SLOVENIA: a Geographical Overview A D R I A T I C S E A Salino Amaro Fagagna Flambro Savudrija Dajla Brtonigla Momjan Gro`njan Motovun Istarske T oplice Hum Vranja Ra~ja Vas Lisac Gerovo Skrad Ribnik So{ice Kostanjevac Kra{i} Rakov Potok Pojatno Hru{evec Jablanovec Klanjec Ld ersdorf ö Klöch Gnas Straden Sankt Anna am Aigen Sankt Peter am Ottersbach Paldau Ziprein Gleinstätten Sankt Gertraud Jakling Ht t e n b e r g ü Bad Wei enbach ß Gurk Weitensfeld Gl dnitz ö Tu r r a c h Ebene Reichenau Bad Kleinkirchheim Stall Flattach Obervellach Dellach Fr o l a c h (Borlje) ö Unterkolbnitz Mühldorf Lieserhofen Puch Wei enstein ß Paternion Gnesau Ludmannsdorf Ebriach (Obirsko) Oberboden Sirnitz Bodensdorf Griffen (Grebinj) Leutschach (Lu~ane) Wies Sankt Stefan ob Stainz Gams ob Frauental Zwaring Heiligenkreuz am Waasen Wolfsberg im Schwarzautal Nádasd Zalaháshágy Ivánc Bájansenye Szent- gyórgyvölgy Resznek Kondorfa Kerkafalva Zalabaksa Golubovec Belec Orehovec Rakovec Paru`evina Sudovec Gradec Gornji Tkalec Duga Rijeka Apatovec Gornji Kraljevec Hum Brezni~ki Trako{}an Kumrovec Donji Desinac Gornja Vas Gornje Stative Barilovi} Netreti} Ladvenjaki Voji{nica Dubravci Jurovski Brod Ozalj Moravice Severin na Kupi Generalski Stol Kupljensko Perna Gornji Sjeni~ak Sjeni~ak Lasinjski Lasinja Pisarovina Pe{}enica Rugvica Lupoglav Dubrava Mostari Haganj Poljana Vrbove~ka Posavski Bregi Lijeva Martinska ves Oborovo Kravarsko [iljakovina Letovani} Du`ica Lukavec Obre` Mahi~no Lazina Gradac Pokupski Bratina Pokupsko Hrvatsko Selo Drenovac Banski Grabovac Banski Lu{~ani Nebojan Svinica Blinja Borojevi}i Jo{avica Donje Komarevo Hrastovica Slatina Pokupska ^remu{nica Kozarac Stankovac Slavsko Polje Buda~ka Rijeka Grabrk Perjasica Bosiljevo Vukova Gorica Crni Lug ^abar Li~ Fu`ine Brod na Kupi Lokve [kalnica Vele Mune Rupa Dane Lupoglav Ro~ Cerovlje Karojba Buzet Ta r Vi{njan Risano Púlfero (Podbonesec) Tarvisio (Trbi`) Pontebba (Tablja) Paularo Faédis (Fojda) Ta v a g n a c c o Campof rmido ó Mortegliano Aurisina (Nabre`ina) Múggia (Milje) Marano Lagunare Buje Klana Mrkopanj [i{ljavi} Donja Kup~ina T opusko Lekenik Bu{evec Ka{ina Breznica Konj{~ica Podgorje Bistri~ko Zlatar Zlatar Bistrica Brdovec Sveti Ivan Zelina Vrbovec Sveti Ivan @abno Klo{tar Ivani} Kri` Novoselec ^azma Kupinec Bregana Jakovlje Oroslavje Stubi~ke T oplice Zabok Ve l i k o Tr g o v i { } e Bedekov~ina Gornja Bistra Strmec Hum na Sutli Pregrada Mihovljan Dolnje Jesenje Lepoglava Gornje Vratno Klenovnik Petrijanec Vinica Dolnja Vo}a Tr n o v e c Nedeli{}e Podturen Peklenica Bad Gleichenberg Gralla Stainz Sankt Andrä ([ent Andra`) Sankt Paul im Lavanttal ([ent Pavel) Bad Sankt Leonhard im Lavanttal Althofen Friesach Brückl (Mosti~) Gmünd Möllbrücke Sachsenburg Greifenburg Ferlach (Borovlje) Feistritz im Rosental (Bistrica v Ro`u) Eberndorf (Dobrla vas) Velden am W rther See (Vrba) ö Döbriach Radenthein Bleiberg-Kreuth Hermagor ([mohor) Feistritz an der Drau Arnoldstein (Podklo{ter) P rtschach am W rther See (Pore~e) ö ö Moosburg Eisenkappel (@elezna Kapla) Völkermarkt (Velikovec) Bleiburg (Pliberk) Klein Sankt Paul Eibiswald (Ivnik) Brunn Schwanberg Freidorf an der Laßnitz Straßburg Lannach Straß Gamlitz (Gomilica) Kalsdorf Wildon Feldbach Fehring Jennersdorf (@enavci) Mureck (Cmurek) Bad Radkersburg (Radgona) Csesztreg Rédics Öriszentpéter Zalalövö Felsöszölnök (Gornji Senik) Lovászi Pribislavec Doma{inec Ma~kovec Vrati{inec Mursko Sredi{}e Orehovica Hr`enica Novi Marof Mad`arevo Ludbreg