Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021, 73–90
A COMPARISON OF THE BEGINNINGS
OF EXONYM STANDARDIZATION
IN CROATIAN AND SLOVENIAN
Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič
The exonym Jakin ‘ Ancona’ , formerly established in both Croatian and Slovenian,
in Cigale’s Atlant (Atlas), the first world atlas in Slovenian.
A R C H IV E O F T H E Z R C S A Z U G IA M G E O G R A P H IC A L M U S E U M

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.9678
UDC: 811.163.6’373.21
811.163.42’373.21
COBISS: 1.01
Ivana Crljenko
1
, Matjaž Geršič
2
A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
ABSTRACT: This paper compares the beginnings of exonym standardization and some characteristics of
the oldest exonyms in two similar Slavic languages, Croatian and Slovenian. It uses the comparative and
exemplar methods. It is found that these processes were influenced by the sociopolitical environment of
the time, especially language policies. It is shown that the nineteenth century was favorably inclined toward
exonyms. They were often written inconsistently and unsystematically because there were no spelling norms
for their writing and use. For some, the influences of foreign languages (German, Italian, etc.) are obvi-
ous. Numerous transitional forms also appeared, which did not become established.
KEY WORDS: exonyms, exonym standardization, geographical names, geography, linguistics, Croatian,
Slovenian 
Primerjava začetkov standardizacije eksonimov v hrvaškem in slovenskem jeziku
POVZETEK: Članek obravnava začetke standardizacije eksonimov in identifikacijo najstarejših eksonimov
v dveh podobnih slovanskih jezikih, hrvaškem in slovenskem, s primerjalno in vzorčno metodo. Ugotavlja,
da je bila standardizacija eksonimov plod družbeno-političnih okoliščin, še posebej jezikovnih politik, in
da je bilo 19. stoletje naklonjeno eksonimom. Pogosto so jih zapisovali neenotno in nesistematično, saj
pravopisna pravila za njihovo rabo še niso bila izoblikovana. Pri nekaterih so očitni vplivi tujih jezikov
(nemškega, italijanskega in drugih). Pojavljale so se tudi številne prehodne oblike eksonimov, ki pa se niso
uveljavile.
KLJUČNE BESEDE: eksonimi, standardizacija eksonimov, zemljepisna imena, geografija, jezikoslovje,
hrvaščina, slovenščina
The paper was submitted for publication on February 24
th
, 2021.
Uredništvo je prejelo prispevek 24. februarja 2021.
74
1
The Miroslav Krleža Institute of Lexicography, Zagreb, Croatia
ivana.crljenko@lzmk.hr (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1315-0644)
2
Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Anton Melik Geographical Institute,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
matjaz.gersic@zrc-sazu.si (https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9640-6037)

1 Introduction
Exonym standardization is the process of adapting (i.e., nativizing) original geographical names from a donor
language (i.e., endonyms) to a changed (or adapted or nativized) form in a recipient language. Because it
takes place within a particular language, exonym standardization reflects the characteristics and devel-
opment trends of that language in a certain period (Kladnik 2007a; 2009; Kladnik et al. 2017). This is also
the case in Croatian and Slovenian, two similar Slavic languages that were influenced by external sociopo-
litical factors and different language policies during the Austro-Hungarian period (Kladnik et al. 2017).
In both languages, certain exonyms were used long before the first half of the nineteenth century – per-
haps as soon as certain places became relevant for people speaking Croatian and Slovenian – but until then
were not standardized in any way. The first half of the nineteenth century was a period marked by nation-
al awakening, state formation, the building of national identities, and intense advocacy for the establishment
of distinct languages and standard orthographies. Exonyms were used more and more frequently in dif-
ferent publications, and therefore the first attempts of exonym standardization appeared. This paper compares
exonym standardization and some characteristics of the oldest exonyms in both languages during the nine-
teenth century. It is established how the broader sociopolitical context, especially normative policy, influenced
exonym standardization in both languages, what the similarities and differences were in these processes,
and why they exist.
Croatian and Slovenian researchers have discussed exonyms, mostly addressing modern usage (e.g.,
Kladnik 2007c; Kladnik and Bole 2012; Perko and Kladnik 2017; Crljenko 2018; 2019; 2020; Kladnik, Geršič
and Perko 2020), general issues (e.g., Kladnik 2006; Kladnik 2007d; Kladnik et al. 2013; Perko, Jordan and
Komac 2017; Kladnik, Geršič and Perko 2020), relationships between endonyms and exonyms (e.g., Kladnik
2009), and sometimes also their use in literature (e.g., Geršič 2019).
Research on the oldest exonyms is mainly found in (top)onomastics, and less often in cartography and
historical geography. Toponymic papers focus on specific language problems supported by a small num-
ber of examples, not systematically. Dinu Moscal (2018) deals with the complete or partial translation of
foreign toponyms into Romanian at the beginning of the nineteenth century. In an analysis of translated
toponyms in three historical texts from the Romanian premodern period (1780–1830), Ana-Maria Gînsac
and Mădălina Ungureanu note that translation was influenced by different language systems, differences
in pronunciation and writing between Romanian and the donor language of the names, differences among
the donor languages (French, German, Italian, etc.), the variety of proper names, translators’ knowledge,
and so on. The same authors (2020) also dealt with the adaptation of foreign toponyms to Romanian through
an intermediate language (Greek or Latin) during that period. The oldest sources of Hungarian exonyms
were studied by Béla Pokoly (2006), who cites some examples. In an analysis of the first Dutch school atlases
to explore how Greece was depicted in them, Ferjan Ormeling (2015) also refers to the writing of exonyms
in the nineteenth century.
The most extensive collections of exonyms are found in world atlases and geographical textbooks, as
well as in orthographic manuals. They also appear in encyclopedic publications, monographs on geography,
newspapers, and journals; the first Croatian exonyms appear in translations of the medieval book Lucidarius,
and the first Slovenian ones in the works of Protestant writers in the sixteenth century (Kapetanović 2005;
Kladnik, Geršič and Perko 2020). Systematic research on geographical names in various publications from
this period is relatively modest. The first world atlas in Slovenian was published between 1869 and 1877.
It was called Atlant (Atlas), and the Slovenian text for it was edited by Matej Cigale (Fridl et al. 2005;
Kladnik et al. 2006; Urbanc et al. 2006). The names in it were carefully analyzed by Drago Kladnik, and
the findings were published in several places (e.g., Kladnik 2005; Kladnik 2007b; Kladnik and Geršič 2016).
The names in the oldest world atlases by Blasius Kozenn from the end of the nineteenth century (start-
ing in 1887) that were prepared for Croatian users have not been analyzed so far. Although Marćel Kušar
briefly refers to the basic principles of exonym standardization in his Nauka o pravopisu jezika hrvackoga ili
srpskoga (fonetičkom i etimologijskom) (Science of the Orthography of the Croatian or Serbian Language (pho-
netic and etymologic), 1889), the third edition of Ivan Broz’s 1904 Hrvatski pravopis (Croatian Orthography,
edited by Dragutin Boranić) can be considered the first Croatian orthographic manual with rules on adapt-
ing names from other languages. Ankica Čilaš Šimpraga and Ivana Crljenko (2017) reviewed the rules of
exonym standardization in it, as well as in other Croatian orthographic manuals. The first Slovenian ortho-
graphic manual in Slovenian, which also contains a section on the Slovenianization of geographical names,
Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
75

