61
Aleksander Lavrenčič1
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF ARCHIVAL 
MATERIAL AS (NON)PERSISTENT CHEMICAL
MATERIAL - WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE 
PROBLEM OF ACETATE DECAY OR 
VINEGAR SYNDROME
ABSTRACT
Purpose: The purpose of this article is to show how important it is for archives 
to realize that the safe storage of originals is important for the preservation of 
material.
Methodology: With the help of the story of the Indian Ishi from the beginning of 
the 20th century and the destruction of important film material, it was explained 
what are the consequences for the existence of cultural heritage because of irre-
sponsible handling of film material.
Results: The story of the collapse of film material that was stored in unsuita-
ble conditions teaches us that we must pay attention to appropriate professional 
education. The damage caused by ignorance or carelessness in the handling of 
archival material is in most cases irreparable.
Conclusions/findings: The decay of film material is not only a problem of audio-
visual archives. Similar problems have been detected in all archives. Digitiza-
tion enables easier access to the material and more secure storage, but there 
is still a need for professional, flawless storage of the original analog material 
in archival depots. This is the only way cultural heritage can be preserved for 
future generations.
Keywords: archives, digitisation, chemical deterioration, acetate decay, au-
dio-visual archives.
1	 Aleksander	Lavrenčič,	archival	councillor,	Student,	Alma	Mater	Europaea	University,	Slovenska	ulica	17,	2000	
Maribor,	librarian	researcher,	TV	Archives,	RTV	Slovenija,	Kolodvorska	2,	1550	Ljubljana,	Slovenija,	aleksander.
lavrencic@rtvslo.si.
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF ARCHIVAL MATERIAL AS (NON)PERSISTENT CHEMICAL MATERIAL - WITH 
SPECIAL FOCUS ON THE PROBLEM OF ACETATE DECAY OR VINEGAR SYNDROME	ALEKSANDER	LAVRENČIČ
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1 INTRODUCTION
This	article	addresses	the	problem	of	permanent	preservation	of	archival	material	
in	audio-visual	and	other	archives.	Archives	and	the	work	of	archivists	are	dis-
cussed	from	the	perspective	of	three	different	times:	past,	present,	and	future.	We	
were	interested	in	how	we	can	connect	traditional	archival	theory	and	practice	
with	digital	archival	theory	and	practice.	A	book,	that	we	found	on	the	shelves	
of	a	local	library,	prompted	us	to	try	to	connect	the	points	of	time	where	three	
seemingly	completely	opposite	time	periods	unconsciously	meet	each	other.	We	
highlighted	archives	as	 institutions	 that	ensure	 that	 the	material	as	well	as	 the	
knowledge	of	professionally	qualified	archivists	are	transferred	through	the	pres-
ent	from	the	past	to	the	future.	The	first,	purely	coincidental	contact	between	the	
past,	which	is	unknown	to	us,	and	the	century	we	experienced,	and	then,	at	its	
conclusion,	stepped	into	a	new	century	(the	date	limit	 is	otherwise	imaginary)	
was	the	invention	of	film.	The	invention	of	film	and	the	first	film	of	the	Lumierre	
brothers	in	1895	(Lavedrine,	Gandolfo,	2011,	1)	made	it	possible	to	record	moving	
images.	The	beginnings	of	film,	which	developed	from	the	processes	of	photogra-
phy,	almost	coincide	with	the	beginning	of	the	20th century.
2 PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE
How	can	past,	present	and	future	meet	each	other?	Sometimes	we	think	about	it	
at	the	transition	to	the	new	year,	which	is	repeated	every	year	at	midnight	in	all	
time	zones.	Baković	(2023,	40)	mentions	midnight	„as that moment in which a 
person can be in the past, present and future“,	as	the	only	moment	„in which the 
end and the beginning embrace“.
