Zbornik 23. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŻBA Zvezek B Proceedings of the 23rd International Multiconference .si INFORMATION SOCIETY Volume B .ijsI S http://is Kognitivna znanost 20 Cognitive Science 20 Uredili / Edited byToma Strle, Jaša Černe, Olga Markič 8. oktober 2020 / 8 October 2020 Ljubljana, Slovenia Zbornik 23. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2020 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 23rd International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2020 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredili / Edited by Toma Strle, Jaša Černe, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 8. oktober 2020 / 8 October 2020 Ljubljana, Slovenia Uredniki: Toma Strle Center za Kognitivno znanost Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Jaša Černe Center za Kognitivno znanost Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Olga Markič Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Založnik: Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana Priprava zbornika: Mitja Lasič, Vesna Lasič, Lana Zemljak Oblikovanje naslovnice: Vesna Lasič Dostop do e-publikacije: http://library.ijs.si/Stacks/Proceedings/InformationSociety Ljubljana, oktober 2020 Informacijska družba ISSN 2630-371X Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID=33060355 ISBN 978-961-264-190-0 (epub) ISBN 978-961-264-191-7 (pdf) PREDGOVOR MULTIKONFERENCI INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA 2020 Triindvajseta multikonferenca Informacijska družba (http://is.ijs.si) je doživela polovično zmanjšanje zaradi korone. Zahvala za preživetje gre tistim predsednikom konferenc, ki so se kljub prvi pandemiji modernega sveta pogumno odločili, da bodo izpeljali konferenco na svojem področju. Korona pa skoraj v ničemer ni omejila neverjetne rasti IKTja, informacijske družbe, umetne inteligence in znanosti nasploh, ampak nasprotno – kar naenkrat je bilo večino aktivnosti potrebno opraviti elektronsko in IKT so dokazale, da je elektronsko marsikdaj celo bolje kot fizično. Po drugi strani pa se je pospešil razpad družbenih vrednot, zaupanje v znanost in razvoj. Celo Flynnov učinek – merjenje IQ na svetovni populaciji – kaže, da ljudje ne postajajo čedalje bolj pametni. Nasprotno - čedalje več ljudi verjame, da je Zemlja ploščata, da bo cepivo za korono škodljivo, ali da je korona škodljiva kot navadna gripa (v resnici je desetkrat bolj). Razkorak med rastočim znanjem in vraževerjem se povečuje. Letos smo v multikonferenco povezali osem odličnih neodvisnih konferenc. Zajema okoli 160 večinoma spletnih predstavitev, povzetkov in referatov v okviru samostojnih konferenc in delavnic in 300 obiskovalcev. Prireditev bodo spremljale okrogle mize in razprave ter posebni dogodki, kot je svečana podelitev nagrad – seveda večinoma preko spleta. Izbrani prispevki bodo izšli tudi v posebni številki revije Informatica (http://www.informatica.si/), ki se ponaša s 44-letno tradicijo odlične znanstvene revije. Multikonferenco Informacijska družba 2020 sestavljajo naslednje samostojne konference: • Etika in stroka • Interakcija človek računalnik v informacijski družbi • Izkopavanje znanja in podatkovna skladišča • Kognitivna znanost • Ljudje in okolje • Mednarodna konferenca o prenosu tehnologij • Slovenska konferenca o umetni inteligenci • Vzgoja in izobraževanje v informacijski družbi Soorganizatorji in podporniki konference so različne raziskovalne institucije in združenja, med njimi tudi ACM Slovenija, SLAIS, DKZ in druga slovenska nacionalna akademija, Inženirska akademija Slovenije (IAS). V imenu organizatorjev konference se zahvaljujemo združenjem in institucijam, še posebej pa udeležencem za njihove dragocene prispevke in priložnost, da z nami delijo svoje izkušnje o informacijski družbi. Zahvaljujemo se tudi recenzentom za njihovo pomoč pri recenziranju. V 2020 bomo petnajstič podelili nagrado za življenjske dosežke v čast Donalda Michieja in Alana Turinga. Nagrado Michie-Turing za izjemen življenjski prispevek k razvoju in promociji informacijske družbe je prejela prof. dr. Lidija Zadnik Stirn. Priznanje za dosežek leta pripada Programskemu svetu tekmovanja ACM Bober. Podeljujemo tudi nagradi »informacijska limona« in »informacijska jagoda« za najbolj (ne)uspešne poteze v zvezi z informacijsko družbo. Limono je prejela »Neodzivnost pri razvoju elektronskega zdravstvenega kartona«, jagodo pa Laboratorij za bioinformatiko, Fakulteta za računalništvo in informatiko, Univerza v Ljubljani. Čestitke nagrajencem! Mojca Ciglarič, predsednik programskega odbora Matjaž Gams, predsednik organizacijskega odbora i FOREWORD INFORMATION SOCIETY 2020 The 23rd Information Society Multiconference (http://is.ijs.si) was halved due to COVID-19. The multiconference survived due to the conference presidents that bravely decided to continue with their conference despite the first pandemics in the modern era. The COVID-19 pandemics did not decrease the growth of ICT, information society, artificial intelligence and science overall, quite on the contrary – suddenly most of the activities had to be performed by ICT and often it was more efficient than in the old physical way. But COVID-19 did increase downfall of societal norms, trust in science and progress. Even the Flynn effect – measuring IQ all over the world – indicates that an average Earthling is becoming less smart and knowledgeable. Contrary to general belief of scientists, the number of people believing that the Earth is flat is growing. Large number of people are weary of the COVID-19 vaccine and consider the COVID-19 consequences to be similar to that of a common flu dispute empirically observed to be ten times worst. The Multiconference is running parallel sessions with around 160 presentations of scientific papers at twelve conferences, many round tables, workshops and award ceremonies, and 300 attendees. Selected papers will be published in the Informatica journal with its 44-years tradition of excellent research publishing. The Information Society 2020 Multiconference consists of the following conferences: • Cognitive Science • Data Mining and Data Warehouses • Education in Information Society • Human-Computer Interaction in Information Society • International Technology Transfer Conference • People and Environment • Professional Ethics • Slovenian Conference on Artificial Intelligence The Multiconference is co-organized and supported by several major research institutions and societies, among them ACM Slovenia, i.e. the Slovenian chapter of the ACM, SLAIS, DKZ and the second national engineering academy, the Slovenian Engineering Academy. In the name of the conference organizers, we thank all the societies and institutions, and particularly all the participants for their valuable contribution and their interest in this event, and the reviewers for their thorough reviews. For the fifteenth year, the award for life-long outstanding contributions will be presented in memory of Donald Michie and Alan Turing. The Michie-Turing award was given to Prof. Dr. Lidija Zadnik Stirn for her life-long outstanding contribution to the development and promotion of information society in our country. In addition, a recognition for current achievements was awarded to the Program Council of the competition ACM Bober. The information lemon goes to the “Unresponsiveness in the development of the electronic health record”, and the information strawberry to the Bioinformatics Laboratory, Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana. Congratulations! Mojca Ciglarič, Programme Committee Chair Matjaž Gams, Organizing Committee Chair ii KONFERENČNI ODBORI CONFERENCE COMMITTEES International Programme Committee Organizing Committee Vladimir Bajic, South Africa Matjaž Gams, chair Heiner Benking, Germany Mitja Luštrek Se Woo Cheon, South Korea Lana Zemljak Howie Firth, UK Vesna Koricki Olga Fomichova, Russia Marjetka Šprah Vladimir Fomichov, Russia Mitja Lasič Vesna Hljuz Dobric, Croatia Blaž Mahnič Alfred Inselberg, Israel Jani Bizjak Jay Liebowitz, USA Tine Kolenik Huan Liu, Singapore Henz Martin, Germany Marcin Paprzycki, USA Claude Sammut, Australia Jiri Wiedermann, Czech Republic Xindong Wu, USA Yiming Ye, USA Ning Zhong, USA Wray Buntine, Australia Bezalel Gavish, USA Gal A. Kaminka, Israel Mike Bain, Australia Michela Milano, Italy Derong Liu, Chicago, USA prof. Toby Walsh, Australia Programme Committee Mojca Ciglarič, chair Andrej Gams Vladislav Rajkovič Bojan Orel, co-chair Matjaž Gams Grega Repovš Franc Solina, Mitja Luštrek Ivan Rozman Viljan Mahnič, Marko Grobelnik Niko Schlamberger Cene Bavec, Nikola Guid Špela Stres Tomaž Kalin, Marjan Heričko Stanko Strmčnik Jozsef Györkös, Borka Jerman Blažič Džonova Jurij Šilc Tadej Bajd Gorazd Kandus Jurij Tasič Jaroslav Berce Urban Kordeš Denis Trček Mojca Bernik Marjan Krisper Andrej Ule Marko Bohanec Andrej Kuščer Tanja Urbančič Ivan Bratko Jadran Lenarčič Boštjan Vilfan Andrej Brodnik Borut Likar Baldomir Zajc Dušan Caf Janez Malačič Blaž Zupan Saša Divjak Olga Markič Boris Žemva Tomaž Erjavec Dunja Mladenič Leon Žlajpah Bogdan Filipič Franc Novak iii iv KAZALO / TABLE OF CONTENTS Kognitivna znanost / Cognitive Science .................................................................................................................. 1 PREDGOVOR / FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................. 3 PROGRAMSKI ODBORI / PROGRAMME COMMITTEES ..................................................................................... 4 Phenomenology of dissolution experiences: An exploratory study / Jaya Caporusso, Ema Demšar .................... 5 Primerjava rezultatov analize funkcijske magnetne resonance z različnimi programskimi orodji / Nina Demšar 10 What anime to watch next? The effect of personality on anime genre selection / Sara Jakša ............................ 14 Zaznavanje lastnosti zdravil brez recepta / Karin Kasesnik, Jani Toroš, Mihael Kline ........................................ 18 Kognitivno–motivacijski model čustvovanja v vsakdanjem življenju / Darja Kobal Grum .................................... 23 Motor learning and cortical plasticity: TMS motor mapping using the pseudorandom walk method / Eva Koderman, Jos van der Geest, Carolin Gaiser, Maarten Frens ....................................................................... 27 Chronotopic maps in temporal processing and perception / Shrikanth Kulashekhar ........................................... 31 Being in brackets: A first-person exploration of the phenomenological method of epoché / Viktorija Lipič ......... 34 A new study of expected human longevity / Anže Marinko, Klara Golob, Ema Jemec, Urša Klun, Matjaž Gams .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Does sight provide insight into Alzheimer’s dementia? / Katarina Marjanovič, Matej Perovnik ........................... 42 Patterns of mental behavior during psychological task performance / Aleš Oblak .............................................. 46 Vpliv posturalnih perturbacij na stresni odziv pri človeku / Carolina Petrič, Jernej Čamernik, Gregor Geršak, Jan Babič ................................................................................................................................................................. 49 Facial skin temperature during deception / Blaž Počervina, Ajda Centa, Gregor Geršak ................................... 53 Cognitive, psychological and social influence on spread of COVID-19 / Gašper Slapničar, Vito Janko, Tine Kolenik, Mitja Luštrek, Matjaž Gams ................................................................................................................ 56 Od orodja do umetnika / Neža Marija Slosar ........................................................................................................ 60 Social media use & digital stress among adolescents / Simon Šalomon, Dayana Hristova ................................ 64 Special sciences: Stil not reducible after all these years / Tadej Todorović, Janez Bregant .............................. 68 Indeks avtorjev / Author index ................................................................................................................................ 73 v vi Zbornik 23. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2020 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 23rd International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2020 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredili / Edited by Toma Strle, Jaša Černe, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 8. oktober 2020 / 8 October 2020 Ljubljana, Slovenia 1 2 PREDGOVOR Na letošnji konferenci Kognitivna znanost sodelujejo avtorice in avtorji z različnih disciplinarnih področij in predstavljajo tako empirične rezultate svojih raziskav kot tudi teoretska raziskovanja z najrazličnejših področji – od kognitivne nevroznanosti in psihologije do empirične fenomenologije, filozofije in umetne inteligence. Upamo, da bo letošnja disciplinarno in metodološko bogata konferenca odprla prostor za izmenjavo zanimivih raziskovalnih idej ter povezala znanstvenice in znanstvenike z različnih disciplinarnih področij, ki se ukvarjajo z vprašanji kognicije. Toma Strle Jaša Černe Olga Markič FOREWORD At this year’s Cognitive Science conference, the authors present their empirical studies as well as theoretical research from a diverse range of disciplinary backgrounds – from cognitive neuroscience and psychology to empirical phenomenology, phiosophy and artificial intelligence. We hope that this year's cognitive science conference – rich in disciplinary approaches and methodologies – will open space for exchanging intriguing research ideas and will bring together scientists from a diverse range of areas related to the exploration of the human mind. Toma Strle Jaša Černe Olga Markič 3 PROGRAMSKI ODBOR / PROGRAMME COMMITTEE Toma Strle, Center za kognitivno znanost, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Jaša Černe, Center za kognitivno znanost, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Olga Markič, Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Urban Kordeš, Center za kognitivno znanost, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Matjaž Gams, Odsek za inteligentne sisteme, Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana ORGANIZACIJSKI ODBOR / ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Toma Strle, Center za kognitivno znanost, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Jaša Černe, Center za kognitivno znanost, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Olga Markič, Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani 4 Phenomenology of Dissolution Experiences: An Exploratory Study Jaya Caporusso Ema Demšar MEi:CogSci Center for Cognitive Science University of Vienna University of Ljubljana Vienna, Austria Ljubljana, Slovenia jaya.caporusso96@gmail.com ema.demsar@pef.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT The sciences of the mind have lately shown an increased We report on an exploratory empirical phenomenological interest in this kind of experiences. The loss or decrease of study investigating the so-called dissolution experiences the sense of boundaries between the ‘self’ and ‘world’ (also (DEs), characterized by the subject experiencing a) a described as ‘other’ or ‘nonself’, cf. [1, 4]), brought about in dissolution of her psychological or sensory boundaries the context of meditative practice, has been recently and/or a fading of the sense of the self as a separate entity, explored in studies using both third-person [3] and first- and/or b) a feeling of unity or identification with (elements person [4] approaches. Apart from meditation, similar of) the surrounding environment. We conducted nine experiential phenomena have long been associated with the phenomenological interviews investigating seven DEs. The use of psychedelic substances such as LSD and psilocybin [5], qualitative analysis of collected descriptions of experience and have been, in this context, observed and investigated in elucidated the temporal unfolding of each DE episode, several recent studies [e.g., 6–8]. Changes in the habitual identified typical experiential elements characterizing sense of being a separated entity have also been reported in (specific phases of) DEs, and inquired into the differences contexts related to the engagement with art [9] or nature (cf. and similarities of DEs across different contexts. This study [10]). Finally, one can find a myriad of descriptions of similar is considered a pilot for a more extensive investigation of experiences in prose and poetry, for instance in the literary DEs. Our findings provide grounds for making the first step and philosophical movement of transcendentalism [16], in towards the phenomenological and conceptual clarification Walt Whitman’s poetry [17], in the cultural and literary of DEs, which have recently become an object of growing movement of the Beats [18], and in the poetic tradition of interest in the scientific community, consequently enabling haiku [19]; these sources frequently describe such further research. experiences as arising from contact with nature. KEYWORDS Despite their apparent abundance, experiences of this kind seem to lack a common phenomenological and Empirical phenomenology, Dissolution of the sense of conceptual description, with reports frequently expressed in boundaries, Sense of self, Altered states of consciousness language specific to the particular context in which they 1 occurred, or in which they are described. This makes it INTRODUCTION difficult to compare instances of potentially similar Various strands of scientific [e.g., 1–11] and non-scientific experiences reported in different traditions and situations, [e.g., 12–19] literature report on experiential episodes or by different subjects. Depending on the particular text, during which “the subjective sense of one’s self as an isolated these might be described under a variety of names, including entity can temporarily fade into an experience of unity with dissolution of the sense of boundaries (see for example [3–4]), other people or one’s surroundings, involving the dissolution self-transcendent experiences (e.g., [1]), ego death (e.g., [2]), of boundaries between the sense of self and ‘other’” [1:1]. In ego dissolution [6–8], and oceanic feelings [11]. In one of the autobiographical accounts, experiences of this kind are few available overviews of such phenomena, the article titled typically (albeit not always; see for instance [20]) described The varieties of self-transcendent experiences [1], such as “positively transformative moments that rank among the experiences are characterized by “transient mental states most meaningful of one’s life” [1:6]. Most frequently, they are marked by decreased self-salience and increased feelings of reported in association with religious and mystical traditions connectedness” [1:1] (cf. also [19]). (e.g., Atman Brahman union in the traditional Indian We refer to these and similar phenomena as dissolution philosophy of Advaita Vedanta [13], the meditative state of experiences (DEs). In line with the above-mentioned Samadhi in Classical Yoga and Buddhist meditation systems characterizations [1, 11], we define DEs as experiential [14], the phenomenon of unio mystica in the Christian episodes marked by (a) a feeling of a dissolution of one’s Tradition [15]; for an overview, see [1, 2]). psychological and/or sensory boundaries or a fading of one’s sense of self as an isolated entity, separated from ‘world’, Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal ‘other’ or ‘nonself’, and/or (b) a feeling of one’s unity and/or or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice identification with the surrounding environment, with other and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of people or objects, or with something perceived as larger than this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia oneself. © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). 5 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia J. Caporusso & E. Demšar In this contribution, we present the method and results For illustration, consider the following excerpt from the of an exploratory empirical phenomenological study in interview about DE6 (i.e., the sixth investigated experience), which we investigated seven experiential episodes that, showing a back-and-forth exchange between the interviewer according to the above-specified criteria, qualify as DEs. The and the co-researcher Marco, aiming to describe his findings of this study will serve as guidelines for specifying experience without falling back on phenomenologically the focus and methodology to be adopted in a more extensive imprecise notions and metaphors: study, currently in its early stages of development, whose Marco: It's kind of impersonal and like not being in a body final aim will be to provide a detailed phenomenological […] Like part of something that's a lot bigger than yourself. description of DEs. […] Like I'm not aware of a body anymore. The sense of my The research questions we attempted to answer were: body, like being here at a certain point in the world, is gone. (1) What is it like to experience DEs; what are the typical Interviewer: Okay. And how do you know that the sense of being in your body is gone? experiential elements that can be found in DEs? (2) What are the potential similarities and differences between DEs Marco: Hm. It feels like I’m the universe. [Laughs.] I feel like I’m the universe. I feel like I’m the void. […] It’s a void feeling. occurring in different contexts? Interviewer: Okay, and how does it feel like to be the void? Marco: At first, it's cool! I think there is a first aspect of awe, 2 METHOD like a positive aspect of awe… Between October 2019 and January 2020, six co-researchers Interviewer: Okay, but how do you feel, how do you know (three females) participated in the study. Their average age that you are the void? was 31,2 (SD = 12,6) and they had, on average, 17,7 years of The interviews were conducted in English and Italian; they education (SD = 3,0). Five of our co-researchers were current lasted from 56 to 78 minutes. Each interview focused on postgraduate students of cognitive science; three among detailing the diachronic and synchronic dimension of the them had basic experience in phenomenological reporting selected DE. We started each interview by first asking the co- and one of them was trained in the micro-phenomenological researcher to describe the selected experience in its full method. One co-researcher was not familiar with either temporal unfolding; we then inquired in more detail into the cognitive science or phenomenological inquiry prior to the structure – rather than the content – of the experience within interview. We conducted nine interviews about seven experiential specific temporal phases (of variable duration) that were episodes (two episodes being an object of an interview characterized by the same experiential elements; we also twice) satisfying the above-specified criteria of DEs. We focused on the transitions between different phases. The selected co-researchers who reported having experienced a peak phase, i.e., the phase during which the elements (candidate) DE at any point in their life, and expressed characterizing DEs – a dissolved sense boundaries and/or a interest in its phenomenological exploration. The to-be- feeling of unity or identification with (elements of) the explored DEs were identified by the co-researchers surrounding environment – were present to the largest themselves in a conversation with the principal investigator extent, was identified already during the interview; the prior to the interview. synchronic structure of this phase was investigated in more In line with the breadth of our definition of DEs, the detail. investigated episodes varied with regard to their All interviews were recorded on audio or video and approximate duration (ranging from a few moments to transcribed verbatim. Our analysis process was informed by several minutes), the time since their occurrence (ranging general guidelines of qualitative analysis [22]. Transcripts from five days to 25 years prior to the interview), as well as were chronologically ordered, eliminating or marking the so- the context and activity within which they arose. All called “satellite dimensions” [23], so that further analysis investigated DEs occurred in an ecological setting: three in focused on the parts containing phenomenological the course of meditative practice, three during the use of descriptions. Descriptions of experience were divided into psychedelic substances, and one in the course of engaging temporally distinct phases (extraction of the diachronic with art. structure), with this process being guided by the prior To assist co-researchers in producing identification of the peak phase. For each phase, we identified phenomenologically rich descriptions of their experience, and described different experiential elements present rather than (as appears to often be the case in describing (extraction of the synchronic structure). Interview excerpts DEs) relying on experientially ungrounded used in the present contribution have been edited for clarity conceptualizations, we chose to base our interviewing by removing the interviewer’s interventions and less approach on the guidelines of the micro-phenomenological relevant parts of the transcripts. interview method [21]. When the generated description was phenomenologically too coarse, or when co-researchers 3 resorted to explaining, judging, or conceptualizing their RESULTS experience, the interviewer re-directed their focus back to In accordance with the exploratory character of the study, its describing experience as it was concretely and actually lived. findings are not conclusive, but present preliminary insights 6 Phenomenology of Dissolution Experiences Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia that will guide our further research into DEs. Due to the majority of investigated experiences. Namely, DE7 started nature of our results and the space limitations of the present with a gradual diminishment of Lev’s sense of boundaries, contribution, we decided to refrain from laying out an which was then regained during the “break” in the song, only exhaustive list of constructed experiential categories. to be abruptly lost again with the beginning of the peak Instead, this section presents a limited selection of identified phase. By contrast, all other experiences (6/7) were experiential elements and characteristics that we find characterized by a continuous, uninterrupted climax of particularly interesting and/or illustrative of the defining elements of DEs towards the peak phase; in the investigated DEs. phases following the peak phase, these elements would then Specific aspects of DEs are presented in subsections 3.1– gradually or abruptly disappear. 3.3. We would, however, like to start this section by first In line with this more typical temporal unfolding is, for giving the reader a general impression of the studied example, DE2, during which co-researcher Claire perceived a experiences by presenting a typical description of a peak progressive lessening of – as she called them during the phase, taken from the interview about DE7. Co-researcher interview – the “lines of her body”. In the initial phase of the Lev experienced DE7 while attending a concert, standing in a experience, Claire was feeling the freshness of the air crowd of people in front of the stage, with the band playing a touching her skin, and a straight “line” between the skin and specific song. The initial phases of the experience, in line with the space around it; then, starting from the lower left part of the unfolding of the song, were characterized by a crescendo her face and gradually encompassing all of her body, all the of feelings of connectedness, while Lev’s sense of self, sense “lines” of her face and body began feeling “wobbly” at first of time, and sense of space were gradually diminishing. At a and then altogether absent from experience. In the last phase certain point, however, there was a sudden “break in the of the experience, the “lines” separating her body from the song” in which only the singer was performing, with the rest outside world “entered into focus” again. of the band remaining silent; during this phase, Lev reported Variability in the synchronic structure. The seven having briefly regained the type of awareness (of himself, his investigated DEs highly varied with respect to the particular body, and the surrounding space) that he described as experiential elements present in (specific phases of) the similar to that which he habitually experiences in the context described experience. The most notable difference refers to of his everyday life. When the band suddenly started playing which of two above-specified criteria for DEs – (a) and/or (b) again, Lev rapidly entered the peak phase of the experience: – were satisfied during their peak phase, and in what way. Co-researcher Nadja, for example, described an This contrast [between the “break” and the band playing again] really made me lose all my sense of self […] it's like the experience (DE1) she had while meditating with her eyes feeling where it feels like it is exploding and it's just big, all closed, sitting with her legs crossed on the floor of her room. the borders are gone […] it’s like a huge euphoria. But it feels As she was focusing on her breathing (visualizing wood while like it's everywhere. It doesn't feel that it’s in my body or… It exhaling, and imagining being part of this wood while just feels that everything is very euphoric. inhaling), she started experiencing a gradual dissolution of This feeling was accompanied by a decrease of the sense of the boundaries separating her body from her surroundings. being a separate self: Just before the peak phase, Nadja reported feeling a “hole” in It feels like everything is one, so like I'm aware that [the other the middle of her chest; in the peak phase, she described a people] are there but it feels like they are the same as me and sense of not having a frontal part of her torso at all. Here, a we are the same as the music, and […] just everything dissolution of bodily boundaries (criterion a) was reported appears to be one, everything. So before, it seems like we’re without any sense of identification or unity with (elements connected, we’re two different things that are connected, but in the end [i.e., when the peak phase begins] it doesn't seem of) the surrounding environment (criterion b). like [we] are two different things anymore. […] This sense of In DE3, on the contrary, co-researcher Andrea was connection changes into a sense of unity. [This sense of unity] experiencing strong identification with objects present in her cannot really tie to my experience, it just seems like a big physical surroundings (criterion b); however, she did not experience, one big experience. Not like me feeling these report on any sense of boundary dissolution (criterion a). things, just like […] this kind of feelings [that] float in the room, it’s not like me feeling it in my chest or in my whatever, The experience arose after Andrea consumed LSD and but it just seems to be there, everywhere. […] It's not inhaled laughing gas, starting then to recognize the reflection something that I do or that I perceive […] it's just… I’m part of her own face in various objects in her surroundings that of everything else […] If it’s my behavior or someone else’s, it she would look at. She reported feeling that the reflections doesn't really make a difference […] I'm out there somewhere. I don’t really know [where], but I also don’t she was seeing were “also part of who [she was]”, and while really care. she described “extend[ing] a little bit outwards, into what [she was seeing] and touching”, she stressed she never Before presenting specific experiential aspects of DEs, it is stopped feeling “in [her] body”. important to stress that the investigated DEs presented high When involving a sense of boundary dissolution, the variability with regard to their diachronic as well as investigated DEs also varied with regard to the described synchronic structure. mode of experiencing this dissolution: while in some cases, Variability in the diachronic structure. While the above the dissolution was described as an emphatically bodily excerpt from DE7 serves as a good illustration of the peak experience or even had a very specific bodily location (as in phase, its diachronic unfolding differed from that of the 7 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia J. Caporusso & E. Demšar the above-described DE1), in other cases (for example in perceived as “passing through their bodily boundaries”, DE7), the co-researcher described the dissolution largely usually without encountering obstacles in doing so (or without referring to the bodily feelings. encountering them less and less). This feeling was felt as In what follows, we list a subset of some interesting or moving either from the outside inwards or from the inside illustrative experiential elements and characteristics that outwards, and was sometimes experientially related to the featured in particular temporal stages of the investigated loosening of the sense of boundaries. For example, Claire DEs: (1) the peak phase, (2) the phases preceding the peak described an experience (DE2) that she had while lying on phase, and (3) the phases following the peak phase. her bed and following a guided meditation. Throughout the experience, she felt a pulsating sensation spreading from her 3.1 Elements present during the peak phase chest that was loosening the “lines of her body”: Identification of the action of feeling and the object felt. Peak [A]s this pulsates, I don't feel any. . block in a way. […] phases of four investigated DEs (in particular, three from the Nothing slows the feeling down in this area. [. .] It goes context of using psychedelic substances, and one from everywhere, sort of just spreads over the body and then goes engaging with art) were characterized by instances where out into space. [. .] Makes my, like this separation of my body, the co-researcher could not distinguish between the action of it makes it sort of thinner and lessens it. feeling and the object of feeling, or was experiencing the two Another example can be found in DE1, in which the peak as identical. For example, co-researcher Andrea, who phase (already mentioned above) was preceded by Nadja experienced DE3 while she was sitting on a couch, reported: experiencing the movement of air freely passing between the There was a certain awe. With the insight of everything being space in front of her chest and the inside of her chest: me […] It was not like there was a world out there. . There’s I inhaled, and I was surprised by this stream of air entering just my perceptions of the world, which are part of me clearly and directly into my chest. As if the air passes directly because they are my perceptions, and this extended to tactile from here [pointing to space in front of her chest] towards feelings [as well as visual]. So, when I was feeling the couch, the inside, and there is nothing that it has to go through. […] the feeling of the couch was part of me. […] It's difficult to I just observe this sensation, I continue inhaling and exhaling, distinguish my perceptions of things from the actual things. until I really […] notice that this air is not stopped by […] I could feel the softness of the couch, that softness was anything. […] At a certain point I really feel like there is a hole part of me, or just the pressure against me was part of me. in my body that makes the air going through it. At the Lev, in describing DE7, similarly remarked: beginning, just a hole. Then, after a while, I just feel there’s no frontal area […] So the frontal part is really just this I cannot really tell what’s the difference between me feeling exchange of air, there’s nothing else […] and in this way something and me seeing something, or like.. what the rest there’s no separation between what is actually the area of the world does, it’s like it's the same for me […] what is inside my body and what is outside, because the exchange of going on on the stage and what is going on in my head, I air is happening in the same space. I’m just a shape in which cannot really tell the difference. this exchange of air can take place, but nothing else. Transmodality. Two DE descriptions (one from the context of 3.3 Elements present after the peak phase using psychedelics, and one from engaging with art) reported Need to go back to the habitual way of experiencing. In two of on the unification of different sensory modalities. Marco, the investigated DEs (one from the meditation context and who experienced DE6 while being in the forest under the the other from the psychedelics context), the end of the peak influence of mescaline, thus described the merging of senses phase was accompanied by a need to go back to the “habitual” accompanying the onset of his sense of boundary dissolution: way of experiencing. In describing DE2, Claire described it as … it might be hard to separate different aspects of the visual and the feeling and the thinking because it might have all a wish, like this nag or a need to come back, to not stay in this been into one. Like the visual part was also the feeling, like because it’s really pleasant […], something that urges to come my sense of self was encompassed by this visual aspect, like back and then colors the entire space. this broad universal view, and then the feeling, like it might Marco reported on the need to “pull away” from what he was have all been wrapped into one. experiencing in DE6 (i.e., losing of sense of time and space, Similarly, in describing the beginning of the peak phase in accompanied by visual hallucinations of “weird creatures”): DE7, Lev reported: And then there's a sense that I don't want to, I don’t want Then, when everything else comes in again, it just loses the that, it's too scary. (…) Well, I don't know if I can control it or separation between the sound and colors and different not, but when I get scared […] then I pull out of it. sensory perceptions. Returning to the body/moment/location. In several analyzed 3.2 Elements present before the peak phase DEs, we noted changes, throughout the experience, of the “Feeling” that passes through the bodily boundaries. In four sense of body (5/7), time (4/7), space/location (4/7), or of investigated DEs (two from the meditation context, one from what the co-researcher was doing (2/7). Usually, the the psychedelics context, and one from engaging with art), awareness of these aspects was at its lowest during the peak co-researchers reported a feeling (a term all four phase, and returned towards the end of the DE. For example, spontaneously used in all four occasions to refer to different Claire reported that at the end of her DE, sensations, e.g., a pulsating or a movement) that they [t]here is a sense of coming back to the body. […] The body comes into focus again and the room […] the sense of the 8 Phenomenology of Dissolution Experiences Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia room, where I am positioned, that there is a bed underneath for their time and enthusiasm. We also wish to thank the my legs and my body and then there is a drawer next to me anonymous reviewer for their thorough reading of our and stuff like that, all that sort of comes back, […] it brings to focus the body and where I am and what I’m doing. […] So it’s contribution and their insightful comments. like making the room and the world in a way. REFERENCES 4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS [1] David Bryce Yaden, Jonathan Haidt, Ralph W. Hood Jr, David R. Vago, Despite most co-researchers being familiar with the basic and Andrew B. Newberg, 2017. The varieties of self-transcendent experience . Review of General Psychology 21, 2, 143-160. guidelines for phenomenological reporting, the generated [2] John Harrison, 2010. Ego death and psychedelics. MAPS Bull 20, 40-descriptions of experience have often failed to reach the 41. [3] Yair Dor-Ziderman, Yochai Ataria, Stephen Fulder, Abraham desired phenomenological depth and precision, instead Goldstein, and Aviva Berkovich-Ohana, 2016. Self-specific processing frequently staying at the level of general remarks and in the meditating brain: A MEG neurophenomenology study. Neuroscience of Consciousness 1, 1-13. conceptualizations. It might well be that at least some aspects [4] Yochai Ataria, Yair Dor-Ziderman, and Aviva Berkovich-Ohana, 2015. of DEs are particularly difficult – or perhaps impossible – to How does it feel to lack a sense of boundaries? A case study of a long-be put into words. Marco, for instance, emphasizes that a part term mindfulness meditator. Consciousness and Cognition 37, 133-147. of his experience of boundary dissolution (DE6) is better [5] David Bryce Yaden, Khoa D. Le Nguyen, Margaret L. Kern, Alexander describable as an “absence … of what you thought was always B. Belser, Johannes C. Eichstaedt, Jonathan Iwry, Mary E. Smith, Nancy A. Wintering, Ralph W. Hood Jr, and Andrew B. Newberg. Of there, rather than a presence”. Our co-researchers often roots and fruits: A comparison of psychedelic and nonpsychedelic mentioned that their experience was difficult to describe, mystical experiences. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 57, 4, 338-and further sometimes expressed concern that any words 353. [6] Alexander V. Lebedev, Martin Lövdén, Gidon Rosenthal, Amanda they could find were too metaphoric or esoteric to do justice Feilding, David J. Nutt, and Robin L. Carhart-Harris, 2015. Finding the to the DE as it was actually lived. For example, Jan, describing self by losing the self: Neural correlates of ego-dissolution under psilocybin. Human Brain Mapping 36, 8, 3137-3153. DE5 experienced while meditating on a hill with other [7] Chris Letheby and Philip Gerrans, 2017. Self unbound: Ego meditators, commented: dissolution in psychedelic experience. Neuroscience of Consciousness 3, 1, 1-11. But what can I say, “ah what a good vibration” – I don’t mean [8] Raphael Milliere, 2017. Looking for the self: Phenomenology, to say this as those “ah I’ve been to India”! I mean, you were neurophysiology and philosophical significance of drug-induced ego dissolution. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 11, 245. really feeling it, you were feeling that there was… That [9] Joseph. Gemin, 1999. The dissolution of the self in unsettled times: something was vibrating, no? Postmodernism and the creative process. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 33, 1, 45-61. In describing the peak phase of DE7, Lev similarly [10] David Bryce Yaden, Jonathan Iwry, Kelley J. Slack, Johannes C. remarked: Eichstaedt, Yukun Zhao, George E. Vaillant, and Andrew B. Newberg, 2016. The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in Everything is just really like on the same, I don’t know – that space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and sounds esoteric – but like everything is on the same Practice 3, 1, 1-11. frequency, everything is like coherent, everything shakes [11] Jussi Saarinen, 2014. The oceanic feeling: A case study in existential together. feeling. Journal of Consciousness Studies 21, 5-6, 196-217. [12] William James, 1902. The varieties of religious experience. Collier Setting aside the question of whether the defiance to verbal Books, New York, NY. [13] description might present an inherent feature of DEs, we John J. Connolly, 2016. Brahman and the Signifier (W)hole Being: The Subject of (Non-)Duality. International Journal of Žižek Studies 7, 2. believe that the quality of phenomenological reports could be [14] Richard Shankman, 2008. The experience of Samadhi: An in-depth nevertheless substantially improved by (a) increasing the exploration of Buddhist meditation. Shambhala Publications, Boston, MA. number of interviews dedicated to the exploration of a [15] Henry, Simoni-Wastila, 2000. Unio Mystica and particularity: Can particular DE; (b) training co-researchers in individuals merge with the one? Journal of the American Academy of Religion 68, 4, 857-878. phenomenological reporting in the context of everyday lives. [16] Russell Goodman, 2019. Transcendentalism. The Stanford The results found in this study will enable us to refine the Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta research design to be implemented in our further inquiry (ed.), Retrieved 08 June 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/transcendent into DEs. In the course of the larger study based on this pilot, alism/. we are planning to collect a sample of approximately thirty [17] Richard M. Bucke, 1962. Cosmic Consciousness: A study in the evolution of the human mind. E.P. Dutton, New York, NY. DEs, experienced in different context; however, each co- [18] David S. Calonne, 2017. The Spiritual Imagination of the Beats. researcher will, prior to exploring their DE, undergo a period Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. [19] of training in a technique similar to descriptive experience Gabriel Rosenstock, 2009. Haiku Enlightenment. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. sampling [24]. This will enable co-researchers to learn to [20] Sebastjan Vörös, 2016. Sitting with the demons–mindfulness, better observe and describe their experience, as well as suffering, and existential transformation. Asian Studies 4, 2, 59-83. [21] Petitmengin Claire, 2006. Describing one’s subjective experience in provide descriptions of aspects of co-researchers’ everyday the second person: An interview method for the science of experience that can be later on compared to characteristic consciousness. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 5, 3-4, 229-269. experiential aspects of their DEs. [22] Uwe Flick, 2019. An Introduction to Qualitative Research (6th ed.). Sage Publications Limited, London, UK. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [23] Claire Petitmengin, Anne Remillieux, and Camila Valenzuela- Moguillansky, 2019. Discovering the structures of lived experience. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 18, 4, 691-730. We would like to thank Maja Smrdu and Urban Kordeš for [24] Russell T. Hurlburt, 2011. Investigating Pristine Inner Experience: their support in this research, as well as our co-researchers Moments of Truth. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 9 Primerjava rezultatov analize funkcijske magnetne resonance z različnimi programskimi orodji Results of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Analysis with Different Software Tools: A Comparison Nina Demšar Center za klinično fiziologijo, Medicinska fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani Ljubljana, Slovenija ninademsar@yahoo.com POVZETEK 1 UVOD Funkcijska magnetna resonanca (fMR) je metoda slikanja Funkcijska magnetna resonanca (fMR) je raziskovalno aktivnosti možganov, ki temelji na kompleksni analizi podatkov, najpogosteje uporabljena metoda slikanja možganske aktivnosti ki jo omogočajo različna programska orodja. Med temi so najbolj [1]. Končni prikaz aktivnosti določenih predelov možganov pogosto uporabljeni AFNI, FSL in SPM. Želeli smo preveriti, če nastane s kompleksno analizo podatkov. Za analizo teh podatkov dobimo enake rezultate, ko podatke analiziramo z različnimi obstaja več programskih orodij, med katerimi so najpogosteje orodji. Naloga, ki so jo udeleženci opravljali, je bila osnovana na uporabljeni Analysis of Functional Images (AFNI), FMRIB blok eksperimentalnem načrtu; opazovali smo čustven odziv na Software Library (FSL) in Statistical Parametric Mapping slike nezdrave hrane v primerjavi v nevtralnimi slikami, ki niso (SPM). Celoten postopek analize vključuje dolg niz odločitev povezane s hrano. Pokazala se je velika variabilnost rezultatov glede zaporedja izvedbe posamičnih korakov ter specifičnih med programskimi orodji, tako v viških aktivacij, kot v samih vrednosti parametrov [2]. Ker vsako orodje uporablja nekoliko področjih teh razlik. Obstaja veliko možnih razlag za te rezultate; drugačne nastavitve in drugačno programsko kodo za največji pomen pripisujemo različnim pristopom registracije in procesiranje signala, obstaja možnost, da pri uporabi različnih normalizacije, ki so onemogočili direktno primerjavo. Ta študija orodij ne dobimo enakih rezultatov. Primerjava rezultatov teh je šele začetek eksploracije tega področja in nakazuje potrebo po orodij je pomembna, da ugotovimo, ali so rezultati fMR analize večji refleksiji fMR znotraj nevroznanosti.* skladni pri uporabi različnih orodij ali so odvisni od specifične izbire programskega orodja za analizo. V slednjem primeru je to KLJUČNE BESEDE potrebno ustrezno upoštevati pri vrednotenju in interpretaciji funkcijska magnetna resonanca, statistična analiza, rezultatov. metodologija, programska orodja, nevrofilozofija Za končno oceno aktivnosti možganov morajo biti zbrani podatki obdelani v kompleksnem procesu analize, ki vključuje ABSTRACT kontrolo kakovosti, popravo prostorskega popačenja, popravo premikov glave, popravo časa zajema posamičnih rezin Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a method of možganov, prostorsko normalizacijo, prostorsko glajenje, capturing brain activity, which is based on a complex analysis of časovno filtriranje, statistično modeliranje, statistično analizo in data. This is done in one of the available software packages, out vizualizacijo [2]. of which AFNI, FSL and SPM are most commonly used. We Carp [3] poudarja, da je v fMR eksperimentih prisotna velika wished to check if we got the same results, if they were analyzed variabilnost v metodoloških odločitvah. Po pregledu 241 fMR with different packages. The task that the participants were given študij je Carp [3] poročal o uporabi 32 različnih programskih was based on a block experimental design; we observed the orodij in 207 kombinacij korakov analize. Zaradi velikega števila emotional response to images of unhealthy food compared to kombinacij korakov pride do analitične fleksibilnosti, t.j. večji neutral images not related to food. The results showed a large spekter zaključkov analiz z uporabo sprejemljivih metod. Iz variability of the peaks of activation, as well as areas associated analitične fleksibilnosti sledita dve negativni posledici: povečano with them between the packages. There are many explanations število lažnih pozitivnih rezultatov in selektivno poročanje. for these results; we would put the main emphasis on the different Le nekaj raziskav je do sedaj primerjalo rezultate analiz z approaches to registration and normalization, which meant that a različnimi programskimi orodji. Bowring idr. [4] so opazili direct comparison was not possible. This study is only the veliko variabilnost v vrednosti t-statistik in lokacijah statistično beginning of the exploration of this area and shows a need for značilnih aktivacij, vendar to ni bilo konsistentno pri vseh more reflection on fMRI in neuroscience. eksperimentih. Glede na splošni vzorec aktivacij ni bilo opaznih KEYWORDS večjih razlik. Medtem ko so pri tej študiji analizo prilagajali eksperimentom, so Pauli idr. [5] primerjali analize s functional magnetic resonance, statistical analysis, methodology, programskimi orodji AFNI, FSL in SPM, pri katerih so uporabili software packages, neurophilosophy najpogosteje uporabljene nastavitve za vsako programsko ∗Tekst je v celoti osnovan na magistrskem delu z istim naslovom. orodje. Rezultati so pokazali podoben splošen vzorec aktivacije, 10 kjer je bilo pri AFNI-ju nekaj manj aktiviranih vokslov. Študija 3 REZULTATI lažnih pozitivnih rezultatov [6], ki je spet primerjala AFNI, FSL in SPM, je pokazala, da vsa orodja kljub nadzoru večkratnega 3.1 Variabilnost moči aktivnosti testiranja kažejo inflacijo statistične značilnosti. Podobno je Variabilnost moči aktivnosti pri programskih orodjih smo pokazala študija, ki je primerjala rezultate analiz na ravni prikazali s primerjavo razlik med Z-vrednostmi v vsakem vokslu posameznikov (in ne na ravni skupin), kjer so razlog za povišano končnih slik. Zaradi nekaterih razlik v končnih funkcijskih slikah število lažnih pozitivnih rezultatov pri SPM-ju pripisali preveč med orodji, ki se pojavijo zaradi različnih pristopov registracije enostavnemu modelu za šum, pri FSL-ju pa podcenjevanju in normalizacije, smo za to primerjavo naredili masko in prostorskega glajenja [7]. upoštevali le voksle, ki so prisotni pri vseh orodjih. Temelj vsakega znanstvenega pristopa je zanesljivost. Ta je Kot je razvidno s histograma na sliki 1, je največ vokslov z bistvenega pomena, če je naš cilj odkrivanje resnice in če želimo minimalnim razponom Z-vrednosti pri primerjavi AFNI-ja in metodo aplicirati v praksi in če želimo sodelovati z raziskovalci FSL-ja. Drugi dve primerjavi imata bolj podobno porazdelitev, z istega in drugih področij. Bennett in Miller [8] sta poudarila, da pri vseh pa je razpon manjši od 1 pri vsaj polovici vokslov. se raziskovalci, ki uporabljajo fMR metodo, premalo zavedajo (ne)zanesljivosti svojih raziskav. Zaradi številnih korakov v predprocesiranju pri izločanju šuma, in metodoloških odločitev, ki sledijo iz tega, je zanesljivost težko doseči. Iz tega sledi indirektnost opazovanja [9] in vprašljivost spadanja v paradigmo realizma [10]. Zanimalo nas je, ali s programskimi orodji AFNI, FSL in SPM dobimo enake rezultate pri analizi fMR podatkov in posledično, ali današnje stanje fMR raziskav odraža resničnost ali metodološko pristranskost. Cilj raziskave je bil, da s primerjavo rezultatov, pridobljenih s programskimi orodji AFNI, SPM in FSL, dobimo pregled nad razlikami in podobnostmi med rezultati. Zanimala nas je razlika v moči aktivnosti, vzorcu aktivnih predelov in deležu vokslov nad določeno mejo. Slika 1: Porazdelitev razponov Z-vrednosti pri vseh 2 METODE primerjavah. med programskimi orodji Raziskava je zajela kontrolno skupino 16 zdravih otrok in mladostnikov (10 ženskega spola) iz študije debelih 3.2 Variabilnost položaja in vzorca aktivnosti mladostnikov. Povprečna starost udeležencev je bila 14,1 let ( SD Položaj aktivnosti smo primerjali z lociranjem področij = 2,7 let, min = 10 let, max = 19 let). aktivnosti in opisom splošnega vzorca. Rezultati aktivnih Študija je bila sestavljena iz dveh nalog čustvene nasičenosti področij so se izkazali za zelo različne. dražljajev, povezanih s hrano. Dražljaji pri blok načrtu so bile Največji delež vokslov s prepoznanimi razlikami med slike, ki smo jih razdelili v dve kategoriji: kategorija nezdrave aktivacijama pod pogojema nezdrava hrana - nevtralni dražljaj je hrane in kategorija nevtralnih slik, ki niso prikazovale hrane. bilo pri analizi v FSL-ju, kjer je 1,14 % vseh možganskih vokslov Podatki so bili analizirani ločeno za blok in z dogodkom prišlo nad mejno vrednost. Sledil je AFNI, kjer je bilo 0,48 % povezan načrt v vsakem od treh programskih orodij AFNI, FSL vseh možganskih vokslov nad mejno vrednostjo, pri SPM-ju pa in SPM. Najprej je bila narejena povprečna strukturna slika vseh je 0 % vokslov preseglo mejo. udeležencev, ki smo jo uporabili za predlogo. Vsaka analiza je Analiza v FSL-ju je pokazala pet skupkov, kjer se največji bila izvedena po postopku in s parametri, ki so privzeti ali nahaja v levem fusiformnem korteksu. Sledita pozitivna razlika priporočeni za vsakega izmed programskih orodij; pri FSL-ju in med aktivacijama pod pogojema nezdrava hrana - nevtralni SPM-ju smo uporabili privzete nastavitve, pri AFNI-ju pa te dražljaj v desnem superiornem parietalnem režnju in desnem možnosti ni, tako da smo uporabili priporočene. Zaradi tega je inferiornem okcipitalnem režnju. Dve negativni razliki med prišlo do razlike v analizi: pri AFNI-ju smo vključili korak aktivacijama sta se pokazali v bilateralnem parahipokampalnem poprave časa zajema posamičnih rezin možganov, pri drugih girusu in lingualnem girusu, kot je razvidno na sliki 2. dveh orodjih pa ne. Po predprocesiranju, prvostopenjski in drugostopenjski analizi smo dobljene rezultate primerjali na več načinov. Variabilnost moči razlik med aktivacijami pod različnimi pogoji med programskimi orodji smo pokazali z razlikami med Z-vrednostmi. Položaj aktivnosti smo primerjali s splošnim vzorcem aktivnosti ter določanjem aktivnega predela s pomočjo različnih atlasov. Razlike med statistično značilnostjo rezultatov smo pokazali z deležem vokslov, ki presegajo izbrano mejno vrednost. Slika 2: Rezultat analize v FSL-ju (koordinate: 24L 40P 10I) 11 Analiza naloge z blok načrtom je v AFNI-ju pokazala šest 4 DISKUSIJA IN SKLEPI skupkov: dve negativni razliki med aktivacijama pod pogojema V pridobljenih rezultatih se je pokazala velika variabilnost F - C v bilateralnem lingualnem in fusiformnem girusu, ena področja in moči aktivacije med programskimi orodji. Ena izmed pozitivna razlika v levi insuli, dve pozitivni razliki v bilateralnem možnih razlag, zakaj je prišlo do te variabilnosti, je razlika v lateralnem okcipitalnem korteksu in ena v srednjem frontalnem metodah analize pri različnih programskih orodjih. Vsako orodje girusu (slika 3). ima drugačno ozadje, različne pristope ter drugačno zaporedje postopkov. 4.1 Primerjava postopkov Privzete ali priporočene nastavitve za vsako orodje so se razlikovale na vsakem koraku, sami koraki pa so se razlikovali v vrstnem redu. Pri vsakem orodju smo za popravo premikov glave uporabili drugačno referenčno sliko (sredinski volumen, povprečje vseh volumnov ali volumen z najmanj odstopanji v signalu) pri registraciji na strukturno in standardno sliko pa smo uporabili drugačne transformacije. Glede na bistvene razlike v maskah rezultatov vsakega orodja lahko sklepamo, da je ta korak bistven za razlike v naših rezultatih. Z AFNI-jem smo opravili najbolj konservativno glajenje, z SPM-jem pa najbolj liberalno. Razlika se je pokazala že pri rezultatih, ki niso statistično značilni, a je še bolj očitna po popravkih za multiple primerjave. Ker obstaja veliko pristopov k temu problemu – kot poudarijo Slika 3: Rezultat analize v AFNI-ju (koordinate zgornjih Poldrack idr. [2], je meja arbitrarno določena – ima vsako orodje treh rezin: 23L 49P 5I, koordinate spodnjih dveh rezin: 43R drugačen priporočen način popravkov na ravni skupkov. Veliko 12A 44S) korakov (predvsem pri predprocesiranju in pri postavljanju končne meje) pri metodah je torej lahko pripomoglo k Pri primerjavi vzorca aktivnosti najbolj izstopa analiza v variabilnosti rezulatov, veliko sprejemljivih možnosti v SPM-ju, ki ni pokazala nobenega aktivnega področja. AFNI in metodoloških odločitvah pa pomeni tudi veliko analitično FSL sta delno pokazala različna aktivna področja, razen fleksibilnost [3]. negativne razlike med aktivacijama pod pogojema F - C v lingualnem girusu in pozitivne razlike med aktivacijama v 4.2 Primerjava rezultatov desnem lateralnem okcipitalnem korteksu, kjer je prišlo do bistvenega pokrivanja. To vidimo na sliki 4, kjer + nakazuje Glede na velike razlike v rezultatih je potrebno izpostaviti, da aktivacije in - nakazuje deaktivacije. primerjava vrednosti vokslov temelji na predpostavki, da so slike prostorsko poravnane. V našem primeru niso bile, kar vidimo v različnih oblikah končih slik možganov. To je zato, ker smo želeli uporabiti privzete nastavitve, te pa so se pri registraciji in normalizaciji tako razlikovale, da so ustvarile končne slike različnih oblik. V manjši meri razlike opazimo pri Z-vrednostih pred postavitvijo meje. Kljub visokem maksimalnem razponu se pri vseh primerjavah vsaj polovica vokslov razlikuje za eno standardno deviacijo ali manj. Variabilnost viškov se je pokazala že v drugih študijah [11] [12], medtem ko je aktivnost na različnih področjih bolj nepričakovana (napram [4] [5] [11][12]). Pri raziskavi, ki so jo opravili Pauli idr. [5], se je AFNI izkazal za programsko orodje z najbolj konservativno analizo, medtem ko je v našem primeru glede na delež aktivnih vokslov to bil SPM. Medtem ko pri SPM- ju ni bilo aktivnega področja, smo z AFNI-jem našli šest skupkov velikosti med 16 in 64 vokslov, s FSL-jem pa kar pet skupkov velikosti med 56 in 406 vokslov. Glede na to, da eno orodje (SPM) ni pokazalo nobene aktivnosti, se postavi vprašanje lažnih pozitivnih rezultatov. Prejšnje raziskave so pokazale, da vsa orodja lahko povzročijo Slika 4: Področja aktivnih predelov glede na različna inflacijo statistične značilnosti [6], pri čemer je je pri SPM-ju programska orodja (koordinate zgornjih rezin: 21L 47P vzrok enostaven model za šum, pri FSL-ju pa podcenjevanje 10I, koordinate spodnjih rezin: 43R 61P 61) prostorskega glajenja [7]. Ker smo dobili tri različne slike, bi glede na našo študijo morali potrditi izjavo Ionnadisa [13], da je več raziskovalnih zaključkov napačnih kot pravilnih. Pomembno 12 pa je poudariti, da naši zaključki veljajo le za privzete oz. ZAHVALA priporočene nastavitve vsakega programskega orodja. Študija je bila izvedena na Centru za klinično fiziologijo (Univerza v Ljubljani, Medicinska fakulteta). Hvala Gregi 4.3 Pomanjkljivosti študije Repovšu in Andreju Vovku, mentorju in somentorju magistrske Za bolj trdne zaključke bi lahko študijo izvedli z določenimi naloge, katere povzetek je ta tekst. popravki. Obstaja vprašanje, ali s takim eksperimentom sploh opazimo čustveni odziv na nezdravo hrano. Ker smo za to REFERENCE raziskavo uporabili le osebe iz kontrolne skupine, je še posebej [1] Nikos K. Logothetis, 2008. What we can do and what we cannot do with vprašljivo, če nam rezultati kaj povejo. Izstopa tudi majhno fMRI. Nature 453, 12 (jun, 2008), 869-878. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nature06976 število udeležencev. Dodatno je treba izpostaviti, da so bili [2] Russel A. Poldrack, Jeanette A. Mumford in Thomas E. Nichols, 2011. udeleženci otroci različnih starosti, kjer prihaja do velikih razlik Handbook of functional MRI data analysis. Cambridge University Press, v razvoju možganov, zato težje dobimo dokončne zaključke. Na New York, ZDA [3] Joshua Carp, 2012. The secret lives of experiments: methods reporting in tej točki razvoja takšnih raziskav bi bilo bolj primerno primerjati the fMRI literature. NeuroImage 63, 1 (okt, 2012), 289-300. 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Nadaljevanje na kritičnem DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sdata.2016.102 raziskovanju delovanja metode fMR je torej ključnega pomena za nevroznanost. 13 What Anime to Watch Next? The Effect of Personality on Anime Genre Selection Sara Jakša sarajaksa@sarajaksa.eu Middle European interdisciplinary master’s programme in Cognitive Science, University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia ABSTRACT 1.2 Entertainment preferences Personality can affect people’s entertainment preferences. This Personality can affect interests. Even an indirect indication of in- has been shown with TV shows, movies, books, and music. This terest, for example, Facebook likes, can predict personality [9]. study tries to see if there is also a connection between personal- There are some studies, showing the connection between per- ity and anime watching patterns and preferences. The analysis sonality and entertainment that people choose. was done on the reviews posted on the MyAnimeList website. The entertainment preferences were found to correlate with The study shows, that personality has a small connection with personality. When measured by questionnaires, Communal genre what people watch and a somehow bigger connection with what preference was positively correlated with agreeableness factors. they like to watch as shown by higher ratings. Aesthetic genre preference was positively correlated with open- ness and agreeableness factors. Dark genre preference was neg- KEYWORDS atively correlated with agreeableness and conscientiousness fac- personality, genre, anime, LIWC tors. And cerebral genre preference was positively correlated with openness factors [13]. The specific genres were also connected to personality when 1 INTRODUCTION the later was measured with Facebook likes. For example, in People use different media, to satisfy different psychological and books, openness predicted liking poetry and science fiction, while social needs [7]. But since different people can have different disliking drama, scary, and crime books. Conscientiousness pre-needs, these can also mean, that they choose different media to dicted liking education books and disliking comics, fantasy, and satisfy their needs. One of the ways to conceptualizes differences poetry. Extraversion predicted liking scary and humor books in people is through personality. and disliking fantasy, science fiction, and war books. Agreeable- ness predicted liking drama and education books and disliking 1.1 Personality war and crime books. And on the end, neuroticism predicted lik- ing crime and poetry books, while disliking non-fiction, thriller, Personality can be defined as differences in how people think, and mystery books [4]. feel, and behave in general [3]. The most popular personality Because of the size of the market, focus on mass media, and model in science is currently the Big Five model. The model in- different levels of tolerance for foreign media, most of the media cludes five traits [11]: exports in the world comes from the USA [6]. But Japan held the • Extraversion is defined by the frequency and intensity of primary role in the cartoon segment for decades. With animes positive feelings. These people are positively oriented, so- popularity increasing outside Japan [10], this allows for study cial, and assertive, as opposed to quiet. the mass media from a country that differs from the USA [2]. • Neuroticism is defined by the frequency and intensity of Since there is a lack of studies connecting personality and anime, negative feelings. These people are less resilient and more I would like to see, if there is a connection there. For this purpose, sensitive and nervous. I am going to try to answer two research questions. • Agreeableness is defined by the relative importance peo- Research question 1 Is personality connected with the anime ple place on other people when compared to themselves. genres people choose to watch? These people are more cooperative, empathic, and likable, Research question 2 Is personality connected with how much instead of competitive. people like the anime genres they watch? • Conscientiousness is defined by the need to follow a sys- tem and defined rules. These people are more efficient and organized, as opposed to spontaneous. 2 METHODOLOGY • Openness is defined by the number of associations with Data were collected by scraping the reviews and anime metadata different ideas and concepts. These people are more cu- from the myanimelist.net website in August 2020. There were rious and creative, as not as consistent as people on the 138335 reviews for 7570 anime series written by 52235 users. other end of the trait. Users were differentiated by their user name, there was no at- tempt made to figure out if one user is using multiple accounts. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this More than half of the users wrote only one review, while the work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided user with the most reviews wrote 554 reviews. that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial By scraping the genre metadata for each anime, there were 43 advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work different genres. Each anime can be in multiple different genres. must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). The genres are comedy, school, shounen, supernatural, hentai, Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia romance, seinen, dementia, a slice of life, kids, adventure, space, © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). mecha, military, sci-fi, action, fantasy, magic, music, game, drama, 14 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Sara Jakša shounen-ai, harem, horror, historical, sports, mystery, cars, par- well as the genre with the highest power among statistical re- ody, shoujo, demons, martial arts, yaoi, superpower, ecchi, thriller, sults for both low and high levels of the trait. If there are more vampire, samurai, psychological, police, yuri, josei, shoujo-ai. than three results, only the three strongest are presented. To get the personality scores of the people, I analyzed the con- tent of the reviews with the LIWC [14, 12]. This is a program Table 1: The summary of power results for review presence intended to study texts with the help of the word counts in dif- ferent categories. The categories include function categories, like the number of pronouns, and the content categories, like social trait N average highest high trait low trait processes. A 11 0.00272 .02019 Slice of Life Action I concatenated all the reviews for each person in a separate file. I analyzed these files with the LIWC program. The commer- E 8 0.00170 .00864 Hentai Action cial version also includes the Big Five scores, which is the most N 6 0.00157 .01036 Action Comedy frequent way of how to use LIWC to get personality. But in the C 5 0.00143 .01108 Slice of Life Action academic version, these are not available. So the personality was computed based on the correlations between LIWC categories O 10 0.00239 .01668 Sci-Fi Shoujo and personality found in previous studies. Some studies used this method before [1]. I used the correlations from the Yarkoni study [15], where 3.1.1 Agreeableness. People with higher agreeableness wrote over 600 people’s blogs were analyzed with LIWC and correlated more reviews for slice of life ( 𝜒 2 = 1087 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 014), with the Big Five traits from the questionnaire. I used only the comedy ( 𝜒 2 = 931 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 012) and music ( 𝜒 2 = 432 , 𝑝 = categories, that were significant at the p=.001. Since the blogs . 000 , 𝜙 = . 005). On the other hand, people with lower agreeable-were analyzed with the earlier version of the LIWC (version ness wrote more reviews for action ( 𝜒 2 = 1524 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = 2001) program, the equivalent groups from LIWC 2015 were used. . 020), horror ( 𝜒 2 = 623 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 008) and psychological If the category no longer existed, then it was dropped. The values ( 𝜒 2 = 473 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 006). were summed together to get the composite value. Based on this method, the traits were calculated in the follow- 3.1.2 Extraversion. People with higher extroversion wrote more ing way: Conscientiousness was calculated by summing achieve-reviews for hentai ( 𝜒 2 = 673 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 008), romance ment, anger (negative), negative emotions (negative), and nega- ( 𝜒 2 = 605 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 007) and harem ( 𝜒 2 = 467 , 𝑝 = tions (negative). Agreeableness was calculated by summing the . 000 , 𝜙 = . 005). On the other hand, people with lower extro-words connected with home, leisure, motions, space, positive version wrote more reviews for action ( 𝜒 2 = 576 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = emotions, anger (negative), negative emotions (negative), and . 007) and sci-fi ( 𝜒 2 = 455 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 005). swear words (negative). Openness was calculated by summing 3.1.3 Neuroticism. People with higher neuroticism wrote more the propositions, articles, words connected to death, home (neg-reviews for action ( 𝜒 2 = 818 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 010) and horror ative), leisure (negative), motion (negative), time (negative), fam- ( 𝜒 2 = 420 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 005). People with lower levels of ily (negative), social processes (negative), positive emotions (neg-neuroticism wrote more reviews for comedy ( 𝜒 2 = 679 , 𝑝 = ative), first-person singular pronouns and all pronouns. Extro- . 000 , 𝜙 = . 008), slice of life ( 𝜒 2 = 572 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 007) and version was calculated by summing words connected to sexual-romance ( 𝜒 2 = 438 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 005). ization, friends, social processes, and second-person pronouns. Neuroticism was calculated by summing anxiety, negative emo- 3.1.4 Conscientiousness. People with higher level of conscien-tions, and second-person pronouns (negative). tiousness write more reviews for slice of life ( 𝜒 2 = 817 , 𝑝 = The problem with this method is, that the result does not rep- . 000 , 𝜙 = . 010), comedy ( 𝜒 2 = 348 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 004) and resent the real values, but only the rankings of the people. This sports ( 𝜒 2 = 341 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 004). While people with lower is why the analysis will be done by comparing the highest 1/3 of conscientiousness wrote more reviews for action ( 𝜒 2 = 837 , 𝑝 = the review authors with the lowest 1/3 of the review authors on . 000 , 𝜙 = . 011) and horror ( 𝜒 2 = 460 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 006). each dimension. 3.1.5 Openness. People with higher level of openness write more reviews for sci-fi ( 𝜒 2 3 RESULTS = 1008 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 011), action ( 𝜒 2 = 662 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 007) and mecha ( 𝜒 2 = 369 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = 3.1 Analysis of Review Presence . 004). People with lower level of openness write more reviews The first analysis is for the percentage of the reviews that each for shoujo ( 𝜒 2 = 1450 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 016), romance ( 𝜒 2 = group wrote for each genre. If there are differences in the watch- 1302 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = . 014) and school ( 𝜒 2 = 752 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝜙 = ing patterns of people with different personalities, then this would . 008). be reflected in the number of reviews that people write. The peo- ple usually only write reviews for the shows that they watched. 3.2 Analysis of Review Scores So if there is a difference in ratios of reviews for different genres, In the next section, the scores of the reviews will be analyzed. For this can be indicative of different watching patterns. The ratio of this analysis, only the main score will be used. The analysis will the reviews was analyzed with chi-square, while the effect size be done with a t-test, and the effect size will be calculated with was calculated with 𝜙. Cohen d statistics. The results for five genres with the highest Below are presented the results, where the p-value was lower effect size are presented below. The results were presented, only than the threshold corrected with Bonferroni correction (1 . 136−56). if the p was higher than the corrected value mentioned in the The results are also presented in a table, where for each trait, the previous section. If there were more than 3 results with p-value average power for statistically significant results is presented, as like that, only the 3 with the highest power were shown. 15 What Anime to Watch Next? Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Table 2: The summary of power results for review scores above it. With agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientious- ness being in the middle effect size territory. The genres with trait N average highest high trait low trait the highest effect sizes for these traits reach the high effect size territory. A 23 .61509 .86056 Harem / Interestingly, that openness and extroversion have less con- E / .14158 .34974 / / nection to which genres the person likes compared to the other N 28 .71882 .83250 / Game three traits. I don’t know the reason, why this would be so. Taking the more general picture of the results, there seems to C 28 .68101 .88185 Shoujo / be some possible connection between the groups of genres and O 17 .39967 .52882 / Thriller personality. The agreeableness seems to be connected to pos- itive social relationships, and negatively connected to conflict and negative emotions. The extraversion seems to be connected 3.2.1 Agreeableness. People with higher level of agreeableness with more thrilling and positive genres along with relationship-rate higher the genres of harem ( 𝑡 = 31 . 1 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 5424 , 𝑝 = based genres, while negatively connected to plot-driven genres. . 000 ,𝑑 = . 860), shoujo ( 𝑡 = 29 . 0 ,𝑑𝑓 = 4467 , 𝑝 = . 000 ,𝑑 = . 851) Neuroticism is connected to negative themes and conflicts and and school ( 𝑡 = 53 . 1 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 19349 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = . 753). There less connected with positive genres. The conscientiousness was were no genres, where people with a lower level of agreeable- connected to more positive, relationship-based, and supernatu- ness would rate higher than people with a higher level of agree- ral genres. The interesting finding here was that some of the gen- ableness. res they enjoyed, they watched less of. This is unlike the finding for the former three traits. The openness also has this gap. They 3.2.2 Extroversion. There were no genres, that trait extraver-prefer to watch more ideas and plot-driven genres and less posi- sion would be connected with at the corrected p level. tive genres. But the people with a lower level of this trait seems 3.2.3 Neuroticism. There were no genres, that people with a to enjoy the genres with conflict and competition more. higher level of neuroticism would rate higher than people with The general results are more or less in line with what would a lower level of neuroticism. People with lower level of neuroti- be expected based on personality theory. Agreeableness’ con- cism rate higher the genres of game ( 𝑡 nection to empathy, extraversion’s connection to positive emo- = −20 . 2 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 2523 , 𝑝 = . tions and sensation seeking, neuroticism’s connection to nega- 000 , 𝑑 = . 832), harem ( 𝑡 = −29 . 1 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 5427 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = . tive emotions, and openness’ connection to the creativity can ex- 798) and vampire ( 𝑡 = −16 . 5 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 2069 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = . 778). plain a lot of the group genre preferences described above. Just 3.2.4 Conscientiousness. People with higher level of conscien-conscientiousness does not have a very easy explanation for it. tiousness rate higher shoujo ( 𝑡 = 29 . 1 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 4345 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = There are a couple of things that I could do to improve the . 881), vampire ( 𝑡 = 17 . 3 ,𝑑𝑓 = 2033 , 𝑝 = . 000 ,𝑑 = . 814) and study. One of them is shown in the one-sidedness of the results harem ( 𝑡 = 26 . 1 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 5303 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = . 740). There were for linking the different genres of the anime. While looking at all no genres, that people with a lower level of conscientiousness results, there are some results for low and high levels of traits, would rate higher than people with a higher level of conscien- the results are still very biased in one direction. So agreeable- tiousness. ness and conscientiousness are positively connected to liking most genres, just as openness and neuroticism are negatively 3.2.5 Openness. There are no anime genres, that people with a connected to liking most genres. One interpretation of the re-higher level of openness would rate higher. But there are genres, sults would be, that people that are higher on agreeableness and that people with a lower level of openness would rate higher. conscientiousness and lower on openness and neuroticism pre- Among these are thriller ( 𝑡 = −16 . 5 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 4565 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = fer anime. The other possible explanation, that I did not test, . 528) superpower ( 𝑡 = −22 . 8 ,𝑑𝑓 = 8270 , 𝑝 = . 000 ,𝑑 = . 519) would be that different personalities are connected to different and shounen ( 𝑡 = −32 . 5 , 𝑑 𝑓 = 19118 , 𝑝 = . 000 , 𝑑 = . 480). actions on the internet. In one study, the agreeableness and ex- troversion were connected with more frequent positive writing, 4 DISCUSSION conscientiousness with less frequent negative writing, and neu- One can see in the results above, that personality is connected roticism and extroversion with more frequent negative writing with both what the people are watching and how much do they [5]. And additional studies should try to separate the effect of like what they watch. But the statistical power with the former personality on writing from the results. is much smaller than with the later. So this would mean that This also leads to the second improvement. The results should that personality does show some connections with the people’s be triangulated with data from different sources or, even better, watching selection and a bit more connection to how much they with a different method. The users of one internet site are not like the genre. always representative of even the whole sub-community on the When it comes to the anime series that people watch, the ef- internet. For example, some studies show, that websites people fect sizes are small. The averages are only approaching the cut- visit are correlated with personality [8]. So the caution should off for the small effect, while the strongest are all, sans extro-be exercised in trying to generalize the results. version, in the small effect size territory. There seems to be a The third way to improve this study would be to use multi- bit higher for openness and agreeableness. But overall, none of ple ways to measure personality. In this study, the correlation them are big. So there seem to be other explanations for the selec- between LIWC categories and personality traits found in an un- tion of which show to watch, that would need to be discovered. related study was used. But the correlations might not be the On the other hand, the effect sizes for liking the genres based same if the study would be done on this dataset, so the results on their personality are bigger. While the extraversion average could be biased because of this. Confirming the personality of effect size is approaching the small effect size, the rest are all 16 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Sara Jakša a subset with questionnaires or using multiple methods would 2019. Anime Industry Report 2019 Sumamry. Re- allow for a greater show of confidence in the results. search report. The Association of Japanese Anima- In conclusion, the personality seems to have a mostly pre- tions. http://aja.gr.jp/english/japan-anime-data. dictable connection what people watch and how much they like [11] Daniel Nettle. 2009. Personality: What makes you it. With a stronger connection to the linking than general watch- the way you are. Oxford University Press, New York, ing patterns. US. ISBN: 9780199211425. [12] James W. Pennebaker and Laura A. King. 1999. Lin- REFERENCES guistic styles: language use as an individual differ- [1] B. Bazelli, A. Hindle, and E. Stroulia. 2013. On ence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, the personality traits of stackoverflow users. In 2013 77, 6, 1296–1312. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1296. IEEE International Conference on Software Mainte- [13] Peter J. Rentfrow, Lewis R. Goldberg, and Ran Zilca. nance, 460–463. 2011. 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Private traits and attributes are predictable from digital records of human behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 15, 5802– 5805. ISSN: 0027-8424. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1218772110. [10] Hiromichi Masuda, Tadashi Sudo, Kazuo Rikukawa, Yuji Mori, Yasuo Kameyama, and Megumi Onouchi. 