Prelog Vara`dinske T oplice Beretinec Beletinec Ljube{}ica Dolnje Ladanje @arovnica Dolnja [emnica Krapina Radoboj Krapinske T oplice Rakitje Lu~ko Stupnik Velika Mlaka Ivanja Reka Rude Horvati Kraljevec Kupine~ki Mraclin Hrastelnica Buda{evo T opolovac Mo{~enica Greda Odra Sunja Vrginmost Vojni} Vrbovsko Ravna Gora Delnice Dra`ice ^avle Krasica Kraljevica Marini}i Matulji Lovran Novigrad Aiello del Fruili Aquiléia (Oglej) Gonars Palmanova M ggio Udinese (Mu`ac) ó Artegna (Ratenj) Leibnitz (Lipnica) Feldkirchen (Trg) Deutschlandsberg Ta r c e n t o (^enta) Tricesimo Manzano Cormons (Krmin) Majano Gradisca d'Isonzo (Gradi{~e) Ronchi (Ronke) San Giórgio di Nogaro Lignano Sabbiadoro Grado (Grade`) Villa Opicina (Op~ine) Umag Opatija Dugo Selo Ivani}-Grad Lenti Szentgotthárd (Mono{ter) Jastrebarsko Glina Ogulin Duga Resa ^akovec Va r a ` d i n Kri`evci Sesvete V elika Gorica Zapre{i} Samobor Sisak Petrinja Monfalcone (Tr`i~) Gorizia (Gorica) Gemona del Friuli (Gumin) Spittal an der Drau Villach (Beljak) W olfsberg Sankt V eit an der Glan Cervignano del Friuli KLAGENFURT (CELOVEC) UDINE (VIDEM) KARLOV AC (KARLOVEC) TRIESTE (TRST) RIJEKA (REKA) ZAGREB Hodo{ Kri`evci Prosenjakovci Kapelski Vrh Pesnica Pri Mariboru Spodnja [~avnica Zgornja Kungota Razkri`je Pince Ti{ina Perto~a Puconci Banovci Zlatoli~je Fram Kog Lahonci @etale Spodnja Hajdina Stoperce @i~e [martno ob Paki Nazarje Sol~ava Koprivna Logarska Dolina Vransko Blagovica Trojane Laze Zgornji Tuhinj Morav~e Polhov Gradec Podpe~ Rakitna Velike La{~e Ra{ica Turjak Videm Krka T emenica Podkum Zidani most Kozje Lesi~no Pod~etrtek Globoko Jurklo{ter Planina pri Sevnici Bizeljsko Podsreda Ambrus Fu`ina Dobrni~ Dvor Mirna Pe~ [marje{ke T oplice Vi{nja Gora Sodra`ica Gotenica Stari trg pri Lo`u Draga Sinji Vrh Stari trg ob Kolpi Rajndol Semi~ Ur{na sela Dolenjske T oplice Kostanjevica na Krki Oto~ec Mokronog Tr e b e l n o Krmelj [entrupert Dolenji Bo{tanj [kocjan ^ate` ob Savi Kr{ka vas ^rmo{njice Podturn pri Dolenj. T oplicah Radovica Livold Kani`arica Vinica Osilnica Hrib-Lo{ki potok Nova vas Blo{ka Polica Dolenja vas Fara Kostel Adle{i~i Lo` Dolenja vas Godovi~ Lokve Dobrovo Anhovo Gorenja Trebu{a Dolenja Trebu{a Vrsno Livek Kal-Koritnica Log pod Mangartom Trenta @irovnica Preddvor Zgornje Jezersko Dra`go{e Kropa Bohinjska Bela Zasip Stara Fu`ina @aga Breginj Robi~ Most na So~i Ba~a pri Modreju Koritnica Vo j s k o ^epovan Plave Ro~inj ^rni Vrh Kalce Planina Babno Polje Kne`ak Prestranek Kute`evo Podgrad Obrov Kozina Hrastovlje Se~ovlje Pregara [koflje Harije Prem Jel{ane Starod Predjama Col Podkraj Budanje Komen T omaj Seno`e~e [tanjel Dutovlje Podnanos Razdrto Sovodenj Otale` Podbrdo Kresnice Gornji Grad Vitanje Gornji Doli~ Ribnica na Pohorju Zgornja Kapla Oti{ki Vrh Dolga Gora Dobrna Videm pri Ptuju Maj{perk Kuzma Gornji Petrovci Moravske T oplice Dobrovnik Tu r n i { ~ e Beltinci ^ren{ovci Ve r ` e j Odranci Lendava Ljutomer Radenci Lenart v Slov. goricah Miklav` na Dravskem polju Ru{e [entilj v Slov. goricah Kamnica Lovrenc na Pohorju Radlje ob Dravi Vuzenica Dravograd Prevalje Me`ica Polzela [empeter v Savinjski dolini Mozirje Ljubno ob Savinji ^rna na Koro{kem Mislinja [o{tanj Tr`i~ Golnik Lesce Mekinje Vo d i c e Naklo Bohinjska Bistrica Hru{ica Mojstrana Kranjska Gora [en~ur Zgornje Bitnje @iri Bovec Cerkno Gorenja vas @elezniki T olmin Kobarid Deskle Kanal Cerknica Rakek Ravne T opol{ica Prebold Dol pri Hrastniku [martno pri Litiji Selnica ob Dravi Ra~e Polj~ane [entjernej