For	 the	Tralfalmadorians,	people	 from	 the	planet	Tralfamadore,	 time	runs	dif-
ferently	(Vonnegut	&	Klavnica,	1969,	27–28),	but	we	are	not	Tralfamadorians,	at	
least	for	now,	Earth	is	our	only	home,	where	time	runs	linearly	from	the	past	to	
the	future	and	stops	in	the	present	in	between.	And	just	as	the	Earth	is	the	only	
home,	the	originals	are	the	only	original	copies,	everything	else	is	copies,	and	
with	 the	original	as	with	 the	Earth	we	lose	 the	only	home.	Billy	Pilgrim,	who	
traveled	through	time	periods	in	Vonnegut‘s	novel,	could	not	change	things	like	
the	past,	present,	and	future.	Even	archivists	cannot	change	the	past	(we	mustn‘t),	
but	we	can	influence	the	present	and	therefore	change	and	improve	the	future.	
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According	 to	film	material,	we	 can	 talk	 about	 three	 tenses:	 past,	 present,	 and	
future.	The	 same	applies	 to	 the	archiving	of	 classical	documentary	and	archi-
val	material	in	archives,	but	this	division	is	even	more	noticeable	in	the	case	of	
audio-visual	documents,	and	analogies	are	made	in	relation	to	the	archiving	of	
digital	born	material,	and	even	more	so	of	digitized	analogue	material.
Audio-visual	material	always	stands	before	us	in	the	present	tense.	It	is	as	it	
is	at	this	moment,	it	carries	both	the	material	and	substantive	past	and	at	the	
same	 time	 the	future	 in	which	 the	material	must	be	preserved.	The	present	
moves	linearly	towards	the	future	with	time,	the	content	of	the	past	becomes	
richer,	the	future	more	unpredictable	and	the	concern	for	preserving	the	ma-
terial more intense.
Many	archivists	agree	that	this	work,	which	represents	the	preservation	and	trans-
fer	of	material	from	the	past	to	the	future,	is	the	most	difficult	task	in	archives.	
At	the	end	of	the	20th	century	and	the	beginning	of	the	digital	world,	Bubenik	
(1999,	265)	explained	that	the	only	way	to	save	audio-visual	cultural	heritage	is	
its	digitization	and	the	use	of	digital	copies,	which	enable	faster	access	and	safe	
storage	of	the	originals.	Bubenik	(1999,	257)	conceived	audio-visual	archives	as	
a	temporal	bridge	between	different	technological	sediments.
The	past	of	the	film	includes	all	processes	(Jacobsen,	2020),	which	led	both	to	
the	material	design	of	 the	film	strip	and	to	 the	content,	 to	 the	present	viewing	
of	the	film	at	this	moment.	Considering	the	changes	that	occur	with	the	use	of	
audio-visual	material,	we	 can	 say,	 like	Heraclitus,	who	 explained	 this	 idea	by	
entering	the	river	once,	that	we	cannot	watch	the	same	film	twice.
How	to	explain	 the	 importance	of	 the	work	of	archivists	 in	 the	present	for	 the	
preservation	of	the	past	and	the	future,	describe	the	preservation	of	material	un-
der	the	required	conditions,	digitization	of	material,	continuous	work	with	origi-
nals	-	airing	and	turning	over	and	control	of	chemical	changes	(Lavrenčič,	2005,	
203–210)?	We	decided	to	try	to	explain	this	with	a	simple	story.
3 ISHI‘S STORY
The	story	that	we	will	describe	here	is	very	old,	an	extraordinary	event	in	every-
day	life	wrote	it	at	the	beginning	of	the	last	century	not	so	far	away,	in	America	
(if	we	ironically	compare	the	geographical	distances	a	hundred	years	ago	and	to-
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day).	I	don‘t	know	why,	but	sometimes	I	get	the	feeling	that	such	stories	can	only	
happen	in	America	or	in	the	movies.	The	story	we	are	going	to	narrate	is	beauti-
ful,	sad,	and	instructive.	It	is	a	story	that	could	happen	to	any	of	us	can	relate	to	
each of us, at any time. It is a placeless, timeless story, but it is not an immaterial 
story.	It	teaches	us	how	our	improper	handling	of	documentary	and	archival	ma-
terial	can	destroy	not	only	centuries,	but	also	millennia	of	human	cultural	history,	
back	to	the	beginning	of	civilization.
