Philipp Asen
University of Applied Sciences
fh Joanneum Graz, Austria
philipp.asen@fh-joanneum.at
Vito Bobek
University of Applied Sciences
fh Joanneum Graz, Austria
vito.bobek@fh-joanneum.at
Tatjana Horvat
University of Primorska, Faculty
of Management, Slovenia
tatjana.horvat@fm-kp.si
The Efficiency of Ports
and Airports in Emerging Markets
Measured by Key Performance
Indicators: The Case of Hong Kong
and Durban
Ports and airports impact emerging countries’ development. A case study
where the ports and airports of Durban, South Africa, and Hong Kong
are compared should provide information about this issue. The research
was based on a quantitative and descriptive approach, as the outcome
was simply expressed in an overall summary.The results were that Hong
Kong outperforms Durban in most key performance indicators such as
revenue, cargo handled, or container dwell time. In addition, Durban’s
port is more expensive and cannot attract the most prominent busi-
nesses. However, even though Durban is nowhere near the size of Hong
Kong, the port and airport are essential for their economy, and they keep
improving. In conclusion, it can be said that some obvious factors influ-
ence the economy, like the size of the port or airport. Other than that,
some indicators are not influenced by the size, like average turnaround
time, which can be optimized.
Keywords: infrastructure development, importance of ports and airports,
comparison of emerging countries, key performance indicators
Učinkovitost pristanišč in letališč na hitrorastočih trgih,
merjena s ključnimi kazalniki uspešnosti: primer Hongkonga
in Durbana
Pristanišča in letališča vplivajo na razvoj hitrorastočih gospodarstev. Štu-
dija primera, v kateri primerjamo pristanišča in letališča Durbana (Južna
Afrika) in Hongkonga, bi morala zagotoviti informacije o tem vprašanju.
Raziskava je temeljila na kvantitativnem in deskriptivnem pristopu, saj
je bil rezultat preprosto izražen v splošnem povzetku. Rezultati so po-
kazali, da je Hong Kong boljši od Durbana pri večini ključnih kazalnikov
uspešnosti, kot so prihodki, pretovorjen tovor ali čas zadrževanja zaboj-
nikov. Poleg tega je pristanišče Durban dražje in ne more pritegniti naj-
vidnejših podjetij. Čeprav Durban po velikosti ni primerljiv s Hongkon-
gom, sta pristanišče in letališče ključnega pomena za njihovo gospodar-
stvo in se nenehno izboljšujeta. Ugotovimo lahko, da nekateri očitni de-
javniki, kot sta velikost pristanišča ali letališča, vplivajo na gospodarstvo.
Velikost pa ne vpliva na nekatere druge dejavnike, kot je na primer pov-
prečni čas obdelave, ki ga je mogoče optimizirati.
Ključne besede: razvoj infrastrukture, pomen pristanišč in letališč, pri-
merjava držav v vzponu, ključni kazalniki uspešnosti
https://doi.org/10.26493/1854-4231.16.75-81
Introduction
Goods and services get imported from abroad
for different reasons: they may be cheaper, have
better quality, or no local alternative is available
or exists. Trade benefits may be inequitable, but
some trade is better than no trade at all (‘Interna-
management 16 (2021) številka 2 75
Philipp Asen, Vito Bobek, and Tatjana Horvat |The Efficiency of Ports and Airports
tional Trade: Need, Benefits, and Disadvantages’
n.d.). Especially in the emerging economy, trans-
portation costs can represent a significant bar-
rier to trade, as the necessary infrastructure is
non-existent, which means that the expansion of
infrastructure could facilitate trade by increas-
ing regional and international trade through re-
ducing costs. In emerging countries, a significant
reason for the low quality of infrastructure is
poormaintenance because of limited financial re-
sources (Soobramanien and Zhuawu 2014). How-
ever, efforts are made to improve transport in-
frastructure and its quality, as it is essential to a
country’s development and has a significant im-
pact on the economy.