17 Zaznavanje lastnosti zdravil brez recepta Perception of OTC medicine attributes Karin Kasesnik Jani Toroš Mihael Kline SPC Katedra za trženje in Oddelek za komunikologijo NIJZ management UL, FDV Ljubljana, Slovenia VŠPV Ljubljana, Slovenia karin.kasesnik@guest.arnes.si Ljubljana, Slovenia miro.kline@kline-partner.si jani.toros@imi-institute.org POVZETEK medicines. We researched a perception of the importance related to the OTC medicine attributes, included in the official Pri zdravljenju ima pomembno vlogo jemanje zdravil brez documents. Individual attributes were systematized into several recepta. Pacienti lahko dobijo informacije o teh zdravilih iz več groups. In the present extended abstract a focus is given to the virov. Poleg nasvetov strokovnjakov s področja zdravja je na perception of efficacy and possible side effects of the OTC razpolago tudi več pisnih virov. Razumevanje informacij o medicines. A conjoint method was used for analyzing the data. zdravilih vpliva na odločanje in vedenje pacientov in posredno The responders expressed the preferences toward individual na rezultate medikamentoznega zdravljenja. Raziskovali smo attributes, by answering the questions in the questionnaire. It zaznavanje pomembnosti lastnosti zdravil brez recepta, ki so was confirmed that patients ascribe a higher importance to the del uradnih dokumentov. Posamezne lastnosti smo sistematično attributes’ group, encompassing the risks, especially the serious združili v več skupin. V sedanjem razširjenem povzetku smo se ones, in comparison with the group of attributes which osredotočili na zaznavanje učinkovitosti in možnih neželenih describes the advantages of the OTC medicines. Ascribing an učinkov zdravil brez recepta. Za analizo podatkov smo importance is a part of making decisions, leading to the uporabili »conjoint« metodo. V vprašalniku so respondenti z consumer behavior. The main purpose of the research study is odgovori na vprašanja izrazili preference do posameznih determining of the importance, assigned to the individual lastnosti. Potrdili smo, da pacienti skupini lastnosti, ki opisuje attributes and the groups of the attributes of the OTC tveganja, posebej resnejša, pripisujejo primerjalno večjo medicines. On he basis of the findings regarding the attributes pomembnost kot skupini lastnosti z opisom prednosti zdravil to which the preferences and the importance are assigned, more brez recepta. Pripisovanje pomembnosti je del procesa efficient communication between the healthcare experts and the odločanja, ki vodi v nakupno vedenje. Osnovni namen patients is enabled. Several scientific publications describe the raziskave je določitev relativne pomembnosti, ki jih respondenti theories which emphasize mainly rational or mainly emotional pripisujejo posameznim lastnostim oziroma skupinam lastnosti decision-making by the patients. The response to the risk is zdravil brez recepta. Na osnovi ugotovitev, katerim lastnostim described as an emotional one. Although an assigned pacienti pripisujejo prednost oziroma pomembnost, lahko importance of the risks and other attributes of the OTC strokovnjaki s področja zdravja z njimi bolj učinkovito medicines were determined, an additional research is needed in komunicirajo. V več znanstvenih delih so opisane teorije, ki order to confirm the related response as a rational or an poudarjajo pretežno racionalno ali pretežno emocionalno emotional one. odločanje pacientov. Odziv na tveganja je opisan kot emocionalen. Čeprav smo v raziskavi ugotavljali pripisano KEYWORDS pomembnost tveganj in drugih lastnosti zdravil brez recepta, pa je potrebno nadaljnje raziskovanje, da bi potrdili odziv nanje OTC medicines, attributes, preferences, ascribing an kot racionalen ali emocionalen. importance, efficacy, risks KLJUČNE BESEDE 1 UVOD Zdravila brez recepta, lastnosti, preference, pripisovanje pomembnosti, učinkovitost, tveganja Zdravila brez recepta so pomemben del zdravljenja pacientov. Odločitev za nakup teh zdravil lahko temelji na nasvetu ABSTRACT strokovnjakov, na primer zdravnika ali farmacevta v lekarni. Informacije o zdravilu brez recepta pacient lahko pridobiva tudi Taking OTC medicines has an important role in the treatment. iz različnih pisnih virov. Poleg uradnih, odobrenih pisnih virov Patients can obtain the OTC medicines’ information from so razpoložljivi različna promocijska gradiva, s katerimi several sources. Besides the health experts’ advices also several proizvajalci nameravajo vplivati na odločanje in nakupno written sources are available. Comprehension of medicine vedenje pacientov. Za razliko od zdravil, ki se predpisujejo na information affects decision-making and patients’ behavior and recept, je dovoljena promocija oziroma oglaševanje zdravil brez indirectly influences the results of the treatment with the 18 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia K. Kasesnik, J. Toroš, M. Kline recepta splošni javnosti, ob upoštevanju zakonskih določil. 2 RACIONALNE IN EMOCIONALNE Oglaševanje zdravil brez recepta pa mora biti skladno z določili TEORIJE O ODLOČITVAH GLEDE Pravilnika o oglaševanju zdravil [1]. Pravilnik določa, kateri podatki o zdravilu brez recepta morajo biti zajeti v ZDRAVLJENJA oglaševalskem sporočilu in katerih informacij sporočilo ne sme Medtem ko nekatere objavljene teorije pripisujejo bistveno zajemati. vlogo racionalnemu vedenju, pa druge teorije poudarjajo pomen Pomembni uradni dokumenti, ki spremljajo zdravila brez emocionalnega vedenja. Sprva so se v večji meri uveljavljale recepta, na primer navodilo za uporabo zdravila in ovojnina teorije, ki so poudarjale racionalno vedenje. Kasneje so zdravil, so v Sloveniji regulatorno urejeni. Vprašljivo pa je, ali raziskovalci spoznavali pomen čustev pri zaznavanju lastnosti je nadzor promocije zdravil brez recepta zagotovljen v zadostni izdelkov, razvoj znanstvenih metod pa je omogočil tudi boljše meri, da nima negativnega vpliva na odločanje in vedenje spremljanje odziva organizma na lastnosti izdelka. pacientov, z verjetnim vplivom na rezultate zdravljenja. Raziskovalci [4] so ugotovili, da čustveni odzivi lahko Ustrezno jemanje zdravil brez recepta je bistveno za doseganje povzročijo vedenje oseb, ki ne vodi v njihovo dobrobit. Avtorji pričakovanih rezultatov medikamentoznega zdravljenja. trdijo, da se zaradi vpliva čustev zaznavanje tveganja ne sklada Zdravila, ki se ne predpisujejo na recept, imajo prav tako kot z racionalnimi, na znanstvenih ugotovitvah temelječimi zdravila na recept pogosto močne učinke, pa tudi možne analizami. Zaradi čustvene obdelave informacij osebe neželene učinke. Določene učinkovine v zdravilih brez recepta zaznavajo negativne strani kot bolj pomembne od prednosti. V medsebojno učinkujejo z učinkovinami z zdravili na recept, ki raziskavi [4] je tudi opisano, da vedenje pod vplivom čustev jih pacienti sočasno jemljejo, pa tudi drugimi snovmi. povzroči slabše predvidevanje prihodnjih preferenc ter Raziskovalci [2] so pokazali, da trditve o učinkovitosti niso v neustrezno oceno preteklih izkušenj in dejanskega tveganja. ravnotežju s trditvami o tveganjih v promocijskih materialih, ki Večina teorij torej odločanje opredeljuje s kognitivnega opisujejo značilnosti zdravil brez recepta. Ustrezno ravnotežje vidika. Avtorji teh teorij razlagajo, da odločitve temeljijo na trditev pa je pomembno za razumevanje in odločanje pacientov. ocenah prihodnjih izidov različnih možnosti, s pomočjo vrste Dobro razumevanje informacij o zdravilih vodi v pravilno analiz, kjer se tehtajo stroški in koristi. Določene teorije jemanje in ravnanje z zdravili. Posebej na področju zdravil brez upoštevajo čustva, a le kot posledico neke odločitve in je ne recepta odločanje pacientov in njihovo razumevanje informacij povezujejo neposredno z odločitvijo. Vendar pa avtorji teorije, še ni dovolj raziskano. ki temelji tudi na fizioloških meritvah, čustvom pripisujejo V opisani raziskavi nas je posebej zanimal vidik zaznavanja večjo težo [5]. Osebe se odločajo ne le z ocenjevanjem resnosti pomembnosti posameznih lastnosti, ki se pojavljajo v uradnih izidov in verjetnosti njihovega pojava, ampak predvsem zaradi dokumentih o zdravilih brez recepta. Medtem ko se z njihove čustvene vrednosti. običajnimi raziskavami o ocenjevanju izdelkov ovrednoti V raziskavi [6] so ugotavljali, kako osebe zaznavajo celoten izdelek, pa smo v tej raziskavi ugotavljali pripisano vsebino sporočila. Ko pacienti zdravljenje zaznavajo kot pomembnost določenih lastnosti. To je bistveno tudi s tvegano, so sporočila s poudarjenim vplivom tveganj bolj praktičnega vidika komuniciranja strokovnjakov s področja učinkovita. Ko pa neko zdravstveno obravnavo osebe zaznavajo zdravja s pacienti. Če se ugotovi primerjalno velika pripisana kot varno, so sporočila s poudarjenimi prednostmi bolj pomembnost neželenih učinkov zdravil brez recepta, je učinkovita, saj osebe prednost namenijo pozitivnim koristno, da strokovnjaki naslavljajo te lastnosti tekom informacijam, pred informacijam o tveganjih. svetovanja pacientom, prav tako pa v pisnih gradivih. Raziskovalci [7] so preučevali sposobnost za odločanje Pregled literature kaže več objavljenih znanstvenih ( decision-making capacity or competence, DMC). Izhajali so iz prispevkov, ki pa se razlikujejo glede na to, ali poudarjajo vlogo že objavljenih ugotovitev ki sta jih zapisala Grisso in razuma ali čustev pri odločanju. Proces odločanja je zapleten in Applebaum [8] pri opredelitvi štirih poglavitnih dejavnikov. natančnejšo povezavo zaznavanja lastnosti z emocionalnega Razumevanje pomeni sposobnost dojemanja z zdravljenjem oziroma racionalnega vidika bi lahko ugotavljali tekom povezanih informacij. Ocenjevanje je povezano s sposobnostjo nadaljnjega raziskovanja. Joffe (2003) pa v objavljenem delu razpoznavanja posledic bolezni in koristi zdravljenja. (3) poroča o čustveni vsebini odziva na tveganja, vključno z Presojanje pomeni sposobnost racionalne obdelave informacij, zdravstvenimi tveganji. tudi pri primerjavi tveganj in koristi zdravljenja. Dokazovanje Osnovni raziskovalni problem je bil, da zaznavanje pa se povezuje s sposobnostjo za komuniciranje. Hermann idr. posameznih lastnosti zdravil brez recepta ni dovolj raziskano, [7] pa so poudarili tudi pomen čustev in vrednote v procesu čeprav vpliva na vedenje pacientov in lahko posredno vpliva na odločanja o zdravju. izide zdravljenja. Rezultati ugotovitev lahko pripomorejo pri Hermann idr. [7] so prikazali drugačen vidik vloge čustev, komuniciranju strokovnjakov s področja zdravja s splošno posebej bolj intenzivnega čustvenega odziva oziroma javnostjo. Zavedanje o čustvenih in racionalnih vidikih neustrezne čustvene reakcije. Raziskovalci soglašajo s trditvijo, zaznavanja lastnosti zdravil in poznavanje pripisane da je pri odločanju prevladujoč proces čustvovanja. pomembnosti posameznih lastnosti zdravil brez recepta bi Posamezniki morajo upoštevati čustva, jih priznavati kot pripomoglo k učinkovitemu komuniciranja in posredno k pomembne informacije, jih povezovati s preteklimi izkušnjami uspešnosti zdravljenja. in opredeliti, ali bo vedenje na osnovi takih izkušenj v Hipoteza: Neželenim učinkom zdravil brez recepta se prihodnje omogočalo dobro počutje. Če pa je čustven odziv pripisuje večja relativna pomembnost kot prednostim zdravil. intenziven, se zmanjša zmožnost za razumevanje in Resnejši neželeni učinki se v primerjavi z drugimi neželenimi posvetovanje. Sposobnost za odločanje je povezano s primerno učinki zaznavajo kot bolj tvegani. 19 Zaznavanje lastnosti zdravil brez recepta Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia stopnjo vključitve čustev. Pomanjkanje ali presežek čustev pa telesne temperature, ki sta simptoma bakterijskega ali virusnega predstavlja težavo. obolenja ali drugih bolezni. Drugo zdravilo brez recepta pa Raziskovalci upoštevajo različne nevrološke mehanizme v vsebuje tri učinkovine, to so paracetamol, psevdoefedrinijev organizmu, ki vplivajo na čustvene oziroma racionalne procese hidroklorid in dekstrometorfan hidrobromid. To zdravilo ima ter sodelujejo pri odločanju o zdravju oziroma zdravilih. Prav širše indikacijsko območje od prvega, poleg znižanja povišane tako pripisujejo različen pomen in vpliv racionalnih oziroma telesne in lajšanja bolečin izboljša simptomov bakterijske ali emocionalnih procesov na odločanje. Iz določenih raziskav [3, virusne infekcije v nosu ter za olajša kašelj. 4] je razvidno, da se odločanje o tveganjih v večji meri V navodilih za uporabo smo kodirali trditve, ki smo jih povezuje z emocionalnimi procesi. umestili v tri skupine lastnosti. Skupina lastnosti, ki opisuje učinkovitost zdravljenja. zajema tri nivoje lastnosti in sicer 3 ZASNOVA IN METODA RAZISKAVE O olajšanje bolečine, lajšanje dihanja in zamašenega nosu ter lajšanje kašlja. Druga skupina lastnosti prav tako zajema ZAZNAVANJU LASTNOSTI ZDRAVIL prednosti zdravljenja, poleg znižanja povišane telesne BREZ RECEPTA temperature tudi dve lastnosti, ki sta povezani s komplianco zdravil: zdravila se zlahka zaužijejo in enkrat dnevno 3.1 Izhodišča odmerjanje. V skupini lastnosti, ki zajema možne neželene Odločanje pacientov o medikamentoznem zdravljenju je učinke, je prva lastnost izpuščaj, srbenje in omotičnost. Druga področje, ki je še premalo raziskano. Ne le pravilna struktura lastnost so težave s srcem, tretja pa težave z dihanjem. besedila o zdravju in zdravilih, ampak tudi ustrezno Naslednja skupina lastnosti vključuje tri nivoje cene, ki razumevanje teh informacij pomembno prispeva k temeljijo na realnih cenah izbranih zdravil. pričakovanim rezultatom zdravljenja. V tej raziskavi smo preučevali preference respondentov o lastnostih zdravil brez recepta. Skupine lastnosti so bile 4 POGLAVITNI REZULTATI RAZISKAVE povezane s prednostmi zdravila, neželenimi učinki in ceno Z analizo smo dobili več rezultatov. S pomočjo računalniškega zdravil. Določili smo, katerim lastnostim so respondenti programa smo določili pogostnost izbire posameznih lastnosti pripisali največjo pomembnost – učinkovitosti, komplianci, in pomembnost, ki so jo respondenti pripisali lastnostim neželenim učinkom oziroma ceni. oziroma skupinam lastnosti. 3.2 Conjoint analiza 4.1 Izbira lastnosti Conjoint analiza je sodobna metoda z zanesljivimi rezultati. S Sprva smo določili delež izbire posamezne lastnosti s strani conjoint analizo raziskovalci ugotavljajo odločanje respondentov. V skupini z učinkovitostjo zdravila brez recepta respondentov. V vprašalniku so navedeni različni scenariji, na so respondenti v povprečju največkrat (v 22 %) izbrali olajšanje osnovi katerih respondenti tehtajo med posameznimi nivoji bolečine in lajšanje dihanje pri zamašenem nosu [10]. To lastnosti glede na preference. Respondenti z odgovori pomeni, da so izmed vseh prikazov tega nivoja lastnosti ovrednotijo različne značilnosti oziroma lastnosti izdelka po respondenti ti dve lastnosti izbrali v 22 % primerov. V manjši pripisani pomembnosti. V vedno večji meri se ta metoda meri so respondenti izbrali olajšanje kašlja. V drugi skupini uporablja na področju raziskovanja informacij o zdravilih. lastnosti je bila lastnost, ki opisuje znižanje povišane telesne Conjoint analiza je vrsta evalvacije, pri kateri se uporablja temperature, izbrana v 25 % primerov, kar je presegalo izbiro vprašalnik, da bi določili tehtanje med lastnostmi in nivoji lastnosti, ki so se povezovale s komplianco. Hi-kvadrat lastnosti in ugotovili preference pacientov za določene izdelke statistična analiza je pokazala, da je razlika med posameznimi oziroma lastnosti izdelkov [9]. Tekom odgovarjanja na lastnostmi v prvi in drugi skupini lastnosti signifikantna. vprašanja se respondentu prikažejo različne kombinacije V skupini lastnosti z možnimi neželenimi učinki je bila vprašanj z lastnostmi, med katerimi izbira. Računalniška lastnost, ki opisuje izpuščaj, srbečico in omotičnost, izbrana v obdelava podatkov omogoča določitev preferenc in določitev 35 % in so jo v povprečju torej respondenti zaznali kot manj zaznane pomembnosti lastnosti izdelka. tvegano kot težave z dihanjem, ki so jih respondenti izbrali v 17 % in težave s srcem, ki so jih respondenti izbrali le v 7 %. 3.3 Razlika med izbirami posameznih lastnosti v tej skupini je bila Izvedba raziskave prav tako statistično pomembna. V četrti skupini s ceno kot V raziskavo je bilo vključenih 85 respondentov. 68 žensk in 17 lastnostjo je bila pričakovano največkrat izbrana najnižja cena moških. Starostna struktura respondentov kaže, da je bilo 40,0 (4,5 EUR), v 22 %. V manjšem deležu (20 %) je bila izbrana % respondentov mlajših od 30 let, 38,8 % starejših od 50 let, cena 6,5 EUR, v najmanjšem deležu (18 %) pa je bila izbrana 21,2 % oseb pa je imelo med 30 in 50 let. cena 8,5 EUR. Izbrali smo navodili za uporabo dveh zdravil brez recepta, ki sta na slovenskem tržišču. Navodila za uporabo zdravil brez 4.2 Zaznana pomembnost lastnosti recepta so uradni dokument, ki jih odobri JAZMP (Javna Ugotavljali smo tudi pomembnost, ki so jo respondenti pripisali agencija Republike Slovenije za zdravila in medicinske posameznim skupinam lastnosti. Primerjalno največjo pripomočke). Učinkovina v enem izmed zdravil je paracetamol. pomembnost so respondenti pripisali skupini lastnosti o možnih Zdravilo se uporablja za lajšanje bolečine in znižanje povišane neželenih učinkih, ki je po pomembnosti presegala pripisano 20 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia K. Kasesnik, J. Toroš, M. Kline pomembnost obeh skupin lastnosti, povezanih s prednostmi Osnovna ugotovitev naše raziskave je, da je bila skupini zdravila, torej učinkovitosti in komplianci zdravil. Primerjalno lastnosti, ki se povezujejo z neželenimi učinki, pripisana večja najmanjšo pomembnost so respondenti pripisali ceni. pomembnost kot skupini lastnosti, ki opisujejo prednosti zdravil brez recepta, to je učinkovitost in dobro komplianco teh zdravil. Kot posebej tvegane so respondenti zaznavali resnejše neželene Tabela 1: Povprečna pripisana pomembnost skupin učinke. Ceni zdravil pa, nasprotno s pričakovanji, respondenti lastnosti niso pripisali velike pomembnosti, morda tudi zaradi razmeroma majhne razlike med cenovnimi nivoji in razmeroma Št. skupine Skupina lastnosti Pripisana majhnega stroška. lastnosti pomembnost Na osnovi rezultatov naše raziskave zaključujemo, da bi lastnosti (%) bilo v ustni in pisni komunikaciji s pacienti koristno naslavljati 1 Prednost: učinkovitost 14,61 neželene učinke zdravil brez recepta in ovrednotiti in zdravila racionalizirati njihovo dejansko tveganje, posebej glede na 2 Prednost: komplianca, 17,12 prednosti jemanja zdravil brez recepta. učinkovitost Ne glede na objavljene teorije o prevladujočem racionalnem 3 Možni neželeni učinki 59,05 ali emocionalnem odločanju velja, da na odločanje vplivajo 4 Cena 9,22 racionalni in emocionalni mehanizmi. Natančnejša določitev Skupaj 100,0 emocionalnega ali racionalnega vidika pripisane pomembnosti lastnosti pa bi bila izvedljiva tekom nadaljnjega raziskovanja. V V raziskavi smo pridobili in analizirali še druge rezultate, ki tej fazi raziskovanja le predvidevamo, da se možna tveganja bodo predvidoma v prihodnje objavljeni. Poleg navedenih zaradi jemanja zdravil brez recepta v večji meri povezujejo z lastnosti smo ugotavljali tudi preference z ozirom na posamezne vplivom čustev, tudi na osnovi ugotovitev predhodnega blagovne znamke oziroma lastniška imena zdravil brez recepta, raziskovanja [3, 4]. Odločanje pa je celovit proces, na katerega tudi na večjem vzorcu respondentov. učinkuje več dejavnikov in koristilo bi nadaljnje raziskovanje. LITERATURA 5 RAZPRAVA IN ZAKLJUČEK [1] Pravilnik o oglaševanju zdravil. Uradni list RS, št. 105/08, 98/09 – Izhajali smo iz trditve, da neželenim učinkom respondenti ZMedPri, 105/10 in 17/14 – Zzdr-2. DOI: http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=PRAV3390. pripisujejo večjo pomembnost kot učinkovitosti, Kot posebej [2] Karin Kasesnik, Mihael Kline, Todd Gammie in Zaheer-Ud-Din Babar, tvegani se zaznavajo resni neželeni učinki. Rezultati raziskave 2016. Analyzing medicines information of over-the-counter medicines postavljeni hipotezi pritrjujejo. Predvidevali smo, da bodo ceni leaflets in Slovenia. Akademija MM (dec, 2016), 13 (26), 9-22. DOI: respondenti pripisali večjo pomembnost, kar pa rezultati https://assets.website- files.com/5bd6cecc10ba2a724f7b2f22/5ce3cc1fc86d1b6c6fc9d268_26.% raziskave [10] niso potrdili. 20Akademija%20MM.pdf. V sorodni raziskavi [11] so raziskovali preference o [3] Hélène Joffe, 2003. Risk: From perception to social representation. lastnostih zdravil brez recepta, predvsem za lajšanje bolečin. British Journal of Social Psychology (Apr 2003), 42 (1), 55-73. Ugotovili so, da sta cena in blagovna znamka najpomembnejši [4] Donald A. Redelmeier, Paul Rozin, Daniel Kahneman, 1993. lastnosti pri izbiri zdravila brez recepta. Ti rezultati se ne Understanding Patients’ Decisions. Cognitive and Emotional Perspectives. JAMA (jul, 2016), 270 (1), 72-76. DOI: skladajo z našimi rezultati, kjer ceni respondenti niso https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/407158. pripisovali velike pomembnosti. Vendar so Halme idr. [11] [5] Antoine Bechara, Hanna Damasio in Antonio R. Damasio, 2000. ugotovili razlike med respondenti glede njihovih preferenc za Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex. Cerebral lastnosti zdravil brez recepta in jih na osnovi tega razvrstili v Cortex (mar, 2000) , Vol. 10 (3), 295-307. DOI: https://academic.oup.com/cercor/article/10/3/295/449599. pet skupin. Glede na to razvrstitev so določili, katera skupina [6] Alan Schwartz, Julie Goldberg in Gordon Hazen, 2008. Prospect theory, respondentov ceni pripisuje večjo pomembnost. V skupine so reference points, and health decisions. Judgement and Decision Making respondente razvrstili glede na to, ali upoštevajo predvsem (Feb, 2008), 3 (2), 174-180. DOI: http://journal.sjdm.org/jdm7823.pdf. učinkovitost, primerjalno nižjo ceno, blagovno znamko, ali pa [7] Helena Hermann, Manuel Trachesel, Bernice S. Elger in Nikola Biller-Andorno, 2016. Emotion and Value in the Evaluation of medical uravnotežene lastnosti; slednji skupini respondentov so Decision-Making Capacity: A Narative Review of Arguments. Front raziskovalci pripisali racionalno odločanje. V peto skupino so Psychol. (maj, 2016), 7, 765. DOI: raziskovalci uvrstili respondente, ki v veliki meri upoštevajo https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00765/full. nasvet strokovnjaka, zdravnika ali farmacevta. [8] Thomas Grisso in Paul S. Applebaum. 1998. Assessing Competence to V isti raziskavi [11] so avtorji ugotovili večjo pripisano Consent to Treatment; A Guide for Physicians and Other health professiomnals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. DOI: pomembnost lastnosti, ki se navezujejo na učinkovitost zdravil https://escholarship.umassmed.edu/psych_pp/314/. brez recepta (25 %) kot pri naši raziskavi, kjer je bila nekoliko [9] Deborah Marshall, John F.P. Bridges, Brett Hauber, Ruthanne Cameron, manjša kot 15 %. Vendar pa se je izbor lastnosti med Lauren Donnalley, Ken Fyie in F. Reed Johnson, 2010. Conjoint raziskavama razlikoval. Analysis Applications in Health – How are Studies being Designed and Reported? An Update on Current Practice in the Published Literature Guo idr. [12] so raziskovali preference in pripisano between 2005 and 2008. Patient (dec, 2010), 3 (4), 249-256. DOI: pomembnost izbranih lastnosti zdravil in ugotovili, da osebe https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22273432/. niso naklonjene neželenim učinkom, kar posebej velja za [10] Karin Kasesnik, Mihael Kline in Jani Toroš, 2020. Analysis of resnejše neželene učinke. Ti rezultati se skladajo z rezultati naše Medicines Attributes within Patient Infrormation Leaflets. V: Weis, Lidija (ur.), Koval, Viktor (ur.), As kerc Veniger, Katarina (ur.). raziskave Eastern European Conference of Management and Economics: 21 Zaznavanje lastnosti zdravil brez recepta Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Environmental management and sustainable economic development: EECME 2020: proceedings of the 2nd international scientific conference: May 29, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Ljubljana: Ljubljana School of Business, 2020, 9-15. DOI: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mykola_Mykolaichuk/public ation342317836_Support_for_innovative_economic_development_by _the_banking_sector_challenges_for_Ukraine/links/5eed14b8a6fdcc 73be8d76ba/Support-for-innovative-economic-development-by- the-banking-sector-challenges-for-Ukraine.pdf. [11] Merja Halme, Kari Linden in Kimmo Ka a ria , 2009. Patients’ Preferences for Generic and Branded Over-the-Counter Medicines. An adaptive Conjoint Analysis Approach. Patient (dec, 2009), 2 (4), 243-255. DOI: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22273245/. [12] Na Guo, Carlo A. Marra, J. Mark FitzGerald, R. Kevin Elwood, Aslam H. Anis, Fawziah Marra, 2011. Patient Preference for Latent Tuberculosis Infection Prevention Treatment: a Discrete Choice Experiment. Value in Health (Sept-Oct 2011), 14 (6), 937-943. DOI:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1098301511014 197. 22 Kognitivno–motivacijski model čustvovanja v vsakdanjem življenju Cognitive–motivational Model of Emotions in Everyday's Life Darja Kobal Grum Oddelek za psihologijo Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana +38612411151 darja.kobal@ff.uni-lj.si POVZETEK druga modificirana in vprašanje je, kaj je pravo čustvo, ki ga posameznik doživlja. Tretji dejavnik je v besednjaku, kako V prispevku se ukvarjamo z vprašanjema, kaj so čustva in kakšna je vloga čustev pri našem vsakdanjem funkcioniranju. Pri tem nas opredeliti oz. s katerimi besedami opisati ustrezna čustva. Različne študije so poskušale prebroditi to vrzel s ti. vpeljavo »sodnikov«, zanima, katere psihološke entitete sodelujejo pri čustvovanju in pripomorejo k učinkovitemu in pozitivnemu delovanju. Postavimo največkrat študentov, ki so iskali najrazličnejše besede za hipotetični kognitivno–motivacijski model čustvovanja v opisovanje določenih čustev in skušali oblikovati nekakšen slovar vsakdanjem življenju, ki predstavlja podlago za empirično čustev. Nobena klasifikacija se ni izkazala za bolj objektivno od druge. Četrti razlog je v različnih teoretskih pristopih, ki so se raziskovanje tistih vidikov čustvovanja, ki pripomorejo k oblikovali skozi zgodovino psihologije, peti pa v nas samih, ki smo pozitivnemu vsakdanjemu delovanju. se s pomočjo vzgoje in težnje k prilagajanju okolju naučili KLJUČNE BESEDE potvarjati svoja čustva. Čeprav smo npr. žalostni, si v družbi »nadenemo« nasmeh, čeprav smo na nekoga jezni, zaradi Čustva, kognicija, motivacija, cilj, hipotetični model. neprimernosti izražanja jeze tej osebi, tega čustva ne izrazimo itd. [2]. ABSTRACT Čustva opredelimo kot duševne procese in stanja, ki izražajo In this article, we deal with the question of what emotions are and človekov vrednostni odnos do zunanjega sveta ali do samega sebe what the role of emotions is in our daily activities. In doing so, we [3]. Posameznik spozna osebe, dogodke in situacije ter jih s čustvi are interested in which psychological entities are involved in our ovrednoti, tako da jim subjektivno določi njihovo vrednost [3]. emotions and contribute to effective and positive functioning. We Čustva so torej kratkotrajni subjektivni, duševni, funkcionalni in set up a hypothetical cognitive–motivational model of emotion in ekspresivni pojavi, ki usmerjajo naše vedenje v smeri prilagajanja everyday life, which represents the basis for empirical research of ali neprilagajanja danim okoliščinam [3, 4]. To pomeni, da so those aspects of emotion that contribute to positive everyday čustva evalvacije in se pojavljajo ob objektih, ki so za posameznika functioning. pomembni [4]. Funkcionalno imajo čustva adaptacijsko funkcijo, kar pomeni, da omogočajo učinkovito prilagajanje okolju, delujejo KEYWORDS kot motivi, saj nas usmerjajo k objektom in situacijam, ki sprožajo Emotions, cognition, motivation, goal, hypothetical model pozitivna čustva, pomembno vlogo pa imajo tudi pri komunikaciji in uravnavanju socialnih odnosov [3]. Tudi na področju motivacije je razlag veliko, vendar se skladajo 1 UVOD v opredelitvi, da je motivacija: občutena napetost, ki je usmerjena k ali proti nekemu cilju; notranji proces, ki vpliva na smer, V literaturi obstajajo številne opredelitve čustev. Kompleksnost vztrajnost in intenzivnost k cilju usmerjenega vedenja; specifična njihovega definiranja ponazarjajo najrazličnejši poskusi potreba, želja ali hotenje, ki spodbudi k cilju usmerjeno vedenje [5]. kategoriziranja različnih opredelitev, med katerimi naj omenimo le Motivacija je torej psihološki proces, ki spodbuja in usmerja naše poskus Paula R. Kleinginna in Anne M. Kleinginna [1], v katerem vedenje [6]. sta avtorja zbrala več kot 100 različnih definicij čustev in jih Kognicija je izraz, ki se je v psihologiji pojavil razmeroma pozno, klasificirala v 6 kategorij. To so definicije, ki poudarjajo: fiziološke in sicer v 50. letih prejšnjega stoletja [7]. V nadaljnjih desetletjih vidike čustev, motivacijo in vedenje, funkcije čustev, razlikovanje pa je raziskovanje kognicije dobilo naslutene razsežnosti, še zlasti med drugimi pojavi čustvovanja, kot npr. razpoloženje, preference, s pomočjo spoznanj iz nevropsihologije, kar so omogočile tudi strast oz. hrepenenje, afekt itd., psihopatološke oblike čustvovanja kompleksne nevropsihološke tehnologije [4]. Kognitivni procesi so ter različne klasifikacije, kot so npr. pozitivne nasproti negativnim psihološki procesi, ki nam omogočajo odnos z okoljem, z njimi čustvom, ciljno skladne nasproti ciljno neskladnim ipd. sprejemamo in predelujemo informacije, ki jih pridobimo s Plutchik [2] opozarja, da je zmeda na področju definiranja čustev pomočjo različnih izvorov, kot npr. z zaznavo, izkušnjami, posledica več dejavnikov. Prvi je v močni prevladi behaviorizma, prepričanji ipd., nato pa jih pretvorimo v znanje. Kognitivni procesi ki je dominiral tja do 60. let prejšnjega stoletja in čustva niso bila so: občutenje, zaznavanje, učenje, spomin, mišljenje, jezik, govor predmet obravnave. Drugi je v psihoanalizi, ki je pokazala, da in zavest [4]. subjektivni opisi čustev niso nujno relevantni oz. da to, kar človek opisuje, da doživlja, ni nujno res. Nekatera čustva so potlačena, 23 V prispevku nas zanimata vlogi motivacije in kognicije pri našem pričakovanje. Pri samoodgovornosti ocenjujemo, koliko smo sami čustvovanju. Pri tem izhajamo iz Reevovega [8] razumevanja odgovorni za nastalo situacijo, pri osredotočenosti na problem povezanosti med čustvi, kognicijo in motivacijo, ki čustva in ocenjujemo, koliko lahko dano situacijo izboljšamo, ko smo kognicijo razlaga kot sestavna člena motivacije, v čustvih samih pa osredotočeni na čustva, ocenjujemo, koliko se lahko sami vidi indikator prilagojenosti vedenja. Veselje npr. kaže na socialno prilagodimo na nastalo situacijo, torej ali lahko spremenimo odnos vključenost in težnjo po doseganju ciljev, žalost pa, nasprotno, do nastale situacije, pričakovanje pa zajema oceno, ali lahko v napotuje na socialno izolacijo in odmik od ciljev. Pozitivna čustva prihodnje sami prispevamo k spremembi situacije. Vsakemu čustvu odsevajo angažiranost in zadovoljstvo z našim delovanjem in odgovarja specifična sekundarna ocena, ki jo Lazarus [9] motivacijskimi stanji, negativna pa opustitev in frustracijo v zvezi metateoretično imenuje ključne teme, povezane z dogodkom Gre z našim delovanjem in motivacijskimi stanji. Pozitivna čustva za tipične vsakdanje situacije, ki jih ocenjujemo glede na tipične odsevajo našo uspešno prilagojenost danim okoliščinam, negativna hevristične kognitivne sheme. Vsaka od teh situacij je podvržena pa kažejo, da se nanje nismo znali učinkovito prilagoditi. S te najprej primarnim, nato pa še sekundarnim procesom ocene, kar perspektive čustva nimajo enakega statusa v motivaciji kot potrebe posledično vodi do specifičnega tipičnega čustva. Tako naj bi in kognicije, ampak odločajo o tem, ali bo nek motiv sploh neugodne situacije odgovarjale ocenam ciljne pomembnosti, a zadovoljen ali ne [8]. Pozitivna čustva torej spodbujajo hkrati neskladnosti, ocene razpoložljivosti notranjih virov za zadovoljitev motiva, negativna pa ga preprečujejo. spoprijemanje s situacijo pa naj bi bile nizke. In obratno, pozitivne situacije naj bi se skladale z ocenami, ki so ciljno pomembne in skladne, zajemale pa naj bi tudi visoko vrednotenje razpoložljivih 2 KOGNITIVNE IN MOTIVACIJSKE notranjih virov oz. spoprijemalnih strategij [9]. RAZSEŽNOSTI ČUSTEV Sledi še proces terciarne ocene, ki ga Lazarus [9] imenuje ponovna ocena. Z njo presojamo pomen sekundarne ocene, pri Pri razlagi kognitivnih vidikov čustev nam je v pomoč ena od čemer se skušamo psihološko spoprijemati s psihičnim in fizičnim vodilnih kognitivnih teorij čustev ameriškega psihologa Richarda stanjem napetosti zaradi nastale situacije. V ponovni oceni Lazarusa [9], ki predpostavlja dvoje: angažiramo vse svoje notranje vire, ki nam pomagajo k blaženju a) čustva nastanejo kot posledica kognitivne ocene dražljaja oz. nastale napetosti ali pa celo omogočiti občutek ugodja in pozitivnih situacije čustev [9]. b) mediator med dražljajem in nastankom čustva je nezavedna avtomatična ocena Lazarus [9] razlikuje med znanjem in oceno. Znanje naj bi bilo 3 HIPOTETIČNI MODEL ČUSTVOVANJA V pogoj za oceno, saj ocena vedno vključuje subjektivno doživljanje VSAKDANJEM ŽIVLJENJU in pomeni osebno mnenje, ki je osnovano na ustreznem znanju. Znanje je torej nujen, a ne zadosten pogoj za nastanek čustva. Na osnovi zapisanega postavljamo hipotetični model čustvovanja v Ocena je lahko nezavedna ali zavestna, a svojo teorijo gradi iz vsakdanjem življenju, ki nam pomaga razumeti, katere psihične pomena zavestne ocene. Ocena je torej kognicija, na osnovi katere komponente in kako so vključene v naše vsakdanje funkcioniranje nastanejo čustva. Vsaka taka ocena je subjektivna in hevristična. in vodijo do bolj ali manj optimalnega delovanja. Za preverbo tega Brez kognicije ni čustva. Smith in Lazarus [10] prepoznavata dva modela postavljamo naslednjo hipotezo: tipa kognitivnih procesov, ki so povezani z nastajanjem čustev H1: Kognitivna skladnost med oceno cilja in oceno situacije a) procesi primarne ocene in ojača ciljno skladna čustva, izpolnjenost temeljnih potreb se zviša, b) procesi sekundarne ocene posledica je rast pozitivih vidikov jaza, kognitivna neskladnost med Procesi primarne ocene so tisti, s pomočjo katerih vrednotimo omenjenima ciljema vodi stran od cilja, negativna čustva se naravo situacije, v katero smo vključeni, pri čemer je ocena ojačajo, izpolnjenost temeljnih potreb se zniža, posledica je stres, situacije vedno anticipirana v oceni cilja. Procesi primarne ocene lahko pa tudi psihopatologija. so trije: - motivacijski pomen cilja Rast pozitivnih vidikov jaza - motivacijska skladnost s ciljem - samovključenost ali motivacija za oceno Motivacijski pomen in motivacijska skladnost sta po Lazarusu [9] primarni oceni, ki sta predstavljata temelj za razvoj visokega Ciljno Kognicija Cilj Avtonomnost psihičnega blagostanja, ki se kaže v tretjem primarnem procesu skladna j Kompetentnost ocene, to je v lastnem angažmaju za dosego cilja. Motivacijski čustva pomen je stopnja pomembnosti situacije za posameznika glede na Povezanost osebne cilje, motivacijska skladnost se nanaša na to, ali je situacija taka, da spodbuja ali zavira doseganje osebnih ciljev. Če je situacija Motivacija konstruirana kot motivacijsko pomembna, bo ocena situacije kot Ciljno motivacijsko skladne ali neskladne determinirala celotno valenco neskladna čustvene izkušnje [9]. čustva Če je primarna ocena podlaga za nastanek valence čustva in torej Neavtonomnost Neskladnost Nepovezanost odloča o tem, ali bosta za nas neka situacija in cilj prijetna ali ne, pa procesi sekundarne ocene sodelujejo pri specifični izraznosti čustva, se pravi, odločajo o tem, katero čustvo bomo doživeli in izrazili. Nanašajo se na procese kontrole nad situacijo in iskanje Stres lastnih virov za spoprijemanje z nastalo situacijo, če jo ocenimo kot pomembno. Gre za štiri sekundarne ocene: samoodgovornost, Slika 1: Kognitivno–motivacijski model čustvovanja v osredotočenost na problem, osredotočenost na čustva in vsakdanjem življenju 24 tako zagotovi preživetje. Kaj pa druga čustva? Za veselje npr. ni Lazarus [9] razlikuje čustva glede na skladnost ali neskladnost s nobenega dvoma: kot pozitivno in s ciljem skladno čustvo nas bo cilji: ciljno skladna čustva nas vodijo k cilju, ciljno neskladna pa usmerjalo k cilju, zato se bomo doživljali kompetentnejše in nas od njega odvračajo, čeprav si ga želimo doseči. Avtorjeva [9] učinkovitejše. Drugače pa je z jezo in gnusom. Jeza in njen perspektiva se v tej točki močno sklada z različnimi teorijami vedenjski korelat agresivnost nista skladna s ciljem, saj nas tako motivacije, še posebej z motivacijsko teorijo postavljanja ciljev doživljanje kot izražanje jeze vodita stran od želenega cilja [9, 12]. [11], ki opozarja na pomen ciljne motivacije pri našem mišljenju in Z jezo in agresivnostjo, ki jo usmerjamo navzven (ali navznoter), vedenju. Robert Franken [12] v knjigi Human motivation tvegamo, da cilja ne bomo dosegli, posledično pa se bomo počutili poglobljeno razlaga hedonizem, srečo, upanje, optimizem nekompetentne in nesposobne spoprijemanja s težavami [9, 12]. Pri pripadnost, navezanost in komunost, ki jih umešča med ciljno gnusu pa je bolj kompleksno. Gnus, ki ga doživljamo ob pogledu skladna čustva, ter strah, anksioznost, pesimizem, depresivnost, na npr. pokvarjeno hrano, nam pomaga, da se te hrane niti ne krivdo in sram, ki sodijo pod ciljno neskladna čustva. S cilji skladna dotaknemo niti je ne pojemo, torej se od cilja odmaknemo, to pa čustva nam pomagajo, da želene cilje dosežemo, naš občutek nam omogoči preživetje, naš občutek kompetentnosti pa se poveča splošne življenjske kompetentnosti se poveča. Če pa so čustva [16]. Če pa se nam npr. gnusi dotik osebe z nenalezljivo kožno neskladna s cilji, teh ciljev kljub želji, da bi jih dosegli, ne boleznijo in se tako cilju (osebi) izognemo, tvegamo izgubo dosežemo in naš občutek kompetentnosti se zniža. morebitnega kakovostnega medosebnega odnosa s to osebo, ki je V modelu predpostavljamo, da čustva omogočajo doseganje ali zaradi kožne bolezni ne pripustimo k sebi, pa čeprav ni nalezljiva odvračanje od cilja, pri čemer je bistvena ocena cilja. Če ocenimo, [16]. Posledično se naš občutek socialne kompetentnosti zniža, da je cilj za nas pomemben, se bo ojačala motivacija za doseganje naše nezadovoljstvo s samim seboj pa zviša. cilja. Pri tem se bodo pojavljala čustva, ki so skladna s tem ciljem, se pravi, ki nas vodijo k njegovemu doseganju. To so npr. veselje, ponos, optimizem ipd. Nastalo situacijo bomo doživljali kot 4 ZAKLJUČEK prijetno. Naše temeljne potrebe, kot so: potreba po avtonomnosti, Predlagani model čustvovanja, ki ga razlagamo z vidika potreba po kompetentnosti in potreba po povezanosti [13, 14] bodo v tem primeru zadovoljene in posledično bomo občutili psihično kognitivno-motivacijskih razsežnosti, je hipotetični prikaz gradbenih prvin in njihovega delovanja. Namen modela ni v zadovoljstvo in pozitivi vidika jaza se bodo krepili. Potreba po vključitvi vseh psiholoških razsežnosti, saj je to nemogoče, temveč avtonomnosti se kaže v težnji po usmerjanju lastnega vedenja s strani lastnih želja, izbir, ciljev in odločitev. Če je potreba po predvsem tistih, ki prispevajo v smeri rasti pozitivih komponent jaza bodisi v smeri doživljanja stresa in pojavljanja morebitnih avtonomnosti zadovoljena, doživljamo naše vedenje in posledice psihopatoloških pojavov. V nadaljevanju bo smiselno model tudi vedenja kot izbire, ki smo jih povzročili sami in nad katerimi drugi empirično preveriti, z namenom ugotoviti psihološke napovednike nimajo vpliva. Nasprotno pa se nezadovoljenost potrebe po optimalnega delovanja v vsakdanjem življenju. avtonomnosti kaže v nesamostojnosti in odvisnosti pri odločanju ter doživljanju zunanje kontrole nad našim mišljenjem, čustvovanjem in vedenjem [13]. Potreba po kompetentnosti se OPOMBA AVTORICE izraža kot težnja po učinkovitem delovanju na najrazličnejših življenjskih področjih, ki ga realiziramo v skladu s svojimi Prispevek je nastal v okviru raziskovalnega programa P5-0110, ki zmožnostmi in sposobnostmi. Ta potreba je zadovoljena, kadar v ga je financirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost svojem okolju uspemo poiskati ustrezne izzive, s pomočjo katerih Republike Slovenije iz državnega proračuna. realiziramo razvoj svojih sposobnosti in učinkovitega funkcioniranja. Če pa izzive ocenjujemo kot preveč enostavne ali preveč zahtevne, se na ravni kompetentnosti ta potreba izkazuje kot LITERATURA nizko zadovoljena ali pa celo nezadovoljena. Potreba po [1] Paul R. Kleinginna in Anne M. Kleinginna, 1981. A categorized list of kompetentnosti se povezuje z občutkoma samoučinkovitosti in emotion definitions with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation samozaupanja, kar posledično vodi do visokega samospoštovanja and Emotion, 5, 345-379. [2] Robert Plutchik, 2000. Emotions in the Practice of Psychotherapy: Clinical in psihičnega blagostanja [13, 14]. Potreba po povezanosti oz. Implications of Affect Theories. American Psychological pripadnosti pa se kaže kot težnja po izražanje naklonjenosti, Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10366-000 [3] Carroll E. Izard, 2010. The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, sprejemanje, zaupanje v druge [13, 14]. functions, activation, and regulation. Emotion Review, 2(4), 363–370. V primeru, ko doživljamo s cilji neskladna čustva, ocenimo, da je [4] Janek Musek, 2005. Psihološke in kognitivne študije osebnosti, (Razprave zastavljeni cilj za nas pomemben, za njegovo dosego smo Filozofske fakultete). Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. motivirani, a nam čustva, kot so npr. strah, tesnoba, žalost ipd. [5] Darja Kobal Grum in Janek Musek, 2009. Perspektive motivacije. Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. preprečujejo, da bi ga dosegli [12]. Tako se od cilja le še bolj [6] Herbert L. Petri in John M. Govern, 2004. Motivation: Theory, Research, and oddaljujemo, nastalo situacijo doživljamo kot ogrožujočo, naša s Applications (5. izdaja). Wadsworth Pub. Co. ciljem neskladna čustva se poglabljajo, zadovoljenost temeljnih [7] Darja Kobal Grum, 2000. Temeljni vidiki samopodobe. Ljubljana: Pedagoški potreb se odmika in posledica je doživljanje stresa, ki lahko prera inštitut. ste [8] Johnmarshall Reeve, 2018. Understanding Motivation and Emotion, (7. v psihopatološke pojave. izdaja). John Wiley & Sons. Pri odnosu med ciljno skladnimi in ciljno neskladnimi čustvi se [9] Richard S. Lazarus, 1991. Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press. izkaže naslednje: univerzalna čustva so po definiciji tista, ki so nam [10] Craig A.Smith in Richard S. Lazarus, 1993. Appraisal Components, Core kot človeški vrsti pomagala k preživetju, pa tudi na individualni Relational Themes, and the Emotions. Cognition and Emotion 7(3-4):233-269 ravni nam večkrat služijo temu istemu cilju, se pravi, preživetju, [11] Richard S. Lazarus, 1995. Vexing research problems inherent in cognitive-obenem pa z njihovim doživljanjem tvegamo, da cilja ne bomo mediational theories of emotions and some solutions. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 183-196. dosegli [15]. Tako čustvo je npr. strah, ki ga Lazarus [9]umešča pod [12] Robert E. Franken, 2007. Human Motivation (6. izdaja). ciljno neskladna čustva, se pravi tista, ki nas vodijo stran od cilja, Thomson/Wadsworth. obenem pa vemo, da je prav strah tisto univerzalno čustvo, ki nam pomaga, da zbežimo oz. se odstranimo iz nevarne situacije in nam 25 [13] Edward L. Deci in Richard M. Ryan, 2000. The »what« and »why« of goal [15] Kenneth T. Strongman, 2003. The Psychology of Emotion: From Everyday pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Life to Theory (5. izdaja.). New York: Wiley. Inquiry, 11, 227-268. [16] Paul Rozin in Jonathan Haidt, 2013. The domains of disgust and their origins: [14] Richard M. Ryan in Edward L. Deci, 2000. Intrinsic and extrinsic Contrasting biological and cultural evolutionary accounts. Trends in motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Cognitive Sciences, 17(8), 367–368. https://doi-org.nukweb.nuk.uni- Educational Psychology, 25, 54 – 67. lj.si/10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.001 26 Motor learning and cortical plasticity: TMS motor mapping using the pseudorandom walk method Eva Koderman Jos van der Geest, Carolin Gaiser Maarten Frens Department of Neuroscience Department of Neuroscience Department of Neuroscience Erasmus University Rotterdam – Erasmus University Rotterdam – Erasmus University Rotterdam – Erasmus MC Rotterdam Erasmus MC Rotterdam Erasmus MC Rotterdam Netherlands Netherlands Netherlands koderman.eva@gmail.com j.vandergeest@erasmusmc.nl m.frens@erasmusmc.nl c.gaiser@erasmusmc.nl ABSTRACT multiple joint movements could help improve design of therapies. Motor recovery after stroke relies on the ability of the primary M1 plays a key role in the control of movement. Movement motor cortex (M1) to functionally reorganize and adapt the research has recently shifted from the traditional view that M1 existing muscle synergies. M1 reorganization can be measured controls limb muscles individually, towards the postulate that by mapping the cortical muscle representations using M1 controls limbs as whole segments [3]. It is suggested that this transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). A recently developed control is done via specific predefined modules, termed muscle mapping technique, the pseudorandom walk method, synergies, that the central nervous system utilizes to accomplish significantly reduces time needed to perform TMS mapping a motor task. By using muscle synergies, instead of controlling without sacrificing the reliability of the measurements. Due to each muscle individually, the central nervous system alleviates this faster technique, it is now possible to map several muscles at the computational burden of the movement execution [4]. once, which was not viable before with the traditional mapping In the proximal-distal muscle synergy, activation of both method. Furthermore, motor mapping of the proximal Medial shoulder and forearm muscles are involved in a common motor Deltoid (MD) and the distal Brachioradialis (BR) muscle using cortical circuit in an integrated manner [5]. Activity-dependent this technique has not yet been performed. Therefore, the aim of couplings of networks are observed after extensive training of this study is to investigate the use of pseudorandom walk method coordinated movements with these muscles [6]. Such changes in to measure the training-induced plasticity of the M1 while taking muscle synergies, when neurons adapt to an unfamiliar task, these two muscles into account. First, we will perform the might reflect similar changes that occur during recovery from baseline TMS motor mapping. Second, the participants will go moderate stroke [7]. One way to measure such change is by TMS. through a six-week training period in a complex motor learning task performed with their non-dominant hand. After this training TMS and the pseudorandom walk method period, we will determine the training-induced plasticity by comparing the baseline and the post-training measurements. A TMS is a valuable tool to study M1 plasticity. This can be done control group will be included to control for the reliability of the by comparing the location, size, and excitability of cortical measurements. Further, we will determine the training-induced muscle representations before and after intervention [8]. The change in the muscle synergies by comparing the overlap in TMS stimulation produces motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in cortical muscle representations. Finally, we will explore the the muscles that can be measured with electromyography (EMG) training effect on the non-trained dominant hemisphere. We (Figure 1B). By observing their latency and amplitude it is hypothesize to observe a training-induced change in the motor possible to determine the cortical area that is connected with the maps and an increase in the overlap between the two muscle muscle of interest (Figure 1C). Plasticity can be determined by representations in the training group. Based on the intermanual an increase in the number of cortical sites where MEPs are transfer we expect to find a training-induced effect on the induced [8]. An increase in the mean MEP amplitude measured dominant hemisphere. at the most responsive cortical site, called the hotspot, can indicate an increase in cortical excitability [10]. KEYWORDS Muscles can be mapped at rest [11] or during low-level activity [12]. Low-level contraction permits the observation of MEPs at Motor learning, plasticity, transcranial magnetic stimulation, a lower rate of stimulation [12], especially for proximal muscles pseudorandom walk, primary motor cortex that are difficult to map at rest [13]. Distal muscle representations tend to be larger than proximal ones, and larger on the dominant 1 INTRODUCTION side, contrary to proximal muscles [9]. Motor learning of a complex upper limb task leads to a common control of the One of the most common impairments after stroke is hemiparesis proximal and distal muscles [8]. This results in an expansion of - weakness of one entire side of the body [1]. Patients' recovery the muscle representations, an increase in their muscle relies on the motor system's capacity for functional representation overlap, and an increase in MEP's size [8,9]. reorganization [2]. A better understanding of the primary motor Similar changes can be observed not only in the trained but also cortical (M1) reorganization and its' influence on the coordinated in the contralateral hemisphere [14], although some studies did 27 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia E. Koderman not observe that [9]. This reorganization of the non-trained hemisphere can be extremely useful for patients with hemiparesis for whom it is difficult to train the impaired side. Therefore, further research is needed in order to better understand how intermanual transfer in complex motor learning occurs. Changes occurring as a result of motor learning can be measured using various TMS methods to map muscles of interest. In the traditional mapping method, multiple TMS stimuli are used at predefined grid points on the scalp at M1 to measure MEP size. Such mapping can take between 15 up to 60 minutes for one muscle [15]. A new pseudorandom walk method was recently developed that takes less than 5 minutes without sacrificing reliability [15,16,17]. In this method, one does not need to repeatedly place the coil in a predefined position when delivering the stimuli (Figure 1A). The starting point for the delivery of the stimuli is at the hotspot, out of which consecutive stimuli are delivered in eight straight lines. The lines are then connected creating an ellipsoid. The rest of the stimuli are randomly applied within this ellipsoid [17]. Overall aim and key objectives The aim of this project is to map the proximal MD muscle and the distal BR muscle using the pseudorandom walk method. Figure 1: An illustration outlining the creation of a TMS map These maps will be used to measure plasticity in M1, induced [15]. after extensive training of a complex motor task. The complex motor task will be a darts-throwing task, in which all joints in an A: The traditional mapping method on the left and the upper limb are involved in a specific coordination pattern and pseudorandom walk method on the right. B: A square grid with each stimulation site is matched with the recorded EMG. MEP’s timing of proximal and distal muscles [7,3]. Changes in white matter can be induced after a minimum of six-week repetitive peak-to-peak value is extracted. C: The surface is fitted through training [4]. Accordingly, participants will train darts at home for the 3D position data cloud to create a 2D plane. The 2D position data are matched with the MEP data to fit the surface map. a period of six weeks using their non-dominant hand. The non- dominant hand has a lower level of baseline performance that can improve significantly more than the dominant hand, suggesting 2 METHODS that the plasticity might be greater [18]. We will compare cortical muscle representations and their overlap before and after Participants training. The key objective is to map the MD and the BR muscle We will measure two homogeneously matched groups of healthy representations using the pseudorandom walk method. participants based on their gender and age. We will include male Supporting objectives are to determine the training-induced and female participants aged between 18 and 45 years old. The plasticity of the M1, the training-induced changes in muscle sample size will be 30 participants per group (Cohen’s d = synergies, and the training-induced effect in the dominant 0.7419, power= 90%; = 0.05, according to area sample size hemisphere. We hypothesize that there will be a significant calculations [17]). All participants will be right-handed as increase in the experimental group in the motor map area, measured by the Edinburgh inventory [20]. Participants will not volume, a change in the centre of gravity of the muscle be recruited if they report having any metal implants in the representations, and a change in the mean MEP amplitude after surrounding area of the head or any history of epilepsy. training. We further hypothesize to observe an adaptation of the existing muscle synergies in the experimental group as shown by Experimental protocol the increase in the overlap between muscle representations. We expect to observe changes not only in the non-dominant Both groups will be measured twice with a six-week period in hemisphere but also in the dominant hemisphere. between. Control group will not perform any training in throwing Because of a significant reduction in time needed to perform darts. The measurements at each session will include TMS motor the measurements, motor mapping can now be used not only in mapping and mean MEP acquisition of MD and BR on both research but also in clinical practices. Additionally, hemispheres, as well as a measurement of darts performance understanding how the M1 reorganization after training occurs (Table 1). could help design better treatments for stroke patients. 28 Motor learning and cortical plasticity: TMS motor mapping Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia using the pseudorandom walk method Table 1: A scheme of the experimental protocol be instructed to throw 15 darts and to aim for the center. The dartboard will have 10 concentric circles worth 10 points for the Session 1 Training Session 2 center and 1 point for the outer-most layer. period The participants in the experimental group will do training sessions at home. The place of the training was determined based Experimental TMS Darts training TMS on COVID-19 measures. This way the participants are not taking group motor (6 weeks, motor higher risks for infection by participating in this study (e.g. mapping 15 – 20 mins, mapping increased use of public transport). They will receive three darts, 60 – 80 as well as several papers with the same dartboard design as used throws) in the test. The holes in the papers will be considered as proof of training. Each training session will last 15 – 20 minutes and MEP MEP consist of 60 – 80 throws. They will be asked to perform the acquisition acquisition training consistently over the whole period and to keep a diary of their performance. Control group Darts test No training Darts test Outcome measures For the key objective, four parameters from the TMS motor maps of each muscle will be calculated - the area, volume, and center of gravity (cog) in two dimensions. Additionally, the mean MEP TMS measurements amplitude at each muscle hotspot will be calculated. The effects of the training-induced plasticity of M1 will be The muscle motor maps will be determined by monophasic TMS determined using the outcomes from the key objective. The pulses with a posterior-anterior current direction with the coil repeated measures ANOVAs will be fitted to each variable handle pointing 45° from the midsagittal line. The EMG separately to evaluate group (between factor: experimental vs electrodes will be placed on the MD and BR muscles in a belly-control) and session (within factor: baseline and post-training). tendon montage. Participants will be seated with their hands Additionally, a comparison of the baseline and post-training relaxed on the table. First, the head of the participant will be co- darts test scores will be done on both groups to determine the registered to a stock MRI scan. Second, the hotspot, the location effect of training. with the largest MEPs, will be estimated using the pseudorandom Training-induced change in muscle synergies will be acquisition with 80 pulses and 2s interval [15]. The stimulation measured by first superimposing the cortical motor maps of the intensity will be set to 50% of the maximum stimulator output two muscles and measuring their overlap. Then, the change in (MSO) and increased with 5% MSO if there will be no the overlap will be determined using the repeated measures measurable MEPs after 15 pulses. Furthermore, the resting motor ANOVA to investigate the interaction between groups (control, threshold (RMT), which is the lowest stimulator intensity with a experimental) and sessions (baseline, post-training). 50% probability to produce the MEP at the hotspot, will be The contrast between the map areas of the dominant versus determined. EMG responses with a peak-to-peak amplitude non-dominant hand will be compared between baseline and post- 0.05mV, between 5 and 45ms after stimulation, will be training using a paired t-test to determine if there is an overall considered MEPs. Finally, the motor maps will be acquired with effect on both hemispheres. a stimulation intensity of 110% RMT [17]. The pseudorandom walk method will be performed as described previously [17]. This measurement will be done on both hemispheres for both 3 CONCLUSION muscles in each session and will take approximately 30 minutes This research project exploits the novel TMS mapping procedure per hemisphere. Additionally, after motor mapping, 40 TMS to further validate it on upper-limb muscles that haven’t been pulses will be applied at the hotspot to obtain mean MEP mapped yet using the pseudorandom walk method. Furthermore, amplitudes, which will take approximately 5 minutes per using this technique, the project also explores the effect of hemisphere [10]. extensive motor learning on the M1 plasticity. The motor We will first pilot the motor mapping of the MD and BR learning is approached holistically by analyzing motor maps, cortical representations under resting conditions before the MEPs, motor performance, interhemispheric transfer, and the experiment is carried out. We will switch to measurements proximal-distal muscle synergy. The latter also adds to the performed under low-level active conditions if the motor developing paradigm of muscle synergies and explores ways in mapping under resting conditions yields unreliable results [13]. which the upper limb is controlled as a whole. Results from the project will contribute to our understanding of the proximal-Test and training protocol distal synergy and its’ involvement in reaching movements. The participants in both groups will do a test of dart-throwing Moreover, the results will contribute to a better design of skills at both sessions. The participants will stand with the left rehabilitation therapy for patients with M1 impairment. Using foot on a black line on the floor set at 2.4m from the dartboard. the pseudorandom walk method, the therapy could become more The center of the target will be 1.73m above the floor. They will efficient and quicker. 29 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia E. Koderman 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research project is part of the research master’s program in neuroscience at Erasmus MC and is being done in the laboratory of sensorimotor systems physiology - Erasmus MC. 5 REFERENCES [1] Wolfe, C., 2000. The impact of stroke. British Medical Bulletin, 56(2), pp.275-286. [2] Veerbeek, J., Kwakkel, G., van Wegen, E., Ket, J. and Heymans, M., 2011. Early Prediction of Outcome of Activities of Daily Living After Stroke. 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Neuropsychologia 1971;9:97–113. 30 Chronotopic Maps in Temporal Processing and Perception Shrikanth Kulashekhar Cognitive Neuroscience International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) Trieste, Italy shrikanth.kulashekhar@sissa.it ABSTRACT preferentially for task durations (Fig. 1). Two Japanese monkeys were trained to perform an interval-generation task that Neurons maximally tuned to specific durations in the hundreds required them to determine a hold time of three different of milliseconds to seconds are widely observed in studies using intervals of 2s, 4s and 8s, before initiating a key release monkeys. These tuned neurons are observed in areas that are movement LED lights indicated the specific waiting times previously known to be involved in timing research—pre- before key release: yellow light indicated 2s; red light indicated supplementary motor area and basal ganglia. However, the role 4s; and blue light indicated. duration tuned neurons, in these brain areas, play in temporal processing remains unclear. In this review, I present and discuss evidence from recent neuroimaging studies that show the presence of a topographical organisation of duration tuned neuronal populations in the human brain. The studies, using ultra-high field fMRI, have found that the duration tuned clusters at the voxel level in the occipital, parietal and frontal areas, including the supplementary motor area (SMA), are topographically organized as duration maps—chronomaps. Duration tuning and chronomaps could thus serve as a functional mechanism for the encoding and representation of abstract stimulus features such as time. that the monkey had to wait at least 8s. KEYWORDS Adapted from Mita et al., Time perception, temporal processing, duration tuning, fmri, 2009 Figure 1: Raster displays and spike-density functions chronomaps, supplementary motor area illustrating selective neuronal activation during the 8-s task (a), 4-s task (b) and 2-s task (c). Mita et al. [6]. 1 DURATION TUNING While duration tuning in timing brain areas associated with Interval timing refers to the behavior of perceiving, estimating, interval timing is well observed, the neuronal mechanisms and representing durations in the hundreds of milliseconds to linking the areas to the perception, estimation and minutes range crucial for human behavior, in decision making, representation of durations remain unknown [1,2,3]. One speech processing, motor activity and music perception [1]. possible link between duration tuning to temporal processing Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) could be that duration tuned neurons in the SMA, tuned to have found brain activity in certain key brain regions to be different durations, are topographically organised as functional correlated with interval timing behavior. These areas include maps. Such functional maps could then provide a mechanism supplementary motor area (SMA), intra parietal sulcus, basal for the perception, estimation, and representation of durations. ganglia, and cerebellum [1,2,4,5]. Electrophysiological studies Could such a topographic organisation of duration tuned on monkeys have found neurons from these timing brain areas neurons exist in the human brain? If so, could such a to exhibit duration tuning [6,7]. When neurons are tuned, they topographic organisation be studied non-invasively in humans? preferentially fire for specific task durations. Mita et al. [6] found that neurons in the monkey pre-SMA (human SMA) fire 2 REPRESENTATION OF ABSTRACT STIMULUS FEATURES THROUGH MAPS Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or Representation of stimulus features through topographically classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and organised sensory maps is well known, such as, the tonotopic the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this maps in the auditory cortex or the retinotopic maps of the work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). occipital cortices. Could a similar topographical organisation of Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). abstract stimulus features such as time and numerosity exist? 31 Further, could such a topographical organisation be studied was observed even in a control condition when subjects were non-invasively in humans? instructed to focus only on the spatial aspect of the stimuli and Harvey et al. [10] using ultra high-field fMRI (at 7 Teslas) ignore their temporal properties. showed the existence of topographically organized numerosity Protopapa et al. [8] connected the previously reported maps in the human parietal cortex (Fig. 2). Numerosity refers to neuronal duration tuning in monkeys’ medial premotor cortex the size of a group of objects. Participants in the study were [6,7] to a representational format in humans. Although previous presented with visual stimuli of varying numerosity. The duration tuning seen in monkeys were exclusively associated results showed that parts of the cortical surface corresponded with motor-timing behaviour, Protopapa et al. [8] showed the to specific numerosity, in a topographical manner increasing presence in human premotor cortex of a duration tuning from the medial to lateral ends. The results provided evidence mechanisms in a purely temporal perceptual task. that higher-order abstract features and their topographical A recent study, Harvey et al. [11] has added to the evidence organizational principles could be studied non-invasively in on chronomaps, and the topographic organization of stimulus humans. frequency. In the study, high field fMRI (7 Teslas) data from volunteers were acquired while they were presented with a rapid succession of visual stimuli varying in duration, frequency, or both. The resulting data were analyzed using a population receptive field approach [9]. Topographic organization of voxels that were maximally responsive to stimulus duration and frequency was observed in ten different Slika cortical regions, from occipital to parietal to frontal lobe. The duration and frequency maps were observed in both the hemispheres. Another intriguing finding of the study was that the orientation of the maps was found to be variable unlike, the fixed, anterior-posterior orientation from Protopapa et al. [8]. Thus, Harvey et al. [11] added to the evidence of existence of topographic maps linked to abstract stimulus features of Adapted from Harvey et al., 2013 numerosity, time and frequency. Figure 2: High-field fMRI data was acquired while subjects were shown visual stimuli of varying numerosity. Numerosity maps showing preferred numerosity increasing from the medial to lateral ends (white lines) of the region of interest (ROI) (black and white lines). Harvey et al. [10]. 3 REPRESENTATION OF DURATIONS THROUGH CHRONOTOPIC MAPS Like the topographical organization of numerosity, could task durations have a similar map-like organization? Protopapa et al. [8] provide the first evidence for a topographical representation of durations in the human supplementary area. Protopapa et al. [8] used data from ultra-high field fMRI (at 7 Teslas) and showed the results to be independent of task design and analysis approaches. In Experiment 1 of the study, volunteers participated in a visual, temporal discrimination task, where Adapted from Protopapa et al., 2019 subjects had to compare and respond if the second stimulus lasted shorter or longer then the first. The resulting data were Figure 3: Chronotopic maps showing the topographic analyzed using a general liner model (GLM) approach. While in organization of duration-sensitive vertices in bilateral SMA Experiment 2 of the study, participants performed a visual, with the progression in the rostro–caudal direction, with temporal, and spatial discrimination tasks. In the temporal task, vertices sensitive to the shorter duration (vertices in warmer subjects had to compare and respond which of the two colors) located in the anterior and those sensitive to the presented stimuli lasted longer. While in the spatial task, they longer duration (vertices in colder colours) in the posterior judged which of the two stimuli underwent the largest change SMA. A, anterior; L, left; P, posterior; PCG, precentral gyrus; in orientation. The data were analyzed with neural population R, right; SMA, Supplementary Motor Area. Protopapa et al. [8]. receptive field approach [9]. Chronotopic maps, topographic organization of durations in the range of 0.2 to 3s, was observed in the SMA both in the left and right hemispheres (Fig. 3). The 4 PROPERTIES OF CHRONOTOPIC MAPS progression of the maps was seen in a fixed, rostro–caudal direction, with vertices sensitive to the shorter duration located Protopapa et al. [8] and Harvey et al. [11] were successfully in the anterior and those sensitive to the longer duration in the able to show the existence of chronotopic maps. The two studies posterior SMA. Chronomaps were also found in a task helped characterise the interesting properties of chronomaps: independent manner: topographic organization of durations chronomaps exist in both cerebral hemispheres; chronomaps 32 exhibited variable orientations in their topographical REFERENCES organisation; chronomaps exist in multiple brain areas; [1] Buhusi CV, Meck WH 2005. What makes us tick? chronomaps organise in a task-independent manner; and Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. finally, chronomaps are linked to temporal perception and Nat Rev Neurosci 6:755–765. performance. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1764 The results from Protopapa et al. [8] and Harvey et al. [11] [2] Muller T, Nobre AC 2014. Perceiving the passage of further raise some interesting questions on other characteristics time: Neural possibilities. Ann NY Acad Sci 1326:60–71 of chronomaps. Are the chronotopic maps organized in an DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12545 absolute or relative manner (Fig. 4)? If duration clusters from [3] Paton, J.J., and Buonomano, D.V. 2018. The neural basis an existing chronomap changes its spatial position based on a of timing: distributed mechanisms for diverse functions. new duration range, then the durations are encoded in a relative Neuron 98: 687–705. manner. Next, are chronomaps amodal? If the maps are amodal, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2018.03.045 then the maps in Fig.3 resulting from tasks in visual domain, [4] Coull, J.T., Vidal, F., Nazarian, B., and Macar, F. 2004. would not change if the durations were presented in an Functional anatomy of the attentional modulation of auditory domain. Next, are chronomaps experience based or time estimation. Science 303:1506–1508. present from birth? Lastly, Harvey et al. [10] showed the DOI: 10.1126/science.1091573 topographic organization in multiple areas, how do these [5] Wiener, M., Turkeltaub, P., and Coslett, H.B. 2010. The representations vary and contribute to the encoding and image of time: a voxel-wise meta-analysis. Neuroimage perception of durations? 49:1728–1740. DOI: ttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.064 [6] Mita A, Mushiake H, Shima K, Matsuzaka Y, Tanji J. 2009. Interval time coding by neurons in the presupplementary and supplementary motor areas. Nat Neurosci. 12: 502–507. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2272 [7] Merchant H, Perez O, Zarco W, Gamez J. 2013. Interval tuning in the primate medial premotor cortex as a general timing mechanism. J Neurosci. 2013/05/24. 33: 9082–9096. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1523/ [8] Protopapa, F., Hayashi, M.J., Kulashekhar, S., Zwaag, W. Figure 4: Are chronotopic maps encoding duration in an van der, Battistella, G., Murray, M.M., Kanai, R., and absolute or relative manner? The left panel shows the Bueti, D. 2019. Chronotopic maps in human chrontopic map from Experiment 1 of Protopapa et al. [8]. supplementary motor area. PLOS Biol 17: e3000026. How are the clusters encoded for 1s duration (in green)? If the DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000026 range of durations that 1s is presented in changes (right [9] Dumoulin, S.O., and Wandell, B.A. 2007. Population panel), does the spatial position of the green clusters remain receptive field estimates in human visual cortex. the same or change in the new chronotopic map? If the green Neuroimage Jan 15 39 (2),647–660. clusters retain their spatial position, then the durations are DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.034 organised in an absolute manner. If they change their spatial [10] Harvey, B.M., Klein B.P., Petridou N., and Dumoulin, S.O. position based on the duration range the durations are 2013. Topographic Representation of Numerosity in the encoded in a relative manner. Human Parietal Cortex. Science 341, 6150: 1123-1126 DOI: 10.1126/science.1239052 In summary, there is growing evidence that chronomaps [11] Harvey, B.M., Dumoulin, S.O., Fracasso, A., and Paul, J.M. could provide a possible mechanism for the encoding and 2020. A network of topographic maps in human representation of durations associated with temporal association cortex hierarchically transforms visual processing and perception. Despite the difficulty to link the timing selective responses. Curr. Biol. 30, 1424–1434. voxel level chronomaps in humans to the duration tuned DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.01.090 neurons in monkeys, these new findings are influencing and contributing to the field of temporal cognition. 33 Being in Brackets: A First-Person Exploration of the Phenomenological Method of Epoché Viktorija Lipič Faculty of Arts; Center for Cognitive Science at the Faculty of Education University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia viktorija.lipic@gmail.com ABSTRACT exists as it is perceived even if there is no one to direct attention to it or perceive it [3]. This article is an excerpt from the ongoing research exploring the The basic method of the phenomenological approach is to experience of carrying out the phenomenological method of direct one's attention from what the experience is assumed to be epoché from the first-person perspective. First, we outline the about to the observation of the experience itself, as it is given in state of the field and then dive into the first-person exploration, consciousness. In order to avoid succumbing to our everyday describing the method used in gathering our experiential data. embeddedness in the natural attitude, we must bracket our After that, we focus on presenting a data-derived first-person presuppositions, values, judgments and opinions about the world. model that describes the experience of epoché as a diachronic To do this, we employ a particular gesture of awareness – the process, comprised of five phases: 1) The pre-epoché phase and epoché. Husserl [1] asserts that the epoché enables a return to the experience of the natural attitude shifting; 2) Entering the “the things themselves”, to the world as we directly experience experiential phase of the epoché; 3) The experiential phase of the it. In performing the epoché, we put in brackets, or “turn off” the epoché; 4) Exiting the experiential phase of the epoché; and 5) whole world as we normally experience it. The task is to re-The post-epoché phase and how the natural attitude is awaken us to recognize the meaning we bestow upon our experienced after the epoché. experiences. As Maurice Merleau-Ponty [4, p. xv] puts it, performing the epoché does not mean to withdraw from the KEYWORDS world or the phenomena, but to “slacken the intentional threads Phenomenology, first-person research, epoché, natural attitude which attach us to the world and thus bring them to our notice”. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 State of the art in contemporary first-person To better understand our enterprise, we must first familiarize research ourselves with the concept of the “natural attitude”. In Ideas I, The definition of the method of epoché as well as the question of Edmund Husserl [1] introduces the natural attitude as our its importance in phenomenology and the possibilities of everyday assumption that the world exists independently of our implementation outside philosophical fields have been the source conscious awareness. In this attitude we take the world as always of many debates (e.g. [5,6]). Moreover, contemporary already present, prior to any reflection. Expanding on this discussions [5,7] point to a lacking definition of the concept. In conceptualization, in Eugen Fink’s “Sixth Cartesian Meditation” addition to problems of interpretation, there is also the question [2, p. 166], Husserl goes on to say: “In the natural attitude, in of how the realization of such a state takes place from the first- which for ourselves and for others we are called and are humans, person perspective (i.e. what is it like for me, the experiencing to everything worldly there belongs the being-acceptedness: subject, to perform the epoché). Similarities between the concept existent in the world, in the world that is always existent of the epoché and various Eastern practices have also been beforehand as constant acceptedness of a basis. So, also man’s illuminated in recent decades, such as the yoga practice of being is being in the world that is existent beforehand. In prāṇāyāma (breath control) [8] and Samatha-Vipassanā phenomenology, this being-beforehand is itself a problem.” meditation [9]. This everyday forgetfulness thus permeates our everyday life. Due to the uncertainty that permeates the field and the various We operate on the basis of natural naivety, assuming that reality interpretations about what epoché is and how to carry it out, we exists ‘out there’ and is waiting to be discovered and explored. have decided to investigate the experiential process from a first- This reality is supposed to be independent of our experience and person perspective in the hopes of providing more clarity and Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or being able to better distinguish what it is we are talking about classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed when we talk about the practice of epoché. for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full In this article we broadly focus on the following questions: citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). what is it like to come into contact with the experience of epoché Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia and what are the characteristics of carrying it out from a first- © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). person perspective. We present the diachronic process involved in performing the method of epoché, focusing on a) how an 34 individual moves away from and back towards being immersed 3 RESULTS in the natural attitude; b) how an individual relates to her own The findings presented below are a tentative illustration of our experience and c) what changes in the process. research. Since the study is still ongoing, we have not yet carried out a systematic analysis of acquired descriptions and present 2 METHOD here merely an excerpt of data collected so far. Preliminary analysis of the transcribed texts focused on both The findings presented in this article are part of a broader study synchronic and diachronic dimension of the experiential in which we are exploring epoché with the micro- episodes and attempted to create an overview of which phenomenological interview method [10]. The aim of the micro- experiential moments were prevalent in all eight investigated phenomenological interview is to help co-researchers become journal entries and which were distinct. This has led us to aware of a past experience and access detailed descriptions of propose the basic shape of a data derived first-person model, that same concrete experience, enabling the coming into contact which frames epoché diachronically as a five-phase process. with previously unattainable dimensions of lived experience and Of particular note here is that these are preliminary findings cultivate an individual's reflection and retrospective reporting of meant to illustrate the experiential process of the co-researcher’s experiential data. individual experience and should be refined in future research with reports provided by other co-researchers to yield a more The co-researcher fruitful reflection of patterns and categories of carrying out Our co-researcher, a female aged twenty-seven, is trained in the epoché from a first-person perspective. micro-phenomenological method, has considerable phenomenological and first-person knowledge with more than 500 hours spent observing experience and participating in first- 3.1 Pre-epoché phase and the experience of the person and micro-phenomenological research (as interviewee natural attitude shifting and interviewer). She also has six years of meditative practice. This phase is characterized by a gentle awareness of the co-Selection of the explored experiences researcher’s surroundings (sensing them, but not engaging with What constituted the moment of epoché was partly decided prior them, letting them pass by). The experience of the natural attitude to gathering the data, based on prior theoretical knowledge of the shifting was in all interviews accompanied by a relaxed and components of epoché provided by Depraz et al. [11]. This view stable state of body and mind. In one particular interview it was was then modified during the study to incorporate the co- described as follows: researcher’s own individual perspective. The criterion for what constitutes the moment of epoché from the co-researcher’s “And as I stand there, I also hear people, this soft shuffling perspective was as follows: noticing a profound shift in the of the people around me, silent, soft movements of feet quality of one’s experience of the world and relating towards the shifting on the ground and shuffling on the ground. And world, characterized by a lack of judgment directed towards the there is this feeling in my body of stable ground. […] And world. I feel my body as a whole, just this being in the standing position. And a general calmness that comes with this Interviews and procedure feeling.” Altogether we have gathered nineteen journal entries describing experiences during meditative practice – either a Vipassanā meditation (with eyes closed), or a walking mindfulness 3.2 Entering the experiential phase of the meditation (with eyes open). After each meditation session, the epoché concrete moment of what was experienced was written in the The co-researcher has reported on experiencing an element of journal and later explored during the micro-phenomenological transition between the pre-epoché phase and the experiential interviews in more detail. The interviews were carried out with phase of the epoché, which could be faster or slower. In the investigators trained in the micro-phenomenological method. majority of the investigated experiences (6 out of 8), entering the Eight interviews were conducted on eight selected journal epoché started by spontaneously “slipping into” the experience, entries, which were judged by the co-researcher to be the most whereby the experience of epoché seemed to arise by itself. vivid experiences of epoché. Two of the interviews were Conversely, in the other two experiential episodes, there was a performed in Slovene, while the other six were conducted in slow transition which took place either by remembering what it English. The duration of the interviews ranged from 60 to 90 was like before and trying to follow that felt atmosphere, or by minutes. The interviews were audio recorded on a personal smart softly settling in the body (or a body part) and allowing the phone or a Zoom H4n audio recorder. sensation to come, gently holding it in awareness. The co- All of the investigated experienced have occurred within the researcher has reported on there being a feeling of tension in the past year. Five interviews were carried out within 24 hours of the body, which she was able to recognize and intentionally relax, experienced moment, two took place a few days after the for example: experience and one experiential episode was investigated a few months after the experience took place. “I relax the shoulders, I let them [the arms] slump next The interviews were transcribed in full. Relevant parts of the to my body. Then there is this very soft, slow interviews conducted in Slovene were translated into English for movement, with no pressure in it. As this relaxation of the purposes of this article. the upper part of the body and a move towards the 35 lower part takes place, I relax into this feeling. It is “I feel as if I am looking at a ‘picture’ in front of me, bodily, as I shift a bit with my shoulders, but also it is there is this lack of spatial depth in what I am seeing. attentional – not focusing directly, just letting things go And at the same time there is a feeling of seeing and flow down here [in the belly area].” through this ‘picture’, this sensation. It feels as though my visual field is a veil and has its own dimension of This settling into the (part of the) body was then followed by a depth and of spatiality being present in the natural, feeling of space being more open, as though: everyday world. But what I am sensing is that which is ‘beyond it’, ‘through it’ […] It is like another feeling “My body can relax into this openness. Like, my body of space around me that is at the same time dense, as a shape can flow into this [space], a boundary where filled, thick, light, flowing, all-encompassing. I feel my skin is can flow into this open, flowing, this spatiality as an atmosphere, it is primarily felt as shimmering, static feeling [felt as the boundary, a air around me. And it goes on, it is felt as though the space a few centimeters around her body and slowly visual field [the veil] has a certain stopping point – it entering the space further “away” from the body]. stops the perception on a certain point. But this denser There is this feeling of being just open and relaxed, spatiality is felt as limitless, it goes on, it feels as there is an openness at the sides.” limitless potentiality all around me.” The feeling described here as a shimmer, or a static-like feeling The phase of the epoché was in all instances also characterized in quality, was in the majority of cases (5 out of 8) experienced by a feeling of a primordial space. This space was experienced as a sensation of spreading that lent itself towards lessening the as having the quality of density, thickness and sometimes warm sense of bodily boundaries. air that is: “Not visible, it is a felt air, felt as oneness around me 3.3 The experiential phase of the epoché [the felt location], to the sides, everywhere around me.” We have found that the experiential phase of the epoché has a variety of dimensions often appearing together. Here we describe In three experiential episodes during meditation, in addition to a few that have occurred throughout our investigation. what was described above, a feeling of space as a “background The phase of the epoché was in all investigated experiences of holding” was identified. This background was felt by the co- characterized by a serenity and letting-be. The co-researcher was researcher as being held by space, which had a profound quality not actively searching for information or any type of stimulus in of darkness and thickness. the world, rather the atmosphere was experienced as a calmness The phase of epoché was in all investigated experiences also in being, an allowing of appearances. In six interviews a accompanied by the loosening of the sense of bodily boundaries profound aspect of epoché was a felt sense of stability. It was and dissolving the separation between what is inner and what is described as a feeling of “sitting in myself” in the interview outer, described in the interview situation as follows: situations, yet it is important to note that this experience had very little to do with the experience of bodily sensations. Rather, it “There was no more separation, there was nothing out related more to the feeling of the body as a whole, to the gestalt [there], there was just this blackness and this familiarity of the body. that was felt as and felt in this warm quality of blackness. Another aspect that permeated all of the investigated And just the location that is this space where I feel my experiences was no directedness of the co-researcher’s attention awareness to be and that is all.” towards the world or “towards the front of oneself”. In an interview it was described as: 3.4 Exiting the experiential phase of the epoché Exiting the experience of epoché has occurred spontaneously and “Being directed towards the back and also being aware unintentionally in the majority of the investigated experiences (6 of the spinal cord, of the position of the spine.” out of 8). The co-researcher has reported that the feeling of the world slowly began drifting back in as attention started to The active engagement of the co-researcher was felt only in the become more focused on the external world and she felt herself act of sustaining awareness on the whole bodily gestalt. This act getting more directed towards it. was in one of the interviews perceived as: In a few examples (4 out of 8 investigated experiential episodes), there was a profound feeling of no separation between “It is effortless and feels like just being there with the the co-researcher and the world during the experiential phase of awareness.” the epoché, which was later contrasted by a feeling of separation on returning to a more “natural”, habitual mode of being in the This type of awareness brought about a change in the co- world. There were also a few (2 out of 8) instances of researcher’s visual field, if the eyes were open (this has occurred intentionally exiting, or rather of a feeling of “having to return”, in 4 out of 8 investigated experiences). The world was perceived which was experienced as a desire, an anxiety or a nudge urging without its usual depth and was in the interview situation the co-researcher to return to the natural mode of being. described as follows: In all of the investigated experiences, a big part of exiting the epoché was for the co-researcher a felt sense of coming back to 36 her own body from the (above mentioned) primordial space. It mystical traditions. It would also be interesting to design studies was described as coming closer to a point where she feels herself which bracket all such traditional presuppositions. to be situated in space and the space around that area becoming thicker and more condensed. This condensed and thicker feeling started in a part of the body (the area of the torso; 5 out of 8 REFERENCES explored experiential episodes) or was felt as the whole gestalt [1] Husserl, E. 2012. Ideas: General introduction to pure of the body becoming denser and heavier (3 out of 8 experiential phenomenology. Routledge. episodes). [2] Fink, E. 1995. Sixth Cartesian meditation: The idea of a transcendental theory of method. Indiana University Press. Heaviness and denseness also appeared to allow a sharper [3] Luft, S. 2011. Husserl’s method of reduction. In The Routledge focus on the body in all of the investigated experiences of companion to phenomenology. New York, NY: Routledge. epoché, which began to separate the body of the co-researcher [4] Merleau-Ponty, M. 2012. Phenomenology of perception. from the rest of the world. As she started to become more actively Routledge. directed towards the world, stronger feelings of differentiation [5] Zahavi, D. 2019. Applied phenomenology: why it is safe to ignore the epoché. Continental Philosophy Review, 1-15. between form and background in the visual field become more [6] Morley, J. 2010. It’s always about the epoché. Les Collectifs du noticeable to her. For example, she reported her environment Cirp, 1, 223-232. began to hold more graspable and holdable possibilities, which [7] Kordes, U., Oblak, A., Smrdu, M. & Demsar, E. 2019. came to the fore as the feeling of her body also shifted towards Ethnography of Meditation: An Account of Pursuing Meditative Practice as a Tool for Researching Consciousness. Journal of the background: Consciousness Studies, 26(7-8), 184-237. [8] Morley, J. 2001. Inspiration and expiration: Yoga practice “I am able to “pick out” a particular tree from a myriad of through Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body. different trees, able to direct myself towards it and focus Philosophy east and west, 73-82. [9] Depraz, N. 2019. Epoché in Light of Samatha-Vipassana on it – making it stand out from the background as an Meditation: Chögyam Trungpa's Buddhist Teaching Facing entity.” Husserl's Phenomenology. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 26(7-8), 49-69. [10] Petitmengin, C. 2006. Describing one’s subjective experience in the second person: An interview method for the science of 3.5 Post-epoché phase and how the natural consciousness. Phenomenology and the Cognitive sciences, 5(3-attitude is experienced after the epoché 4), 229-269. Coming back from a profound phase of epoché has in all [11] Depraz, N., Varela, F.J. & Vermersch, P. 2003. On Becoming Aware: A Pragmatics of Experiencing, Amsterdam: John experiences left a mark on the co-researcher’s way of interacting Benjamins. with the world and her way of being in the world. In all of the investigated experiences she reported on there being an immediate feeling of an increase in calmness, gentleness, contentment and a slowness of being after every experience of epoché. But also, a much more lingering feeling resounded through her being, namely the feelings of presence and the openness of space. She reported on experiencing a profound awareness of how her awareness shapes the surrounding world and how she is, in the end, inseparable from her surroundings. 4 CONCLUSION In the article we have set out to enrich the traditional conceptualizations of epoché with in-depth descriptions of the first-person experiences of epoché elicited by micro-phenomenological interviews. In analyzing the experiential reports of performing epoché, we have made three notable observations. The first observation is a profound shift in the quality of experience, how one turns towards, notices and attunes herself to the world. The second and third observation are closely linked to the first one: the second one being a felt profound shift in how one experiences one's own existence, one's being in the world; and the third one being a profound shift in how the appearance of the world and its enclosedness appears to “the observer”. Our preliminary analysis gave us a foundation for which experiential dimensions could be considered and additionally developed in future studies with more co- researchers. In addition, it would be fruitful to consider such endeavors more thoroughly in the frame of contemplative and 37 A new study of expected human longevity Anže Marinko Klara Golob Ema Jemec anze.marinko96@gmail.com klara.golob19@gmail.com ema.jemec97@gmail.com Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute Jamova cesta 39 Jamova cesta 39 Jamova cesta 39 Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia Urša Klun Matjaž Gams ursaklun10@gmail.com matjaz.gams@ijs.si Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute Jamova cesta 39 Jamova cesta 39 Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia ABSTRACT third model includes inhabiting neighbouring planets. The fourth model represents the "rare Earth" hypothesis [15]. For each model In this paper we for the fifth consecutive year estimate the we represent all possible predictions from the pessimistic (there longevity of human civilization based on the absence of observ- are no other civilizations besides us) ones to the optimistic (there able extraterrestrial civilizations. In addition to our previous are a few thousands civilizations) predictions with different prob- studies, in this paper we add three more models and test all possi- ability distributions to more accurately estimate longevity of ble values of parameters and distributions. If there are not many human civilization. In summary, we test 4 different models under advanced civilizations in our galaxy, as newest studies indicate, all circumstances (parameters, distributions). our longevity can again be estimated at up to 10 000 years. The consistency of studies may or even should shift focus of our civilization. KEYWORDS Human extinction, Drake equation, Civilization collapse, Rare 2 RELATED WORK Earth hypothesis There are various estimations of possible number of civilizations; some propose between 600 and 40 000 technological civilizations 1 INTRODUCTION in our galaxy [13]. The differences often stem from the number of After more than 50 years of searching for extraterrestrial civiliza-Earth-like planets in the habitable zone around stars. One of the tions there is only one thing we know for sure: we have not found newest studies found that there should be around 36 civilizations any yet. After scanning more than 10 millions stars [14] we have in our galaxy if estimated time for a planet to form an intelligent not found any extraterrestrial life and that could indicate that life (life that could communicate with others in our own Galaxy) the longevity of such civilizations might not be so long. While is between 4.5 to 5.5 billion years (like Earth), assuming that an we know that we will die someday, we do not act like this. On average longevity of civilizations is 100 years [16]. Using three the similar note we as civilization will also extinct someday in different principles, the paper by Engler and von Wehrden [3] the future and that future might not be so far. Do we realise that represented that number of civilizations that have likely arisen in we could be on the verge of the extinction? For that reasons the our galaxy to date is between 7 and 300. However, it is estimated question about the longevity of human civilization is directly that with our tehnology the likelihood of detecting intelligent linked to the cognitive science. life could be two orders of magnitude smaller in comparison to In our previous papers [9, 17] we approached the question the detection of primitive life [8] (by primitive life are defined "Where is everyone?" and presented the Drake equation that mostly microbes and multicellular life and intelligent life is tech-could potentially solve the issue. In the first paper [9] we pre-nologically advanced intelligence - species that are capable of sented and analysed Sandberg [10] interpretation of the Drake producing detectable signatures of their technology). Another equation [2]. In the last paper [17] we presented possible causes issue is the detection of their radio signals [7]. In detail, if there for human extinction and used the Drake equation to estimate are 5 civilizations, the chance of us detecting them is 0.012%, but longevity of human civilization. We concluded that our technical if the number is 300, the probability is 95%. A great number of un- civilization will most likely survive just another 10 000 to 20 000 detected civilizations in therefore unlikely. However, if longevity years. of civilizations is less than 100 000 years, the signals arriving In this paper we analyze three models. The second and the at Earth may come from distant civilizations long extinct [5]. third model are based on Drake equation with some adjustments. The extinction due to natural causes is less likely - one research The second model uses substantially less parameters and the shows that the yearly probability for that is most likely to be less than 1 in 87 000 using four different models [12]. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal As already mentioned, in our research we wanted to look the or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or Drake equation from the other side. Using 4 different models of distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this the Drake equation with modifications we ask about the longevity work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner /author(s). of human civilization instead of the number of other civilizations Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia in our Galaxy. For that reason this research is unique and first in © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). this topic. 38 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Anže Marinko, Klara Golob, Ema Jemec, Urša Klun, and Matjaž Gams Table 1: Probability densities for the parameters in equa- is treated as another civilisation, therefore N corresponds to the tion (1). number of inhabited planets. The obtained equation is 4 𝑓 ∗ (𝐿 + 𝐸𝐿 ) = 𝑁 Parameter Distribution where E represents the estimated numbers of planets like Earth 𝑅∗ log-uniform from 1 to 100 10+𝑓 +𝑓 and is calculated as 𝐸 = 5.1334 ∗ 10 𝑝 𝑐 𝑆 (S is the density 𝑓 log-uniform from 0.1 to 1 − 𝑝 42 of the stars and equals to 4.7233 ∗ 10 ) and f is calculated as 𝑛 log-uniform from 0.1 to 1 𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑅∗ 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 . 𝑝 𝑒 𝑖 𝑐 𝑓 log-normal rate, described in paper [10] 𝑙 Results can be seen in Table 2, Figure 2 and Figure 3. 𝑓 log-uniform from 0.001 to 1 𝑖 𝑓 log-uniform from 0.01 to 1 𝑐 3.4 Model 4 𝑁 point values: 1 to 10 000 The fourth model is based on the "rare Earth" theory and assumes that - as name already suggests - Earth is a very unique and rare 3 ESTIMATING THE LONGEVITY OF planet. We used the equation 3 and combined it with the Drake equation again using probability distributions. HUMAN CIVILIZATION WITH FOUR BASIC MODELS ∗ 𝑁 = 𝑁 𝑛 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 (3) 𝑔 𝑝 𝑝𝑚 𝑖 𝑐 𝑙 𝑚 𝑗 𝑚𝑒 The Drake equation consists of several parameters: The parameters added to the Drake equation are ∗ 𝑁 = 𝑅∗ 𝑓 𝑛 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝐿, • 𝑝 𝑒 𝑁 is the number of stars in the Milky Way galaxy, be- 𝑙 𝑖 𝑐 tween 250 and 500 billion, where 𝑅∗ is the rate of star formation per year, 𝑓 is the fraction 𝑝 • 𝑓 is the fraction of planets that are metal-rich, between 𝑝𝑚 of stars with planets, 𝑛 is the number of Earth-like (or otherwise 𝑒 1 and 10 percent, habitable) planets per star that has planets, 𝑓 is the fraction of 𝑙 • 𝑓 is the fraction of planets with a large moon, between 𝑚 habitable planets with actual life, 𝑓 is the fraction of life-bearing 𝑖 0.3 and 3 percent, planets that develop intelligence (technologically advanced civ- • 𝑓 is the fraction of solar systems with Jupiter-size planets, 𝑗 ilizations), 𝑓 is the fraction of intelligent civilizations that are 𝑐 between 5 and 10 percent, detectable and 𝐿 is the average longevity of such civilizations. • 𝑓 is the fraction of planets with a critically low number 𝑚𝑒 Finally, 𝑁 is the number of detectable civilizations. We used the of extinction events, between 1 and 10 percent. following equation for computing 𝐿 ∗ 𝑁 𝑓 𝑛 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑝𝑚 𝑔 𝑚 𝑗 𝑚𝑒 𝑁 L is then calculated as 𝐿 = . 𝑁 𝐿 = (1) Results can be seen in Table 2 and Figure 1. 𝑅∗ 𝑓 𝑛 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑝 𝑒 𝑙 𝑖 𝑐 with the probability densities and limits from Table 1. In Table 2, 4 EXPERIMENTS the third column "stabilization" denotes the point where probabil-4.1 Single Models ity density stops decreasing, meaning that the major probability was up to this point. To simulate longevity estimates 𝐿, we randomly generated values of each parameter for a chosen number 𝑁 of advanced civiliza- 3.1 Model 1 tions in our galaxy (civilizations that transmit electromagnetic signals to space) using the predefined probability density. Then, The first model was already fully described in [17]. several derived graphs are generated, e.g. the one in Figure 1 3.2 Model 2 (presented for models 1, 2 and 4, while model 3 is similar to 1). The main part of this model was inspired by [4]. It represents a simplified version of the Drake equation - parameters are reduced in just two: an astro-physical (presents total number of habitable zone planets) and a bio-tehnical (represents probability that a given habitable zone planet has ever evolved a technological species). The motivation for the introduction of the model 2 was smaller number of variables to avoid numerical problems. We combined some parameters from the Drake equation and got the following equation: 𝑁 = [𝑅∗ 𝑓 𝑛 ] [ 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 ]𝐿 = 𝑓 𝑓 𝐿 (2) 𝑝 𝑒 𝑙 𝑖 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 • 𝑓 is the astro-physical probability 𝑎 • 𝑓 is the bio-tehnical probability 𝑏 Figure 1: Probability density function of log(L), i.e. ex- The longevity is calculated as 𝐿 = 𝑁 . Results can be seen in pected human longevity based on relative probability with 𝑓 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 Table 2 and Figure 1. N = 10 for models 1, 2 and 4. 3.3 Model 3 Figure 2 and Figure 3 present the same relations as in Figure This model is based on [1]. The main upgrade from the original 1, but for model 3 and in different ways: Figure 2 presents a 3D Drake’s equation to this model is an added possibility to expand view in the logarithmic scale, Figure 3 presents linear view on civilization to neighbouring planets. Each newly inhabited planet the same relation. 39 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Table 2: Median and stabilization for different N for all 4 models. median stabilization N \ model 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 200 200 720 1 070 13 600 9 200 61 400 9 200 10 22 000 900 2 060 8 320 11 100 1 500 20 100 1 500 100 220 000 7 000 5 930 77 640 9 300 100 2 800 100 1000 2 200 000 70 000 19 570 763 190 5 800 20 300 20 10 000 22 000 000 700 000 65 000 7 588 330 / / 40 / 4.2 All Models Merged In this section we combine results of all 4 models simultaneously and each parameter under 5 different distributions (log-uniform, uniform, half-normal, log-normal distribution and distribution with the most of the probability close to the upper bound). The results are presented in the form of histograms. We compute new linearly independent space pretending that a histogram is a vector using PCA - Principal component analysis. It turns out that the three dimensions with the biggest eigenvalue are informative enough, therefore we can draw 3D figures. We compute some clusters using k-means algorithm and mean histogram for each cluster. Each cluster is approximated as a surface. 4.3 Results Figure 2: Longevity based on 𝑁 , side view for model 3. Figure 3: Longevity based on 𝑁 for model 3, N = 1, median = 720, stabilization = 61400. Figure 4: Transformed space clustered into 5 clusters. Each If we present the graph of probability densities in a linear dot is a histogram transformed to a new space using PCA. (as in Figure 3) instead of logarithmic scale, we get quite differ- We can see the first three dimensions of this space. ent impressions: the majority of possibilities for greater 𝑁 are at the left of the graph resulting in a faster decline and faster One point in Figure 4 corresponds to one histogram, and his-stabilization point. This relation is observable in Table 2 in the togram are clusters into splines of five different colors. The first third, "stabilization" column, which denotes when a decline is and the fifth cluster contain mostly histograms for the first and less than 1 percent in a corresponding 100 years. It is impor- the third model. All the other clusters consist of the second and tant to distinguish between stabilization and median: the median the fourth model. The expected human longevity will be higher presents a point dividing all simulations into two intervals that for these thee clusters. are equally frequent, and stabilization indicates the end of a steep In Figure 5 we present properties of the clusters by their means. dive. While the median is mainly linearly growing with the num- As expected the first and the fifth cluster have peak before the ber of civilizations, the stabilization decline presents the point others but later they are still higher because of a theoretical step where probability "tail" smaller than 1 percent. At 𝑁 = 1, the me-that gives some probability even to practically unimaginable 8 dian is smaller than the stabilization, and at 𝑁 = 100, the median values (numbers high as 10 years which is 20 times more than is bigger for all models. the occurrence of Australopithecus [6]). 40 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Anže Marinko, Klara Golob, Ema Jemec, Urša Klun, and Matjaž Gams [2] Frank Drake. 2015. The Drake Equation: Estimating the Prevalence of Extraterrestrial Life Through the Ages. Cam- bridge University Press. [3] John-Oliver Engler and Henrik von Wehrden. 2018. where is everybody?’ an empirical appraisal of occurrence, prevalence and sustainability of technological species in the universe. International Journal of Astrobiology 18(6):499- 505. doi: 10.1017/S1473550418000496. [4] A. Frank and W.T. Sullivan. 2016. A new empirical con- straint on the prevalence of technological species in the universe. Astrobiology, 16, 5, 359–362. doi: 10.1089/ast. 2015.1418. [5] Claudio Grimaldi, Geoffrey W. Marcy, Nathaniel K. Tellis, and Frank Drake. 2018. Area coverage of expanding e.t. Figure 5: Mean survival function for each cluster. signals in the galaxy: seti and Drake’s N. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 130(987). doi: 10. Now we can compare a few distributions that are still different 1088/1538- 3873/aaac6a. enough based on their peak density from lower to upper bound. [6] Yohannes Haile-Selassie. 2010. Phylogeny of early Aus- tralopithecus: new fossil evidence from the Woranso-Mille 5 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION (central Afar, Ethiopia). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 365 (1556): 3323–3331. Based on the research where several participants (general UK doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0064. public, general US public, Oxford students) were asked about [7] Marko Horvat. 2007. Calculating the probability of detect- their view on the possibility of the human extinction, results ing radio signals from alien civilizations. arXiv:0707.0011 show that they think it needs to be prevented [11]. [physics.pop-ph]. This research designed models of probability densities of the [8] Mansavi Lingam and Abraham Loeb. 2018. Relative likeli- longevity of human civilization in significantly more advanced hood of success in the searches for primitive versus intelli- ways compared to our previous studies. We generated all four gent extraterrestrial life. arXiv:1807.08879 [physics.pop-ph]. models such that we distribute each parameter by all five selected [9] Jurij Nastran, Beno Šircelj, Drago Bokal, and Matjaž Gams. distributions. To determine the realistic probability of longevity, 2018. Sensitivity analysis of computational models that Figure 3 is most relevant: after probability drops to low values dissolve the Fermi paradox. Informacijska družba, volume and remains so for a long period of time. If integrated over a A. long period of time, it can result in big values as "mean" shows [10] Anders Sandberg, Eric Drexler, and Toby Ord. 2018. Dis- in Table 2. But in reality, the long close-to-zero tail seems more solving the Fermi paradox. arXiv preprint arXiv:1806.02404. of a numerical curiosity. "Stabilization" is therefore the relevant [11] Stefan Schubert, Lucius Caviola, and Nadira S. Faber. 2019. indicator of civilization longevity. The psychology of existential risk: moral judgments about The models analyzed here all show that if there are more human extinction. Scientific Reports 9. doi: 10.1038/s41598- civilizations, we have lower probability of living longer (column 019- 50145- 9. stabilization). Regardless of 𝑁 and after initial fluctuations at the [12] Andrew E. Snyder-Beattie, Toby Ord, and Michael B. Bon- beginning, the curve of the longevity becomes static, monotonic, sall. 2018. An upper bound for the background rate of very slightly decreasing. From Figure 5 we can interpretate that human extinction. Scientific Reports 9:11054. doi: 10.1038/ even the most optimistic cluster (cluster 2) gives us result that s41598- 019- 47540- 7. we will survive more 100 000 years with half probability and [13] Robert Strom G. 2015. We are not alone: extraterrestrial more than million years with 5% chances. Based on all of the technological life in our Galaxy. Astrobiol Outreach 3: 144. clusters we can conclude that the highest probability is that we doi: 10.4172/2332- 2519.1000144. will survive at most 10 000 years. [14] Chenoa Tremblay and Steven Tingay. 2020. A SETI survey In summary, this paper is relevant because it shows that we of the Vela region using the Murchison Widefield Array: might not have a lot of time left, at least in terms of cosmic orders of magnitude expansion in search space. Cambridge timing. Maybe we can buy us some time by taking better care of University Press. doi: 10.1017/pasa.2020.27. the Earth or by starting to colonizing other planets, but the most [15] Peter Douglas Ward and Donald Eugene Brownlee. 2000. important thing is to start making more researches that could Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe. possibly help to prevent the extinction of human civilization or Copernicus. at least reschedule it later in the future. [16] Tom Westby and Christopher J. Conselice. 2020. The as- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS trobiological Copernican weak and strong limits for in- telligent life. The Astrophysical Journal 896(1):58. doi: 10. We thank Institute Jožef Stefan for making this research possible. 3847/1538- 4357/ab8225. REFERENCES [17] Beno Šircelj, Laura Guzelj Blatnik, Ajda Zavrtanik Drglin, and Matjaž Gams. 2019. Expected human longevity. Infor- [1] David Brin. 1983. The ’great silence’: the controversy con- macijska družba, volume B. cerning extraterrestrial intelligent life. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 24, (August 1983), 283– 309. 41 Does sight provide insight into Alzheimer’s dementia? 1,2 ∗ Katarina Marjanovič 1,3 ∗ Matej Perovnik katarina.marjanovic@kclj.si matej.perovnik@kclj.si 1 Department of Neurology, University Medical Centre, Ljubljana 2 Faculty of Education, University Of Ljubljana 3 Faculty of Medicine, University Of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia ABSTRACT plan ahead and thus ameliorate caregiver burden. Furthermore, certain non-pharmacological interventions are more effective in Alzheimer’s dementia (AD) is the most common neurodegenera- the earliest stages of AD and early diagnosis can lead to early tive dementia. Its timely and early diagnosis is of great impor- involvement into drug trials [5]. Additionally, bearing in mind tance, as it allows patients to plan ahead and improve life quality that about 5–10% of patients with MCI progresses to dementia with different non-pharmacological approaches. Several biomark- per year [6], we can also highlight the importance of accurate ers, which allow for such a diagnosis, are already part of everyday diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease and accurate identification of clinical routine. While their role in the patient’s assessment is MCI patients who will progress to AD. undoubtedly valuable, they bear certain limitations, such as in- vasiveness and price. A search for a novel, non-invansive and in- expensive biomarker is underway. Eye movements have recently been proposed as a promising candidate for such a biomarker. 2 DIAGNOSIS OF DEMENTIA Here, we offer a brief overview of both: the biomarkers most Diagnosis of dementia is inherently linked to firstly, ruling out typically used in the clinical setting, and the eye movements, potentially treatable causes and secondly, diagnosing the under- as tracked via eye tracker—a method, which already has a long lying neurodegenerative process. In this section, we will first tradition in the field of cognitive science. briefly address other, potentially treatable causes of cognitive im- KEYWORDS pairment and then present the biomarkers of the most common neurodegenerative cause of dementia—Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s dementia, early diagnosis, biomarkers, eye move- Individuals with cognitive impairment firstly undergo blood ments, eye tracking, structural MRI, lumbar puncture, FDG PET screening for systemic abnormalities (vitamin B , folate, thyroid- 12 stimulating hormone, calcium, glucose, complete blood cell count, 1 INTRODUCTION renal and liver function) and structural imaging with magnetic Dementia is a clinical syndrome that involves impairment in at resonance imaging (MRI) or at least computer tomography (CT) least two cognitive domains (i.e. memory, attention, executive to exclude other causes of dementia (i.e., tumor, abscess, stroke functions, visuospatial abilities or language) and interferes with or normal pressure hydrocephalus) [7]. Core diagnostic criteria individual’s ability to function in their daily activities [1]. It can for AD are still rooted in clinical presentation, meaning that the arise as a consequence of various pathophysiological processes physician can make an AD diagnosis even without the use of in the brain that start decades before the appearance of the first biomarker information [1]. Because clinical diagnosis of AD is cognitive symptoms. The most common cause of dementia is not in concordance with pathological diagnosis in around 30% of Alzheimer’s disease that causes 60 to 80% of all dementias [2]. cases [8], there has been a shift towards promotion of biomarker-Alzheimer’s dementia (AD) is a final stage of Alzheimer’s disease supported diagnosis in recent years [9]. Biomarker is a charac-whose pathological hallmark is accumulation of misfolded pro- teristic that can be measured objectively and reflects a certain teins: amyloid 𝛽 (A𝛽 ) and Tau protein in the brain, which in turn biological or pathological process [10]. Various biomarkers are cause synaptic dysfunction and neurodegeneration [3]. AD is usu-already a part of everyday clinical routine. ally preceded by symptomatic pre-dementia stage termed mild Structural MRI is a recommended and widely used imaging cognitive impairment (MCI), in which the physician can observe method that can be used to assess atrophy in medial and lat- cognitive impairment that does not interfere with individuals’ eral temporal lobe, medial parietal cortices and hippocampi— functional abilities [4]. structures that are affected early and disproportionally in AD. There is a common public misconception that early diagno- Atrophy reflects the loss of neurons and can be seen clearly as sis of AD is not essential due to the current lack of a disease- disease progresses, but patterns of atrophy often overlap between modifying drug. But such diagnosis is of paramount importance. different dementia syndromes and changes can be very subtle in Firstly, it allows people with dementia and their caregivers to early stages. Furthermore, structural MRI is useful for the assess- ment of the vascular burden—an important co-morbidity in AD ∗ Both authors contributed equally to this review. [11]. Two other commonly used biomarkers of AD are analysis Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and functional brain imaging with or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or 18 2-[ F]Fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose and positron emission tomog- distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this raphy (FDG PET). Lumbar puncture is performed to obtain CSF work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner /author(s). from which concentrations of A𝛽 , phosphorylated Tau and to- 42 Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia tal Tau proteins can be measured. Reduction in concentration of © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). A𝛽 protein (due to increase in extracellular binding in the brain) 42 42 Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Marjanovič and Perovnik in CSF can be observed decades before appearance of first cogni- 3.1 Eye movements and their alterations in tive symptoms, but A𝛽 concentration reaches plateau already in 42 AD the pre-symptomatic disease stage [12] and is thus not a suitable Unlike the other methods, described above, eye movements, as biomarker of disease progression. Furthermore, lumbar punc- tracked and recorded via eye tracker, present a sensitive, non- ture is an invasive procedure with a non-negligible percentage invasive, and inexpensive method [22, 23, 15], which allows for of mild complications such as back pain or headache, however testing in a simple and everyday-like setup. As such, eye track- the percentage of serious complications is very low (< 1%) in ing presents an ideal method for testing patients with cognitive specialized institutions [13]. FDG PET is a non-invasive brain decline, since the tasks they perform during testing are relatively imaging modality that provides information about synaptic dys- natural and thus easily comprehensible, without complicated in- function, which precedes atrophy, and is commonly used in early structions. Additionally, the method is appealing to the patients detection and differential diagnosis of dementia. Furthermore, also due to the fact that they are simply sitting comfortably in it also provides an important insight into disease progression front of a computer screen, while their head is typically stabilized [14]. Because FDG PET imaging involves radiation exposure, it through a chin rest, allowing them to relax their posture without is not recommended to be performed more than once per year. compromising the accuracy of the recording. Additionally, FDG PET is a relatively expensive procedure [11]. In healthy individuals, who are not experiencing any kind of In summary, while the current biomarkers are able to detect processing difficulties, the typical oculomotor behavior can be AD in the earliest stages, they are either invasive (e.g., lumbar described with a series of eye movement measures. Here, we offer puncture) or relatively expensive (e.g., MRI, FDG PET). A discov- a description of two of them as an example. When we, for example, ery of a reliable, noninvasive and inexpensive biomarker would look at a presented picture, search for an object or read a text in thus greatly advance the availability of early diagnosis of AD [15]. font of us, we continuously make rapid linear eye movements—so The search for such an alternative biomarker has already begun, called saccades, which can reach velocities as high as 500° per and the research of the past two decades has yielded important second [24]. During a saccade, the sensitivity to visual input is advancements. In the next paragraphs we offer a short overview reduced, thus we essentially do not obtain new information from of one such potential biomarker—eye movements, as tracked via our environment while our eyes are moving [25]. In order to eye tracker. In order to do so, we first need to shift our focus obtain this information, we make a series of stops in between the away from the most commonly defined features of AD. saccades—so called fixations, which typically last about 250ms [25, 20]. During this time our eyes remain relatively still, focusing on the information that is available in the momentary foveal 3 VISON IMPAIRMENTS IN ALZHEIMER’S vision (i.e., the center of the visual field, with the highest visual DEMENTIA acuity) [26]. The role of the saccades is thus to move our eyes onto a new region of the processed stimuli, where we make a fixation As reflected in the clinical diagnostic criteria for AD, described to bring new informaton into our foveal vision, and consequently above, the primarily addressed disorders of AD are the disorders into our attention. of cognitive functioning [1]. However, a common, yet largely The main reason why eye tracking can so readily be used for ignored feature of AD are also alterations in sensory capacity, an early detection of the neurodegenerative alterations is that particularly in visual processing [16, 17]. These are of extreme it allows for a simple investigation of complex viewing behav-importance especially when talking about timely diagnosis of ior that humans automatically engage in when they are driven the AD, since they are present already in the early stages of the by top-down, goal-directed processes. Given the intimate link symptomatic disease [16, 17]. Possibly, these changes are often between the eye movements and cognition, any alterations in overlooked due to the fact that they are not present in all types the typical oculomotor behavior can thus be used to infer AD- of visual processing. For example, visual acuity, which is most related changes in cognitive processing [27]. Carefully selected commonly tested when an individual initially complains that tasks that trigger complex viewing behavior, in which atten- their vision is not quite right, is typically no more impaired than tion and its allocation, inhibitory control, working memory, or in healthy elderly individuals [16]. But additional deficits can be decision-making are required to successfully accomplish a goal, observed in other, more subtle types of visual processing, such thus present an ideal testbed for early detection of the AD, since as contrast sensitivity (i.e., the ability to distinguish gratings all these processes are altered already in the early stages of AD of varying spatial frequencies at different contrast levels) [16], [20]. Importantly, such tasks are already well-defined and well-color discrimination (i.e., ability to distinguish different shades explored in the frame of studies with healthy participants in the of colors) [18, 19], and eye movements [19, 20]. filed of cognitive science. Here, we offer a short overview of the Despite the fact that these deficits are traditionally still not patient’s performance in three such tasks: visual search, natural dealt with in clinical environment [21], the last two decades of reading and antisaccade task. interdisciplinary research have brought to light numerous new findings, particularly about the eye movement alterations in AD. 3.1.1 Visual search task. In essence, visual search task is goal- This field of studies has recently been gaining more and more directed search for a target (e.g., a specific object) among a num- attention, and has since largely progressed along two lines of ber of distractors in an environment [27]. Compared to healthy research: while the first one deals with correlation of the eye control participants, patients with AD exhibit delayed target de- movement alterations and the disease severity, the second one tection [27, 20], longer fixation durations [20, 28] and longer and focuses on the applicability of the eye movement alterations for less systematic exploration [29, 30, 28], which is often described early detection of cognitive decline [e.g., 19, 20]. In the remainder as stochastic [29]. of this abstract, we will address the latter in more detail, and explore the potential of the eye movements as possible biomarker 3.1.2 Natural reading task. Despite the fact that reading is an for diagnosis of AD. activity in which (literate) humans engage in on an everyday 43 Does sight provide insight into Alzheimer’s dementia? Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia basis and without much effort, this is a very demanding cognitive tailored to detecting and monitoring the disease at its specific task [31, 32, 33, 34]. Successful reading process demands not only stages, and to the specific needs of the patients with dementia, simultaneous processing of different linguistic information (e.g., who require natural and simple tasks, which do no trigger any letter identification, morphologic and semantic processing), but discomfort or risk of misunderstanding the task instructions. also precise coordination, attention allocation and planning (e.g., where and when will the eyes move in the text) [33]. 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Vision screening for alzheimer’s dis- 33, 1–13. ease: prevention from an ophthalmologist’s perspective (there is more to vision than meets the eye). The Perma- nente Journal, 8, 1, 15. [22] Trevor J. Crawford, Steve Higham, Ted Renvoize, Julie Patel, Mark Dale, Anur Suriya, and Sue Tetley. 2005. In- hibitory control of saccadic eye movements and cognitive impairment in alzheimer’s disease. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 9, 1052–1060. issn: 0006-3223. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych. 2005.01.017. 