“At	 the	 first	 light	 of	 the	 morning	 on	 August	 29,	 1911,	 a	 wretched,	 hunched	
over	man	was	seen	standing	by	the	fence	of	a	slaughterhouse	near	the	town	of	
Oronville,	California.	The	man	was	almost	naked,	only	a	 large	piece	of	cloth,	
like	the	poncho	of	the	South	American	Indians,	was	draped	around	his	neck.	The	
face	betrayed	an	Indian,	but	of	a	special	type,	the	likes	of	which	had	never	been	
seen	before.	Later	it	turned	out	that	Ishi,	as	the	Indian	was	called,	was	the	last	
American of the Stone Age. The scientists felt the importance of the event, took 
care	of	Ishi,	employed	him	as	a	guard	in	the	museum	and	carried	out	numerous	
investigations	and	documented	them	properly...”	(Ceram,	1973,	329).
Five	years	later	Ishi	died.	After	his	death,	he	was	quickly	forgotten.	When	interest	
in	him	was	revived	in	1957,	and	the	boxes	containing	the	stored	wax	cylinders	
containing	recordings	of	Ishii‘s	voice,	singing	and	vocabulary	were	opened,	they	
found	that	most	of	the	cylinders	had	been	broken.	In	addition,	they	could	not	train	
any	of	the	old	equipment	to	play	music.	Only	one	resourceful	student	was	lucky	
enough	to	assemble	a	useful	one	from	several	wreckage	of	old	devices	and	thus	
they	were	able	to	 listen	to	part	of	 the	music	recordings.	Film	recordings	made	
for	museum	purposes	by	cameramen	of	the	California	Film	Society	fared	worse.	
Cassettes	with	about	1,500	meters	of	film	were	perfectly	stored	in	the	vicinity	of	
the	heating	pipes.	When	the	cassettes	were	forcibly	opened,	they	found	only	an	
unrecognizable	slimy	mass	(Ceram,	1973,	329).
With	 Ishi,	 a	 part	 of	 human	 history	 disappeared	 forever,	 a	 part	 that	 could	 not	
be	prevented	in	the	development	of	human	society	in	any	way;	however,	about	
a	century	later	after	the	story	that	unfolded	in	the	west	of	the	United	States	of	
America,	the	careless	behavior	of	scientists	with	documentary	records	should	not	
be	repeated.
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4 MATERIAL PROTECTION OF ARCHIVAL MATERIAL
The	material	 protection	 of	 archival	material	 includes	 the	maintenance	 or	 pro-
tection	of	the	material	against	damage,	destruction,	loss	or	unauthorized	use	or	
abuse.	(Žumer,	2001,	267).	The	Act	on	the	Protection	of	Documentary	and	Ar-
chival	Material	and	Archives	 (ZVDAGA,	2006,	2014)	established	 in	2006,	 re-
garding	 the	 protection	 of	 documentary	 and	 archival	material	 against	 damage,	
destruction	and	loss,	determined	in	general:	„Archival	material	in	physical	form	
is	permanently	and	professionally	stored	in	appropriate	rooms	and	equipment,	in	
appropriate	climatic	conditions,	protected	against	burglary,	fire,	water,	biological,	
chemical,	physical	and	other	harmful	influences“	(ZVDAGA,	2006,	2014,	Arti-
cle	36,	2.	Paragraph).	„Storage	of	archival	material	in	digital	form	is	permitted	
only	as	long-term	storage	of	covered	material	in	accordance	with	internal	rules“	
(ZVDAGA,	2006,	2014,	Article	36,	Paragraph	3).
The	duty	of	public	and	private	institutions	and	individuals	regarding	the	profes-
sionally	irreproachable	protection	of	documentary	and	archival	material	is	there-
fore	a	legal	obligation,	while	damaging	or	destroying	the	material	is	a	criminal	
offense	according	to	the	Criminal	Code	of	the	Republic	of	Slovenia.	The	condi-
tions	prescribing	the	methods	of	material	protection	of	material	are	determined	
by	the	Decree	on	the	protection	of	documentary	and	archive	material	(UVDAG,	
2017).	All	public	and	private	 institutions	must	store	documentary	and	archival	
material	or	their	permanent	collection	of	material	in	an	archival	warehouse	with	
appropriate	 technical	equipment	(archival	warehouses	are	equipped	with	metal	
equipment),	which	enables:	
1. rational placement of material, 
2. insurance against injuries, 
3. easy accessibility of the material, 
4.	air	circulation	and	
5.	easy	cleaning.