During the 19th century and first half of the
20th century, ports tended to be instruments
of state powers, and port access was regarded
as a means to control markets. Competition be-
tween ports was minimal. However, times have
changed, and most ports today are competing
with each other on a global scale and, with the
tremendous gains in productivity in ocean trans-
port achieved over the past several decades, ports
are now perceived to be the remaining control-
lable component in improving the efficiency of
ocean transport logistics (Rodrigue 2020). So the
three main determinants for competitive ports,
identified here, are extensive maritime forelands
(on the sea/water), effective port operations, and
strong hinterland connections (road/rail) (Zhang
and Roe 2019). The same can be said about air-
ports. They have traditionally been considered as
public utility providers, with little potential to
develop significant market opportunities. Liber-
alization of the air transport market around the
globe has introduced new dynamics into the air-
port industry.The emergence of competition and
the transition in ownership (towards privatiza-
tion or commercialization) demands a different
perspective (Jimenez, Claro, and Pinho de Sousa
2014)
The maritime and air transport industry is
cost-driven, e.g. if a vessel spendsmore timewait-
ing outside the port for the next available berth
or due to congestion, the cost of transportation
of the cargo increases (unctad 2014). Container
ports and airports are compelled to regularly re-
view their capacity and other Key Performance
Indicators (kpis) to ensure that they can provide
satisfactory service to users and maintain their
competitive edge.
This paper is about the efficiency of ports and
airports and their role in emerging markets. In-
frastructure has always been an essential tool for
a country’s wealth and growth, enabling Euro-
peans to import goods fromAsia faster or explore
other parts of the world like the American conti-
nent (Beckmann 2019).
In the past, many countries defined them-
selves by their ports, in particular those with a
vast port quickly becoming the linchpin for busi-
ness worldwide. Connectivity attracts business
investments and human capital, which means
that ports and airports are significant drivers
of a country’s economic and social development.
These ports give access to foreign markets, fa-
cilitate the movement of products and goods
and make people mobile (Bjorndal 2017). How-
ever, the ports of Hamburg or Rotterdam are big-
ger and more successful than those of emerging
countries.The same canbe said about the airports
in Atlanta or Frankfurt, which are well known,
and every major airline heads for those airports
(Roddey 2020; White 2018). Therefore, the paper
highlights what the main drivers are for success-
ful ports and airports and how they influence the
development of a country.
Economically developing countries usually do
not have a well-developed infrastructure as re-
gards ports and airports. However, they are often
located on essential trade corridors or are rich
in natural resources. The establishment of these
structures could enormously support such coun-
tries in their development and make them part
of the global market (Kakissis 2018). At the end
of this paper, we present a case study about two
cities on these critical trade corridors, HongKong
and Durban in South Africa.
The authors have provided good practice, i.e.
comparing ports and airports of two emerging
countries. There is not much literature about ei-
ther in emerging countries, and especially no
comparisons.There ismuchmore in the literature
about that issue in developed countries, so this
paper’s importance is that it collects data from
emerging countries’ ports and airports and com-
pares them.Therefore, the professional relevance
of the paper is that it determines the reasons for
the different development in these countries and
recent numbers in the industry.
The two goals and the assumptions that will
help to provide good practice are the following:
• What is the importance of ports and airports
in the development of emerging countries?
Here the authors assumed that trade is es-
sential for development, and infrastructure
76 management 16 (2021) številka 2
Philipp Asen, Vito Bobek, and Tatjana Horvat |The Efficiency of Ports and Airports
Hong Kong 2010 3300
Hong Kong 2018 2920
Durban 2010 265
Durban 2018 410
Figure 1 Revenue in Million €
Hong Kong 2010 21
Hong Kong 2018 18
Durban 2010 3
Durban 2018 6
Figure 2 Number teus Handled in Millions
is necessary to trade. In addition, there are
several factors of importance.
• What are the reasons why Hong Kong out-
performsDurban?Here the authors assumed
that Hong Kong is more efficient in impor-
tant kpis.
This paper followed a quantitative approach,
as the most critical indicators were expressed in
numbers. It followed descriptive research as the
outcome was expressed in an overall summary.
Finally, the data were entered in Microsoft Excel
and shown in various graphs.
Case Study: Durban vs. Hong Kong
In this case study, Durban’s ports and airports
in South Africa and Hong Kong will be compared
with some critical kpis. Durban was chosen be-
cause it has the most extensive and busiest ship-
ping terminal in sub-Saharan Africa and influ-
ences the region and country. Furthermore, a new
airport was opened in 2010 and the changes there
will be interesting to analyse. Hong Kong was
chosen because they have had one of the busi-
est ports globally since the late 1980s due to the
trade in manufactured products. Their airport is
also gathering increasing importance as for many
tourists it is the entry to China. However, Hong
Kong is still often considered an emerging mar-
ket.