45 Patterns of Mental Behavior During Psychological Task Performance Aleš Oblak† University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia oblak.ales.93@gmail.com ABSTRACT 2 METHOD 18 participants (10 females) gave their oral consent to participate Psychological tasks are one of the main instruments used in in the study. The average age of participants was 27.2 (SD = 2.9). experimental sciences of the mind. Recent meta-psychological All the participants were right-handed. Except for one, all the discussions have shed light on the phenomenology, research participants were current or former students of cognitive science. design structure, and generalizability of psychological tasks. However, it remains unclear how psychological task The average total number of years of education for participants performance modifies consciousness. Subjective reports on the was 15.8 (SD = 1.15). The participants were informed ahead of experience of psychological task performance were gathered. A time that they will be participating in a psychological study. constructivist grounded theory approach was employed for The participants sat in front of a laptop, displaying a blank analysis. A number of patterns of mental behavior and screen. Throughout the study, the researcher sat behind them. experiential states associated with psychological task They received the following set of instructions: There will be an performance are discussed. image displayed on the computer screen for 10 seconds. I would like you to observe the image without doing anything with it or KEYWORDS performing any mental gestures upon it. All you have to do is to Psychological task, constructivist grounded theory, mental focus on it. behavior A randomly selected stimulus appeared on screen. There were four possible stimuli. They were all composed of a grid with some boxes filled in black, and other boxes left empty (i.e., 1 INTRODUCTION white). After 10 seconds elapsed, the participants were prompted Psychological tasks are one of the main instruments used in to report on their experience of observing the stimulus. experimental cognitive science. They are typically relatively The researcher guided the participant through the subjective simple, computerized activities, whereby mental phenomena are report. Initially, the participant was asked to provide a rough isolated and made measurable [1]. It has long been understood overview of their experience of the observation of the stimulus. that psychological tasks constitute a culturally specific and Afterwards, the researcher guided the participants through each artificially constrained context of inquiry [2, 3]. Recent salient event that was mentioned in the initial overview. The discussions have attempted to add to the meta-psychological and participant was asked open-ended follow-up questions regarding anthropological understanding of psychological tasks by each event until a precise description of how it had been explicating the general phenomenology associated with the experienced was achieved. To promote a detailed account, the performance of psychological tasks [1], their formal structure as researcher consistently recapitulated parts of the subjective it pertains to their research designs [4], their generalizability [5] report under discussion. The descriptions were considered valid, and in what manner participants respond to them [6]. if they were grounded in a) bodily feelings; b) sensory It has been noted by Froese and colleagues that specific types modalities; c) mental gestures; and d) attitudes. Descriptions of of complex systems are characterized by the theory-experience theoretical concepts, folk psychological assumptions, or gap; i.e., we cannot claim a priori as to how the complex system metaphorical ideas were considered invalid. will modify the structure of consciousness of the individual After each mental event was grounded in a concrete interacting with it [7]. In its original formulation, the theory-description of experience, a debriefing interview about the experience gap refers to novel systems, such as virtual reality. interview itself was conducted. The participants were asked However, it has recently been shown that psychological task about how they experienced the interview and the research performance is associated with a relatively large array of setting. If the participants reported an awareness of confabulating unexpected experiential states as well [8]. a specific aspect of the report or a social distance from the The goal of this study is to contribute towards the general researcher, the sample was discarded. Three samples were meta-psychological understanding of interacting with a removed. The entire interview was recorded on an audio psychological task in a research setup; i.e., what is the experience recording device. of performing a psychological task as such, rather than a specific psychological task. As the purpose of the psychological task is to elicit a specific cognitive function, this study is interested in the 3 ANALYSIS patterns of mental behavior when participants are exposed to any In total, 15 admissible samples were gathered. The samples were experimental setup. analyzed according to the principles of constructivist grounded 46 theory [9]. The audio recordings were transcribed verbatim. Mind-wandering (MW) refers to situations in which Descriptions of theoretical concepts, folk psychological participants engage in mental behavior that is unrelated to the assumptions, and metaphorical ideas were removed. The data nominal task performance but is itself not oriented towards a were analyzed via coding: general descriptive tags were assigned task. Participants engage in remembrance (i.e., contemplating to the concrete subjective reports. In order to minimize bias, a various memories from their own life), reverie (i.e., engaging in meaningful code was assigned to each line of the interview. The fantastical stories about their own life), planning (i.e., thinking data were coded inductively: the codes emerged from the text about the future), and, interestingly, theorizing about the nature rather than from the scientific literature. Each category was given and purpose of the psychological research design and/or the a name and specified according to a) its salient algorithmic structure of the code running the task itself. MW was phenomenological properties; b) relationships to other observed 6 times (on average 0.4 times per participant). categories; and c) meaningful quotes from the transcripts. Finally, ambiguity (AM) refers to moments of disengagement The data were coded on two levels: a) relational and b) from any explicit mental behavior. Participants find themselves experiential. The former refers to the abstract relationships unsure as to what they are supposed to do. AM therefore amounts between types of mental behaviors relative to how the to an attitude of searching for the appropriate mental behavior. participants performed the task. The latter refers to the categories AM was detected 14 times (on average 0.93 times per constructed on the basis of subjective reports relative to participant). participants’ bodily feelings; sensory modalities; mental gestures, and attitudes as they pertain to individual mental 4.2 Experiential categories behaviors. Qualitatively, the most salient aspects of experience in relation As individual samples displayed a high degree of variability to mental behavior were the sense of agency and attentional (i.e., experience rapidly changed from moment to moment), each dispositions. Three experiential categories of sense of agency sample was assigned a number of both relational and experiential were induced from the raw data: categories. Thus, a given category may have appeared more than a) willful; once within a single sample. The number of categories assigned b) automatic; to each sample depended on the variability of experience and and c) vetoable. thus varied from sample to sample. For the sake of parsimony, Willful sense of agency refers to the experience where relational categories - where variability was the highest - were participants felt that a particular event that occurred in their grouped together into typical patterns of mental behavior. These awareness was the result of their action. In total, willful sense of patterns are presented in Section 5 in the form of grounded agency was observed 15 times (on average 1.0 times per theory. participant). Automatic sense of agency refers to the experience where participants felt that a particular event that occurred in their awareness was something that happened to them. In total, 4 RESULTS automatic sense of agency was observed 19 times (on average, 1.27 times per participant). Finally, vetoable sense of agency 4.1 Relational categories refers to situations where participants felt that a particular event Four categories of mental behavior were induced from the data: that occurred in their awareness was something that was a) nominal task performance; happening to them; however, they had the capacity to continue b) constructed task performance; to enact this event or terminate it. Vetoable sense of agency was c) mind-wandering; observed 15 times (on average 0.4 times per participant). and d) ambiguity. Attentional disposition is an aspect of experience that refers Nominal task performance (NT) refers to situations in which to an attitude taken in attention to a particular object of one’s participants’ phenomenology is congruent with the perception. Based on this attitude, the object itself may be phenomenology expected by the design of the task. In the case of experienced differently. Three experiential categories of the simple observation task used in this study, nominal task attentional dispositions were induced from the raw data: performance refers to experiential states that amount to a a) progressive; disengaged, receptive observation of the stimulus. NT was b) receptive; observed 13 times (on average 0.86 times per participant). and c) distant. Constructed task performance (CT) refers to situations in Progressive attentional disposition is an aspect of experience which participants deviate from the task that was created by the wherein participants experience themselves going towards the researchers. Phenomenologically-speaking, constructed task psychological task. While mostly attentional, this experience can performance is characterized by goal-oriented mental behavior, be so salient that it is experienced as a force, located beyond however, the goal itself is something that the participants one’s body, going forward or bodily sense of leaning forward. constructed anew. As participants had a background in cognitive Progressive attentional disposition was observed 24 times (on science, they constructed a novel task because they were average, 1.6 times per participant). Receptive attentional distrustful of the researcher’s instructions. Thus, the tasks that disposition is an aspect of experience wherein participants were typically constructed were associated with well-known experience the psychological task coming towards them. While cognitive functions (e.g., pattern recognition, geometric analysis mostly attentional, this experience can be so salient that it is of stimuli, working memory). CT was observed 12 times (on experienced as a force, located beyond one’s body, pulling them average 0.8 times per participant). 47 away from the task, or a bodily sense of leaning backwards. AM . The participants feel that the psychological task is too Receptive attentional disposition was observed 10 times (on complex to be solvable. This feeling may be associated with average 0.67 times per participant). Distant attentional negative emotional valence. Based on these reports, another disposition is an aspect of experience wherein participants pattern of mental behavior is conjectured: breakdown. Ex experience an attentional disconnect from the task. Commonly hypothesi, breakdown refers to the pattern of mental activity that described as “looking but not seeing,” this experience may be so begins with AM and tends towards the experience of salient that the psychological task fades from participants’ informational chaos. In these cases, individuals cannot tie the awareness. Distant attentional disposition was observed six psychological experience to a mental strategy known to them times (on average, 0.4 times per participant). from everyday life [1]. Depending on the task design, this outcome may be undesirable. 5 GROUNDED THEORY Individual states relative to the performance of the psychological 6 CONCLUSION task did not appear in isolation. Rather, within a single The study represents a continuation of qualitative inquiries into performance, participants underwent a number of states of the meta-psychology of psychological task performance (e.g., mental behavior. The manner in which states followed each other Morrison et al., 2019). A grounded theory is proposed that may formed a number of patterns. These patterns are outlined in this assist in future understanding of psychological tasks, in section. Six patterns of mental behavior relative to the particular, what is the dynamics whereby they isolate the performance of the psychological task were detected: intended cognitive functions or an unrelated self-imposed task. a) simple coalescence; b) complex coalescence; c) simple tangentiality; REFERENCES d) complex tangentiality; [1] Hazel Morrison, Shannon McBriar, Hilary Powell, Jesse Proudfoot, e) digression; and Steven Stanley, Des Fitzgerald and Felicity Callard, 2019. What is a psychological task? The operational pliability of “task” in psychological f) separation. On the basis of reports from the literature, another laboratory experimentation. Engaging Science, Technology, and Society pattern of mental behavior is conjectured: 5(1), 61-85. 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It refers to experiences of extreme 48 Vpliv posturalnih perturbacij na stresni odziv pri človeku Effects of Postural Perturbations on Human Stress Response Carolina Petrič Jernej Čamernik Gregor Geršak Jan Babič Laboratorij za nevromehaniko Laboratorij za nevromehaniko Fakulteta za elektrotehniko Laboratorij za nevromehaniko in biorobotiko in biorobotiko Univerza v Ljubljani in biorobotiko Institut Jožef Stefan in, Institut Jožef Stefan Ljubljana, Slovenija Institut Jožef Stefan Fakulteta za elektrotehniko Ljubljana, Slovenija gregor.gersak@fe.uni-lj.si Ljubljana, Slovenija Univerza v Ljubljani jernej.camernik@ijs.si jan.babic@ijs.si Ljubljana, Slovenija carolina.petric@gmail.com POVZETEK KEYWORDS Namen tega dela je bil opazovati stresni odziv, ki se pojavi takoj Electrodermal activity (EDA), postural perturbations, stress po motnji stabilnosti. Zanimalo nas je i) kako se stresni odziv spreminja s spremembo smeri posturalne motnje in ii) če pride response do prilagoditve po več (devetih) zaporednih posturalnih motnjah. Za oceno stresnega odziva smo uporabili meritev 1 UVOD elektrodermalne aktivnosti. Analiza je pokazala, da se splošno vzburjenje ni spremenilo s spremembo začetne smeri motenj. Ko Zmožnost ohranjanja stabilne, pokončne drže med soočanjem z motnjami ravnotežja je kritična komponenta vsakdanjega pa se je smer posturalne motnje spremenila iz naprej v nazaj, so se udeleženci odzvali hitreje in močneje. Pri ponavljajočih se življenja. Motnje ravnotežja so lahko zunanje (npr. neravna posturalnih motnjah se je splošno vzburjenje zmanjšalo, podlaga, slaba osvetljenost okolice, obutev) ali notranje (npr. udeleženci pa so se po deveti zaporedni motnji odzvali hitreje in stanje ravnotežnega organa, posledice starostnih degenerativnih močneje. Nobena sprememba v tej pilotni študiji ni bila bolezni, utrujenost, posledice zdravil). Padci in poškodbe, statistično pomembna. Znanje, pridobljeno s tem delom, povezane s padci, predstavljajo globalno skrb za javno zdravje prispeva k boljšemu razumevanju stresnega odziva človeka na posturalne naših starajočih se družb [1]. Za nadzorovanje stabilnosti in orientacije človeškega telesa motnje. skrbi posturalni nadzorni sistem. Posturalna orientacija je KLJUČNE BESEDE definirana kot sposobnost vzdrževanja primerne poravnave med deli telesa in poravnave telesa glede na okolje [2]. Posturalna Elektrodermalna aktivnost (EDA), posturalne perturbacije, stabilnost ali ravnotežje telesa je sposobnost nadzorovanja posturalne motnje, stresni odziv, motnje stabilnosti središča mase (ang. Centre of Mass – CoM) oz. projekcije CoM ABSTRACT glede na podporno ploskev (ang. Base of Support – BoS) [2]. Podporna ploskev zajema območje pod predmetom ali osebo, ki The purpose of this work was to observe the human vključuje vsako točko stika, ki jo predmet ali oseba naredi s psychophysiological stress response, which occurs right after a podporno površino in vso površino vmes. Te točke stika so lahko stability disturbance. We were interested in i) how the stress deli telesa (npr. stopala ali roke) ali predmeti (npr. stol, na response changes with the change in direction of a postural katerem oseba sedi) [3]. perturbation and ii) if there is any adaptation after several (nine) Center mase - CoM je definiran kot točka v središču celotne consecutive postural perturbations. Electrodermal activity was mase telesa [4]. Določimo ga kot uteženo povprečje centrov mas used to assess the stress response. The analysis showed that the vseh segmentov telesa. CoM ni fizična spremenljivka, ampak general arousal did not differ with the change in the initial virtualna točka v prostoru, ki je odvisna od položaja vseh delov direction of perturbation. However, when the direction of telesa. CoM je ključna spremenljivka, ki jo nadzira posturalni postural perturbation was changed from forward to backward, nadzorni sistem [4]. subjects reacted faster and more strongly. In recurrent postural Središče pritiska (ang. Centre of Pressure – CoP) je vsota vseh perturbations, general arousal decreases, and subjects respond sil in navorov, ki jih povzroča telo na podporno površino [2]. Pri faster and stronger after the ninth consecutive perturbation. Since izgubi nadzora položaja telesa se projekcija CoM premakne iz this was a pilot study and only four healthy volunteers mej podporne ploskve. Meje stabilnosti predstavljajo območje, participated, none of these results were statistically significant. znotraj katerega lahko telo ohrani stabilno lego brez dodatne The knowledge gained from this work contributes to a better spremembe BoS. understanding of human stress response to postural Predhodni dokazi kažejo, da se lahko po nestabilnosti pojavi perturbations. simpatična modulacija, ki podpira hipotetično vključenost avtonomnega živčnega sistema (AŽS) v posturalno kontrolo [5, 6]. Simpatična modulacija oz. kompenzacijski posturalni odziv 49 je po motnji stabilnosti pomemben za ohranjanje ravnotežja in pas, ki omogoča priklop jeklenice. Jeklenica je bila del sistema preprečevanje padca. za izvedbo posturalnih motenj z določeno silo, ki jo generirata Avtonomni živčni sistem se deli na parasimpatično in dva električna servomotorja (Festo model EMMS-AS-100 z simpatično živčevje. Fiziološke posledice aktivacije nazivnim navorom 5,69 Nm). V pasu je bil nameščen tudi aktivni simpatičnega živčnega sistema so npr. pospešeno bitje srca, optični marker, ki je bil del optičnega sistema Optotrak 3D pospešeno in bolj globoko dihanje, razširjene zenice, povečan Investigator (Northern Digital Incorporated, Kanada. Frekvenca krvni tlak, upočasnjena presnova hrane, zakrčenost mišic ter vzorčenja: 1000 Hz), s katerim ocenjujemo položaj približka povečana prevodnost kože [7]. Našteti pojavi so del stresnega centra mase udeleženca. odziva. Nacionalni institut za javno zdravje je stres definiral kot: Pred začetkom eksperimenta smo vsem udeležencem podali »… normalen odziv posameznika, kadar je začasno enotna navodila o njihovi nalogi, ki je bila, da v primeru porušeno njegovo ravnovesje (telesno ali duševno) posturalne motnje poizkusijo ohraniti svoj položaj na mestu, kjer zaradi notranjih ali zunanjih vplivov (stresorjev). stojijo. Merjenje se je začelo z dvominutno stojo na dveh Stresorji so lahko pojavljajo v različnih oblikah. Lahko pritiskovnih ploščah (Kistler Instrumente AG, Winterthur, so manjši (npr. gneča na cesti) ali večji (npr. smrt v Switzerland. Frekvenca vzorčenja: 1000 Hz) za zajem začetnega družini), zunanji (npr. kratek časovni rok za določeno stanja. Prva motnja (prvi poteg jeklenice) je bila prožena ročno, delovno nalogo) ali notranji (npr. skrbi, črne misli), ko smo sami ocenili, da je vrednost signala EDA, izrisana v negativni (npr. prometna nesreča) ali pa celo pozitivni realnem času, razmeroma konstantna (ni več sunkovito naraščala (npr. rojstvo otroka). Enak dogodek bo nekomu ali padala). Vsaka naslednja motnja je bila ročno prožena, ko se predstavljal stresor, drugemu pa spodbudo, odvisno od je udeleženec umiril (relativno gledano glede na začetno stanje posameznikove osebnosti, izkušenj.« [8] vrednosti EDA). Motnje so bile izvedene v smeri naprej – nazaj. Kot stimulus, ki sproži stresni odziv opazovane osebe, lahko Vsi udeleženci so skupno prejeli deset motenj. Smer začetne sile obravnavamo tudi posturalno motnjo, ki vpliva na premik osebe je bila naključna, dva udeleženca sta začela z motnjami naprej in iz ravnotežja. V tej študiji nas je zanimalo, kakšni so dva nazaj. Preostalih devet motenj je bilo izvedenih v nasprotno psihofiziološki odzivi človeka ob nepričakovanih motnjah smer od tiste, s katero so udeleženci začeli. stabilnosti, da bi potrdili domnevno vključenost AŽS pri Profil generirane sile električnih servomotorjev, prikazan na posturalnem nadzoru. sliki Slika 1, smo časovno razdelili na tri dele v razmerju 3:2:1, Oblikovali smo naslednji hipotezi: i) stresni odzivi se kjer v prvem delu sila narašča, v drugem delu je konstantna in v razlikujejo glede na začetno smer posturalne motnje (H1) in ii) tretjem pojema. Amplituda sile je določena z enačbo: stresni odziv se spremeni po več (devet) zaporednih motnjah 𝑚 enake amplitude in smeri (H2). Če bi hipotezi potrdili, bi 𝐹 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑘 = 𝑚 ∗ 9,81 ∗ 0,11, (1) 𝑠2 pridobili še dodatne informacije o opazovani povezavi med stresom in posturalnim nadzorom. Ugotovili bi, kako sprememba kjer F predstavlja amplitudo sile v N, m je masa v kg, g je smeri posturalne motnje in kako ponavljajoče posturalne motnje gravitacijski pospešek v m/s2, k pa koeficient, ki predstavlja delež vplivajo na stresni odziv. telesne mase preiskovanega udeleženca in je brez enote. 2 METODE 2.1 EKSPERIMENTALNI PROTOKOL Štirje mladi odrasli (povprečna starost; standardni odklon (SD): 22,3 leta, SD = 2,4 leta), dva moška in dve ženski, so prostovoljno sodelovali pri eksperimentu. Vsi so bili zdravi, brez nevroloških in mišičnih posebnosti. Kandidati so bili seznanjeni s potekom meritev in podpisali so izjavo o prostovoljni in zavestni privolitvi po poučitvi. Pred prihodom udeleženca sta bili izmerjeni temperatura in Slika 1: Profil uporabljene sile generirane na električnih vlaga v prostoru (povprečna temperatura = 24,3 °C; STD: 0,5 °C, servomotorjih. povprečna vlaga 42,2 %; SD = 1,9 %). Udeležence smo stehtali (povprečna teža = 65,6 kg; SD = 14,3 kg) in nanje namestili Konstanta 0,11 izhaja iz ugotovitev študije [9], kjer so izvajali merilno napravo za merjenje elektrodermalne aktivnosti (EDA) podobne posturalne motnje in uporabili koeficiente od 2,75 % do Shimmer GSR Plus (Shimmer Sensing, Dublin, Ireland. 22 % telesne mase. V rezultatih so predstavili, pri katerem Frekvenca vzorčenja: 504,3 Hz). Elektrodi za merjenje EDA sta koeficientu mora po povzročeni sili oseba narediti korak, da bili nameščeni na proksimalni prstnici kazalca in sredinca ohrani ravnotežje. Mejna vrednost, ko osebi še ni potrebno njihove nedominantne roke. Za preprečevanje motenj v signalu narediti koraka, je glede na njihove ugotovitve znašala 0,11 za elektrodermalne aktivnosti zaradi drgnjenja prstov smo jim motnje v smeri naprej. Za motnje v smeri nazaj smo sami uporabljena prsta (sredinec in kazalec) stabilizirali z lepilnim preverili mejno vrednost po principu preizkušanja, ki pa se je trakom. Med nameščanjem merilnih naprav so udeleženci izkazala za identično smeri naprej. Izbrani vrednosti koeficientov odgovorili na nekaj vprašanj o svojem splošnem počutju, kar jim za smeri naprej in nazaj k(naprej) = 0,11, k(nazaj) = –0,11. je omogočilo, da so se lahko privadili na laboratorijsko okolje in prisotnost vseh naprav. Udeležencem smo namestili še prilagojen 50 Slika 2: Rezultati analize EDA pri protokolu menjava smeri Slika 3: Rezultati analize EDA pri protokolu ponavljajoče motnje. motnje. 2.2 OBDELAVA PODATKOV IN ANALIZA pojavijo v manj kot 9 s od začetka naraščanja) pa do padca na vrednost nič. Nastavili smo tudi zavračanje vrhov, ki so manjši Merilnik Shimmer GSR+ za merjenje EDA zajema upornost od 10 kože v kΩ, zato smo najprej naredili pretvorbo upornosti v % največjega vrha. Parametri, ki smo jih pridobili za posamezno opazovano motnjo: prevodnost (v µS). To smo naredili zato, ker je prevodnost v µS - Število SCR-jev na motnjo je mera trenutnega standardna veličina za opazovanje stresnega odziva. Zaradi vzburjenja udeleženca in je število vrhov signala razlik v tonični komponenti, ki so posledica različnih prevodnosti kože. Vrednost nekaj SCR/min nakazuje, da medosebnih lastnosti, smo celoten signal EDA normirali na je udeleženec miren, vrednost nad približno 20 SCR/min začetno vrednost. Vzorčna frekvenca, ki smo jo uporabili za pa nakazuje na stanje vzburjenosti [11]. zajem tega signala, je bila 1000 Hz, nato smo jo pred začetkom - Latenca je časovno trajanje med začetkom dražljaja in analize zmanjšali na 100 Hz. Sledi segmentacija glede na začetkom prvega odziva SCR (v sekundah). dovedene posturalne motnje. Segment je bil definiran kot - Amplituda SCR je razlika med največjo vrednostjo, ki jo območje od začetka motnje do začetka naslednje motnje. doseže posamezen vrh, in vrednostjo pred začetkom Za nadaljnjo analizo smo uporabili program Acqknowledge odziva oz. naraščanja signala EDA. Iščemo povprečno 4.1 (Biopac Systems Inc., USA), ki nam omogoča takojšnji izris, in največjo amplitudo. raznovrstne transformacije in specifične analize različnih bioloških signalov. Najprej smo ločili signal na fazično in tonično komponento s funkcijo »Derive Phasic EDA from 3 REZULTATI Tonic«, ki uporabi visokoprepustni filter z mejno frekvenco 0,05 Hz, da pridobi novo fazično komponento iz podanega začetnega 3.1 Vpliv spremembe smeri posturalne motnje toničnega signala [10]. Uporabili smo algoritem »Locate SCRs«, na stresni odziv ki na podlagi pragovne vrednosti signala (v našem primeru 0,02 µS) v fazični komponenti poišče odzive prevodnosti kože (SCR), Za preverjanje H1 smo prvo in drugo motnjo izvedli v različnih, ki so definirani od trenutka, ko pulz EDA prekorači to pragovno nasprotujočih si smereh. Dva udeleženca sta začela z motnjo v vrednost v omejenem časovnem intervalu (npr. pulzi, ki se smeri naprej, nato pa sta prejela vse preostale motnje v smeri nazaj. Preostala dva udeleženca sta naredila ravno obratno. Na 51 sliki Slika 2 so prikazani rezultati analize EDA pri protokolu smo nakazali smernice za nadaljnje raziskave. Za zanesljivejšo menjava smeri motnje. Prva vrsta prikazuje število odzivov in bolj statistično značilno študijo bomo testirali več oseb. prevodnosti kože (SCR) [št. SCR/motnjo], druga vrsta prikazuje Eksperiment bi v prihodnje lahko razširili še z motnjami v smeri povprečno amplitudo odzivov prevodnosti kože (SCR) [µS], levo-desno in tako upoštevali, da se oseba v realnem okolju giblje tretja vrsta prikazuje največjo amplitudo odzivov prevodnosti v vseh smereh. Znanje o spremembah stresnega odziva med kože (SCR [µS]), četrta pa latenco [s] prvega odziva SCR. Vsi soočanjem s posturalnimi motnjami lahko prispeva k izboljšavi grafi prikazujejo vrednosti, ločene za prvo in drugo dovedeno aplikacij meritev stresa v realnem okolju in odpira nove možnosti motnjo. Parametri v prvem stolpcu so rezultati udeležencev, ki uporabe ter razumevanja človeškega telesa. so prejeli prvo motnjo v smeri nazaj. Drugi stolpec vsebuje rezultate udeležencev, ki so prejeli prvo motnjo v smeri naprej. ZAHVALA Stopnja splošne psihofiziološke vzburjenosti se s spremembo To delo je bilo financirano iz programa EU za raziskave in smeri začetne motnje ni razlikovala. Kljub temu pa vidimo, da so inovacije H2020 (št. 731540, An.Dy). se udeleženci ob spremembi naprej – nazaj pri drugi motnji hitreje in močneje odzvali, na kar nakazujeta zmanjšana latenca in večja vrednost stresnega odziva. LITERATURA [1] W. H. Organization, “Falls,” 2018. [Online]. Available: 3.2 Vpliv ponavljajočih posturalnih motenj na https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/falls. [Accessed: 05-stresni odziv Jun-2019]. [2] D. A. Winter and PEng, “Human balance and posture control during Na vsakega udeleženca je bilo v eni smeri (naprej ali nazaj) standing and walking,” Gait Posture, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 193–214, Sep. 1995, doi: 10.1016. izvedenih devet zaporednih posturalnih motenj iste amplitude, za [3] Physiopedia, “Base of Support.” [Online]. Available: https://www.physio-preverjanje H2. Ker je bila med prvo in drugo motnjo prisotna pedia.com/Base_of_Support. [Accessed: 31-May-2019]. sprememba smeri, smo za analizo ponavljajočih se motenj iste [4] A. P. Shumway-Cook and M.H. Woollacott, Motor control: translating research into clinical practice, 4th ed. 2012. smeri vzeli drugo in deseto izmed vseh motenj, ki predstavljata [5] B. E. Maki and R. S. Whitelaw, “Influence of expectation and arousal on prvo in deveto motnjo v isto smer (naprej ali nazaj). Na sliki center-of-pressure responses to transient postural perturbations.,” J. Vestib. Res. , vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 25–39, 1993. Error! Reference source not found. so prikazani rezultati [6] K. Sibley, “Autonomic Contributions in Compensatory Balance Control,” analize EDA pri protokolu ponavljajoče motnje. Prva vrsta 2009. prikazuje število odzivov prevodnosti kože (SCR) [št. [7] Elaine Nicpon Marieb, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 7th ed. New York: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. SCR/motnjo]. Druga vrsta prikazuje povprečno amplitudo [8] Nacionalni inštitut za javno zdravje, “Stres,” 2014. [Online]. Available: odzivov prevodnosti kože (SCR) [µS]. Tretja vrsta prikazuje https://www.nijz.si/sl/stres. [Accessed: 30-May-2019]. [9] J. Čamernik, M. Azad, L. Peternel, Z. Potocanac, and J. Babič, “Staying največjo amplitudo odzivov prevodnosti kože (SCR [µS]). Četrta on your feet: the effectiveness of posture and handles in counteracting vrsta prikazuje latenco [s] prvega odziva SCR. Vsi grafi balance perturbation,” Ergonomics, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 657–667, 2019, doi: prikazujejo vrednosti ločeno za prvo in drugo dovedeno motnjo. 10.1080/00140139.2018.1559363. [10] J. Mariah Kremer, A. J. Macy, E. Peterlin, and B. Systems, Parametri v prvem stolpcu so rezultati udeležencev, ki so prejeli “AcqKnowledge ® 4 Software Guide For Life Science Research ponavljajoče motnje v smeri naprej. Drugi stolpec vsebuje Applications Data Acquisition and Analysis with BIOPAC Hardware Systems Reference Manual for AcqKnowledge ® 4.” Biopac Systems, rezultate udeležencev, ki so prejeli ponavljajoče motnje v smeri Inc., p. 805, doi: 10.7-10.11. nazaj. [11] S. Ranogajec and G. Geršak, “Measuring site dependency when measuring skin conductance,” Proc. Twenty-third Int. Electrotech. Comput. Sci. Splošna vzburjenost se je po devetih zaporednih motnjah Conf. , pp. 155–158, 2014. zmanjšala ne glede na smer perturbacije. Zmanjšanje splošne vzburjenosti je bilo manjše ob perturbacijah v smeri nazaj. Udeleženci so se hitreje in močneje odzvali na stimulus po deveti zaporedni motnji, na kar nakazujejo povišana povprečna in največja amplituda ter zmanjšana latenca. 4 RAZPRAVA Rezultati prvega dela nakazujejo, da so bili udeleženci po drugi motnji bolj vzburjeni, če so najprej izkusili posturalno motnjo v smeri naprej in nato še v smeri nazaj. Sklepamo, da je vzburjenost narasla po motnji v smeri nazaj, zato ker udeleženci niso imeli vizualnega nadzora nad okolico v smeri premika. Vizualni nadzor (vid) zagotavlja dodatne informacije o dogajanju v okolici. Iz rezultatov drugega dela sklepamo, da se po deveti zaporedni posturalni motnji vidi adaptacijo udeležencev na to posturalno motnjo. Zaradi majhnega števila udeležencev v tem pilotskem eksperimentu so naši rezultati omejeni in niso bili statistično značilni. Nekateri parametri sicer nakazujejo razlike med spremembo smeri posturalne motnje in izvajanjem več zaporednih posturalnih motenj, vendar ne moremo nobene hipoteze potrditi ali ovreči. Z eksperimentom 52 Facial skin temperature during deception Blaž Počervina Ajda Centa Gregor Geršak Fakulteta za elektrotehniko Pedagoška fakulteta Fakulteta za elektrotehniko Univerza v Ljubljani Univerza v Ljubljani Univerza v Ljubljani Ljubljana, Slovenija Ljubljana, Slovenija Ljubljana, Slovenija blaz.pocervina@fe.uni-lj.si centajda@gmail.com gregor.gersak@fe.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT 2 METHOD Measuring peripheral tissue temperature is a well-known Research is based on an experiment with various measurements methodology to assess different physiological states of a body. It of physiological parameters. As a baseline method for is also widely used in a clinical environment. On the other hand, psychophysiological measurements, electrodermal activity measuring facial skin temperature for the identification of the measurements were used [9–12]. In the experiment volunteered psychological state of a person is not so common. This article 24 healthy participants, of those 15 men and 9 women aged from will provide information on non-contact measurements of facial 20 to 45 years old 23,9 ± 5,0. After reviewing the measured temperature in comparison with established psychophysiological parameters, we included data from 9 persons in further analyzes, measuring systems (electro-dermal activity and heart rate) for 24 because, due to incomplete data or inadequately measured participants. The experiment consisted of two different states of parameters. Monitoring parameters were: electrodermal activity, cognitive loads which were expressed through the narration of a skin temperature, and heart rate. Psychological evaluations were true and untrue story. During a narration, on selected regions of done through interviews and standardized STAI-X1 agitation interest (ROI), subjects were monitored using a thermographic questionnaires. camera. Although the results did not show statistically significant differences between the true and untrue story for facial thermal 2.1 ELECTRODERMAL ACTIVITY measurement (in inter-person and intra-person comparison), Electrodermal activity (EDA) is a dermal property that is caused some differences did appear. Results of this study showed, a by different responses in electrical characteristics of the skin critical approach using information on a camera's accuracy, [13]. EDA has two components, the skin conductance level human skin properties, and other technical concerns) is needed (SCL) and skin conductance response (SCR). SCL value when using facial temperature measurements with a describes the level of person psychological excitement, and SCR thermographic camera for a reliable evaluation of different is the number of responses to the stimulus. The peak amplitude psychological states or loads. is typically reached within 1 to 3 s after the onset of the response [14]. EDA was measured with Biopac MP150 system (BIOPAC KEYWORDS Systems, Inc., USA) and unit Biopac GSR 100C connected to Psychophysiology, thermal imaging, facial temperature, silver electrodes on index and ring finger pads of nondominant hand as shown in figure 1. EDA data was processed by BIOPAC deception AcqKnowledge 5.0 software. 1 INTRODUCTION TO THERMAL IMAGING Historically, body temperature measurement for monitoring illness was very important. In early examinations, physicians observed mud when applied to the skin, on areas over the tumor mud was drying faster. First clinical thermometer was developed by Carl Wunderlich in 1868 and its principle is still in use [1]. Thermal imaging camera was invented by Hungarian physicist Kalman Tihanyi in 1929 for anti-aircraft defense in Britain [2]. Firstly thermal imaging cameras were long been in use for specialized law enforcement and military applications and soon later by the fire services [3]. A major development of electronic sensors for infrared radiation was in the early 1940s with indium Figure 1: Illustrated human hand with corresponding antimonide, and the first medical images were made in London signals measured on finger pads. Electrodermal activity on in 1959 – 1961 by a technique called thermogram [1]. Articles the index and ring finger, heart rate on the middle finger, with thermal imaging correlating of psychophysiology are not so and skin temperature on the little finger common but some studies have proven that with thermal imaging one can detect deception or lie with great accuracy [4–8]. 53 2.2 SKIN TEMPERATURE neutral questions designed to relax participant. During this period participant also acclimatizes to room temperature. Skin temperature depends on the blood flow to the subcutaneous Participant is asked to tell two stories, one true and the other un- tissue. It may also depend on external factors such as exercise, true. The stories should last for a maximum of 2 minutes each ambient temperature, or medical condition. The temperature was and should relate to the events of participants previous day. The measured on a little finger pad of the non-dominant hand (Figure participants choose the order of true and untrue stories by 1). Contact temperature measurements were done with Biopac themselves. Before storytelling, a thermographic camera is set to SKT 100C connected to the thermocouple. Contactless skin recording. The recording was started remotely via a computer, temperature measurements were done with a black-body eliminating the disturbance of the experimenter. After calibrated Flir 650sc camera (FLIR Systems, USA). Camera uses storytelling was completed, participants revealed which story a microbolometer type of detector with a resolution of 640 x 480 was true and which not, at the same time, experimenter stopped pixels. The camera was positioned 1 meter in front of the all measurements. At the end of the experiment, participants re- participant. Emissivity was set to 0.98 [15]. We have analyzed solved the STAI-X1 agitation questionnaire. three main regions on the face. Size of regions of interest (ROI) were 2512 pixels for the forehead, 445 pixels for the nose, and 710 pixels for cheeks as seen in figure 2. Sampling frequency was set to 15 frames per second. Temperature was recorded as mean value with standard deviation for each ROI last 100 frames of each story and analyzed with FLIR ResearchIR Max software. Figure 3: Block diagram of experiment flow 3 RESULTS Measurements for forehead and nose were calculated with statistical Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Results showed that forehead temperature between untrue story (Mdn = 35.13) and Figure 2: Capture from video taken with Flir 650sc, marked true story (Mdn = 35.17) does not show statistically significant with positions of ROIs (red - forehead, blue - nose, green – cheeks) differences, Z = –0.451; p < 0.652; r = 0.101. Also, temperature of a nose between untrue (Mdn = 28.54) and true (Mdn =28.53) 2.3 HEART RATE did not show statistically significant differences Z = –0.568; p < 0.570, r = 0.127. For temperature of the cheeks we used two-The heart cycle is the action of the human heart from one tailed test for the dependent samples which showed us there is no heartbeat to another. The cardiac cycle consists of two periods of statistical difference between the untrue story M = 34.04; SD = time when the heart muscle relaxes and fills with blood (diastole) 1.77) and true story (M = 34.07; SD = 1.60) t(8) = –0.214; p = and the time of intense contraction and pumping of blood 0.836. (systole). Heart rate is stable in a healthy adult at a rate of For the EDA, two-tailed paired t-test did not show statistical between 60 and 100 beats per minute. Heart rate was measured difference between untrue story (M = 6.22; SD = 3.03) and true with Biopac module PPG 100C and an optical sensor placed on story (M = 5.78; SD = 2.59) t(8) = 0.627; p < 0.548. the middle finger pad of the nondominant hand (Figure 1). Heart For the finger temperature calculated with statistical rate and heart rate variability were processed with BIOPAC Wilcoxon signed-rank test we did not find statistical difference AcqKnowledge 5.0 software. between untrue story (Mdn = 24.49) and true (Mdn = 24.88) story, Z = –1.035, p < 0.301, r = 0.231. Also, we did not find 2.4 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP statistical difference for heart rate between untrue story (Mdn = Prior measurements, the experimenter records the temperature of 95.66) and true (Mdn = 93.12) story, Z= –0.339; p < 0.734; r = the room, prepares a statement, psychological questionnaires, 0.0759. and calibrates the electrodes to measure the electrodermal activity of the skin. Participant is invited to the room and is asked to turn off cellphone and any other potentially disturbing factors. 4 DISCUSSION Experiment begins with an introduction interview, sensors The major limitations of this study are: i) complexity of the placement on the participants hand (Figure 1), and STAI-X1 psychological phenomena under observation (lying is difficult to agitation questionnaire followed by the experimenter's general induce), ii) moving artefacts due to the physical movement of the 54 face, iii) small number of participants, errors in measurements [4] S. B. Hernán, B. H. L. Sandra, E. N. 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Pollina et al., “Facial skin surface temperature changes during a transparent for IR waves, and the method for measuring ‘concealed information’ test,” Ann. Biomed. Eng., vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 1182–1189, 2006. minimum temperature of a nose compromised the measurements. [8] P. Tsiamyrtzis, J. Dowdall, D. Shastri, I. T. Pavlidis, M. G. Frank, and Also, there was a lot of face movement present in IR video and P. Ekman, “Imaging facial physiology for the detection of deceit,” Int. this made it difficult to determine temperature of an ROI. In some J. Comput. Vis., vol. 71, no. 2, pp. 197–214, 2007. cases, camera performed calibration and focus corrections when [9] N. Gržinič and G. Geršak, “Estimation of measuring uncertainty in psychophysiological measurements due to participants anxiety (Slo: recording in this case we excluded measurements for those Ovrednotenje merilne negotovosti v psihofizioloskih meritvah),” participants. For EDA measurements we excluded participants Elektroteh. 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Biol., vol. 18, no. 5, p. 307, Sep. 1973. 