Ivan~na Gorica Metlika Sevnica La{ko [tore Vojnik Senovo Dob Cerklje na Gorenjskem Ig Notranje Gorice Trzin Brezovica pri Ljubljani Horjul Izlake Brestanica Ribnica Leskovec pri Kr{kem Stra`a Rade~e Tr e b n j e Mirna [entjur Rogatec @u`emberk Medvode [marje-Sap [kofljica Se`ana Diva~a Branik [empas Vipava Pivka Ankaran Vrtojba Miren Solkan Piran Dekani Spodnje [kofije Portoro` Ilirska Bistrica [marje pri Jel{ah Slovenske Konjice Oplotnica Zre~e Pragersko Kidri~evo Spodnje Ho~e Muta Ormo` Dornava Sredi{~e ob Dravi Gornja Radgona Slovenska Bistrica Roga{ka Slatina Bre`ice Kr{ko Hrastnik @alec Slovenj Gradec Ravne na Koro{kem ^rnomelj Ko~evje Grosuplje Litija Menge{ Bled Radovljica Idrija Ajdov{~ina Postojna Lucija Vrhnika Logatec Zagorje ob Savi Murska Sobota Ptuj Celje Trbovlje Kamnik Dom`ale [kofja Loka Nova Gorica Koper Izola Kranj Jesenice Novo mesto V elenje MARIBOR LJUBLJANA Cuestalta Hoher Trieb Zuc dal Bôr Monte Sernio Creta di Aip Trogkofel Iôf di Montásio (Monta`) Monte Oisternig Oisternig Veliki Risnjak Bukova Gora Kalnik Ivan{~ica Sljeme Beli gri~ Debela Kosa U~ka Polinik Rei eck ß Gro Rosennock ßer Hohe Pressing Wöllaner Nock Mödringberg Dobratsch (Dobra~) Magdalensberg ([talenska gora) Großer Speikkogel (Golica) Bärofen Ladinger Spitze (Velika Svinja) Klippitztörl Reißkofel Latschur Monte Mangart Monte Canin 2199 2197 2188 2279 2753 2052 1528 1431 642 1059 1030 778 1174 1394 2784 2965 2440 2370 2145 1693 2166 1059 2140 1720 2079 1644 2371 2236 Srebrni breg Slivnica Krim Vrem{~ica Veliki Sne`nik Mali Golak Ple{a Trdinov vrh Mirna gora Sveta Ana Goteni{ki Sne`nik Korada Sveta gora Slavnik Trstelj Ko{enjak ^rni vrh Ur{lja gora Stor`i~ Grintovec Ojstrica Velika Raduha Boskovec Kepa Golica Stol Ko{utnikov turn Porezen To{~ Kum Mrzlica Bo~ Gomila Lisca Veliki Javornik Triglav Veliki Mangart Visoki Kanin Matajur [krlatica Jalovec Stol Krn Rodica Vogel ^rna prst 404 1495 1107 1114 1027 1796 1262 1178 1047 932 1289 812 681 1028 643 1543 1522 1699 2132 2558 2350 2062 1587 2139 1836 2236 2133 1630 1021 1220 1122 979 352 948 1023 2864 2679 2587 1642 2740 2645 1673 2244 1966 1922 1844 Möll Görtschitz Gail Torre Torre Iudrio Stella Ausa Fella Gurk Glan Gurk Metnitz Laßnitz Sulm Raab Rába Zala Bednja Lonja Odra Mirna Korana Mre`nica Dobra Dobra Glina Sunja Kanal Sava-Odra-Sava Lonja Krapina Glogovnica Drau Drau Mur Kupa Sava Sava Isonzo Reka Pivka Idrijca Ba~a Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Paka Pesnica [~avnica Sora Rin`a Krka Krka Kolpa So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura Drava I S T R A ^ I ^ A R I J A G O R S K I K O T A R H R V A T S K O Z A G O R J E K O R A L P E S A U A L P E G U R K T A L E R A L P E N K R E U Z E C K G R U P P E G A I L T A L E R A L P E N A L P I G I U L I E P O H O R J E G O R I ^ K O G O R J A N C I H A L O Z E S L O V E N S K E G O R I C E KO^EVSKI ROG J A V O R N I K I GOTENI[KA GORA S U H A K R A J I N A B E L A K R A J I N A P O S A V S K O H R I B O V J E B R K I N I J U L I J S K E A L P E K A M N I [ K O - S A V I N J S K E A L P E K A R A V A N K E K R A S C R O A T I A C R O A T I A HUNGARY HUNGARY S L O V E N I A S L O V E N I A A U S T R I A A U S T R I A I T A L Y I T A L Y Cartographer: Jerneja Fridl 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Republic of Slovenia Republic of Slovenia 4 9 4 0 0 5 6 1 6 9 8 7 9 ISBN 961-6500-49-X SLOVENIA a Geographical Overview SLOVENIA a Geographical Overview naslovnica.qxd 22.3.2012 12:15 Page 1 SLOVENIA