Ports
Starting with one of the most important finan-
cial indicators of every company, Figure 1 shows
the revenue in € ofHongKong andDurban.There
are several charges that ports levy to raise rev-
enue, including vessel servicing and facility fees,
cargo service fees, and leasing land for commer-
cial and industrial activities. Setting appropriate
fees for different types of vessels and cargo ship-
ments is a complicated process. Ports need to be
competitive with other nearby ports but also suf-
ficiently profitable to cover costs. In Hong Kong,
revenue has slightly decreased from 2010 to 2018.
This ismostly due to the increased competition in
South-East and East Asia. Ports like Shanghai or
Singapore take much business from Hong Kong
(Beard 2018).This can also be seen, as there is less
cargo handled at the port compared to 2010. The
other port, Durban, increased its revenue in that
timeframe.They increased the number of twenty-
foot equivalent units and tons of goods handled
and became more efficient over time. However,
there is still a considerable gap between the two
ports concerning revenue collected (figure 1).
The next important kpi is teu, which means
‘twenty-foot equivalent unit’ and is an inexact
unit of cargo capacity often used to describe con-
tainer ships and container terminals’ capacity.
However, it is seen in Figure 2 that the handling
of teus per year decreased in Hong Kong from
2010 to 2018. This is caused by to the competi-
tion in the Asian market, especially from Shang-
hai and Singapore. Adding to that, Hong Kong’s
terminal yards are, on average, 25 to 30 percent
below the benchmark for modern facilities. This
has been a pressing issue formany years, yet land-
use planning around the port remains inefficient.
Thismeans that the port must focus on removing
operational inefficiencies to stay on top. Never-
theless, they handled 18 million teus in 2018,
with 258 million tons of cargo handled (Ducruet,
Itoh, and Merk 2014).
Durban doubled their handling of teus per
year in that timeframe. They handled 6 million
teus in 2018, with 81.2million tons of cargo han-
dled. Upgrading and re-equipping of port infras-
tructure are well advanced in Durban, including
the widening and deepening of the port entrance
and channels to enable much larger ships to use
the port facilities. However, the port in Durban
management 16 (2021) številka 2 77
Philipp Asen, Vito Bobek, and Tatjana Horvat |The Efficiency of Ports and Airports
Table 1 Comparisons of Ports
Item Durban Hong Kong
teu  million  million
Container dwell time – days – days
Average turnaround time  hours  hours
Total cargo handled (int) . million  million
Revenue (in )  million . billion
Port-related jobs , ,
Opombe kpi from 2018. Based on International Transport
Forum (2014) and China Merchants Ports Holding Com-
pany (2019).
is one of the most expensive ones compared to
others. The total port pricing is around 280 usd
per teu compared to Hong Kong, with approxi-
mately 230 usd per teu. The terminal handling
charges and cargo dues are themost relevant ones
(International Transport Forum 2014) (figure 2).
Another important kpi is container dwell ti-
me, as it describes how long a shipping container
stays at a port terminal. In the Hong Kong port,
the short dwell time of 1–3 days also helps their
efficiency, as the storage yards are already lim-
ited (Ducruet, Itoh, and Merk 2014). Durban im-
proved dwell time because systems were in place
to allow for prompt clearance and release. The 3–
4 days dwell time in Durban are the fewest in any
African port, as the average dwell time in African
ports is around 10–14 days (International Trans-
port Forum 2014).
The next kpi is the average turnaround time
(att). In 2018, ships spent a median time of 23.5
hours in a port. A shorter time in port is a posi-
tive indicator that could signal port efficiency and
trade competitiveness (unctad 2020). Within
this kpi, there is a massive difference between
Durban and Hong Kong. Whereas Hong Kong
has a short turnaround time of approximately 10
hours, Durban’s average turnaround time ismuch
higher than 50 hours (Ducruet, Itoh, and Merk
2014; International Transport Forum 2014).