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
76
was published in 1899 in Vienna by Fran Levec (Figure 1; right). The exonyms in this manual were ana-
lyzed by Matjaž Geršič (2020). Some features of exonyms in the multidisciplinary geographical work Slike
iz obćega zemljopisa (Images from General Geography, 1888–1900) by Ivan Hoić were addressed by Ivana
Crljenko (2014). The large number of exonyms in the geographical textbook Zemljepisna začetnica za gim-
nazije in realke (Basic Geography for High Schools; Jesenko 1865; Figure 2; right) have not yet received
scholarly analysis. The writing of selected exonyms (e.g., Great Britain, Ireland, Scotland, and England)
in Croatian newspapers from the first half of the nineteenth century was studied by Dora Riffer-Maček
(1962). In a similar manner, Irena Orel (2004) compared the use of geographical names in the newspapers
Ljubljanske novice (Ljubljana News, 1797) and Kmetijske in rokodelske novice (Farmers’ and Craftsmen’s
News, 1797 and 1850). Her research is based on bachelor’s theses by Breda Bernetič (1990) and Mojca
Podobnikar (2004) and on her own research. Interestingly, the author states in a footnote that compari-
son with contemporary foreign newspapers would be necessary. Marko Jesenšek (2013) studied the writing
of geographical names, as well as exonyms, in the first Prekmurje newspaper Prijatel (The Friend), which
was published from 1875 to 1879 (and appeared from 1877 onward in the Gaj alphabet).
Based on the literature reviewed, it was determined that there are many discussions about the topi-
cality of the use of exonyms, but researchers rarely focus on the very beginnings of exonym standardization –
and, if they do, they focus on sources in their own language. This paper aims to fill the research gap in
this area and compare the process of exonym formation in two different but closely related Slavic languages.
Comparing exonyms in historical sources helps in determining what their development was and in the
application of typology of exonymization.
This study is a direct result of bilateral two-year cooperation between Slovenian and Croatian researchers,
the objective of which was, among other things, to compare Croatian and Slovenian exonyms and social,
political, and linguistic influences on their formation (Kladnik et al. 2017).
Figure 1: Title pages of the first orthographic manuals in Croatian (1892; left) and Slovenian (1899; right).

2 Methodology
A comparative method is used to compare exonyms in Slovenian and Croatian sources, and an exemplar
method is used to substantiate claims (examples of exonyms). Exonyms selected from the oldest geographical
sources (atlases, textbooks, and monographs), linguistic sources (orthographic manuals), and old news-
papers are analyzed.
A set of exonyms for further analysis was compiled in two phases. In the first phase, we identified 422
exonyms from various Croatian sources, which various authors used to name 285 topographic features.
Croatian exonyms were identified in several geography textbooks by Bradaška (1867), Mařik (1868; 1870),
Klaić (1875; 1881), Hoić (1888–1900), and Rožić (1842), and in Kozenn’s atlases (1887; 1900; 1911; 1919),
in the newspapers Il Regio Dalmata / Kraglski Dalmatin (Royal Dalmatian, 1807; 1808) and Narodne novine
(The People’s Newspaper, 1843), in the booklet Nauka o pravopisu jezika hrvackoga ili srpskoga (fonetičkom
i etimologijskom) (Kušar 1889), and in Broz’s orthographic manual (1892; 1904; 1906). In the second phase,
Slovenian exonyms were sought in selected Slovenian sources that would correspond to the Croatian ones.
The Slovenian set of sources is less numerous, but at least one source was selected for each type of source.
The choices were Cigale’s atlas Atlant (1868–1877), Jesenko’s textbook Zemljepisna začetnica za gimnaz-
ije in realke (1865), the first Slovenian orthographic manual, prepared by Franc Levec (1899), and the
newspapers Kmetijske in rokodelske novice, edited by Janez Bleiweis, and Ljubljanske novice, edited by V alentin
Vodnik.
In the selected Slovenian sources, exonyms were identified for 161 topographic features, which were
identified in the first phase in the Croatian sources. The final set for the name corpus, which was the sub-
ject of further analysis, included 232 Croatian exonyms and 250 Slovenian exonyms for 161 topographic
features. Based on their comparison, the individual characteristics were determined for the beginning of
exonym standardization in the two languages.
3 The emergence of exonyms
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the most accessible source of exonyms for the Croatian pub-
lic was Croatian newspapers. Although they were just being established and their reach was limited, their
spread certainly contributed to the use of exonyms. The first bilingual Italian–Croatian newspaper, Il Regio
Dalmata / Kraglski Dalmatin, was published from 1806 to 1810 once a week in Zadar. Although this was
the first newspaper in Croatian, the geographical names written in the newspaper’s Croatian column were
clearly strongly influenced by other languages, Italian as well: either Italian names were used verbatim or
(semi-) Croatianized forms were written based on Italian (Pragha – Italian Praga ‘Prague’ , Parigi ‘Paris’ ,
Nizza ‘Nice’ , Napuli – Italian Napoli ‘Naples’ , Italia ‘Italy’). In 1823, the first geographical textbook in Croatian
was published by Antun Rožić, Kratki zavjetek zemelyzkoga-izpiszavanya Horvatzke y Vugerzke zemlye
(A Short Manual on Geography of Croatian and Hungarian Lands; Figure 2; left), in which the oldest exonyms
in geographical literature can be found; for example, Europa ‘Europe’ , Turzko Czeszarztvo ‘Ottoman Empire’ ,
Franczuzko Kralyeztvo ‘Kingdom of France’ , and Stajerzka ‘Styria’ .
The authors of newspaper and geographical texts adapted exonyms in different ways. The reason for
this is the fact that several graphically different, nonstandard orthographies were used, which were not uni-
fied in terms of the letters used in the spelling, let alone in determining the writing and use of geographical
names for foreign features. In 1830, Ljudevit Gaj’s orthographic manual Kratka osnova horvatsko-slaven-
skoga pravopisaňa (Brief Basics of Croatian-Slavic Orthography) was published, which at least partially
overcame the previous particularisms. It standardized Croatian Latin script, but there were still problems
with spelling rules, which were often applied intuitively or following customary use (e.g., capitalization;
Badurina 2012).
Exonym standardization increased in Croatia starting in the 1830s, which is associated with the begin-
ning of the Croatian national revival – a national, cultural, and political movement that supported national
awakening, integration of Croatian territories, affirming Croatian identity, and thus strengthening the role
of the Croatian language. The official beginning of the movement is considered 1835, when Ljudevit Gaj
received permission to publish a political newspaper, Novine horvatzke (Croatian Newspaper) with the
literary supplement Danicza horvatzka, slavonzka y dalmatinzka (The Croatian, Slavonian, and Dalmatian
Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
77