a Geographical Overview Ljubljana, 2004 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Editor: Milan Oro`en Adami~ Editorial Board: The Slovenian National Geographic Committee © Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia, 2004 Publisher: Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia For the Publisher: Mitja Bricelj Address of the Editorial Board: Zveza geografskih dru{tev Slovenije / Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia A{ker~eva 2 SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Fax: +386 1 425 77 93 Co-publisher: Zalo`ba ZRC / ZRC Publishing, Ljubljana Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Distribution: Zalo`ba ZRC P . O. Box 306, SI – 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia T el: +386 1 4706 465 Fax: +386 1 4257 794 E-Mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Translation: Wayne Tuttle, Margit Strauss Fendi Layout: SYNCOMP d. o. o., Ljubljana Printed by: Littera picta d. o. o. CIP – Katalo`ni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knji`nica, Ljubljana 913(497.4)(082) SLOVENIA : a geographical overview / [editor Milan Oro`en Adami~ ; translation Wayne Tuttle, Margit Strauss Fendi]. – Ljubljana : Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia : Zalo`ba ZRC, 2004 ISBN 961-6500-49-X (Zalo`ba ZRC) 1. Oro`en Adami~, Milan 214725120 Front cover photography: A view through the »window« in the Alpine region (photography Miha Pav{ek). Digital version (pdf) is freely available accord ing to the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 lice nce: https://doi.org/10.3986/961650049X CONTENTS SLOVENIA: A GEOGRAPHICAL OVERVIEW (Milan Oro`en Adami~) .................................................................... 5 ABOUT SLOVENIA (Milan Oro`en Adami~) .......................................................................................................................................... 7 SLOVENIA AT THE JUNCTION OF MAJOR EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHICAL UNITS (Drago Perko) ...................................................................................................................................... 11 SLOVENIA AS A EUROPEAN CONTACT AREA (Milan Bufon) .................................................................................... 21 RELIEF (Mauro Hrvatin) .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 WATERS (Mauro Hrvatin) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 31 THE TRIGLAV GLACIER (Matej Gabrovec, Borut Per{olja) .................................................................................................. 35 KARST IN SLOVENIA (Nadja Zupan Hajna) ...................................................................................................................................... 39 MODERN CLIMATE CHANGE IN SLOVENIA (Darko Ogrin) ........................................................................................ 45 SOILS OF SLOVENIA (Bla` Repe) .................................................................................................................................................................. 51 VEGETATION OF SLOVENIA (Bla` Repe) ............................................................................................................................................ 57 BIODIVERSITY IN SLOVENIA (Ana Vovk Kor`e) .......................................................................................................................... 