Benigno, C., Kalpravidh, W., McGrane, J., Schoonman, L., Sukarno, A.H., Rushton, J., 2020. The costs, benefits and human behaviours for antimicrobial use in small commer- cial broiler chicken systems in Indonesia. Antibi- otics, 9(4): 154. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiot- ics9040154 Dameanti, F .N.A.E.P ., Y anestria, S.M., Widodo, A., Effen- di, M.H., Plumeriastuti, H., Tyasningsih, W ., Ugbo, E.N., Sutrisno, R., Syah, M.A.A., 2023. Prevalence of multidrug resistance and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoni- ae from dairy cattle farm wastewater in East Java Province, Indonesia. International Journal of One Health, 9(2): 141-149. https://doi.org/10.14202/ IJOH.2023.141-149 Devnath, P ., Karah, N., Graham, J.P ., Rose, E.S., Asaduz- zaman, M., 2022. Evidence of antimicrobial resis- tance in bats and its planetary health impact for surveillance of zoonotic spillover events: a scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Re- search and Public Health, 20(1): 243. https://doi. org/10.3390/ijerph20010243 Dimkić, I., Fira, D., Janakiev, T., Kabić, J., Stupar. M., Nenadić, M., Grbić, M.L., 2021. The microbiome of bat guano: for what is this knowledge impor- tant?.  Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 105: 1407-1419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253- 021-11143-y Donoso, A., Paredes, N., Retamal, P ., 2020. Detection of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella enterica strains in larval and adult forms of lesser mealworm (Al- phitobius diaperinus) from industrial poultry farms. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7: 577848. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.577848 dos Santos, E.J.E., Lopes, A.T.S., Maciel, B.M., 2022. Salmonella in wild animals: A public health con- cern. In  Enterobacteria. IntechOpen. https://doi. org/10.5772/intechopen.102618 Effendi, M.H., Tyasningsih, W ., Yurianti, Y.A., Rahmah- ani, J., Harijani, N., Plumeriastuti, H., 2021. Pres- ence of multidrug resistance (MDR) and extend- ed-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) of Escherichia coli isolated from cloacal swab of broilers in several wet markets in Surabaya, Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 22(1): 304-310. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/ d220137 Esposito, M.M., Turku, S., Lehrfield, L., Shoman, A., 2023. The impact of human activities on zoonotic infection transmissions.  Animals, 13(10): 1646. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13101646 Eugène, K.K., 2019. Prevalence and characteristics of Salmonella isolated to smals mammals in Cote D’Ivoire: case of rodents and bats. The Experiment, 47(4): 2695-2704. Fanissa, F., Effendi, M.H., Tyasningsih, W., Ugbo, E.N., 2022. Multidrug-resistant Salmonella species from chicken meat sold at Surabaya Traditional Markets, Indonesia. Biodiversitas: Journal of Biological Di- versity, 23(6): 2823-2829. https://doi.org/10.13057/ biodiv/d230606 Fazion, P.J., Marzoli, F., Pezzuto, A., Bertola, M., An- tonelli, P., Dolzan, B., Barco, L., Belluco, S., 2023. A systematic review of experimental studies on Salmonella persistence in insects.  npj Science of Food. 7(1): 44. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-023- 00223-0 Ferreira, A.C.R., Colocho, R.A.B., Pereira, C,R., Veira, T.M., Gregorin, R., Lage, A.P., Dorneles, E.M.S., 2024. Zoonotic bacterial pathogens in bats sam- ples around the world: a scoping review. Preven- tive Veterinary Medicine, 225: 106135. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.206235 Galán-Relaño, Á., Valero Díaz, A., Huerta Lorenzo, B., Gómez-Gascón, L., Mena Rodríguez, M.Á., Carras- co Jiménez, E.C., Perez Rodriguez, F., Astorga Márquez, R., 2023. Salmonella and salmonellosis: An update on public health implications and con- trol strategies.  