5 ACETATE DECAY – VINEGAR SYNDROME
The	Report	 and	Guide	 for	 film	 preservation	 by	 the	California-based	National	
Film	Preservation	Foundation	published	in	2004	explains	the	term	acetate	decay	
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as	chemical	deterioration	of	acetate	plastic	accelerated	by	high	relative	humidity	
and	temperature.	Also	known	as	vinegar	syndrome	because	of	the	odour	released	
during	the	decay	process	(Melville,	2004,	98).
Research	on	the	effect	of	acetic	acid	on	the	degradation	of	historic	cellulose	tria-
cetate	cinematographic	film	was	begun	in	Great	Britain	at	Manchester	Polytech-
nic.	A	report	from	the	Library	of	Congress	(1993,	ch.1)	cited	the	study	N.	S.	Allen,	
and	others,	“Degradation	of	Historic	Cellulose	Triacetate	Cinematographic	Film:	
Influence	of	Various	Film	Parameters	and	Prediction	of	Archival	Life,”	Journal	
of	Photographic	Science	36	(1988).	This	study	notes	a	link	between	the	onset	of	
vinegar	syndrome	and	metal	ion	contamination,	reinforcing	anecdotal	evidence	
among	 archivists	 that	 the	most	 serious	 vinegar	 syndrome	 is	 occurring	first	 in	
magnetic	soundtracks.	The	Library	of	Congress	report	then	cites	that	continued	
research	in	the	United	States	has	been	conducted	at	the	Image	Permanence	Insti-
tute,	Rochester	Institute	of	Technology,	which	was	published	in	P.Z.	Adelstein,	
J.M.	Reilly,	D.W.	Nishimura,	and	C.	J.	Erbland,	“Stability	of	Cellulose	Ester	Base	
Photographic	Film,”	SMPTE	Journal	101	(May	1992).
How	to	explain	the	occurrence	and	danger	of	vinegar	syndrome?	Richardson	and	
Altias	(2017)	explained	this	phenomenon	by	relating	it	to	living	organisms	that	
biologically	 age	 and	 die.	Carbon-based	 organic	 living	 and	 non-living	material	
are	subject	to	aging,	decay,	or	death,	especially	for	plants	and	animals.	However,	
where	infection,	disease,	and	extreme	environmental	conditions	cause	premature	
biological	deterioration,	a	medical	treatment	may	be	developed	to	slow,	stop,	or	
reverse	the	process.	In	one	sense,	decay	is	a	gradual	process	by	which	something	
breaks	down	or	falls	apart	as	a	result	of	natural	causes.	Bones	become	brittle,	skin	
loses its elasticity, hair gets grey. “In another sense, decay is a natural reaction 
that results over time when a substance is exposed to a reactive environment and/
or other substances with which the substance will chemically react.” (Richardson	
& Altias, 2017).
In	 1993,	 the	Library	 of	Congress	 in	Washington	 developed	 guidelines	 for	 the	
preservation	of	material	on	filmstrip.	At	that	time,	special	attention	was	also	paid	
to	 nitrate	film.	 In	 the	 time	before	digitization,	 copies	were	made	on	polyester	
tape.	The	report	(Library	of	Congress,	1993)	stated:	“Films are ephemeral and 
fragile products. For the technical reasons outlined in the next section, even the 
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most durable of films can become unusable in less than a single human lifespan, 
although some types have proven to deteriorate more rapidly and spectacularly 
than others. While preservation can be thought of as any effort to keep a film in 
a viewable form, most archivists consider a film preserved only when it is both 
(1) viewable in its original format with its full visual and aural values retained, 
and (2) protected for the future by “preprint” material through which subsequent 
viewing copies can be created.”	In	practice	and	in	casual	language,	preservation	
has	usually	been	synonymous	with	duplication.	The	archival	rallying	slogan	for	
the	last	two	decades	has	been	“Nitrate	Won’t	Wait,”	and	the	primary	preservation	
task--still	 far	 from	accomplished--has	been	 to	 copy	unstable,	nitrate-base	film	
without	significant	loss	of	quality	onto	more	durable	“safety”	stock	(Library	of	
Congress,	1993).