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
Daystar). The idea of »linguistic and orthographic unification of all Croatian regions – along with that of
Slavic reciprocity« (Badurina 2012) was one of the fundamental components of this (Illyrian) movement.
After partial unity in language policy was achieved, the Croatian national revival was further strength-
ened by ideas about the importance of knowing and using Croatian. Therefore, after initial resistance to
its use in the 1830s, Croatian finally became the official language in general use in 1847. It began to be
used in schools, in the Croatian parliament, and in public services, and books, newspapers, textbooks, and
geographical literature began to be published in it. Consequently, exonym standardization became more
intense, and reception of exonyms became more favorable at the expense of endonyms. Not only were
Croatian names created and used for familiar, nearby geographical features, but the names of more dis-
tant, non-European, lesser-known geographical features were also increasingly adapted (e.g., in the newspaper
Narodne novine of 1843 one finds the exonyms: Antiliban ‘ Anti-Lebanon Mountains’ , Zapadna India ‘West
Indies’ , Tibet, Tatarska ‘Tatarstan’ , Kairo ‘Cairo’ , and Hindostan ‘Hindustan’).
In the second half of the nineteenth century, several different orthographic manuals and various gram-
mars were still used. However, they generally do not mention the problem of writing exonyms, and so there
are no corresponding rules for their writing and use. If these do appear, they cite exonyms with only a few
examples. Thus, in the booklet Nauka o pravopisu jezika hrvackoga ili srpskoga (fonetičkom i etimologi-
jskom) from 1889, Marćel Kušar mentions only a few exonyms (Azija ‘ Asia’ , Evropa ‘Europe’ , Kavkaz ‘the
Caucasus’; Kušar 1889; Čilaš Šimpraga and Crljenko 2017). The use of multiple orthographic manuals with-
out clear rules led to the appearance of inconsistent names in various publications (Crljenko 2008; 2014).
When the board of education determined that »one orthographic manual should be used« (Broz 1892)
in Croatian schools for the first time in 1862, and then again in 1864, 1877, and 1889, Ivan Broz was given
the task of putting it together. Thus, in 1892, the first graphically standard Croatian orthographic manu-
al, Hrvatski pravopis, was created, which finally »standardized the Croatian phonological-morphological
orthographic norm« for the first time (Badurina 2012, 66; Figure 1; left). With later complement by Dragutin
Boranić, it went through six editions and was used until the 1920s. In it, however, even Broz does not state
the rules for adapting names from foreign languages, and in the dictionary section only a few exonyms are
recommended (e.g., Mletci, not Venecija ‘Venice’; and Njemadija or Njemčadija, not Njemačka ‘Germany’;
Broz 1892; Čilaš Šimpraga and Crljenko 2017).
Only in the third (1904) and unchanged fourth edition (1906) of Broz’s orthographic manual, prepared
by Dragutin Boranić, were the rules on adapting names from other languages adopted. It is pointed out
that words that entered Croatian long ago are written like domestic Croatian names, and those that entered
more recently either completely retain their foreign form or are adapted to Croatian. However, it warned
that historical exonyms such as »Monakov for München ‘Munich’ , Dražđani for Dresden, and Kopenhagen
for Kjöbenhavn ‘Copenhagen’ … should not be used because these names are not pronounced this way by
the people they belong to« (Broz 1906, 51; Čilaš Šimpraga and Crljenko 2017), from which it follows that
as early as the beginning of the twentieth century it was cautiously recommended to reduce the use of (his-
torical) exonyms in favor of endonyms.
Although there was still no language standard from the 1860s to the 1880s, the historical moment required
geographers to create and/or translate school textbooks and atlases into Croatian. Several geographers pre-
pared school textbooks on general (i.e., world) and on regional (the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) geography:
Franjo Bradaška (1867), Vjenceslav Zaboj Mařik (1868; 1870), Petar Matković (1875), Vjekoslav Klaić (1875;
1881), and Ivan Hoić (1888–1900).
In 1887, the first edition of the first atlas translated into Croatian was published: Kozenov geografijski
atlas za srednje škole (Kozen’s Geographical Atlas for Secondary Schools), adapted by Augustin Dobrilović
and Petar Matković. Blasius Kozenn was a Slovenian geographer and cartographer that published geographical
atlases in German, Czech, Polish, Croatian, Hungarian, and Italian. His atlases in Croatian began to appear
in the late 1880s (Bratec Mrvar 2007; Bratec Mrvar et al. 2011). With its thirty-seven maps, it is the rich-
est source of adapted names from that period. Although Dobrilović and Matković, like other authors, had
to come up with »correct« ways of writing a large number of exonyms, many characteristics of exonyms
of that time, which have been confirmed in other sources, can be detected from this atlas.
Compared to some later periods, the second half of the nineteenth century was very inclined toward
Croatian exonyms, which means that exonyms enjoyed good reception and rather frequent use. This is
also reflected in the fact that in most sources endonyms do not stand next to exonyms, not even in paren-
theses.
78