Animals,13(23): 3666. https://doi. org/10.3390/ani13233666 CAVE-DWELLING BATS CARRY ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA SALMONELLA SPP . THAT POSE A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 115 Ge, B., Mukherjee, S., Li, C., Harrison, L.B., Hsu, C.H., Tran, T.T., Whichard, J.M., Dessai, U., Singhh, R., Gilbert, J.M., Strain, E.A., McDermott, P.F., Zhao, S.. 2024. Genomic analysis of azithromycin-resis- tant Salmonella from food animals at slaughter and processing, and retail meats, 2011–2021, United States. Microbiology Spectrum, 12(1): e03485-23. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.03485-23 Hanifa, M.H., Tyasningsih, W., Yunita, M.N., 2022. De- tection of Contamination Salmonella sp. of Beef in Banyuwangi Traditional Market. Jurnal Medik Vet- eriner, 5(2): 247-251. https://doi.org/10.20473/jmv. vol5.iss2.2022.247-251 Horefti, E., 2023. The Importance of the One Health Concept in Combating Zoonoses. Pathogens, 12(8): 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12080977 Ingala, M.R., 2024. Microbiomes of bats.  A Natu- ral History of Bat Foraging, 217-232. https://doi. org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91820-6.16002-4 Islam, A., Mikolon, A., Mikoleit, M., Ahmed, D., Khan, S.U., Sharker, M.Y., Hossain, M.J., Islam, A., Ep- stein, J.H., Zeidner, N., Luby, S.P., 2013. Isolation of Salmonella virchow from a fruit bat (Pteropus giganteus).  EcoHealth, 10, 348-351. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10393-013-0866-y Islam, M.N. 2014. Prevalence and antibiogram of E. coli and Salmonella spp. isolates in small fruit bat (Rousettus leschenaulti) and associated public health risk in Bangladesh. Chittagong Veterinary and Ani- mal Sciences University, Khulshi-Ctg. Jimenez, C.E.P., Keestra, S., Tandon, P., Cumming, O., Pickering, A.J., Moodley, A., Chandler, C.I., 2023. Biosecurity and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions in animal agricultural set- tings for reducing infection burden, antibiotic use, and antibiotic resistance: a One Health systematic re- view. The Lancet Planetary Health, 7(5): e418-e434. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00049-9 Kinasih, K.N., Mustika, Y.R., Puspitasari. Y., Tyasning- sih, W., Agustin, A.L.D., Kurniawan, S.C., Silaen, O.S.M., 2024. Molecular detection of Klebsiella pneumoniae producing extended-spectrum beta- lactamase isolated from bat feces from the Tanjung Ringgit bat cave, Lombok Island, Indonesia. Inter- national Journal of One Health, 10(1): 133-140. https://doi.org/10.14202/IJOH.2024.133-140 Li, Q., 2022. Mechanisms for the Invasion and Dissemi- nation of Salmonella. Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology, (1): 2655801. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2655801 Lima, V .F.S., Rocha, P .A., Silva, M.A.D., Beltrão-Mendes, R., Ramos, R.A.N., Giannelli, A., Rinaldi, L., Crin- goli, G., Estrela, P.C., Alves, L.C., 2018. Survey on helminths and protozoa of free-living Neotropi- cal bats from Northeastern Brazil.  Acta tropica, 185: 267-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropi- ca.2018.06.002 Mafizur, R.M., Sangjin, L., Chul, P.Y., 2024. Prevalence of  Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli in the fe- ces of free-roaming wildlife throughout South Korea. PLoS ONE, 19(2): e0281006. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282006 McDougall, F.K., Boardman, W.S., Power, M.L., 2021. Characterization of beta-lactam-resistant Escherich- ia coli from Australian fruit bats indicates anthro- pogenic origins. Microbial Genomics, 7(5): 000571. https://doi.org/10.1099/mgen.0.000571 McDougall, F., and Power, M., 2021. Occurrence of Sal- monella enterica in grey‐headed flying foxes from New South Wales. Australian Veterinary Journal, 99(12): 517-521. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13116 McDougall, F., Gordon, D., Robins-Browne, R., Bennett- Wood, V., Boardman, W.S., Graham, P.L., Power, M., 2023. Characterisation of typical enteropatho- genic Escherichia coli (tEPEC) lineages and novel bfpA variants detected in Australian fruit bats (Pteropus poliocephalus). Science of the Total En- vironment, 902: 166336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2023.166336 Możdżer, E., 2024. Effect of Guano Fertilisation on Yield and Some Quality Traits of Perennial Ryegrass Bio- mass. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 25(3): 212- 222. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/181158 Mustika, Y.R., Effendi, M.H., Puspitasari, Y., Plumeri- astuti, H., Khairullah, A.R., Kinasih, K.N., 2024a. Identification of Escherichia coli Multidrug Resis- tance in Cattle in Abattoirs. Jurnal Medik Veteri- ner, 7(1): 19-32. https://doi.org/10.20473/jmv.vol7. iss1.2024.19-32 Mustika, Y.R., Kinasih. K.N., Effendi, M.H., Puspitasari, Y., Kurniawan, S.C., Khairullah, A.R., Samodra, M.E.E., Hasib, A., Agustin, A.L.D., Moses, I.B., Si- laen, O.S.M., 2024b. Molecular detection of extend- ed-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli from bat caves on Lombok Island. Open Vet- erinary Journal, 14(2): 699. https://doi.org/10.5455/ OVJ.2024.v14.i2.10 Nguyen Thi, H., Pham, T.T.T., Turchi, B., Fratini, F., Eba- ni, V .V ., Cerri, D., Bertelloni, F,. 2020. Characteriza- tion of Salmonella spp. isolates from swine: Viru- lence and antimicrobial resistance. Animals, 10(12): 2418. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122418 Nicolas, A. 2024. Preliminary investigation about zoo- notic interfaces: prevalence of Salmonella spp. in bats, rodents and dogs in Nan Province, Thailand. Nijman, V., Nekaris, K.A.I., Shepherd, C.R., Vigne, L., ALFIANA LAILI DWI AGUSTIN, MUSTOFA HELMI EFFENDI, WIWIEK TYASNINGSIH & HANI PLUMERIASTUTI 116 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 Ardiansyah, A., Imron, M.A., Ini, Q., Hedger, K., Campera, M., Morcatty, T.Q., 2023. Potential mam- malian vector-borne diseases in live and wet mar- kets in Indonesia and Myanmar.  Microbiology Research, 14(1): 116-131. https://doi.org/10.3390/ microbiolres14010011 Oludairo, O.O., Kwaga, J.K.P., Kabir, J., Abdu, P.A., Gi- tanjali, A., Perrets, A., Cibin, V., Lettini, A.A., and Aiyedun, J.O., 2023. Ecology and epidemiology of Salmonella spp. isolated from the environment and the roles played by wild animals in their mainte- nance, Int. J. One Health, 9(1): 1–9. https://doi. org/10.14202/IJOH.2023.1-9 Permatasari, D.A., Anggraeni, F., Budiarto, B., Meles, D.K., Hamid, I.S., Puspitasari, Y., Effendi, M.H., Ugbo, E.N. 2022. Prevalence and antimicrobial re- sistance in Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from raw milk in Pasuruan and Lumajang districts, East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 23(10). https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/ d231011 Ramdani, F.A., Riwu, K.H.P ., Kholik, Mbura, Y.V .H., Za- karias, H.V., 2024. Pattern of Antibiotic Resistance in Salmonella sp. Bacteria Contaminating Fresh Faeces of Laying Hens in Kediri District, West Lom- bok Regency. Biota: Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu-Ilmu Hayati, 145-154. https://doi.org/10.24002/biota.v9i2.7814 Ramey, A.M., and Ahlstrom, C.A., 2020. Antibiotic re- sistant bacteria in wildlife: Perspectives on trends, acquisition and dissemination, data gaps, and future directions. Journal of wildlife diseases, 56(1): 1-15. Riwu, K.H.P., Effendi, M.H., Rantam, F.A., Khairullah, A.R., Kurniawan, S.C., Kurniawan, A., Shehzad, A., 2024. Molecular detection of blaTEM gene for en- coding extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) on Escherichia coli isolated from deer feces in In- donesia. Journal of Advanced Veterinary Research, 14(4): 722-726. Roasto, M., Bonardi, S., Mäesaar, M., Alban, L., Gomes- Neves, E., Vieira-Pinto, M., Vagsholm, I., Elias, T., Lindegaard, L.L., Blagojevic, B., 2023. Salmonella enterica prevalence, serotype diversity, antimicro- bial resistance and control in the European pork production chain. Trends in Food Science & Tech- nology, 131: 210-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tifs.2022.12.007 Rojas-Sereno, Z.E., Streicker, D.G., Suarez-Y ana, T ., Line- ros, M., Y ung, V ., Godreuil, S., Benavides, J.A., 2023. Detection of antimicrobial-resistant Enterobacte- rales in insectivorous bats from Chile. Royal Soci- ety Open Science, 10(11): 231177. DOI: 10.1098/ rsos.231177 Sallam, K.I., Kasem, N.G., Abdelkhalek, A., Elshebrawy, H.A., 2024. Extensively drug-, ciprofloxacin-, ce- fotaxime-, and azithromycin-resistant Salmonel- la enterica serovars isolated from camel meat in Egypt. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 411: 110538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmi- cro.2023.110538 Siahaan, S., Herman, M. J., & Fitri, N., 2022. Antimicro- bial resistance situation in Indonesia: a challenge of multisector and global coordination. Journal of tropical medicine, 2022(1): 2783300. https://doi. org/10.1155/2022/2783300 Simons, N.B and Cirranello, A.L. Bats of The World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Database. American Museum of Natural History. Version 1.6, July 20, 2024. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12802826 Skarżyńska, M., Zając, M., Kamińska, E., Bomba, A., Żmudzki, J., Jabłoński, A., Wasyl, D., 2020. Salmo- nella and antimicrobial resistance in wild rodents— true or false threat?. Pathogens, 9(9): 771. https:// doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090771 Smoglica, C., Vergara, A., Angelucci, S., Festino, A.R., Antonucci, A., Marsilio, F., Di Francesco, C.E., 2023. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria dissemination in the wildlife, livestock, and water of Maiella Na- tional Park, Italy. Animals, 13(3): 432. https://doi. org/10.3390/ani13030432 Smoglica, C., Graziosi, G., De Angelis, D., Lupini, C., Festino, A., Catelli, E., Di Francesco, C.E., 2024. Wild Birds as Drivers of Salmonella Braenderup and Multidrug Resistant Bacteria in Wetlands of Northern Italy.  Transboundary and Emerg- ing Diseases. 2024(1): 6462849. https://doi. org/10.1155/2024/6462849 Sun, X., Xue, F., Cong, C., Murtaza, B., Wang, L., Li, X., Xu, Y., 2024. Characterization of two virulent Salmonella phages and transient application in egg, meat and lettuce safety. Food Research Inter- nasional,  190: 114607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. foodres.2024.114607 Szentivanyi, T., McKee, C., Jones, G., Foster, J.T., 2023. Trends in bacterial pathogens of bats: global dis- tribution and knowledge gaps. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 2023(1): 9285855. https://doi. org/10.1155/2023/9285855 Takaichi, M., Osawa, K., Nomoto, R., Nakanishi, N., Ka- meoka, M., Miura, M., Shigemura, K., Kinoshita, S., Kitagawa, K., Uda, A., Miyara, T., Mertaniasih, N.M., Hadi, U., Raharjo, D., Yulistiani, R., Fuji- sawa, M., Kuntaman, K., Shirakawa, T., 2021. An- tibiotic resistance in non-typhoidal Salmonella en- terica strains isolated from chicken meat in Indone- sia. Pathogens, 11(5): 543. https://doi.org/10.3390/ pathogens11050543 CAVE-DWELLING BATS CARRY ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT BACTERIA SALMONELLA SPP . THAT POSE A PUBLIC HEALTH THREAT IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, INDONESIA ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025 117 Tauran, P.M., Djaharuddin, I., Bahrun, U., Nurulita, A., Katu, S., Muchtar, F ., Pelupessy, N.M., Hamers, R.L., Day, N.P.J., Arif, M., Limmathurotsakul, D., 2022. Excess mortality attributable to antimicrobial-re- sistant bacterial bloodstream infection at a tertia- ry-care hospital in Indonesia. PLOS Global Public Health, 2(7): e0000830. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pgph.0000830 T enaya, I.W .M., Swacita, I.B.N., Sukada, I.M., Suada, I.K., Mufa, R.M.D., Agustina, K.K., Suardana, I.W ., Han- dayani, N.M., 2024. Microbial Investigation of Ani- mal Product Hygine in Bali and Nusa Tenggara of Indonesia. Int J Vet Sci, 13(4): 413-420. https://doi. org/10.47278/journal.ijvs/2023.120 Trott, D.J., Turnidge, J., Kovac, J.H., Simjee, S., Wilson, D., Watts, J,. 