Before	digitization	began,	the	preservation	of	film	material	was	considered	to	be	
that	“One	basic	archival	principle	is	that	preservation	is	not	accomplished	unless	
the	new	medium	has	a	considerably	longer	life	than	the	original	from	which	it	
is	copied.	On	 the	surface,	continued	copying	onto	acetate	base	would	seem	to	
violate	 that	 principle.	But	 there	 are	 two	 reasons	 to	 qualify	 such	 a	 conclusion:	
First,	 the	original	nitrate	print	 is	older	and	usually	well	 into	 its	decomposition	
cycle;	and	second,	the	new	acetate	print	can	be	given	proper	storage	right	from	
the	start.	Thus,	vinegar	syndrome	has	not	been	detected	in	films	duplicated	under	
archival	conditions	and	put	into	ideal	storage	immediately.	The	implications	of	
vinegar	syndrome	in	acetate	have	not	yet	been	fully	assimilated	into	preservation	
practice,	 but	 scientific	 research	 into	 its	 causes	 has	 also	 been	 accompanied	 by	
compelling	evidence	that	it	can	be	delayed	by	proper	storage”	(Library	of	Con-
gress,	1993).
Historically,	motion-picture	bases	consisted	of	three	main	types:	
(1)	cellulose	nitrate	(usually	called	simply	nitrate),	in	commercial	use	through	the	
early	1950s,	
(2)	 cellulose	 acetate	 (usually	 called	 acetate),	 available	 for	 some	uses	 since	 the	
1910s	but	widely	employed	only	after	1950,	and	
(3)	polyester,	available	since	the	mid-	1950s	but	still	in	only	scattered	use.	Both	
acetate	and	polyester	are	sometimes	called	“safety”	film,	in	distinction	from	ni-
trate.	(Library	of	Congress,	1993).	
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Water,	high	humidity,	and	heat	can	destroy	the	plastic	base	of	acetate	film.	In	the	
early	stage	of	decay,	the	plastic	releases	acetic	acid,	which	is	chemically	identical	
to	vinegar,	hence	the	name	“vinegar	syndrome.”	As	the	decomposition	advances,	
the	chemical	reaction	accelerates.	Typically,	the	decay	process	follows	this	pattern:	
1.	The	film	begins	to	smell	like	vinegar.	
2.	The	film	base	begins	to	shrink.	As	the	base	shrinks	irregularly,	the	film	resists	
being	laid	flat.	It	curls	and	warps	along	both	length	and	width.	
3.	The	film	loses	flexibility.	
4.	The	emulsion	may	crack	and	eventually	flake	off.	
5.	White	powder	may	appear	along	the	edges	and	surface	of	the	film.	The	acetic	
acid	vapor	released	by	films	with	vinegar	syndrome	can	infect	other	acetate	base	
materials	stored	nearby,	particularly	in	a	poorly	ventilated	storage	area.	The	Im-
age	Permanence	Institute	(IPI)	at	the	Rochester	Institute	of	Technology	advises	
freezing	films	in	advanced	acetate	decay.	(Melville,	2004,	14).
Acetate	 decay	 cannot	 be	 reversed,	 but	 it	 can	 be	 slowed	 by	 improving	 storage	
conditions	(see	chapter	6).	At	the	early	decay	stages,	the	film	content	can	be	res-
cued	by	transferring	it	to	new	film	stock.	Generally,	once	the	film	becomes	too	
brittle,	it	cannot	be	copied	in	its	entirety,	although	less	damaged	sections	may	be	
salvageable	(Melville,	2004,	15).