Both ports contribute massively to the econ-
omy of the country, as the Hong Kong port con-
tributes 1.1 of the gross domestic product in
Hong Kong, and the port in Durban contributes
between 1.5 and 2 of national gross domes-
tic product (The Official Website of the eThek-
wini Municipality n.d.; Transport and Housing
Bureau 2021). Adding to that, they also employ
many people and help to reduce unemployment.
Port-related jobs in Durban add up to 100,000
people employed in this sector, while in Hong
Kong, there are only 83,000 people employed (In-
ternational Transport Forum 2014). These jobs
include workers from the port, but also employ-
ees of agents who work there. This means Hong
Kong is much more efficient, with fewer peo-
ple employed in port-related jobs. They achieve
much more revenue, handle more cargo, and are
more efficient in container dwell time and av-
erage turnaround time. The port employees in
Hong Kong handled three times more teus and
more than three times as many tons as Durban
did. Furthermore, they are five times faster in
turnaround time and 1–2 days faster in container
dwell time.This efficiency could be due to various
causes like higher automation andmerely the size
of the port. Nevertheless, the port in Durban will
play a vital role in the future economic success of
South Africa.
Airports
Durban’s new airport, King Shaka Airport, was
opened in 2010 due to the football world cup in
South Africa. It has a capacity of 7.5 million pas-
sengers annually and has a longer runway, mean-
ing that now, the giant planes such as the Airbus
380 or Boing 747 can land and take off in Durban,
which was not possible at the old one.Thismeans
that Durban is also considered a medium airport,
classified with 5–10 million passengers per year.
The airport in Hong Kong was opened in 1998 as
the old airport got too small. It is now considered
a mega airport that handles more than 30 mil-
lion people annually. However, the airport even
exceeds this by far, with around 71.5 million pas-
sengers per year.
Airports can generate revenue in three signif-
icant areas: aeronautical revenue, non-aeronauti-
cal revenue, and non-operating revenue (‘HowDo
Airports Make Money?’ n.d.).
The revenuedevelopmentofDurban andHong
Kong is visible in figure 3 and figure 4, respec-
tively. It is no surprise that Durban tripled their
revenue due to the new airport and the capacity
to handle the most prominent aircraft for inter-
national flights. Hong Kong almost doubled their
revenue, because it is one of the busiest airports
globally, handles many freight aircraft and the
numbers of passengers are steadily increasing. In
this area, Hong Kong outperforms Durban mas-
sively with € 1.8 billion generated in revenue com-
pared to Durban’s € 35.4 million (Airport Author-
ity Hong Kong 2020; Airports Company South
Africa 2020). Therefore, it is essential to read the
78 management 16 (2021) številka 2
Philipp Asen, Vito Bobek, and Tatjana Horvat |The Efficiency of Ports and Airports
2010 10
2018 35.4
Figure 3 Revenue at Durban airport in € (based on Airport Authority Hong Kong 2020 and Airport Company South
Africa 2020)
2010 959
2018 1800
Figure 4 Revenue at Hong Kong Airport in € (based on Airport Authority Hong Kong 2020)
2010 6.4
2018 20.5
Figure 5 Total Cargo Handled at Durban Airport inThousand Tonnes (based on Airport Company South Africa 2020)
2010 3600
2018 4800
Figure 6 Total Cargo Handled at Hong Kong Airport inThousand Tonnes (based on Airport Authority Hong Kong
2020)
graphs correctly as Durban’s revenue would not
be visible on Hong Kong’s chart.
The airport in Durban has two different termi-
nals, one for passengers and the other for cargo.
Therefore, similar to the revenue, the total cargo
handled increased significantly over time. The
freight terminal is a significant benefit for the air-
port as large freight aircraft can operate there and
can load goods needed in the country or to sell to
other countries. The capacity of cargo handled in
Durban right now is 100,000 tons per year, but
they want to increase this capacity to 2 million
tons by 2060 (Dube TradePort n.d.). However,
they could only handle 20,500 tons of cargo in
2018, meaning that they still have a significant
amount of free capacity, which is inefficient but
must be improved in the future (figure 5).
HongKong international airport has been one
of the world’s busiest airports and handled 4.8
million tons of cargo in 2018, which accounted
for 42 ofHongKong’s external trade total value.
They have sufficient cargo handling capacity, with
a total of 7.6 million tons which could be handled.
Furthermore, their geographic location and con-
nectivity are significant in cargo handling (Hong
Kong International Airport n.d.a) (figure 6).