55 Cognitive, Psychological and Social Influence on Spread of COVID-19 Gašper Slapničar Vito Janko Tine Kolenik gasper.slapnicar@ijs.si vito.janko@ijs.si tine.kolenik@ijs.si Jožef Stefan Institute, Jožef Stefan Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute, Jožef Stefan IPS Jamova cesta 39 IPS Jamova cesta 39 Ljubljana, Slovenia Jamova cesta 39 Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia Mitja Luštrek Matjaž Gams mitja.lustrek@ijs.si matjaz.gams@ijs.si Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute Jamova cesta 39 Jamova cesta 39 Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia ABSTRACT section 3 and describe the data in Section 4. We continue with the methodology and experimental setup in Section 5, and conclude We investigated and confirmed the hypothesis that cognitive, with results and discussion in Section 6. psychological and social features of citizens in each country in- fluence the spread of COVID-19 more than any other semantic feature group. Additionally, we investigated five sub-hypotheses 2 RELATED WORK in regards to socio-psychological traits of people and the spread We focused on COVID-19 related work that deals with some prop- of COVID-19, confirming two and rejecting three. Finally, we at- erties of different world regions (typically countries) and com- tempted to obtain deeper understanding of our results by finding pares them to a target variable related to the spread of COVID-19 which individual features within the social psychology group are in that region – with the goal of establishing the relationship most important. between the two. Many authors defined the spread of the disease in different KEYWORDS ways. Most commonly researchers simply used the number of psychology, sociology, covid-19, machine learning, feature analy- daily infections as the metric, which has the weakness of being sis biased towards countries with higher population, but can be normalized per capita [1]. Some other options are also possible, 1 INTRODUCTION such as computing the reproductive rate of the virus, as proposed Since the spring of 2020, Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by Gupta et al. [6]. has increasingly influenced our daily lives. The first wave of The country properties used to investigate the influence on infections started to manifest globally around March, and dif- virus spread were also varied. Most commonly, weather attributes ferent countries reacted differently and with different amounts were investigated [6], as well as indicators of development [1] of success in order to stop the early exponential growth. Coun- and demographics [8]. tries differ from one another in many aspects, such as weather, In terms of machine learning (ML) methods, classical regres- demographics, development, economic strength, etc. Another im- sion (e.g., linear regression) was used predominantly [6], while portant but often overlooked difference between countries is in others used traditional statistical approaches [8], testing for sta-the cognitive, psychological and social features of their citizens. tistically significant correlation between features and target vari- We argue that these are some of the most important factors that ables. might influence the spread of COVID-19, as they in turn influ- Despite the large amount of research conducted in regards ence how much people spend time with each other, how often to COVID-19, the aspect of cognitive, psychological and social they attend social and cultural events, etc. Thus, we focused on influence on the potential spread of COVID-19 has been poorly analysing these features in terms of their influence on spread of researched thus far, to the best of our knowledge. We aim to COVID-19 and their importance compared to other groups of investigate and highlight the importance of the aforementioned features. Additionally, we investigated the importance of indi- influences and hopefully motivate more researchers to consider vidual features that comprise the category of cultural features in this important area. an attempt to investigate if there is a single defining trait that dominates others. 3 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES The rest of this paper is structured as follows: we first inves- Unlike the various different influences on COVID-19 spread that tigate the related work in Section 2, then we list hypotheses in related works focused on, the aim of this study was to concentrate Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal on human behavior in terms of their social psychology, or interac-or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or tion between their cognitive and psychological features and their distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this social behavior. Generally, we believe that these significantly work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner /author(s). affect COVID-19 spread and should therefore be investigated to Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia further understand not only this particular pandemic, but the © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). influence of human behavior on pandemic in general. 56 Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Slapničar, et al. Our primary research hypothesis is that human behavior sta- their group behavior. They have been found to correlate with a tistically significantly affects COVID-19 spread. Furthermore, we number of social phenomena (security, progress, environmental have five secondary hypotheses: outcomes, etc.) [7]. HCDT includes the following dimensions (we did not include Power distance as it did not relate to our (1) People with higher tendencies for social activities (higher goal of finding data that describes phenomena that lie between extraversion) correlate with higher COVID-19 spread. individual and group behavior): (2) People with higher tendencies for social compliance (higher agreeableness) correlate with lower COVID-19 spread. (1) Individualism-collectivism: describes how citizens of a (3) People with higher tendencies for being careful (higher country prefer and care for their in-group. conscientiousness) correlate with lower COVID-19 spread. (2) Uncertainty avoidance: describes how averse citizens of a (4) People with higher tendencies for group consideration country are to uncertainty. (lower individualism) correlate with lower COVID-19 spread. (3) Long-term orientation: describes how traditional citizens (5) People with higher tendencies for desire gratification (higher of a country are in terms of solving society’s questions indulgence) correlate with higher COVID-19 spread. and their proclivity for change and adaptation (higher score means more long-term thinking, more adaptation To investigate our research hypotheses, we turned to data and change). repositories with psychological, cognitive and social features (4) Indulgence: describes the degree to which citizens of a across countries. Since our final dataset will contain other fea- country seek desire fulfilling behavior. tures as well, those will be also investigated. The next section (5) Task- vs. person-orientation: describes preference of citi- describes this data. zens of a country towards tasks versus towards people. 4 DATA Data on B5 questionnaire answers, which was collected from As our aim was to use ML algorithms to investigate the potential Open-Source Psychometrics Project’s public database [9] (un-relationship between cognitive, psychological and social features der "Answers to the IPIP Big Five Factor Markers"), had to be of citizens and the spread of COVID-19 on per-country basis, additionally pre-processed for this research. We processed the we had to obtain and structure suitable data. The cognitive, psy- answers to the questionnaire to get individual personality pro- chological and social features were used as input features and files with the five dimensions for every person. Then we filtered were obtained for as many countries as possible. The spread of the data by only keeping the countries where we had 100 individ- the virus itself was modelled using several binary classes, which uals answering the questionnaire. Afterwards, we averaged the were the targets of our classification. scores by countries to get group personality profile, each country having five dimensions. 4.1 Features on social psychology Finally, we also considered data on levels of a nations’ strength of social norms – referred to as (cultural) tightness-looseness. To research our hypotheses, we did a limited literature review We used the tightness measure from Gelfand and colleagues [3]. to find data spread between features that describe individual The measure captures the strength of norms in a nation and the behavior and features that describes group behavior of societies tolerance for people who violate norms. The final dataset we as a whole. We selected three frameworks with which to work constructed contains 59 countries (meaning 59 instances) with in this research. To account for individual behavior, the Big Five 11 features. personality traits model [5] was selected, along with a feature The dataset can now be related to the hypotheses: 1) for secon preferred interpersonal distances [11]. To account for group ondary hypothesis 1, extraversion will be used for correlation; 2) behavior, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory [7] was selected. for secondary hypothesis 2, agreeableness will be used for corre- The Big five personality traits model (B5) identifies five or- lation; 3) for secondary hypothesis 3, conscientiousness will be thogonal dimensions which supposedly reflect an individual’s used for correlation; 4) for secondary hypothesis 4, individualism- personality and psyche. B5 is measured with a questionnaire. collectivism will be used for correlation; 5) for secondary hypoth- Extensive research has found significant statistical connections esis 5, indulgence will be used for correlation. with a number of human behaviors (decision-making, crime, vot- ing, health behavior, educational outcomes, etc.) [2]. B5 includes 4.2 Virus spread classes the following dimensions: We chose three distinct binary classes, each having two possible (1) Openness: describes how inventive or curious someone is. values: a country is considered positive if its infection rate, given (2) Conscientiousness: describes how careful, efficient or orthe chosen metric, is faster than half the countries analyzed. The ganized someone is. class value was always computed in country-specific time frame, (3) Extraversion: describes how outgoing or energetic some- starting when the testing was adequate in a country according one is. to the recommendation given by the World Health Organization (4) Agreeableness: describes how friendly or compassionate (WHO), and ending when at least 3 countermeasures of sufficient someone is. intensity were applied. This intensity was marked with an integer (5) Neuroticism: describes how sensitive or nervous someone in the range from 0 to 4 in the Oxford Covid-19 Government is. Response Tracker [12], and we took value 2 as the threshold. Data on preferred interpersonal distances comes from human spatial behavior research [11] and describes how comfortable 4.2.1 Daily number of infections (daily average). The first calcu- people are in regards to different distance boundaries when in lated metric was the daily number of infections, averaged over contact with other people. the appropriate time interval and normalized based on the coun- Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory (HCDT) identifies six try population. This metric is the most intuitive and commonly orthogonal dimensions that describe a country’s values that drive reported. 57 Cognitive, Psychological and Social Influence on Spread of COVID-19 Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia 4.2.2 Reproductive rate. The reproductive rate 𝑅 is a metric it computes how much each feature decreases the weighted im- 0 commonly used by virologists to determine the severity of an purity in this tree. This impurity decrease is then summed up infection. Simply put, it estimates how many new infected are over all the trees in the forest to form the feature importance. generated by each currently infected. We then summed feature importances within each previously To estimate the reproductive rate we used the SIR model [10]. defined group to compare the aggregate importance of groups. For details on the computation of the values, we refer the reader This was done for each of the three virus spread classes. to the original paper. 5.2 Individual feature importance 4.2.3 Exponential shape. The last metric we calculated was the Once we estimated feature groups importance, we turned our shape of the infection time series. An exponential shape indicates focus to analysis of individual features within social psychology that the number of infections is raising fast, and is likely to group. We investigated whether an individual or small set of continue. To determine if the growth is exponential, we fitted features dominate a group in regards to importance, or is the both a linear and an exponential curve to the data. After both importance rather evenly spread. We did this for each of the three were fitted, the one with the lower error was chosen as the better classes using three different methods. Additionally, this gives us fit. If the exponential fit was better, the class value for this metric information about specific best features within the group, which was positive. allows for potential expert interpretation. Once the class was determined, we could split the countries into infected, non-infected and those for which we do not have (1) RF feature importances: First, we again used the out- enough data, based on each of the three classes. An intuitive of-the-box feature importances of RF to compare the im- display of the split is shown in Figure 1, where countries are portance of individual features. colored based on the number of positive virus spread classes. (2) Statistical testing: Second, we used statistical tests de- pending on the type of feature (continuous, categorical, binary, normally distributed, non-normally distributed). The feature values of countries positive with respect to a class were compared to those negative with respect to a class. We used the T-test, Mann-Whitney U-test and Fisher- exact test, respectively, for continuous normal features, continuous non-normal features, and binary features. (3) Wrapper method: Third, we developed a custom feature selection wrapper method similar to the one used in our related work [4], which did the following: the features were first sorted using RF feature importance (as before). Then, if two features were correlated (Pearson coefficient > 0.7) we discarded the lower ranking one. We started by Figure 1: All countries, colored based on how many infec- using only the best feature for the classification. Then, we tion classes are positive. If all of them are positive, the iteratively added the next best one, but only kept it if it did color is light red, and conversely gets darker for every neg- not decrease the classification accuracy by more than two ative one. Countries without sufficient data are gray. Note percentage points. This method improves upon the first that the data is from spring 2020, showing only the early one by considering internal correlations between features. spread. The five secondary hypotheses were investigated using corre- lation analysis, by computing the correlation between the values 5 METHODOLOGY of the selected individual feature relevant for the hypothesis, and the daily average class. We did this to get a deeper understand- We first focused on testing our hypothesis of social psychology ing and potentially new knowledge of exactly which features feature group being among the most important in the spread of influence acceptance or rejection of our hypotheses. COVID-19 compared to other feature groups describing a country. After confirming our initial hypothesis, we then investigated 6 EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS importance of individual features within this group. Aggregate RF feature importances for each group and each class 5.1 Feature group importance are given in Table 1. Looking at the average importance, we see that the social psychology group of features proved the most We obtained over 100 different country-describing features in important, alongside development, confirming our initial hypoth- order to compare them against the social psychology group, and esis. to investigate our primary hypothesis, which was that the so- The importances of top 5 individual features within the social cial psychology group is highly important. To do this, we first psychology group for all three classes is given in Table 2. The grouped all other individual features into the following semantic importances were evaluated using the three different feature groups: weather, travel, health, economy, development, geogra- importance methods described previously. phy, countermeasures. We then evaluated the importance of each Finally, the evaluation of our initial secondary hypotheses feature group using a Random Forest (RF) classifier. The model using correlation analysis is given in Table 3. was trained using all the features and individual feature impor- tances were obtained out of the box via the feature_importance 7 CONCLUSION property of the model, which is available in the scikit-learn im- plementation. In summary, this metric trains an RF classifier We investigated the cognitive, psychological and social influ- consisting of a number of different trees. When training a tree, ence on spread of COVID-19. Comparing against other semantic 58 Information society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia Slapničar, et al. Table 1: Aggregate feature ranking using RF feature score. showing high correlation between extroversion and individu- Values are normalized (sum to 1). alism and higher virus spread. This shows that the cognitive, psychological and social features are among the most important in relation to spread of COVID-19 and should be investigated Repr. rate Exp. Daily avg. Average more thoroughly. Weather 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.09 Social psychology 0.18 0.21 0.14 0.18 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Travel 0.12 0.08 0.18 0.13 This work is part of the ongoing research at the Department of Economy 0.15 0.13 0.09 0.12 Intelligent Systems, Jožef Stefan Institute. It is a subset of a larger Development 0.16 0.18 0.12 0.18 COVID-19-related research, which is subject to potential future Geography 0.12 0.06 0.11 0.10 publications. The authors also acknowledge the financial support Health 0.11 0.19 0.11 0.14 from the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). Countermeasures 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.04 REFERENCES Table 2: Individual feature ranking using RF feature score, [1] Rodrigo M Carrillo-Larco and Manuel Castillo-Cara. 2020. statistical testing and wrapper method. Top 5 features and Using country-level variables to classify countries accord- corresponding scores are shown. ing to the number of confirmed covid-19 cases: an un- supervised machine learning approach. Wellcome Open Research, 5, 56, 56. RF feature importance (higher is better) [2] P.T. Costa and R.R. McCrae. 2013. Personality in Adulthood: Repr. rate Exp. Daily avg. A Five-Factor Theory Perspective. Taylor & Francis. isbn: Tightness (0.071) EST_perc (0.053) AGR_perc (0.032) 9781135459703. EST_perc (0.014) Masculinity (0.017) Individual. (0.024) [3] Michele J Gelfand, Jana L Raver, Lisa Nishii, Lisa M Leslie, OPN_perc (0.013) Individual. 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Oxford covid-19 government re- groups of features describing countries, we showed that the social sponse tracker. https://github.com/OxCGRT/covid- policy- psychology group has the highest feature importance alongside tracker. development. Additionally, we found that there is no single dom- inant feature in our set of 11 in the social psychology group, but instead the importance is spread among several. We also used correlation analysis to confirm two out of our five hypotheses, 59 Od orodja do umetnika From Tool to Artist Neža Marija Slosar Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Ljubljana, Slovenija neza.m.slosar@gmail.com POVZETEK odveč razmišljanje s perspektive, da kot civilizacija nismo na povsem novem prelomu. V prispevku se ukvarjam z odnosom med umetnostjo in umetno Na spletni strani združenja UI-umetnikov je kot začetnik na inteligenco (v nadaljevanju tudi UI). Podrobneje se ukvarjam z časovnici UI umetnikov naveden Thomas Bayes, ki je "z uporabo odnosom med orodjem pri umetniškem ustvarjanju in samim matematike razvil okvir za sklepanje o verjetnosti dogodkov, ustvarjalcem. To me pripelje do vprašanja avtorstva ter upoštevajoč pogoje ali druge dogodke, ki lahko na dogodek primerjavo med umetniškim ustvarjanjem kot obrtjo ali kot vplivajo. Zahvaljujoč njegovemu delu je Bayesov sklep vplival produktom umetniškega genija (tudi Genij)1. na pristope pri strojnem učenju in predstavlja enega najzgodnejših mejnikov na časovni premici umetne KLJUČNE BESEDE inteligence.(op. prev. p.) [4]" Njegova spoznanja so nato v 50. umetnost, umetna inteligenca, avtorstvo, ustvarjanje, orodje letih prejšnjega stoletja nadgradili in so vplivala tudi na razvoj računalništva – v tem času, in sicer leta 1950, pa je tudi ABSTRACT pomemben avtor Isaac Asimov izdal zbirko kratkih zgodb I robot, In this paper, I deal with the relationship between art and v kateri se poigrava z možnimi scenariji inteligentnih strojev v artificial intelligence (hereinafter also AI). I deal in more detail prihodnosti. with the relationship between the tool in artistic creation and the V zadnjem času beležimo še nekaj pomembnih mejnikov, in creator himself. This brings me to the question of authorship and sicer so leta 2018 na dražbi prodali sliko UI, ki se je učila od a comparison between artistic creation as a craft or as a product številnih umetnikov, za 432.500 $. AIVA velja za prvega of artistic genius. virtualnega umetnika, čigar dela so registrirana kot avtorska (z avtorskimi pravicami) pri SACEM (Société des auteurs, KEYWORDS compositeurs et éditeurs de musique – Združenje glasbenih art, artificial intelligence, authorship, creation, tool avtorjev, umetnikov in založnikov). Dokončanje 10. simfonije Ludwiga van Beethovna s pomočjo UI pa pričakujemo v letu 2020. 1 Umetna inteligenca na področju umetnosti Sprva želim orisati zgodovinski preplet med umetniškim ustvarjanjem in razvojem umetne inteligence ter opozoriti na 2 Umetna inteligenca – orodje ali umetnik ključne mejnike na tem polju. V osnovi umetniška dela temeljijo na fikcionalnosti in možnosti ustvarjanja dogodka, sveta, ki nastane pod točno določenimi, zapisanimi pogoji, kar definira literarna teorija. Da ne gre za željo po napovedovanju prihodnosti ali izdelovanju čim bolj natančnih modelov prihodnosti, ampak bolj za umetniško obdelavo informacij o družbi in svetu ter z domišljijo kreiranje najrazličnejših svetov. Zato tudi ne preseneča uporaba oz. povezovanje umetne inteligence z razvojem tehnologije in umetnosti, četudi se na prvo roko zdi umetnost zelo konvencionalna. Takšno prepričanje je morda nekoliko naivno, saj je že samo risanje na stene, ohranjanje snovne kulturne dediščine zahtevalo uporabo novih tehnologij, zato morda ni Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and Slika 1: Shematični prikaz rekurzivne nevronske mreže, na the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). kateri temelji delovanje UI. [16] Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). 1 Pri tem je genij razumljen po konceptu Denisa Diderota, ki ga je oblikoval v 18. stoletju. [11] 60 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia N. Slosar Za začetek se mi zdi za razumevanja samega koncepta binarne pomemben z vidika, da nam dejstvo, da nekaj lahko okličemo za opozicije med umetnikom in orodjem potrebno izpostaviti zavestno entiteto, takoj preseže pojmovanje tega kot samega temelje tega odnosa, ki nas lahko v nadaljevanju pripelje do orodja. Z drugimi besedami, če lahko UI v katerem koli smislu natančnejše opredelitve razmerja med njima. V osnovi je jemljemo za kaj več kot le orodje, predhodi vprašanju, če lahko pomembno, da umetniki vedo, s čim delajo in kaj so prednosti in UI okličemo za umetnika, za nekoga (nekaj), ki ustvarja iz slabosti tega. Nevronske mreže so danes najbolj napredni strojni lastnega navdiha oz. predvsem lastne želje po ustvarjanju. Pri "možgani" in osnova delovanja v razvijanju umetne inteligence, tem tudi ni zanemarljivo vprašanje, ki si ga je zastavil Hartman, saj "imajo sposobnost razločevanja in izločevanja informacij iz profesor angleškega jezika in kreativnega pisanja na Connecticut kompliciranih in nejasnih vzorcev" [18]. Katarina Mramor College New London, in sicer: " čemu in komu bi bil tak program opozarja tudi na njihove kritične točke – učni primeri, ki morajo [ki bi generiral poezijo samostojno (iz nič)] sploh potreben" [15]. biti zelo pozorno izbrani, saj je od njih odvisno, kaj bo končen V združenju UI-umetnikov na vprašanje, če so lahko stroji rezultat nevronske mreže. Učne primere izbirajo ljudje, zato je kreativni, odgovarja umetnik Ahmed Elgammal, ki se ukvarja s treba biti pazljiv, da nenamerno ne vnesemo preveč črno belih točno tem področjem. Ahmed Elgammal izhaja iz ideje, da primerov, ki bi temeljili na kupu subjektivnih predpostavk, ki se strojev ne moremo imenovati za inteligentne, dokler ti ne bodo jih mogoče niti ne zavedamo in lahko vsebujejo problematične razumeli in ustvarjali tudi "kulture" (vizualno, zvočno umetnost, etične odločitve; česar se potem nauči tudi nevronska mreža in literaturo in šale). jih nadalje širi brez problematiziranja, dokler se v praksi (npr. Izhodišče za stroje se loči od človeka po tem, ker lahko UI pravu, varnosti …) odločitve ne izkažejo za problematične ali prečeše čisto vse, kar je kadar koli nastalo, v nasprotju s vsaj vprašljive. človekom lahko pozna čisto vsa dela ter ve informacije o Tudi združenje umetnikov UI se ukvarja s problematičnimi nastanku, kritike in razlage, ki so ob tem nastale. Vendar se točkami v interakciji med umetno inteligenco ter človekom. Pri Elgammal zaveda, da ta baza in potem posnemanje še ne pomeni tem združenje nagovarja neodgovorjena vprašanja, kjer vidi ustvarjanje nečesa novega, kar želi doseči s svojimi projekti. izzive na področju definiranja vrednot (kaj so človeške in kaj so Nadalje pa na vprašanje, kako želi to doseči ponudi odgovor, ki nečloveške), obdelavi oz. naboru podatkov, ki jih damo učiti pravzaprav ponovno vodi k razvoju orodij. UI predstavi nevronskim mrežam, varnosti osebnih podatkov ter samem predvsem kot partnerja (z moje perspektive še vedno orodje), ki delovanju nevronskih mrež. [5] bo umetniku (človeku) odkrivalo nove umetniške poti in ideje. Nekateri znanstveniki na naštete izzive odgovarjajo zelo To utemelji s primerom fotoaparata, ki je pomenil zelo proaktivno in programirajo "okvirje" oz. načela, ki naj bi pomembno revolucijo sprva v vizualni umetnosti, kasneje pa poskrbela za "samoodgovorno vedênje" UI. Primer slednjega je veliko širše – zvok, film, fotografija … Tako naj bi tudi raziskovalni center "The Institute for Ethical AI & Machine tehnološki razvoj v prihodnje nudil revolucije v umetnosti, Learning", ki je formalno stacioniran v Veliki Britaniji, vendar vendar če natančno beremo, še vedno govorimo o pripomočkih, ga sestavljajo raziskovalci, prostovoljci različnih strok (inženirji ki jih upravlja in si jih želi, razvije, potrebuje človek. [1] strojnega učenja, podatkovni znanstveniki, pisci pravilnikov in Ob tem, ko smo s pomočjo namere in želje po umetniškem profesorji skupine STEM2, humanisti in družboslovci). Njihova ustvarjanju skušali pokazati, da je za to potrebna zavest; se pri vizija je: "Minimizirati tveganja UI in omogočiti njeno polno tem kot še bolj problematično pokaže pomembno filozofsko delovanje znotraj okvirjev, ki zagotavljajo etični in zavedni vprašanje svobodne volje. Na tem mestu moj cilj ni raziskovati razvoj projektov, povezanih z UI na vseh področjih delovanja, v širine tega vprašanja, ampak na podlagi petih Hodgsonovih vseh industrijskih panogah" (The Institute for Ethical AI & trditev ugotoviti, v kolikšni meri te veljajo za sodobno umetno Machine Learning). inteligenco. 2.1 Vprašanje zavesti in svobodne volje – kako "Kaj torej pomeni 'govorjenje o svobodni volji'? preseči Kakšne so zdravorazumske intuicije o svobodni orodje volji? Intuicije človeka, ki ni filozof ali kognitivni Kljub izjemnemu tehnološkemu napredku še vedno ostaja odprto znanstvenik, in ni pristranski. Hodgson (2005) meni, vprašanje, ki si ga znotraj kognitivne znanosti zastavljajo da bi taka oseba podala naslednji fenomenološki znanstveniki, programerji, filozofi …, če bomo lahko kadar koli opis, kako je biti svoboden, zavesten akter umetno inteligenco razumeli povsem samostojno, neodvisno, (Hodgson, 2005, p. 3): samozavedno. Torej, če bomo vedno lahko govorili le o vse bolj - Zavedamo se izbiranja odločitev. - Imamo občutek, da smo mi začetniki naših dejanj. dodelanih, izboljšanih in uporabnih orodij (človeka) ali dejansko - Včasih tehtamo alternative, včasih sledimo o nečemu/nekomu, ki je zmožen tega "samoustvarjanja", navadam. ustvarjanja iz sebe v ideji bolj kot v izvedbi, saj takoj, ko - Zavedamo se posledic dejanj, ki smo jih storili. preidemo na zmožnost nečesa izvesti, že govorimo o (bolj ali - Imamo se odgovorne za svoja dejanja" [17]. manj samostojnem) orodju. Kot najbolj znan primer poskusa odgovora na to vprašanje je Turingov test, kjer naj bi se stroj Na podlagi zapisanega ne moremo najnovejšim nevronskim obnašal tako "človeško", da bi pretental samega človeka. Na področju filozofije tako pridemo do problema mrežam pripisati niti ene od petih trditev zares, saj se nevronska (upravičenja) zavesti. Odgovor na to je v pričujočem prispevku mreža še vedno niti ne zaveda, ampak skuša čim bolj učinkovito 2 STEM je angleška kratica za Science (naravoslovne znanosti), Technology (tehnologija), Engineering (strojništvo) and Mathematics (matematika). 61 Od orodja do umetnika Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia izvršiti ukaz, opraviti nalogo. Po drugi strani, pa bi zelo težko o umetniku, ampak o človeškem pripomočku, ki ga razvijalci sploh v umetnosti lahko rekli, da ne gre pri ustvarjanju za razumejo kot del razširjene kognicije (človeka), saj ima podobno svobodno voljo umetnika. funkcijo delovanja pri pisanju glasbe, kot jo lahko ima npr. zemljevid na telefonu pri orientaciji. Trenutno najbolj znan projekt je dokončanje Beethovnove 3 Kje se konča programiranje in začne desete simfonije, kar bodo naredili s pomočjo umetne umetnost? inteligence. Informacija o tem se je razširila konec leta 2019, Če se na tem mestu ne ukvarjamo s tem, kako čustva vplivajo na simfonijo pa naj bi izvedel simfonični orkester 28. aprila 2020 v odločanje, ne moremo prezreti dejstva, da je v umetnosti v ozadje Bonnu (rojstnem mestu skladatelja). Zaradi pandemije je bil postavljeno samo razumsko reševanje nalog, saj postane zgolj koncert odpovedan, novic o tem, kako napreduje ta projekt, pa racionalnost v okviru umetnosti banalna. Na umetnost se že mi ni uspelo zaslediti. Nekaj vzorcev komponiranja UI je moč dolgo več ne gleda zgolj obrtniško, ampak se ji pripisuje estetsko slišati na spletni strani: vlogo in vpliv "čustev na čustva". Pravzaprav je včasih telekom.com/de/konzern/themenspecials/special-beethoven-merodajna uspešnost prevoda ustvarjalca, da čim uspešnejše jahr-2020/beethovens-unvollendete. Pri projektu sodeluje oz. je preda svoja občutja. Razvoj UI zaenkrat temelji na sodelovalo (poleg vseh strokovnjakov UI) veliko število prepoznavanju človeških čustvenih odzivov na podlagi fizičnih muzikologov in poznavalcev Beethovnove glasbe in obdobja, znakov (prepoznavanja gest, obraza, glasu, …), kar je še daleč zato je projekt skrbno nadzorovan in voden tudi s strani od človeške empatije in predvsem daleč od čustvenega umetniške stroke, ki opozarja na nepogrešljive dele. Želja je doživljanja oz. odzivanja same UI. namreč pokazati, da je pri tovrstni uporabi stroj lahko tako dober Je pa razvoj umetne inteligence poleg inovativnosti v in učinkovit kot človek, saj tovrsten pristop predstavlja za umetnosti prinesel tudi ogledalo, saj nam nudi reflektivni številne konvencionalne klasične strokovnjake zelo grob poseg, premislek o tem, kdaj umetnost preseže obrtniškost, kdaj preseže ki nima možnosti za uspeh. programiranje, do katere mere so ljudje, ki ustvarjajo z UI Na tem mestu se lahko vprašamo, zakaj smo prepričani, da programerji, kdaj pa postanejo umetniki oz. ali lahko tudi umetno bi človeški obrtniški prepisovalci, dokončevalci umetniških del inteligenco okličemo za umetnico? Kdaj delo upraviči estetsko bili uspešnejši od UI, saj gre v obeh primerih za zelo podoben funkcijo3, da ga lahko imenujemo umetnost? način učenja (nadaljevanja vzorca glede na pravila in vhodne Konkretno lahko odgovore iščemo pri samih dosežkih UI podatke), pri čemer lahko strojni algoritmi hkrati obdelujejo in zadnjih let. Oktobra 2018 je bil v Timu objavljen članek, kjer delajo z veliko več (specifičnimi) podatki kot učenci, ki so to piše, da so na dražbi Christie's prvič prodali delo, sliko, ki jo je počeli pred stoletji. Ob tem se ne ukvarjamo z vprašanjem Genija ustvarila UI. Prodali so jo za 45-kratnik izhodiščne cene (za – torej, v čem je genialnost samega Beethovna in zakaj on to je, 432.500 $). Slika nosi naslov Portret Edmonda Belamyja. medtem ko ostalim njegovim sodobnikom to ni uspelo – ampak Algoritem se je učil na 15.000 portretih različnih slikarjev od 14. povsem obrtniškim vprašanjem, nadaljevanje glasbenega vzorca, do 20. stoletja, v desni spodnji kot pa se je tudi podpisal – v ležeči kjer mnogokrat ni nujno potreben kreativni proces, ampak gajici je izpisal svoj algoritem [21]: predvsem natančnost. Zato sem mnenja, da se mora včasih tudi človek zavedati svojih omejitev oz. egoizma. Z uporabo UI lahko 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝔼𝑥[log⁡(𝐷(𝑥))] + 𝔼𝑧[log⁡(1 − 𝐷(𝐺(𝑧)))] 𝐺 𝐷 tudi v umetnosti odkrivamo nove, še nepoznane svetove, pri čemer se moramo tako, kot se zavedamo vseh omejitev UI, Nadalje predstavljam projekt AIVA (Artificial Intelligence zavedati tudi svojih, človeških. Virtual Artist). V opisu piše, da gre za virtualno umetnico, ki je zmožna komponiranja glasbenih podlag za filme, video igre, oglase in nasploh prosti čas. Algoritem se je učil od številnih del 4 Zaključek klasičnih skladateljev (Mozarta, Beethovna, Bacha, …), iz česar V prispevku sem orisala veliko podpodročje kognitivne znanosti se je razvil model, ki naj bi razumel, kaj je glasba. Ta model – uporablja Aiva za komponiranje povsem edinstvene glasbe. Aiva umetno inteligenco – in jo umestila v kontekst umetniškega ustvarjanja. Ugotovila sem, da z vključevanjem UI v umetnost je postala prvi virtualni umetnik, katerega stvaritve so avtorsko priznane s strani združenja SACEM. Na u postaja ta interdisciplinarna v širšem smislu, kot je bilo to do radni spletni strani dodajajo, da ti dosežki ne pomenijo, da bo Aiva zamenjala sedaj, saj zahteva tudi veliko tehnološkega, programerskega znanja. Vračajo se številni etični pomisleki, do kateri glasbenike, skladatelje, ampak gre za nadaljevanje sodelovanja h se je treba med človekom in strojem. Ustvarjalci menijo, da komponiranje opredeliti, ter filozofske predpostavke, ki se jih mora zavestno z UI omogoča nove pristope v glasbi. Zato jo tudi oglašujejo za sprejeti, zato da se lahko UI nadalje uspešno razvija. primerno za vse vrste uporabnikov (od preprostih poslušalcev, Ključno in osrednje vprašanje prispevka je bilo, ali je lahko umetna inteligenca, ki ustvarja, že sama po sebi umetnik? Ali novincev v komponiranju do profesionalnih glasbenikov) – AIVA asistira pri kreativnih procesih človeka, tako kot so v smo že presegli uporabo stroja kot orodja ali je ta še vedno v zgodovini veliki umetniki imeli svoje učence, lahko imajo domeni človeka in njegovega uporabljanja? zdajšnji umetniki UI pomočnike, ki jim pomagajo skrajšati čas V samem bistvu še ne moremo govoriti o samostojni umetni za dokončanje skladb. Aiva lahko komponira v že ustaljenih inteligenci, ampak govorimo o vse bolj in bolj izboljšanih stilih ali po vzoru "vpliva", ki ga naložimo sami orodjih, človeških pripomočkih, katerim v vsakem primeru [3]. Če kritično predhodi človek (kot programer ali s podatkovno bazo, iz katere presodimo prebrano, lahko ponovno ugotovimo, da ne govorimo 3 Sklicujem se na definicijo estetske funkcije po Romanu Jakobsonu, ki jo je opredelil v Lingvistiki in poetiki. 62 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia N. Slosar se UI uči), pri čemer lahko dopustimo misel, da so tudi ta orodja [8] 2020. Beethoven-Jahr 2020. Telekom. (september 2020). že del razširjene kognicije https://www.telekom.com/de/konzern/themenspecials/special-beethoven- , saj odpirajo tudi v svetu umetnosti jahr-2020. povsem nove pristope, načine dela in svetove, ki jih do sedaj še [9] 2020. CHAI. Center for Human-Compatible AI. https://humancompatible.ai/. [10] James Crowder. Artificial Psychology: The Psychology of AI. ResearchGate. nismo videli. Karas v svoji diplomski nalogi: marec 2012. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235219143_Artificial_Psychology_ "smiselnost računalniških generatorjev poezije vidi The_Psychology_of_AI. [11] predvsem v obliki 'pametnih orodij', s katerimi človeški Hebert Dieckmann. 1941. Diderot's Conception of Genius. Journal of the History of Ideas, 2, 2, 151–182. doi:10.2307/2707111. pesnik ustvarja poezijo, narejeno s pomočjo [12] Sašo Dolenc, 2017. Kako zgraditi umetne možgane. Kvarkadabra. (avgust računalnika: 2017). 'Kot povsod drugje, hibridni pristop https://kvarkadabra.net/2017/08/kako-zgraditi-umetne-mozgane/. [13] 2007. External cognition. EduTech Wikipedia. (november 2007). združuje (domnevno) najboljše vseh različnih svetov. http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/External_cognition. Računalniki kljub napredku UI še ne 'razumejo' jezika, [14] Mathieu Foulkes. 2019. AI puts final notes on Beethoven's Tenth Symphony. Tech Xplore. (december 2019). https://techxplore.com/news/2019-12-ai- kot ga razumemo ljudje, toda po isti logiki se ljudje beethoven-tenth-symphony.html. težko primerjajo (z računalniki, op. p.) po lahkotnosti [15] Jure Karas. 2016. Računalniško generiranje poezije. Diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta igranja na polju jezika.'" [15] [16] Cory Maklin. 2019. LSTM Recurrent Neural Network Keras Example. towards data science. (junij 2019). https://towardsdatascience.com/machine-learning- Ob tem je takoj sledilo še vprašanje, kdaj lahko govorimo o recurrent-neural-networks-and-long-short-term-memory-lstm-python-keras- example-86001ceaaebc. resnični umetnosti, o umetniškem delu. Čeprav je to vprašanje [17] Olga Markič. 2011. Kognitivna znanost: filozofska vprašanja. Maribor: Aristej, prisotno, odkar rečemo nečemu umetnost oz. od začetka [18] Katarina Mramor. 2007. Nevronske mreže. Seminarska naloga. Ljubljana: človeštva, se je pokazalo, da nam nudi svež pogled ravno umetna Fakulteta za matematiko in fiziko. [19] Nikolaj Pečenko. 2006. Zgodovina osebnih računalnikov. Monitor. inteligenca, saj se kot očitno pokaže, da ne moremo soditi samo https://www.monitor.si/clanek/zgodovina-osebnih-racunalnikov/122478/. po končn [20] Bojan Ploj. 2017. Umetna inteligenca - Nevronske mreže (3.del). ResearchGate. em izdelku, da lahko UI ustvarja določene generične https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315897957_Umetna_inteligenca_- izdelke enako dobro ali še boljše kot ljudje. Zato moramo _Nevronske_mreze_3del. odgovore ponovno iskati v sami funkciji umetniškega dela in [21] Casey Quackenbush. 2018. A Painting Made by Artificial Intelligence Has Been Sold at Auction for $432,500. Time. 26. oktober. avtorja, iskati moramo pri izvoru in namenu ustvarjanja in ne https://time.com/5435683/artificial-intelligence-painting-christies/. zgolj presojati rezultata. V luči tega se je v zaključku izrisal še [22] Maddy Shaw Roberts. 2019. Beethoven’s unfinished tenth symphony to be en premislek, in sicer po ponovni človeški samorefleksiji – completed by artificial intelligence. Classic fM. (December 2019). ali je https://www.classicfm.com/composers/beethoven/news/computer-completes- sploh nujno, da UI jemljemo kot konkurentko in nanjo gledamo unfinished-tenth-symphony/. kot človek na človeka, ali gre mogoče za nov odnos? [23] Richard Routledge. 2018. Bayes's theorem. Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/topic/Bayess-theorem. [24] 2020. SACEM. https://www.sacem.fr/en. [25] 2020. Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Wikipedia. 5 REFERENCE (januar 2020). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathe [1] 2020. AIartists. https://aiartists.org/. matics. [2] 2020. AIArtists. Creative Tools to Generate AI Art. https://aiartists.org/ai- [26] Jonathan Shaw. 2019. Artificial Intelligence and Ethics. 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(december 2019) Fakulteta za računalništvo in informatiko, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2019/12/13/entertainment- [30] Vladimir Zwass. 2019. Neural network. Encyclopaedia Britannica. news/artificial-intelligence-puts-final-notes-beethovens-10th-symphony/. https://www.britannica.com/technology/neural-network. 