63 NATURAL DISASTERS (Milan Oro`en Adami~) .............................................................................................................................. 67 RECENT MASS MOVEMENTS IN SLOVENIA (Matija Zorn, Bla` Komac) ........................................................ 73 POPULATION DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA FROM THE BEGINNING OF COUNTING TO THE PRESENT DAY (Damir Josipovi~) .................................................................................... 81 ETHNIC STRUCTURE OF SLOVENIA AND SLOVENES IN NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES (Jernej Zupan~i~) .................................................................................................... 87 SETTLING AND SETTLEMENTS (Drago Kladnik) ...................................................................................................................... 93 THE NETWORK OF SETTLEMENTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF URBANIZATION IN SLOVENIA AT THE START OF THE 21 ST CENTURY (Marjan Ravbar) ............................................ 101 LAND USE IN SLOVENIA (Franci Petek) ............................................................................................................................................ 105 CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN SLOVENIA (Toma` Cunder) .................................................... 109 RURAL LANDSCAPES IN SLOVENIA (Mimi Urbanc, Drago Perko) ........................................................................ 115 INDUSTRY, DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION (Drago Kladnik) .............. 121 GATEWAY TO WESTERN, CENTRAL, AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE (Andrej ^erne) ............ 127 THE RECOVERY OF TOURISM IN SLOVENIA (Anton Gosar) .................................................................................. 133 TOURISM IN SLOVENIA (Uro{ Horvat) .............................................................................................................................................. 141 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SLOVENIA (Simon Ku{ar, Janez Nared) ........................................................ 147 SLOVENIA AND THE CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (Du{an Plut, Katja Vintar Mally) .......................................................................................................... 155 3 4 SLOVENIA: A GEOGRAPHICAL OVERVIEW Milan Oro`en Adami~ This publication is prepared and published on the occasion of the 30 th International Geographical Congress in Glasgow, United Kingdom, on August 15–20, 2004. Geography in Slovenia is closely linked to the transformation and development of the Slovene lan- guage into a literary language, especially after 1848 with the emergence of the clearly expressed goal of forming an independent nation and the desire for a separate nation-state. This Slovene hope was joyfully realized in 1991. The foundations of an independent Slovene geography thus reach back to the period when for centuries the territory of today's Slovenia had been part of the Habsburg Empire and later of Austria-Hungary. At Slovenska Matica (Slovene Literary Society), the most important Slovene organization before World War I, geography was always given a special place. In 1853, the first map was published that presented Slovene territory using Slovene place names exclusively (Peter Kozler, 