The flow of passengers is critical to the success
of an airport. It is vital to optimize operational
efficiency and the check-in process, develop hold
baggage systems, and realize full capacity (aiq
Consulting 2018).
Table 2 Comparison of Airports
Item Durban Hong Kong
Air traffic movements , ,
Passengers  million . million
On-time performance . .
Total cargo handled (int) , . million
Handling capacity (int) ,
(. full
utilization)
. million
( full
utilization)
Revenue (in ) . million . billion
Opombe Numbers from 2018. Based on Airport Author-
ity Hong Kong (2020) and Airports Company South Africa
(2020).
Durban was more or less fully occupied, so it
was vital for them to open a new airport. They
increased the number of annual passengers to 6
million, and it would be possible to handle 1.5mil-
lion more (Airports Company South Africa n.d.).
The airport in Hong Kong is gathering increas-
ing importance for many tourists as the entry to
China.They increased their number of passengers
between 2010 and 2018 to 71.5million, which is an
overwhelming 195,000 per day (HongKong Inter-
national Airport n.d.b) (figure 7).
Hong Kong connects these passengers with
220 destinations worldwide via 120 different air-
lines.They have approximately 420,000 air traffic
management 16 (2021) številka 2 79
Philipp Asen, Vito Bobek, and Tatjana Horvat |The Efficiency of Ports and Airports
Hong Kong 2010 50
Hong Kong 2018 71.5
Durban 2010 4.8
Durban 2018 6
Figure 7 Number of Annual Passengers in Millions (based on Airport Authority Hong Kong 2020 and Airports
Company South Africa 2020)
Hong Kong 2010 300
Hong Kong 2018 420
Durban 2010 54
Durban 2018 51.1
Figure 8 Number Annual Air Traffic Movements inThousands (based on Hong Kong International Airport n.d.b and
Airports Company South Africa 2020)
movements per year and two runways in opera-
tion (Hong Kong International Airport n.d.a). In
Durban, air traffic movements slightly declined,
which is an interesting fact. This means fewer re-
gional flights but more international flights with
larger aircraft withmore seats for passengers (fig-
ure 8).
As a medium airport, Durban has an on-time
performance of 84.3 compared to the mega air-
port in Hong Kong with 76.4 (oag Aviation
Worldwide 2020). Considering the size of both,
these times are quite good, as it is expected that
smaller airports are more punctual than bigger
ones.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be said that infrastructure
is very important for a country’s economy, and
ports and airports contribute to the gross do-
mestic product and reduce unemployment. Of
course, the size is essential, but there is more to
mention. Key performance indicators like con-
tainer dwell time, average turnaround time, or
total cargo handled are essential. Inmost of these
indicators, HongKong outperformsDurbanmas-
sively, as they work more efficiently with fewer
people employed. Furthermore, the port in Dur-
ban has much higher fees for the same amount
of cargo than Hong Kong and therefore is not
very attractive for many shipments. However,
even though Durban is nowhere near the size of
Hong Kong, the port and airport are essential for
their economy, and they keep improving. Both
cities have ambitious plans for the future, lead-
ing them in the right direction of becoming more
developed.
Itwas challenging tofindgoodpapers anddata
for both cities’ ports and airports, especially Dur-
ban. Therefore, we had to abandon our plans to
do a correlation analysis. It was impossible to find
year-to-year numbers, and it was already hard to
find numbers from ten years ago and some re-
cent numbers to compare them and see the de-
velopment. Furthermore, it was difficult to differ-
entiate the data as they had different definitions.
Port-related jobs are an example. Here, it was not
easy to differentiate as most of the time the data
stated that all jobs which are in any way related to
the port or airport are taken into account.
The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road is de-
signed to go fromChina’s coast to Europe through
the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean with
smooth, secure and efficient transport routes
connecting major seaports along the Belt and
Road where Hong Kong and Durban are very im-
portant hubs.TheMaritime Silk Road is the mar-
itime component of China’s Belt and Road Ini-
tiative (bri). It complements the various non-
maritime activities stimulated by the Chinese
government that relate to transport, energy and
communication infrastructure in developing coun-
tries, and between China and Europe. It will cre-
ate better and new opportunities for economic
development of both seaports and airports.
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