In	1948,	the	nitrate	film,	which	had	exploded	several	times,	was	replaced	by	a	
triacetate	film	carrier,	which	was	supposed	to	be	safer	and	more	durable,	but	the	
stench	of	vinegar	was	detected	several	times	in	the	film	archives	already	in	the	
fifties	of	20th	century.	They	found	out	that	there	is	a	silent	killer	of	films	hiding	
among	the	archival	shelves,	which	does	not	kill	as	spectacularly	as	those	from	
the	time	of	nitrate	films,	but	destroys	slowly	and	reliably,	causes	the	emulsion	to	
retreat,	brittleness	and	curling	of	the	film,	the	polymers	in	the	film	base	begin	to	
split	into	monomers	(Lavrenčič,	2005,	207).	The	process	of	disintegration	of	the	
films	was	accelerated	due	to	storage	in	unsuitable	conditions.	Decomposition	was	
influenced	by	the	following	factors:	temperature,	humidity,	and	degree	of	acidity	
in	the	microenvironment.	Namely,	this	works	in	a	hermetically	sealed	film	box	
as	a	micro	catalyst	that	accelerates	a	chemical	reaction,	similar	to	the	„snowball“	
effect	(Reilly,	1993).
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However,	 it	 is	not	only	audio-visual	archives	 that	store	 large	quantities	of	film	
tape	 that	have	problems	with	 the	decay	of	film	material.	The	 scent	of	vinegar	
around	 photographic	 negatives	 and	 film	 reels	 points	 to	 a	 form	 of	 decay	 aptly	
named	vinegar	syndrome.	(Carey,	2023).	Classical	archives	are	not	safe	from	vin-
egar	 syndrome,	 as	 the	 events	 at	 the	Reference	 Library	 in	 Toronto	 confirmed.	
In	these	archives,	there	has	been	severe	damage	to	the	original	material	on	the	
photographic	negatives.	The	deterioration	of	the	originals	probably	occurred	be-
cause	the	cabinets	were	closed	during	the	epidemic,	which	reminds	us	that	we	
must	constantly	ventilate	the	material.	Some	other	archives	have	taken	a	different	
approach	to	rescue,	digitizing	the	material	and	publishing	it	online.	The	Canadi-
an	National	Exhibition	(CNE)	Archives	started	digitizing	its	collection	of	more	
than	109,000	acetate	film	photo	negatives	in	the	early	2010s	because	they	were	
starting	to	succumb	to	vinegar	syndrome.	Similar	problems	were	detected	in	The	
Arnprior	&	McNab/Braeside	Archives	(Ontario,	Canada,	2019)	which	holds	ap-
proximately	400	fonds/collections.	As	it	was	written,	the	best	solution	is	to	keep	
film	cold	to	buy	time:	“The best thing that we can do for films like that is to cool 
or freeze them because the lower temperatures significantly diminish the process-
es of degradation … and it really buys us a lot of time,”	said	David	Daley,	con-
servation	advisor	at	the	University	of	Calgary	Archives	and	Special	Collections	
(Brockbank, 2023).
Chemical	changes	are	not	only	fatal	for	archival	material;	the	changes	are	also	
dangerous	for	the	personnel	who	handle	the	material.	The	use	of	appropriate	pro-
tective	equipment	and	procedures	can	mitigate	the	potential	hazards	of	handling	
severely	damaged	films	(Soleymani	and	Russ,	2021,	pp.	154).	Vinegar	syndrome	
causes	contact	burns	as	well	as	nasal	and	lung	irritation	(Brockbank,	2023).
6 CONCLUSIONS
As	we	enter	the	new	millennium	and	the	digitization	and	digitalization	of	archi-
val	collections,	many	have	forgotten	that	workers	in	film	and	other	audiovisual	
archives	around	the	world	have	long	been	fighting	against	 time	to	secure	 their	
collections.	Digitalization	of	archives	provides	many	advantages,	which	ensure	
quality	and	cheaper	 transmission,	 regeneration	and	archiving	of	signals,	easier	
access	to	digitized	material	also	enables	better	material	protection	of	the	original	
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archival	material,	but	we	must	be	aware	that	we	must	first	preserve	the	material	
and	only	then	digitize	it.