63 Social Media Use & Digital Stress Among Adolescents Simon Šalomon Dayana Hristova MEi:CogSci Faculty of Psychology University of Ljubljana University of Vienna Ljubljana, Slovenia Vienna, Austria simon.salomon@protonmail.com dayana.hristova@univie.ac.at ABSTRACT psychological distress and various negative effects or emotions connected to it [5][6][7][8]. This is a case study presenting ways in which adolescents perceive social media as a stressor, at the empirical example of Snapchat. Despite the overall positive or neutral reception of 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND social media, in semi-structured expert interviews (N=6), Viennese adolescents shared about various stressful experiences 2.1 Social media as stressors that can be summarized under the following categories: feeling A stressor can be described as a trigger that afflicts an smothered by peer pressure to be constantly available online/ organism and is capable of causing internal physical, mental and respond to messages; being upset over losing a streak or being emotional responses. Social media can be understood as a social scolded for it; being annoyed when receiving pointless content stressor defined as any environment that an individual considers and feeling as if they spend too much time online. These stressors demanding, challenging, or in any way threatening [9]. are discussed with regard to existing digital stress and Snapchat A growing body of literature on the intersection between Streaks literature, with a particular focus on the issue of social and clinical psychology shows possible connections or maintaining closeness between peers online. correlations between the new information and communication technologies – social media platforms, and an increased risk of KEYWORDS emotional problems, e. g. psychological distress [5][6][7][8][10]. social media, digital stress, Snapchat, gamification Considering SNS’s pivotal role in the life of adolescents, it is crucial to scrutinize the effects of social media usage on youth (SMU), as well as their evaluations of their own SMU. 1 INTRODUCTION By removing ’’ spatial and time constrains that were inherent 2.2 Social media & psychological distress among in traditional methods of communications’’, social networking teens sites (SNS) are nowadays becoming the primary medium for a The term psychological distress refers to an ‘‘ unpleasant plethora of activities, such as accessing information, passing feeling or emotion often characterized by symptoms of time, working on one’s representation of reality and depression and anxiety’’, e. g. loss of interest, sadness, communicating with peers [1]. SNS such as Facebook, Instagram restlessness [11]. Usually described as ‘‘non-specific mental and Snapchat are attracting billions of daily active users of all health problem’’, it covers a wide spectrum, ranging from ages and shape communication cultures especially among the so ordinary feelings of vulnerability and negative emotions to fears called “digital natives” [2] - adolescents growing up with social or problems that can become disabling [12]. media as one of the default ways to connect to others. The section below describes evidence from psychological Adolescence is a particularly sensitive period for ’’ personal and research that social media platforms, may be experienced as social identity formation’’ [3], and, nowadays social media are stressors potentially leading to psychological distress and various being integral part of this development and teens’ social negative effects associated with it [10]. experience in general. Seeking to shed light on the role social Keles et al. did a systemic review of the influence of social media play in the emotional life of youths, we investigate which media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in aspects of gamified social media [4] are perceived as stressful by adolescents [7]. Although the link between social media usage them. Based on an analysis of six semi-structured expert and mental health problems is not always straightforward, their interviews with Viennese adolescents, this paper presents research clearly indicates ‘‘ a meaningful relationship between situations, in which adolescents experience social media as a social media use and depression’’ [13]; ‘‘ a statistically source of stress, which could potentially lead to experiencing significant relationship between social media use and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents’’ [14]; ‘‘ a correlation between problematic use and psychological distress in Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed adolescents and young adults’’ [15]. for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full A combination of various causes such as unrealistic citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must expectations of one’s own performance, heavy SMU, specific be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society ’20, October 5–9, 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia changes in adolescents’ brain linked to ‘‘ limited capacity for self- © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). regulation’’ and ‘‘ vulnerability to peer pressure’’ makes teens particularly vulnerable group for potential experience of negative 64 effects or emotion, e. g. lack of control, sadness, frustrations, order to offer this availability, “some are on the phone all the fears etc. [7]. time” which irritated our informants. A participant reported that Agrawal and Singh did a systematic review of research related to she was feeling stressed out because friends insisted on social media and psychological distress among adolescents. They maintaining the Snapchat streaks, counting the consecutive days conclude that the results ‘‘ clearly indicate that (frequent) use of of snapping, which requires the conscious effort of recalling to social networking sites is directly related to psychological snap at least once per day with no preset expiration date – the distress among youth’’ [5]. With that in mind, we believe it is streak partners are trying to keep the streak going for as long as crucial to investigate youth’s social media experience and to possible, often reaching years of ongoing maintenance. Our analyze the ways in which they may perceive social media as a informant shared that the feeling of compulsion spoiled her stressor. appreciation for Streaks: “in the end I didn't feel like it and felt compulsion, I thought it was stupid”. - losing streaks: adolescents report being mildly upset 3 METHODS themselves when losing a streak, as well as their peers being The analyzed data is a randomly selected subset (N=6, 15-18 upset by a streak loss: “One was already mad that he had lost the years old, the average age of participants was 16.33, SD=1.10) streaks. It wasn't with any of them that they would never speak of a larger set (N=26) of semi-structured expert interviews with again, but yes, there was something”. “Losing” the gamified Viennese adolescents in which they reported on their social challenge is reported to incite frustration though it is rather game-media use, with a focus on Snapchat. The interviews focused on related than full-blown negative emotions. Commonly, the the practice of participant’s daily routine with social media: their intensity of the reaction is proportional to the height of the streak specific actions, skills and SMU experience. The participation in - the higher the streak, the more severe the loss: “With two the individual interviews (60-90 minutes) was voluntary and a friends of mine, one was really very pissed off, she had 300 signed parent consent form was collected from each informant. streaks or something, abnormal, and the other didn't send back”. The data were anonymized and relevant quotes were translated - receiving “pointless” content: feelings of annoyance and to English for the purposes of this publication. The interviews frustration upon receiving boring or pointless content. were coded (in Atlas.ti) using a modified grounded theory Adolescents complained of annoyance at receiving pictures of approach [16]. The analysis then focused on the codes related to floors, walls, good morning / good night pictures and black ways in which youths experiences social media as stressful. pictures, all mostly are aimed at keeping Snapchat Streaks. Since the Streaks counter only quantifies the number of days of snapping, but has no criterion as to the quality of content sent, 4 RESULTS our informants said that they receive pictures containing “just the In line with previous research [17], our data reveals the near ground or something like that. Just to keep the streak, they sends omnipresence of social media use in our participants’ daily lives, something stupid”, “just take the cell phone and take pictures of and especially to communicate with their peers. All participants what's there, floor, table, it doesn't matter”. According to them, regarded social media use as regular means to connect with this happens because “you don't have much to communicate others daily, be it about school obligations, setting up meetings, about and you only do it because of the streaks”. Although they passing time, or bonding with peers. Their overall impressions send and receive such messages, adolescents conclude that about social media usage were positive or neutral. Connecting “those are the unnecessary snaps”, “they think it s stupid but still with others on social media was seen as one of the main ways to do it”. communicate and as such its fundamental functions remained - too much time spent online: Participants reported being largely unquestioned. However, in agreement with previous aware that time spent on social media platforms corresponds to research [18], our data also indicates that youths reported about less real-life activities involvement and school disturbance, due both positive and negative experiences on the platforms. to e.g. the constant checking for new messages or content. When Participants associated SNS, and Snapchat in particular, with asked how much time he spends on social media, an informant mostly positive effects on their everyday life, e.g. as digital answered “Far too much, I don't know, six or more hours a day. media enable their daily communication with peers outside of I use it far too much”. Another adolescent shares that, although school or with friends from other countries. Nevertheless, five they were still active on social media, SMU was proven to be too out of six participants reported experiencing stress related with much for them in their busy daily life: “That was the time with their use of social media. We will now present the main the school work, I had to learn a lot and in the evening I was categories of SMU related stressors that we encountered in our already very tired, and with the last of my strength I was able to data (with respective empirical examples): feeling smothered, snap but it was too much for me”. Yet another contemplates to losing Streaks, receiving pointless content and feeling they spend limit her SMU time: “Maybe I would restrict it, I like YT very too much time online. much, but it takes a lot of time. With IG there are videos that will - feeling “smothered” [17]: the pressure of compliance in the be presented to you, 30 min + I should stop that. YouTube and form of being constantly available to others. The pressure to be Instagram rob me most of the time. Time is actually wasted available is also linked to expectations of “responding because I could use it better … I often think the day could be immediately” and, should this expectation not be met, peers more productive”. would also actively comment on it: “people have already told me In addition to these main categories, individual participants that I don't answer”. Hence, our informants were stressed out by also mentioned feeling: envious of others’ streak count and social the pressure for instant availability in form of in-short-time status; disappointed over inappropriate videos or pointless replying to texts or snaps. It also seems critical to note that in arguments online, or being bored by receiving pointless 65 repetitive content. In the following section, we are going to the discussion. The discussion about how much digital media is discuss the main categories in more detail. too much [20] seems to perpetuate itself to contemporary discussions of how much time makes up for a balanced social media use [21]. The adolescents in our sample go one step further 5 DISCUSSION by contemplating actively changing their social media The main types of stress we derived from the data – such as consumption to mitigate aforementioned excessive expenditure feeling smothered, losing Streaks, receiving pointless content of time resources. and spending too much time on social media – highlight different To sum up, the aforementioned types of stress are sparked by relational aspects of online communication with peers. It is the desire to form a close relationship on social media and by its evident that informants’ experience of stress sprouts not from implications: the time, effort and quality of involvement needed hostile interactions with peers (e.g. cyber bullying) but are for this. The need or wish to be involved in their peer’s online commonly caused by aspects of ‘‘ maintaining closeness in social life daily likely comes from adolescents’ offline desires to digital space’’ [17]. Feeling smothered is caused by excess in ‘‘ attract others’’, ‘‘ gain acceptance’’ and ‘‘ fit in’’ and ‘‘ keep in the extent to which one is or should be making themselves touch’’ [22][23][24][25]. In this, the very principles may be available for communication with peers: how quickly they considered an extension of pre-existing concerns over the ways should respond to messages, how often should they check the and extent of closeness to peers. phone, whether one should try to commit to longitudinal projects However, specific social media features such as Snapchat’s such as Streaks that require daily effort [4] [19]. Weinstein & gamification element Streaks impose further specific constraints Selman [17] discuss this stressor in its duality – as controlling on rules of social conduct. In order to preserve the streak, one and expressing desire for closeness. They report that while needs to snap and receive or view at least one picture or video closeness is mutually desired and the content of messages is not within the frame of each day (24 hours), thereby adding further problematic, “the sheer quantity of the messages is itself time pressure to the communication. While our participants do described as a burden” (ibid). get involved with Streaks, the practice also adds more stress to Being upset because of losing streaks or being scolded at for their already complex temporal landscape of online interaction, it are reactions to losing the shared project in which the daily requiring them to be available round the clock and respond right effort was invested. Keeping a streak consciously is a task that away after receiving a message. These contemporary challenges requires both partners’ devotion and daily effort and can, hence, structure daily routines and experiences and, hence, need to be spark a sense of solidarity and intimacy [19]. That is why, the studied in more detail by researchers. abandonment of the gamified challenge of maximizing the Streak count might be seen as a sign of not caring about the other person’s importance or feelings, which then requires the 6 CONCLUSIONS negotiation of the relation between peers (e.g. apologizing, In post-industrial cultures, social media and its use are breaking contact). nowadays becoming a days-to-day feature in the life of Youths are not only concerned when relations prompt individuals and especially adolescents. These online platforms constant availability and “overdoing communication” till one represent an important tool of communication with their peers, starts feeling smothered. Conversely, they express concerns over as well as a major part of youth’s social experience. the drop in the quality of communication such as the one signaled The goal of the study was to better understand SMU aspects by reciving “pointless” content. Being annoyed at boring or which can be perceived as stressful by adolescents. While our meaningless content one receives can be hedonic (being annoyed research was based on self-report measures, posing the risk of that the content one views is not entertaining) or relational (being bias, and was limited by small sample size, which cannot be upset over the inadequate communication which that signals representative and generalized to a larger adolescent population, disrespect towards the relationship). The latter may cause it offers a categorization of stressors: feeling smothered, losing worries over interpreting the signs or the need to re-negotiate the Streaks, receiving pointless content and feeling they spend too relationship (by discussing it, dropping contact online or offline, much time online; all of which stem from the wish to uphold or both). Hristova et al. report that the so called “streak snaps” closeness online. Based on the importance of the role that social (an umbrella term for black pictures, goodnight pictures etc. sent media plays in most adolescents’ lives nowadays, we emphasize not as a part of conversation but for the purposes of gamification) the importance of further exploration of the stress-inducing are perceived as less valuable than snaps sent within a aspects of maintaining online closeness. conversation. They report that adolescents often drop their streak with people who send them the gamified snaps without being involved in a conversation or asking one how they are doing [19]. 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Adolescents exhibit metacognition concerning the extent of A special thank you goes out to the Vienna Cognitive Science their social media use, as exemplified by their worry over Hub for the support of the project called Difficulty and strategies spending “too much time” on social media and realizing that in emotion regulation. this robs them of their time for other tasks they would find more “productive”. This type of psychological distress is connected to an estimated excessive personal investment (time, effort, 8 REFERENCES attention), leading SMU to be perceived as threatening [9]. It is [1] Fotis, J. N. (2015). 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(2020) Snapchat [7] Keles, B., McCrae, N. & Grealish, A. (2019): A systematic review: the Streaks: How Adolescents Metagame Gamification in Social Media. influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological Gami FIN 2020. Aachen: CEUR. distress in adolescents, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, [20] Grohol, J. M. (1999). Too much time online: Internet addiction or healthy 25(1), 79-93 social interactions ?. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 2(5), 395-401 [8] Thomee, S. (2012). ICT use and mental health in young adults: Effects of [21] Bright, L. F., Kleiser, S. B., & Grau, S. L. (2015). Too much Facebook? computer and mobile phone use on stress, sleep disturbances, and An exploratory examination of social media fatigue. Computers in Human symptoms of depression (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University Behavior, 44, 148-155 of Ghotenburg, Ghotenburg [22] Reisman, J. (1979) Anatomy of Friendship. New York, USA: Irvington [9] Deckers, L. (2018). Motivation: Biological, Psychological, and [23] Brown, B. B. (2004) Adolescents’ relationships with peers. In: Lerner RM Environmental. New York, USA: Routledge and Steinberg L (eds) Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. 2nd ed. pp. [10] Hampton K. N. (2019): Social Media and Change in Psychological 363–394. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Distress Over Time: The Role of Social Causation. Journal of Computer- [24] Crockett L, Losoff, M. and Petersen, A. C. (1984) Perceptions of the peer Mediated Communication, 24(5), 205–222 group and friendship in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence [11] Mirowsky, J. & Ross., C. (2002). Selecting outcomes for the sociology of 4(2): 155–181 mental health: Issues of measurement and dimensionality . Journal of [25] Waite, L. J. and Harrison, S. C. (1992) Keeping in touch: how women in Health and Social Behaviour, 43(2), 152-170 mid-life allocate social contacts among kith and kin. Social Forces, 70(3): [12] Dohrenwend, B., & Dohrenwend, B. (1982). Perspectives on the past and 637–654 future of psychiatric epidemiology. Americal Journal of Public Health, 72(11), 1271- 1279 [13] Best, P., Manktelow, R., & Taylor, B. (2014). Online communication, social media and adolescent wellbeing: A systematic narrative review. Children and Youth Services Review, 41, 27–36. 67 Special Sciences: Still Not Reducible after All These Years Tadej Todorović Janez Bregant Faculty of Arts Faculty of Arts University of Maribor University of Maribor Maribor, Slovenia Maribor, Slovenia tadej.todorovic@gmail.com janez.bregant@um.com ABSTRACT coming to opposite conclusions. The first pair, Shapiro and Polger [10] come to the conclusion that MR is very rare in nature, The paper introduces the problem of multiple realizability (MR), whereas Aizawa and Gillet [11] come to the conclusion that MR followed by the examination of conditions for MR, as presented is rather omnipresent. How is this possible? Throughout the by various philosophers working on it. They arrive at opposing paper, we will use Shapiro and Polger’s (S&P) example of conclusions regarding MR despite accepting similar criteria for corkscrews to illustrate the mentioned curiosity. In the end we it. The paper analyses their conditions and compares them to will introduce an explanation of it which is in the same time also Fodor’s original motivation for MR. An alternative solution to an alternative solution to the Fodor’s original problem of MR. the Fodor’s problem, which also explains the aforementioned different conclusions, is introduced. 2 SIMILAR CONDITIONS: DIFFERENT KEYWORDS CONCLUSIONS Multiple realizability, special sciences, reductionism, In short, S&P argue that for MR to be an obstacle to metaphysics. psychophysical reduction, the realizers have to be “different in ways that are relevant to their performing the same function” 1 HISTORY AND CRITERIA FOR [10]. What this means is that not just any difference will do. They MULTIPLE REALIZABILITY develop criteria for MR that are comprised of four necessary and jointly sufficient conditions (As and Bs represent the two The most influential argument of the 20th century against candidates for MR, e.g. pain in Martians and pain in humans, and psycho-neural identity theories in philosophy of mind is probably S1 and S2 designate distinct taxonomic systems, e.g. psychology the multiple realizability argument. The argument, first and neurophysiology): “(i) As and Bs are of the same kind in advocated by Putnam [1][2] and later by Fodor [3][4], can be model or taxonomic system S1. (ii) As and Bs are of different succinctly summarized as the thesis claiming that the same kinds in model or taxonomic system S2. (iii) The factors that lead mental kind can be realized by different physical kinds (or more the As and Bs to be differently classified by S2 must be among simply, that the same mental state can be realized by different those that lead them to be commonly classified b S1. (iv) The physical states). The ubiquitous example in philosophy of mind relevant S2-variation between As and Bs must be distinct from is the example of pain: pain can be realized by some neural/brain the S1 intra-kind variation between As and Bs” [10]. state in humans, by some other neural/brain state in reptiles, by We can illustrate how these criteria work in practice using some other neural/brain states in Martians etc. So, according to corkscrews, a paradigmatic example used by S& P [10]. To fulfill proponents of the multiple realizability thesis (MRT), the mental the first two criteria, the MR candidate corkscrews A and B have kind pain can be realized by various physical kinds. The kind to be classified as the same by one taxonomic system, and as pain therefore, cannot be reduced to a single neural kind, and it distinct by a lower-level taxonomic system, thus being ‘same but follows that identity theory regarding the mind-body problem is different’ [10]. The third criteria is not as straightforward: two false. differently coloured corkscrews are not MR because colour is not The MRT seemed to go unchallenged throughout the second causally relevant to performing the function of the corkscrew part of the 20th century; however, it has recently been (does not meet condition iii). On the other hand, two different problematized by various authors in philosophy of mind (Kim kinds of corkscrews, a winged and a waiter’s corkscrew, which [5], Bechtel and Mundale [8]; Shapiro [9] [5], Polger [6]). There use different mechanisms to remove a cork, do count as MR, are many approaches to argue against MRT, but the most because they perform the desired function in different ways. So, important one seems to be defining when kinds are in fact to fulfill the third criterion, the corkscrews A and B have to multiply realized. Two sets of authors (among others) have perform the same function in different ways. The fourth presented their criteria for multiple realizability (MR), with both condition is a safeguard that prevents intra-kind realizer differences to count as MR, namely, if, e.g. two winged Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or corkscrews had levers that were of a different length, then the classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or differences in length would translate into differences in function distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and – perhaps a really sturdy cork could only be removed by a the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). corkscrew with a longer lever. However, Aizawa and Gillet (A&G) developed different Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2020 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). criteria for MR, namely: “A property G is multiply realized if and 68 Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia T. Todorović and J. Bregant only if (i) under condition $, an individual s has an instance of (the structures of the eyes is virtually the same, only the material property G in virtue of the powers contributed by instances of is different), and Shapiro (and Polger) [10] would agree that it is properties/relations F –F to s, or s's constituents, but not vice not a case of multiple realizability, whereas Fodor and Block [13] versa; (ii) under condition $* (which may or may not be identical (and Aizawa and Gillet [11][12]) would argue that it is. to $), an individual s* (which may or may not be identical to s) Gillet further argues that the flat view, which S&P adopt, is has an instance of a property G in virtue of the powers not what some proponents of MR, Fodor and Block, had in mind. contributed by instances of properties/relations F* –F* of s* or If that is the case, then S&P’s argument, so says Gillet, is moot, s*'s constituents, but not vice versa; (iii) F –F ≠ F* –F* ; and (iv), as it rests on the wrong view of realization (i.e. flat instead of under conditions $ and $*, F –F and F* –F* are at the same dimensioned). That is obviously correct: if Fodor had the scientific level of properties” [11]. dimensioned view in mind, then S&P’s attempts to refute the flat The first two conditions are similar: two corkscrews are in a view of MR is sterile. certain state, removing corks (property G), which is, in the first However, things are not as simple as they seem. A&G subject, realized by some physical realizer (F –F), and by a allegedly adopt the ‘correct’ view of realization, yet their different physical realizer (F* –F*) in the second (or the same) conclusions about special sciences are far from that of Fodor’s. subject. The third condition states that the two realizers are not Namely, they imply that “multiple realization simply does not the same (F –F ≠ F* –F*). Since G is realized ‘in virtue of the establish the methodological autonomy of cognitive science” powers contributed’ by F –F or F* –F*, this excludes irrelevant [11]. This is a strange consequence, considering that the Fodor’s properties (similar to S&P’s approach, the colour in the project as stated in his article, “Special Sciences: Still aforementioned cases). The first three conditions are roughly the Autonomous After All These Years” was to show that special same as in S&P’s criteria. Furthermore, the fourth condition only sciences are autonomous [4[4]. Of course, just because A&G’s states that the analysed physical realizers should be at the same conclusions differ from Fodor does not mean that their account scientific level of properties. This criterion is, of course, “usually of MR is incorrect, but claiming that they interpreted Fodor implicitly accepted as a shared background condition in earlier correctly should be taken with a grain of salt: especially discussions of multiple realization in the sciences” [11]. considering that Fodor’s main conclusion, the autonomy of Even though the criteria are similar, the conclusions could not be special sciences, does not follow from their account. However, more different: one side argues that two corkscrews made of one could argue that a case that would satisfy S&P’s MR criteria different materials, e.g. aluminium and steel, are not multiply would probably secure autonomy in psychology in Fodor’s sense. realized, whereas the other side says that they are. Why? One S&P otherwise argue for a modest identity theory, partly because possible answer is offered by Gillet [12], where he argues that no positive case (regarding mental kinds) that would pass their S&P, compared to A&G, use a different view of realization. criteria has been presented so far. [10] What, according to them, Namely, S&P adopt the flat view of realization, whereas A&G their position implies for the autonomy of psychology is a adopt the dimensioned view. different story, beyond the scope of this article. Shapiro concludes that, “Steel and aluminum are not different Nevertheless, the purpose of the paper is not to dwell in realizations of a waiter's corkscrew because, relative to the exegetical debates. However, revisiting the problem behind the properties that make them suitable for removing corks, they are motivation for Fodor’s project might be instructive. Fodor has identical. The fact that one corkscrew is steel and the other two reason why special sciences are (probably) MR and aluminum is no more reason to characterize them as different autonomous. First, there are natural kinds that do not correspond realizations than the fact that one might be yellow and the other to physical kinds, because we can make interesting red”[7]. Whereas Gillet argues that, “For with one corkscrew the generalizations about events that have distinct physical properties/relations of steel molecules result in the powers descriptions; moreover, the physical descriptions of these events, individuative of the property of removing corks, while in the whether they are similar or not, are entirely irrelevant to the truth other corkscrew the distinct properties/relations of aluminium of the generalizations [3]. Second, the problem for reductionism atoms play this role. We should carefully mark that this judgment is that physical laws are exceptionless, and laws of special accords with the criterion-for only properties/relations that result sciences are not. If special sciences are reduced to physical in the powers of the realized property are taken to be relevant to sciences via bridge laws, and physical laws and bridge laws are MR” [12]. exceptionless, how can the laws of special sciences have exceptions? “In short, given the reductionist model, we cannot consistently assume that the bridge laws and the basic laws are 3 FODOR’S PROJECT exceptionless while assuming that the special laws are not” [3]. 1 The case is analogous to Putnam’s famous example of It seems that Fodor tries to solve the following problem: how mammalian and octopus’s eyes. Putnam [2] claims that the can the laws of special sciences be reduced to physical laws, if differences in materials are not relevant to the realized function the former are not exceptionless, whereas the latter are? Fodor 1 Fodor defines natural kinds in terms of laws, “roughly, the natural kind predicates of a science are the ones whose terms are the bound variables in its proper laws” [3]. 69 Special sciences: still not reducible after all these years Information Society 2020, 5–9 October 2020, Ljubljana, Slovenia offers two solutions, “we can give up the claim that the special a faster processor and will realize the program faster (this does laws have exceptions or we can give up the claim that the basic not mean that we cannot imagine, or that there do not exist, any laws are exceptionless” [3]. Both options are undesirable: circumstances where two distinct computers can perform the obviously, special laws have exceptions, and going down the same aspect of a program in the same way, but the totality of their path of physical laws having exceptions also seems like a very functions in various contexts will not be isomorphic). dangerous path. However, we believe that there is a third path: to The same seems to hold for generalizations in special deny that special sciences predicates pick out natural kinds (i.e. sciences: instead of listing countless similar but minutely to deny that they are genuine laws). different laws/kinds, psychologists ignore some details that are irrelevant and idealize others to develop powerful generalizations that are extremely useful. The very fact that they 4 THE GRANULARITY PROBLEM AND idealized and abstracted (or coarse grained) means that they are SPECIAL SCIENCES no longer describing natural kinds (as there are too many to Bechtel and Mundale [6] offered an explanation of why MR describe), but they gain in simplification and generalization. This seems so intuitive in philosophy of mind. They claim that also explains why special science laws have exceptions: they do philosophers have used different grains when establishing MR, not always work precisely because they are abstracted and i.e. they used a coarse grain in identifying mental kinds and a idealized laws of countless similar but not identical phenomena, very fine grain when identifying physical kinds. Whereas and finding out which details are irrelevant and which important Bechtel and Mundale claimed that this is only characteristic of is an extremely difficult task. philosophers, we would like to expand the claim and argue that using coarser grains for higher order sciences is literally what enables us to make interesting and useful generalizations about 5 CONCLUSION the world. Let’s illustrate this with corkscrews. Both camps Does this mean that special sciences do not accurately describe (S&P and A&G) seem to be familiar with the granularity the world? Yes, and no. Yes, because, strictly speaking, they argument, yet their approaches do not seem to reflect that. Both disregard details and idealize others to form powerful, use a very fine grain to identify physical kinds, but neither pays informative, and useful generalizations. No, because the world is much attention in setting the conditions for identifying the same too complex to talk about it accurately. Are special sciences mental kinds. reducible to physical sciences, i.e. are type identical Take the two different kinds of corkscrews (of which both psychological states reducible to type identical neurological S&P and A&G agree that they are MR). Are they functionally states? No, but not because they are multiply realized, but isomorphic, i.e. do they perform the same function in all because there are no type identical psychological states: contexts? Imagine we have to work in very low spaces, say you psychological states (and other special sciences predicates) are want to open a bottle of wine in a box that is only 5 cm taller than useful abstractions (as Davidson has shown, but for another the bottle: the winged corkscrew will not do the job, whereas the reason [14]), that enable us to generalize about states that are waiter’s corkscrew will. Even though the corkscrews perform a minutely distinct, but, for all intents and purposes, identical. similar (or even the same) function in most situations and contexts, they differ in some. And if they differ in some, they cannot be functionally isomorphic. Similar for the aluminium REFERENCES and steel corkscrew: they differ regarding the temperature of the [1] Hilary Putnam, 1967. Psychological Predicates . In Art, Mind, and cork removal (e.g. at 800 ºC) The melting point of steel is 1370 Religion. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 37-48. [2] Hilary Putnam 1975. The Nature of Mental States. In Mind, Language and ºC, whereas the melting point of aluminium is 660.3 ºC. Reality – Philosophical Papers, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press, Therefore, the two corkscrews will not be functionally Cambridge, pp. 429-440. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511625251.023. isomorphic in all contexts, which, if they are natural kinds, [3] Jerry Fodor 1974. Special Sciences, or: the Disunity of Science as a should be the case. Yes, the differences are extremely small, one Working Hypothesis. Synthese 28, 2 (Oct, 1974), 97-115. could say irrelevant, but they do exist. However, we ignore them DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00485230. [4] Jerry Fodor 1997. Special Sciences: Still Autonomous After All These (or we use a coarser grain) because they are so minute and rare Years. Philosophical Perspectives 11 (1997), 149-163. that they are completely irrelevant compared to the extreme DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/0029-4624.31.s11.7 [5] Jaegwon Kim 1992. Multiple Realization and the Metaphysics of usefulness of the powerful generalizations that we acquire, if Reduction. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 52, 1 (March, these differences are cast aside. They are similar enough, which 1992), pp. 1-26. enables us to use these generalizations with great proficiency. DOI: 10.2307/2107741. [6] William Bechtel and Jennifer Mundale 1999. 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Mental Events, In Essays on Actions and Events, Oxford: Clarendon Press, New York, NY, 1980, pp. 207-225. 71 72 Indeks avtorjev / Author index Ajda Centa .................................................................................................................................................................................... 53 Aleš Oblak .................................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Anže Marinko ............................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Blaž Počervina ............................................................................................................................................................................. 53 Carolin Gaiser .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27 Carolina Petrič .............................................................................................................................................................................. 49 Darja Kobal Grum ........................................................................................................................................................................ 23 Dayana Hristova ........................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Ema Demšar ................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Ema Jemec ................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Eva Koderman .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27 Gašper Slapničar .......................................................................................................................................................................... 56 Gregor Geršak ........................................................................................................................................................................ 49, 53 Jan Babič ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 49 Janez Bregant ............................................................................................................................................................................... 68 Jani Toroš ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 18 Jaya Caporusso ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Jernej Čamernik............................................................................................................................................................................ 49 Jos van der Geest .......................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Karin Kasesnik ............................................................................................................................................................................. 18 Katarina Marjanovič ..................................................................................................................................................................... 42 Klara Golob .................................................................................................................................................................................. 38 Maarten Frens ............................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Matej Perovnik ............................................................................................................................................................................. 42 Matjaž Gams .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38, 56 Mihael Kline ................................................................................................................................................................................. 18 Mitja Luštrek ................................................................................................................................................................................ 56 Neža Marija Slosar ....................................................................................................................................................................... 60 Nina Demšar ................................................................................................................................................................................. 10 Sara Jakša ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Shrikanth Kulashekhar ................................................................................................................................................................. 31 Simon Šalomon ............................................................................................................................................................................ 64 Tadej Todorović ........................................................................................................................................................................... 68 Tine Kolenik ................................................................................................................................................................................. 56 Urša Klun ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Viktorija Lipič .............................................................................................................................................................................. 34 Vito Janko .................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 73 74 IS Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science 20 Toma Strle, Jaša Černe, Olga Markič 20 Document Outline 02 - Naslovnica - notranja - B - TEMP 03 - Kolofon - B - TEMP 04, 05 - IS2020 - Predgovor & Odbori 07 - Kazalo - B 08 - Naslovnica podkonference - B 09 - Predgovor podkonference - B 10 - Programski odbor podkonference - B 01 - Caporusso & Demsar_Phenomenology of dissolution experiences An exploratory study 02 - 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among adolescents 17 - Todorović & Bregant_Special sciences Still not reducible after all these years 12 - Index - B Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page 03 - Jakša_What anime to watch next The effect of personality on anime genre selection.pdf Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Personality 1.2 Entertainment preferences 2 Methodology 3 Results 3.1 Analysis of Review Presence 3.2 Analysis of Review Scores 4 Discussion A Online Resources Blank Page