In Slovenia, exonym standardization can be more systematically observed with the appearance of the
first newspapers in Slovenian. The first one was published on April 1
st
, 1797, and was called Lublanske novize
od vſih Krajov zeliga ſvejta (Ljubljana News from All Parts of the Whole World). The title itself promises
the appearance of foreign geographical names, and indeed many appear in the first issue, including Dunej
‘Vienna’ , Shpania ‘Spain’ , Madrit ‘Madrid’ , Franzoſka deshela ‘France’ , Paris, and Sdrushene holendorſke deshele
‘United Provinces of the Netherlands’ . At that time, the Bohorič alphabet (hence Lublanske novize, 1797)
was still established as the orthography for writing Slovenian. The next Slovenian newspaper was Kmetijske
in rokodelske novice, which was launched in 1843. An increase in the use of exonyms began, similarly to
Croatian, with the Slovenian national movement and its spread in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries.
An important change that took place in the nineteenth century and also affected the writing of geo-
graphical names was the change of Slovenian orthography in 1848, when people began using the Gaj alphabet
instead of the Bohorič alphabet.
Illyrianism, which was strongly present in Croatia, did not experience such strong sympathies in Slovenia.
The key factor in this resistance was the idea or demand to abandon Slovenian as a language and adopt
a South Slavic language, which would be based on Štokavian dialect. Even Stanko Vraz, the main propo-
nent of Illyrianism in Slovenia, primarily saw cultural integration in a broader sense in the movement, and
somehow he was not ready to give up Slovenian. There were more sympathizers mainly on the northeastern
edge of Slovenian ethnic territory, where the pressure of Germanization was strongest and Illyrianism rep-
resented a kind of defense against Germanization (Cvirn 2000).
The first geography textbook in Slovenian that systematically contains a large number of foreign geo-
graphical names is Zemljepisna začetnica za gimnazije in realke (Figure 2; left). It was written by Janez Jesenko
and was self-published in 1865 (Kladnik 2005; Kladnik and Bratec Mrvar 2008). The work already uses
Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
79
Figure 2: Title pages of the oldest geography textbooks in Croatian (left) and Slovenian (right).

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
many Slovenianized names in its text, and at the end the author added several tables containing names of
towns. The first table lists towns »in Austria« (i.e., Austro-Hungarian territory), followed by European towns
and finally towns on other continents. The author does not present the issue of Slovenianizing geographical
names, but he adds Slovenian names to some names of towns in Austria-Hungary (e.g., Gjur = Raab ‘Győr’)
whereas he writes names elsewhere in Europe and the world with a single name, using either the endonym
(e.g., Birmingham) or a Slovenianized name (e.g., Kodanj ‘Copenhagen’). The only exception is the name
Konstantinopel ‘Constantinople’ , to which he adds the Slovenianized form Carjigrad.
4 Results
The comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization is based on the name corpus, which con-
tains a total of 482 names, of which 232 are from Croatian sources and 250 from Slovenian ones (Table 1).
The collected names designate 161 different topographic features (Figure 3).
80
Table 1: Comparison of milestones in exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian.
Croatia Slovenia
First orthographic manual 1892 (Hrvatski pravopis) 1899 (Slovenski pravopis)
First geography textbook 1823 (Kratki zavjetek zemelyzkoga-izpiszavanya 1865 (Zemljepisna začetnica za gimnazije in realke)
Horvatzke y Vugerzke zemlye)
First world atlas 1887 (Kozennov geografijski atlas za srednje škole) 1869–1877 (Atlant)
First newspaper 1806 (Il Regio Dalmata = Kraglski Dalmatin) 1797 (Lublanske novize od v∫ih Krajov zeliga ∫vejta)
Official language status 1847 1849
Table 2: List of geographical names used in the analysis. List contains Croatian and Slovenian exonyms, as well as exonyms and endonyms of other
languages when used interchangeably with the corresponding Croatian or Slovenian exonyms, rarely without them. If different name forms appear
for a certain geographical feature, they are separated by a comma. Toponyms are listed in the same way they appear in the sources – sometimes
with a small initial letter. The names are listed in alphabetical order in the left column.
Names identified in Croatian sources Names identified in Slovenian sources Current endonyms
Abruzi Abruzzo Abruzzo
Adiža, Eča, Ečava Adiža Adige
Adžmir Adžmir Ajmer
aegejsko more, Egejsko more Egejsko morje Egeo pélagos/Ege Denizi
Afrika Afrika Africa/Afrique*
Akaba Akaba Al-’Aqabah
Amerika Amerika America/Amérique*
arabski zalĕv, cèrveno more, perzijski zalĕv, Arabski zaliv, Persijski zaliv, Perzijski zaliv, al-Bahr al-Ahmar/Badda Cas/QeyH baHri/
Perzijski zaljev Rdeče Morje Y am Suf/Red Sea
Arapsko more Arabsko morje Bahr al-’Arab
Asia, Azija Asia, Azija, Azia Asia/Asie*
Astrakan Astrahan Astrahan’/Ästerxan
Atena, Atina Atene, Atine Athína
atlantički ocean, Atlantski ocean Atlanško morje, Atlantsko morje Atlantic Ocean/Océan Atlantique
Attersko jezero Attersko jezero Kammersee
Australija, Nova Holandija Avstralija, Nova Holandija Australia
Austrija Avstrija, Estrajh Österreich

Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
81
Names identified in Croatian sources Names identified in Slovenian sources Current endonyms
azovsko more Azovsko morje Azovskoe more/Azovs’ke more/Azaq deñizi
Balaton, Blatno jezero Blatno jezero Balaton
Beč, Beç Beč, Dunaj, Dunej Wien
Bečko Novo Mjesto Dunajsko novo mesto Wiener Neustadt
Bĕlak, Beliak, Beljak Belak Villach
bĕlo more, bielo more, Bielo more, Bijelo more Belo morje, Marmarsko morje Marmara Denizi/Propontis
Benares Benares Vārānasi
Bengalski zalĕv Bengalski zaliv Bay of Bengal
Bitolj Bitelj, Bitolja, Monastir Bitola
Bodansko jezero Bodensko jezero Bodensee
Bolonja Bolonja Bologna
Brašov Braševo Braşov
Brazilija Brazilija Brasil
Bruselj Bruselj Brussel/Bruxelles
Bukarešt, Bukurešt Bukreš Bucureşti
Carigrad, Czarrigrad Carjigrad, Konstantinopel, Zargrad İstanbul
Cĕlovac, Celovac, Cjelovac Celovec, Zelovez Klagenfurt am Wörthersee
Cernagora, Cherna Gora, Czerna gora, Črna gora Crna Gora
Czerna Gora, Černa Gora
Cerno more, Cerno morje, crno more, Črno morje Čërnoe more/Chorne more/Marea Neagră/
Crno more Černo more/Karadeniz/Shavi zghva
Dnjestar, Dnyeztar Dnester, Dnestr Dnister/Nistru
Draždjani, Dražđani Draždane Dresden
Drinopolje Adrianopel, Drenopolje Edirne
Dunav Donava, Dunaj, Dunava Donau/Dunaj/Duna/Dunav/Dunărea/Dunay
Englezka Angleško, Angležko, Anglia, Britania, England England
Erdelj, Sedmogradska Erdelj, Erdeljsko Transilvania/Ardeal/Erdély/Siebenbürgen
Eufrat Evfrat, Furat al-Furāt/Firat
Europa, Evropa Evropa, Europa Europe*
Falačka Palatinat Pfalz
Filippini Filipinski otoci Pilipinas/Philippines
Fiorencija, Firenca, Florenc, Florencija Fiorenza, Florenca, Florensa, Florenz Firenze
Francezka, Francuska, Franczuzko Kralyeztvo Francija, Francosko, Franzoſſ ka deshela, Franzosko France 
Gadames Ghadames Ghadāmis/ghdams
Galicija Galicia, Galicija Halychyna/Galicja
Gardsko jezero Gardsko Jezero Lago di Garda/Benàco
Gerčka Grško Elláda/Hellás
Gjur Gjur Györ
glavina Dobre nade Nos dobre nade, Nos Dobre Nade Kaap die Goeie Hoop/Cape of Good Hope
Gradac Gradec Graz
Habeš Abisinija, Habeš Ītyōp
·
p
·
yā
Irska Irland, Irlandija, Irrland Éire/Ireland
Islandija Izlandija Ísland
Italia, Italija, Talijanska Italia, Italija, Laſ hko, Laška, Laško Italia

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
82
Names identified in Croatian sources Names identified in Slovenian sources Current endonyms
Iztočno kitjasko more Vzhodno-kitajsko Morje Zhōngguó Dōng Ha ˘i/Higashi-
Shina-Kai/Dongjungguk-hae
Jakin Jakin Ancona
Jaš Jaš Iaşi
Jedrene Jadrene Edirne
Jenizaj Jenisej Enisej
jonsko more Jonsko morje Iónio pélagos/Mar Ionio/Deti Jon
Južna Karolina Južna Karolina South Carolina
Južni Sporadi Južne Sporade Nóties Sporádes
južno kitajsko more južno Kitajsko morje Nán Zhōngguó Ha ˘i/Nán Ha ˘i/Dagat Timog
Tsina/Bie ˆn Đông/Laut Cina Selatan
Kadiz Kadix Cádiz
Kairo Kairo al-Qāhira
Kalifornija Kalifornija California
Kališ Kališ Kalisz
Kitajska China, Kina, Kitaj Zhōngguó
Kološvar Kološvar Kolozsvár
Kolumbija Kolumbija Colombia
Kopenhagen Kodanj København
Krf Krf Kérkyra
Lavov Levov L ’viv
Linac Linc Linz
Lipsko Lipsko Leipzig
Majna Men Main
Marijanska kupelj Marijanske toplice Mariánské Lázně
Mekhong Majkoung, Mekhong Láncāng Jiāng/Mae Khaung/Mae Nam Khong/
Mènam Khong/Tonle Mékôngk/Sông Mê Kông
Mexički zaljev, mexikanski zalĕv, zaljev Mehikanski zaliv, Mexikanski zaliv Gulf of Mexico/Golfo de México
Meksički, Zaton Mejički, Zaton Mexički 
Mexika, Mexiko Mehikanska, Mexico, Mexiko México
Mleci, Mletci, Mljetci, Venecija Benedke, Benetke Venezia
Moldavska Moldavija, Moldavska, Moldavski, Multanija Moldova
Monakov Mnihov München
Moriš Moriš Mureş/Maros
Moriški Novi Tèrg Moriški Novi trg Târgu Mureș
Moza Maza, Moza Meuse/Maas
Mozela Mozela Moselle/Mosel
Muhač Muhač Mohács
Napolj, Napuli, Napulj Napoli, Neapol, Neapolj, Neapel, Neapoli Napoli
Nemachka, Nemačka, Nĕmačka, nimaçka Nemčija, nemſ hki Rajh, nemſ hko, Nemške Deutschland
zemglia, Njemačka, Njemadija, Njemčadija države, Nemško
Nil Nil an-Nīl/Nile/Phiaro/iteru
Nizza Nizza Nice
Norveška, Norvežka Norvegija Norge/Noreg

Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
83
Names identified in Croatian sources Names identified in Slovenian sources Current endonyms
Nova Foundlandija Nova Fundlandija Newfoundland
Nova Kaledonija Nova Kaledonija Nouvelle-Calédonie
Nova Seelandija Nova Zelandija New Zealand/Aotearoa
Novi Hebridi Nove Hebride New Hebrides/Nouvélles-Hebrides*
Novi Jork Novi Jork, Novi York New York
Odra Odra Odra/Oder
Olomuc Olomouc Olomouc
Oporto Oporto Porto
Orijaško gorje Krkonoši Krkonoše/Karkonosze
Pad Pad Po
Parigi, Pariz Paris, Pariz Paris
Pasov Pasov Passau
Pećuh, Pećuj Pečuh Pécs
Persia, Perzia Iran, Persia, Persija, Perzija Īrān
Petrograd Petrograd, Petrovburg Sankt-Peterburg
Pirej Pirej Peiraiás
Piza Pisa Pisa
Plzanj Pelzenj Plzeň
Poljsko Kraljevstvo, Polyzko Kralyeztvo Poljsko Polska
Požun Požunj Požun
Prag, Pragha Prag, Praga Praha
Pruska Prajſ oviko, Prusko Preußen
Rajna Rajna Rhein/Rhin/Rijn
retičke Alpe, Rhaetske Alpe Retiske Alpe, Retiske Planine, Retiške Planine Alpi Retiche/Rätische Alpen
Rim Rim Roma
Robsko jezero Sužniško Jezero, Veliko Sužniško Jezero Great Slave Lake
Rodos Otok Rod, Otok Rodos, Rod, Rodos Ródos/Rhódos
Ruska Rusija, Rusko, Rusko cesarstvo, Ruſ sia Rossija
Sala Salla Saale
Saska Sasko Sachsen/Sakska
Siget Siget Szigetvár
Sileska, Szlezia Sleško Śląsk/Slezsko/Schlesien
Smirna Smirna İzmir
Solnograd Solnimgrad Salzburg
Spanyolzko Kralyeztvo, Španjolsko Kraljevstvo Shpanija, Španija España
sredozemno more, Sredozemno more Srednje morje, Sredozemsko morje Mediterranean Sea/Mer Méditerranée/
Mar Mediterráneo/Mar Mediterrània/
Mar Mediterraneo/Sredozemno more/
Deti Mesdhe/Mesogeios Thalassa/Akdeniz/
ha-Y am ha-Tikhon/al-Bah
.
r al-Abyad
.
al-
Mutawassit
.
/Ilel Agrakal
Stajerzka, Štajerska Štajersko Steiermark
Stokholm, Štockholm, Štokholm Stockholm Stockholm
Stolni Biograd Stolni Belgrad Székesfehérvár

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
84
4.1 Comparison
In comparing the oldest exonyms in Croatian and Slovenian, the use of an identical exonym in both lan-
guages was found for forty-five topographic features. These are cases in which only one exonym form was
identified for a single language (the exception is ‘Europe’ , for which two identical ones were identified in
both languages). Such examples are Jakin ‘ Ancona’ , Krf ‘Corfu’ , and Nizza ‘Nice’ . A match was also found
in at least one exonym form in twenty-two named topographic features, where the use is not uniform in
either Croatian or Slovenian. Such examples are Beč ‘Vienna’ , Habeš ‘ Abyssinia, Ethiopia’ , Persija ‘Persia,
Iran’ , and Varšava ‘Warsaw’ . Six cases involved differences only in the generic part of the name. These are
mostly the names of bays and seas, such as Cro. Azovsko more and Sln. Azovsko morje ‘Sea of Azov’ , Cro.
Bengalski zalĕv and Sln. Bengalski zaliv ‘Bay of Bengal’ , and Cro. Jonsko more and Sln. Jonsko morje ‘Ionian
Sea’ . However, only three examples of names have a single Croatian or Slovenian exonym form and these
forms are obviously different from each other. These are Cro. Kopenhagen and Sln. Kodanj ‘Copenhagen’ ,
Cro. Mleci, Mletci and Sln. Benetke, Benedke ‘Venice’ , and Cro. Bečko Novo Mjesto and Sln. Dunajsko Novo
mesto ‘Wiener Neustadt’ .
When comparing exonyms in the two languages, some characteristic differences were also found. In
some cases, there is a difference between exonyms in the languages examined regarding the letters e and
Names identified in Croatian sources Names identified in Slovenian sources Current endonyms
Syrija Sirija, Sirsko Sūriyya/Sūryā
Šopronj Šopronj Sopron
Štrasburg Strassburg Strasbourg
Švedska Švedija Sverige
Tamiš Tamiš Timiş/Tamiš
Temišvar Temišvar Timişoara
Tèrst, Trst Terst, Terſ t, Trst Trieste
Thirrensko more, Tirensko more, Tirensko morje, Toskansko Morje Mar Tirreno/Mer Tyrrhénienne
Tirrensko more, Tirrhensko more
Tiber Tibera Tevere
Tibet Tibet Xīzàng zìzhìqū/Xīzàng/
Bod-rang-skyong-ljongs/Bod
Tiflis Tiflis T’bilisi
Tirolska Tirolska, Tirolsko Tirol
Turska, Turzko Czeszarztvo Turčia, Turčija, Turške dežele, Turzhija Türkiye
Varsciovia, Varšava Varšava Warszawa
Velika Britania, velika Britanija, Velika Brittania Velika Britanija Great Britain/Breatainn Mhòr/Prydain Fawr
Velika Kaniža Velika Kaniža Nagykanizsa
Veliki Varadin Veliki Varad, Veliki Varadin, Veliki Vardin Oradea
Veliko medvedje jezero Medvedje Jezero Great Bear Lake
Vezera Vezera, Vezra, Wezra Weser
visoke Ture Visoke Ture Hohe Tauern
Volinj Volinj Volyn’
Vorarlberžka Predarelsko Vorarlberg
Zalĕv sv. Lovrinca Svetega Lovrencija zaliv Gulf of Saint Lawrence/Golfe du Saint Laurent
zelena glavina Zeleni Nos Cap Vert
Žuto more Rumeno morje Huáng Ha ˇi/Hwang-Hae
*English and French name

Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
85
a (e.g., Cro. Bodansko jezero and Sln. Bodensko jezero ‘Lake Constance’) and when using the diphthongs
au and av (e.g., Cro. Austria and Sln. Avstrija ‘ Austria’). There is also a characteristic difference in the suf-
fixes of some modern or historical countries and administrative units, with the Croatian suffix -ska and
the Slovenian suffix -sko (e.g., Cro. Pruska and Sln. Prusko ‘Prussia’). Two more examples of the use of the
Slovenian exonyms instead of German endonyms in Croatian for modern Austria are noteworthy: for Villach
(Sln. Beljak) the Croatian exonym variants Bĕlak, Beliak, and Beljak were used, and for Klagenfurt (Sln.
Celovec) the Croatian exonym variants Celovac, Cĕlovac, and Cjelovac.
Some principles of exonym standardization were also seen in individual semantic types of geograph-
ical names. The exonyms for seas and lakes in both languages are usually formed with the adjective
endings -sko and -ško plus a common noun; for example, Cro. Arapsko more and Sln. Arabsko morje ‘ Arabian
Sea’ , Cro. Bodansko jezero and Sln. Bodensko jezero ‘Lake Constance’ , and Sln. Atlanško morje ‘ Atlantic Ocean’ .
For adapting the names of European rivers from the German-speaking area, adding the suffix -a pre-
vailed; that is, converting the name into a feminine noun (which agrees with the gender of Cro. rijeka ‘river’
or Sln. reka ‘river’; for example, Cro./Sln. Rajna ‘Rhine’ . The use of the name form Ren later dominated in
Slovenian.
The names of continents, many countries, and important or large towns gained exonyms in Croatian
and Slovenian early on. Names of continents were adapted to facilitate pronunciation. An interesting example
is Cro. Europa ‘Europe’ , which is cited in the oldest sources in this form (only Klaić uses the form Evropa,
but he also sometimes replaces it with the form Europa). A similar situation is found in Slovenian, in which
the use is inconsistent in the oldest newspaper sources (both Europa and Evropa ‘Europe’), but the form Evropa
later became established. Names of countries were most often nativized by the addition of the suffixes -s(z)ka
in Croatian and -s(z)ko in Slovenian, and -ija in both languages; for example, Cro. Australija and Sln. Avstralia
0
300
400
600
100
200
500 482
232
250
161
45
22
44
52
30
Complete exonym corpus
Exonyms identified in Croatian sources
Exonyms identified in Slovenian sources
Same topographic features identified as exonyms in both languages (see Table 1)
Identical exonyms in both languages for all exonym variants
Correspondence of at least one exonym variant in both languages
Multiple exonym variants identified for a single topographic feature in Croatian
Multiple exonym variants identified for a single topographic feature in Slovenian
Multiple exonym variants identified in both languages
Figure 3: Number of exonyms analyzed by individual sources and types.

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
‘ Australia’ , Cro. Francezka (later Francuska) and Sln. Francija ‘France’ , and Cro./Sln. Pers(z)ija ‘Persia, Iran’ .
For the Croats and Slovenians, prominent towns often already had traditional Croatian or Slovenian names.
A comparison of the number of different exonyms for individual topographic features showed that
there are fifteen such cases only in Croatian, nineteen only in Slovenian, and twenty-two in both languages.
This indicates rather inconsistent use of exonyms in the oldest sources.
Unsystematic use can also be found within an individual issue of a newspaper, when different exonym
forms appear for the same geographical feature. A good example is found in the Croatian literary supplement
Danicza horvatzka, slavonzka y dalmatinzka from 1835, where the following forms are found for ‘Montenegro’:
Cherna Gora, Czerna Gora, and Czerna gora (issue 19), Černa Gora (issue 32), and Cernagora (issue 50).
Comparing the exonyms identified in both languages, there are forty-four that appear in different forms
in Croatian, and fifty-two in Slovenian.
4.2 Typology
When comparing Croatian and Slovenian exonyms in the oldest sources, it was found that roughly four
most frequent patterns of adapting a toponym (i.e., type of exonymization) appear:
The first pattern is the translation of all or part of the endonym. For example, Cro. Bĕlo/Bijelo more
and Sln. Belo morje ‘White Sea’ , Cro. Cerno/Crno more and Sln. Črno morje ‘Black Sea’ , Cro./Sln. Nova
Holandija ‘New Holland’ , and Cro. Bečko Novo Mjesto and Sln. Dunajsko Novo mesto ‘Wiener Neustadt’ .
The second pattern is the addition of Slavic suffixes: Cro./Sln. -ija, Cro. -ska, -ška, -čka (in oldest sources
-zka), and Sln. -sko, -ško, -žko; for example, Cro. Australija and Sln. Avstralija ‘ Australia’ , Cro. Austrija and
Sln. Avstrija ‘ Austria’ , Cro. Moldavska ‘Moldova’ , Cro. Norveška ‘Norway’ , Cro. Gerčka and Sln. Grško ‘Greece’ ,
Cro. Francezka and Sln. Francosko ‘France’ , and Cro. Englezka and Sln. Angležko ‘England’ .
The third pattern is the simplification of pronunciation and the omission of special characters and let-
ters that do not exist in either Croatian or Slovenian; for example, Cro. Atina/Atena and Sln. Atene/Atine
‘ Athens’ , Cro. Bukarešt/Bukurešt and Sln. Bukreš ‘Bucharest’ , Cro. Eufrat and Sln. Evfrat/Furat ‘Euphrates’ ,
Cro./Sln. Gjur ‘Győr’ , Cro./Sln. Olomuc ‘Olomouc’ , Cro./Sln. Pasov ‘Passau’ , and Cro./Sln. Varšava ‘Warsaw’ .
The fourth pattern is the use of old Croatian and Slovenian names, which can be described as »typi-
cal« exonyms; for example, Cro. Beč/Beç and Sln. Dunaj/Dunej/Beč ‘Vienna’ , Cro./Sln. Bruselj ‘Brussels’ ,
Cro. Carigrad/Czarrigrad and Sln. Carjigrad/Konstantinopel/Zargrad ‘Istanbul’ , Cro. Draždjani/Dražđani
and Sln. Draždane ‘Dresden’ , Cro. Erdelj and Sln. Erdelj/Erdeljsko ‘Transylvania’ , Cro./Sln. Jakin ‘ Ancona’ ,
Cro. Jedrene and Sln. Jadrene/Adrianopel/Drenopolje ‘Edirne’ , Cro./Sln. Krf ‘Corfu’ , Cro./Sln. Lipsko
‘Leipzig’ , Cro. Mleci/Mletci and Sln. Benetke/Benedke ‘Venice’ , Cro. Napulj/Napolj and Sln. Neapolj/Neapel
‘Naples’ , Cro./Sln. Pad ‘Po’ , Cro. Pećuh/Pećuj and Sln. Pečuh ‘Pécs’ , Cro. Prag and Sln. Praga ‘Prague’ , Cro./Sln.
Rim ‘Rome’ , Cro. Tiber and Sln. Tibera ‘Tiber’ , and Cro./Sln. Trst ‘Trieste’ .
4.3 Discussion
Exonyms have been relatively well studied in central Europe (Hajčiková and Kováčová 1997; Horňanský
2000; Jordan 2000), but there are differences between languages. Some languages (e.g., Finnish and Polish)
have a decades-long tradition of gazetteers with exonyms (e.g., Hakulinen and Paikkala 2012; Wolnicz-
Pawłowska 2013), whereas others have only individual partial studies. Slovenian does not have such a long
tradition, but it has a dictionary or list of exonyms in both digital and book form (Kladnik et al. 2013; Kladnik
and Perko 2013). In addition, Slovenian exonyms are also considered from some other points of view. Two
separate gazetteers of exonyms have also been published in Croatian in recent years (Crljenko 2016; 2018),
but some aspects have not yet been addressed. All these works mostly focus on the current situation, and
in neither language has there yet been a fundamental discussion of the beginnings of exonym standard-
ization. This gap has been addressed with the bilateral project A Comparative Analysis of Croatian and
Slovenian Exonyms, based on which several studies have been published (e.g., Kladnik et al. 2017).
A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian confirms some
basic assumptions about this process in both languages; however, some differences between the two lan-
guages are also apparent. Although some exonyms appear very early, in both languages their number increased
considerably in the second half of the nineteenth century. Namely, this was the time of national movements,
86