1824–1879). Between 1869 and 1877, a series of maps of the world was published that comprised the first atlas in the Slovene language. In parallel, many regional geographical treatises and monographs about Slovene territory were also published. An important leap for Slovene geography was the establishment of the Geographical Institute (1919) at the newly founded University of Ljubljana. In 1922, Geographical Society was founded, which later grew into the Association of Geographical Societies of Slovenia (http://www.zrc-sazu.si/agss/). In 1925, the Association began to publish the professional journal Geografski vestnik (Geographical Bulletin), and later, in 1954, Geografski obzornik (Geographic Horizon). The first major cartography work after 1945 was done by Ivan Selan (1902–1981) working in cooperation with Valter Bohinc (1898–1984) and France Planina (1901–1992). Roman Savnik (1902–1987) was the editor and one of the most important contributors to the four extensive volumes of Krajevni leksikon Slovenije (Lexicon of Place Names of Slovenia), the first of which was published in 1968 and the last in 1980. Anton Melik (1890–1966), however, was the primary figure in modern Slovene geography and along with a large number of treatises also wrote thirty-one books, the most important of which are Slovenija (1935), a general geographical monograph, and four regional monographs: Slovenski alpski svet (Slovenia's Alpine World, 1954), [tajerska s Prekmurjem in Me`i{ka dolina ([tajerska with Prekmurje and the Me`i{ka Va l l e y, 1957), Posavska Slovenija (Posavje Region of Slovenia, 1959), and Slovensko Primorje (The Slovene Littoral, 1960). Melik won recognition as a scientist, university professor, editor, rector of the University of Ljubljana, and academician. He was among the founders of the Geographical Museum of Slovenia (1946) and the Geographical Institute and Cartography Institute of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (1948), which today are united in the Anton Melik Geographical Institute (http:/ /www.zrc-sazu.si/gi/). Svetozar Ile{i~ (1907–1985) and Ivan Gams (b. 1923) also contributed sig- nificantly to Slovene geography. The first modern Slovene general geographical atlas, Veliki atlas sveta (Great Atlas of the World), was published in 1972. It was followed by Timesov atlas sveta (The Times Atlas of the World) in 1990, V eliki dru`inski atlas (Great Family Atlas) in 1992, and Atlas sveta 2000 (Atlas of the World 2000) in 1997. The work of the newest generation of geographers is reflected in many recent books such as the revised Krajevni leksikon Slovenije (Lexicon of Place Names of Slovenia, 1995), Slovenija – pokrajine in ljudje (Slovenia – Regions and People, 1998), Geografski atlas Slovenije (Geographical Atlas of Slovenia, 1998), Nacionalni atlas Slovenije (National Atlas of Slovenia, 2001), and others. Numerous articles on specif- ic geographical phenomena in Slovenia also appear in the biannual journal Acta Geographica Slovenica (Geografski zbornik). 