The	story	of	Ishii,	the	Indian,	teaches	that	the	damage	caused	by	the	mishandling	
of	 cultural	 heritage	 cannot	 be	measured	 in	 any	monetary	 currency.	However,	
we	must	also	be	aware	 that	both	digitization	and	digitization	do	not	bring	any	
sustainable	solution	if	we	discard	the	originals.	The	motto	should	remain:	„First	
preserve,	 then	 digitize	 and	 enable	 safe	 access	 to	 the	material	 and	 improve	 its	
material	security.“	The	story	of	the	collapse	of	film	material	that	was	stored	in	
unsuitable	conditions	teaches	us	that	we	must	pay	attention	to	appropriate	pro-
fessional	education.	The	damage	caused	by	ignorance	or	carelessness	in	the	han-
dling	of	archival	material	is	in	most	cases	irreparable.	The	decay	of	film	material	
is	not	only	a	problem	of	audiovisual	archives;	problems	have	been	detected	 in	
all	archives.	Digitization	enables	easier	access	to	the	material	and	more	secure	
storage,	but	there	is	still	a	need	for	professional,	flawless	storage	of	the	original	
analog	material	in	archival	depots.	This	is	the	only	way	cultural	heritage	can	be	
preserved	for	future	generations.
The	Slovenian	translation	of	the	book	The	First	Americans	(C.	W.	Ceram)	was	
published	in	1973.	In	2005,	the	story	was	used	at	the	archival	consultation	“Tech-
nical	and	field	related	problems	of	traditional	and	electronic	archiving”	organized	
by	the	Regional	Archives	Maribor.	At	that	time,	it	was	difficult	to	find	other	in-
formation	about	the	Indian	Ishi	in	the	libraries.	
Today,	his	story	is	also	available	on	the	Internet.	Ishi	has	his	own	entry	in	Wiki-
pedia.	Anyone	who	wants	to	know	more	about	Ishi	can	also	read	the	book	by	
Theodora	Kroeber	(1961,	2002):	Ishi	in	Two	Worlds:	a	biography	of	the	last	wild	
Indian	in	North	America.	We	used	Ishi’s	story	as	an	example	of	inappropriate	
handling	of	film	material	by	scientists	and	pointed	out	what	happens	to	material	
that	 is	kept	under	 inappropriate	conditions,	 in	 this	case	at	 too	high	 tempera-
tures.	 The	material	 begins	 to	 disintegrate	 quickly;	 chemical	 reactions	 occur	
that	lead	to	the	disintegration	of	the	polymers	in	the	acetate	base	of	the	film.	
This	causes	the	release	of	acetic	acid	and	the	appearance	of	acetic	syndrome,	
which	accelerates	the	breakdown	of	the	film.	Moreover,	we	must	point	out	that	
the	mentioned	films	were	nitrate,	i.e.,	explosive,	and	more	dangerous.	
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The	whole	story	of	Ishi,	however,	is	much	darker	and	more	terrifying.	Ishi	was	
the	last	member	of	the	Yahi	tribe	of	California,	because	that	tribe	suffered	geno-
cide	in	the	19th	century	(Rockafellar,	2018).	The	gold	rush	brought	tens	of	thou-
sands	of	miners	and	settlers	 to	northern	California,	putting	pressure	on	native	
populations.	Gold	mining	damaged	water	supplies	and	killed	fish;	deer	became	
scarcer.	The	settlers	brought	new	infectious	diseases	such	as	smallpox	and	mea-
sles.	Anthropologists	at	the	University	of	California,	Berkeley	wrote	a	letter	in	
1999	apologizing	for	Ishi‘s	treatment	(Jimenez,	2017).
Ishi,	his	tribe,	and	the	neighboring	Yana	tribe	were	wiped	out	by	evil.	The	evil	
called	greed.	This	greed	led	to	the	industrialization	of	human	society	in	the	19th	
century.	If	history	is	the	teacher	of	life,	and	archives	are	the	textbooks	of	life,	we	
must	also	consider	the	consequences	that	will	be	brought	by	digitalization.	Or	is	
life	a	teacher	of	history?	Historia	magistra	vitae?	Vita	magistra	historiae	est?
And	if	we	end	up	going	back	to	midnight	again.	Baković	wrote	that	„the	essence	
of	midnight	is	that	it	leaves	us	with	a	choice:	shall	we	believe	that	something	has	
ended	with	it	or	that	something	is	just	beginning	with	it?“	(Baković,	2023,	40).	
This	wonderful	sentence	leads	us	to	think	whether	digitization	is	ending	some-
thing	for	us	or	whether	it	is	beginning	a	new	era.
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