which were initially also (or mainly) asserted with a national language. This was also the time of the large-
scale press, especially newspapers, which also carried news from areas where foreign languages were spoken.
A key characteristic of the use of exonyms in this period is especially their lack of systematicity.
There are several reasons for the unsystematic use of exonyms. The most important of these, which applies
to both languages, is the absence of orthographic manuals in the languages, which began to appear in the
last decade of the nineteenth century (in 1892 in Croatian and 1899 in Slovenian). The difference between
the Slovenian and Croatian orthographic manuals is that the Slovenian one contained rules for writing for-
eign geographical names as soon as it was published in 1899, and the Croatian one only in its edition published
in 1904. An additional circumstance in Croatian is the existence of multiple standards at the same time.
Up until the Illyrian movement in the first half of the nineteenth century, the northern Croats wrote using
an adapted Hungarian Latin script, and the southern Croats used an adapted Italian script. In addition, some
writers often changed their Latin script orthography from one occasion to another. The Croatian linguist
Ljudevit Gaj, following the example of the Czech alphabet, created a Roman-alphabet system (known as
gajica ‘the Gaj alphabet’), using a distinct set of letters. The Gaj alphabet also replaced the Bohorič alpha-
bet in Slovenian. However, the Slovenian Gaj alphabet is somewhat modified and, in contrast to the Croatian
version, has only twenty-five letters. Another difference between the two languages or their scripts is asso-
ciated with Ljudevit Gaj – that is, Illyrianism, which did not win as much sympathy among the Slovenians
as among the Croats. For the Slovenians, this meant, above all, a departure from the German political frame-
work, but in no way did they accept Štokavian dialect as the standard norm for all South Slavs.
An interesting difference in the use of geographical names in both languages is also reflected in some
Slovenian names in territory that lies outside Slovenia. For settlements near today’s Slovenian–Austrian
border, the Croats used Slovenian-(based) forms (e.g., Beljak, Celovac) while they were in common coun-
tries with the Slovenes – and, as distance to the north increases, this kind of shared use decreases. For example,
for the highest Austrian peak, Mount Großglockner, the Croats use the German name (and in older usage
also the form Gros Glokner), whereas in Slovenian the name Veliki Klek has become established.
A shared characteristic is also the fact that some exonyms in both languages were taken from other
languages, especially Slavic ones.
The lack of uniformity in both languages was also contributed to by the fact that some basic geographical
and cartographic works were published before the first orthographic manuals, for example, textbooks (in
1823 in Croatian and 1865 in Slovenian) and atlases (in 1887 in Croatian and between 1869 and 1877 in
Slovenian); among all publications, these certainly contain the most adapted foreign geographical names.
Because the spelling norm on writing names was not established before this, the lack of uniformity is real-
ly not surprising.
Comparing the findings of this study with some other related studies in European languages (Pokoly
2006; Gînsac and Ungureanu 2018; Moscal 2018) reveals some similarities. The time when exonyms arose
is similar in Romanian, around 1800, and in Hungarian the oldest systematic sources are from the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century (the name Bees ‘Vienna’ appears as early as 1356). In classifying these names
by their manner of adaptation, three types are roughly shown in related research: complete translation,
partial translation, and addition of suffixes. Interestingly, at least in the Romanian case, this does not involve
exonyms, but translated names. The use of exonyms was also inconsistent because in the same source an
individual name may appear in different forms. The role of individual languages, which acted as media-
tors in the adaption of some foreign geographical names, is also evident.
This discussion, which is based on a limited amount of material, partially fills the research gap regard-
ing the beginnings of the appearance of exonyms in two related languages, Croatian and Slovenian. An updated
corpus of names would clearly contribute to even better results. In the case of Croatian, the appearance of
exonyms in the first atlases should be treated more systematically, and in Slovenian especially their use in
newspapers. In this way, individual types of material could be compared, not only the material as a whole.
5 Conclusion
The first exonyms in Croatian and Slovenian appeared in large numbers at the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury with the first newspapers. Their number increased in the nineteenth century because the first
orthographic manuals, atlases, and geographical textbooks containing foreign geographical names also
appeared in the second half of the century.
Acta geographica Slovenica, 61-2, 2021
87

Ivana Crljenko, Matjaž Geršič, A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian
A comparison of the beginnings of exonym standardization in Croatian and Slovenian shows that the
emergence of exonyms in both languages was mainly influenced by historical and political circumstances
and the language policy of the time. A similar language, immediate proximity, and a partly common past
fostered many similar and identical exonyms in both languages, and some differences are mainly due to
spelling differences and some differences in grammatical rules. In the analysis of exonyms, four groups
were highlighted: partly or entirely translated names, names with a Slavic suffix added, names with sim-
plified writing based on pronunciation, and old or »typical« exonyms.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The authors acknowledge financial support from the Croatian Ministry of
Science, Education, and Sports and from the Slovenian Research Agency for funding the bilateral project
A Comparative Analysis of Croatian and Slovenian Exonyms, and from the Slovenian Research Agency
core funding Geography of Slovenia (P6-0101). Special thanks to Irena Orel for sharing data about Slovenian
exonyms from old newspapers.
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