2021. Comparative macrolide use in humans and animals: should macrolides be moved off the World Health Organisation’s critically im- portant antimicrobial list?. Journal of Antimicro- bial Chemotherapy, 76(8): 1955-1961. https://doi. org/10.1093/jac/dkab120 Uddin, M., Samad, M.A., Rahman, M.K., Islam, S., Hos- sain, M.S., Sagor, M.S., Islam, A., 2020. Ecology of bat drinking behaviour and AMR patterns of Salmo- nella spp. Staphylococcus spp. and E. coli recovered from fecal droppings of bats and water in BD. In- ternational Journal of Infectious Diseases, 101: 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.060 Ugbo, E.N., Effendi, M.H., Witaningrum, A.M., Tyas- ningsih, W ., Agumah, B.N., Ugbo, A.I., Nnabugwu, C.C., Okata-Nwali, D.O., 2023a. Antimicrobial re- sistance pattern of Salmonella spp. isolated from poultry farms in Abakaliki, Nigeria. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 24(9): 520-5214. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d240965 Ugbo, E.N., Jacob, J.I., Effendi, M.H., Witaningrum. A.M., Agumah, B.N., Ugbo, A.I., Moses, B.I., 2023b. Poultry slaughterhouse wastewater as reservoirs for spreading extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-pro- ducing Escherichia coli in Abakaliki, Nigeria. Biodi- versitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 24(9): 4960- 4966. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d240939 Wibisono, F .J., Sumiarto, B., Untari, T.R.I., Effendi, M.H., Permatasari, D.A., Witaningrum, A.M., 2020a. Pat- tern of antibiotic resistance on extended-spectrum beta-lactamases genes producing Escherichia coli on laying hens in Blitar, Indonesia.  Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity, 21(10): 4631-4635. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d211022 Wibisono, F.M., Wibison, F.J., Effendi, M.H., Plumerias- tuti, H., Hidayatullah, A.R., Hartadi, E.B., Sofiana, E.D., 2020b. A review of salmonellosis on poultry farms: Public health importance.  Systematic Re- views in Pharmacy, 11(9), 481-486. Wibisono, F.J., Sumiarto, B., Untari, T., Effendi, M.H., Permatasari, D.A., Witaningrum, A.M., 2021. Mo- lecular identification of CTX gene of extended spec- trum beta-lactamases (ESBL) producing Escherich- ia coli on layer chicken in Blitar, Indonesia. JAPS: Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences, 31(4): 954-959. https://doi.org/10.36899/JAPS.2021.4.0289 Wibisono, F.J., Rahmaniar, R.P., Syaputra, D.E., Zuriya, Z., Aziz, K.M., Ikeng, L.D., Effendi, M.H., Bernard, A.N., 2023. Risk Factors for Non-typhoidal Sal- monella Contamination in chicken meat: A cross- sectional study on Traditional Markets in Suraba- ya. Advancements in Life Sciences, 10(2): 282-288. Witaningrum, A.M., Wibisono, F.J., Permatasari, D.A., Effendi, M.H., Ugbo, E.N., 2022. Multidrug resis- tance-encoding gene in Citrobacter freundii isolated from healthy laying chicken in Blitar District, In- donesia. International Journal of One Helath, 8(2): 161-166. https://doi.org/10.14202/IJOH.2022.161- 166 Xu, H., Zhang, W., Zhang, K., Zhang, Y., Wang, Z., Zhang, W., Li, Y., Li, Q., 2021. Characterization of Salmonella serotypes prevalent in asymptomatic people and patients. BMC infectious diseases, 21: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06340-z Yada, L.E., 2023. AReview on: Salmonellosis and its Eco- nomic and Public Health Significance. Internasion- al Journal of Microbiological research. https://doi. org/10.5829/indosi.ijmr.2023.21.22 Yanestria, S.M., Rahmaniar, R.P ., Wibisono, F.J., Effendi, M.H., 2019. Detection of invA gene of Salmonella from milkfish (Chanos chanos) at Sidoarjo wet fish market, Indonesia, using polymerase chain reaction technique. V eterinary world, 12(1): 170-175. https:// doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2019.170-175 Yang, Q., Zu, J., Zhang, S., Liu, C., Qin, X., Xu, W ., 2024. An overview of rapid detection methods for Sal- monella.  Food Control, 167; 110771. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110771 Yu, J., Chen, X., Zhang, Y., Cui, X., Zhang, Z., Guo, W., Xu, L., 2022. Antibiotic Azithromycin inhibits brown/beige fat functionality and promotes obesity in human and rodents. Theranostics, 12(3): 1187. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.63067 ALFIANA LAILI DWI AGUSTIN, MUSTOFA HELMI EFFENDI, WIWIEK TYASNINGSIH & HANI PLUMERIASTUTI 118 ACTA CARSOLOGICA 54/1 – 2025