5 Established by the government of Slovenia in 1986, the Slovene Governmental Commission for the Standardization of Geographical Names (http:/ /www.gov.si/kszi/index.htm) is active in Slovenia and is represented in the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names. The Slovenian National Geographical Committee, which links all the Slovene geographical insti- tutions, plays an active role under the auspices of the Association of Geographical Societies of Slovenia. In preparing this publication, the committee decided to make it a joint project and therefore collected short articles on current geographical issues and research by members of various institutions. A list follows of the participating institutions with the names of their members who contributed to this publication. A large part of geographical research work in Slovenia is done by members of the Anton Melik Geographical Institute of the Scientific Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (http:/ /www.zrc-sazu.si/gi/) in Ljubljana (Gabrovec, Hrvatin, Josipovi~, Kladnik, Nared, Oro`en Adami~, Per{olja, Perko, Petek, Ravbar, Urbanc); the Karst Research Institute of the Scientific Research Center of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (http:/ /www.zrc-sazu.si/izrk/) in Postojna (Zupan Hajna); the Department of Geography, University of Ljubljana Faculty of Arts (http:/ /www.ff.uni-lj.si/geo/) in Ljubljana (^erne, Ku{ar, Ogrin, Repe, Plut, Vintar Mally, Zupan~i~); the Department of Geography (http:/ /www.geografija.com/), University of Maribor Faculty of Education (Horvat, V ovk); the Department of Geography (http:/ /www.fhs-kp.si/), University of Koper Faculty of Humanities (Bufon, Gosar); and the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia (http:/ /www.kis.si/index-en.html; Cunder). 6 Milan Oro`en Adami~ Slovenia: a Geographical Overview ABOUT SLOVENIA Milan Oro`en Adami~ Slovenia is situated in Central Europe, at the confluence of four distinct regions – the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, and the Pannonian and Mediterranean basins – and four cultural regions – Slavic, Germanic, Romance, and Hungarian. It is in these unique conditions that Slovenes have nurtured, protected, and transformed their small corner of the world. T oday, it is not only a place where we live and work, but also a place we carry in our hearts. Facts Area: 20,273 km 2 . Land border (km): with Austria 330, Italy 232, Hungary 102, Croatia 670 (total: 1,334). Coastline: 46.6 km on the Adriatic Sea. Highest peak: Mount Triglav (2,864 m). Deepest sea point: –37 m (550 m from Cape Madona, Piran). Average elevation: 556.8 m. Average inclination: 13.1°. The land is crossed by some 26,600 km of rivers and streams, and some 7,500 springs of drinking water rise to the surface, including several hundred first class therapeutic mineral springs. Land use (cadastral data, 1998) Cultivated fields: 12.4%. Orchards: 1.9%. Vineyards: 1.1%. Grasslands: 28.1%. Built-up: 3.8%. Forests: 48.9% (Landsat-TM satellite data indicated 56.5% forests cover in 1993.) Other: 3.8%. Climate In Slovenia, the climate ranges from alpine through temperate continental to mediterranean. The major part of the country has a temperate continental climate (Ljubljana: January –1.1°C, July +19.9°C, 1,394 mm precipitation). There is less precipitation and average temperatures are higher on the coast (Portoro`: January +4.5° C, July +23.3° C, 1,032 mm). Biodiversity Slovenia's varied geological composition, diversity of relief forms, and the fact that Slovenia encom- passes four distinct biogeographical regions make possible a wealth of animal and plant species. Slovenia is home to more than 3,000 fern and flower species and more than 50,000 animal species. Many ani- mal and plant species are endemic. 7 Protection of nature Natural reserves protect 5.9% of Slovenia's territory. The largest is Triglav National Park, which cov- ers 838 km 2 (4.1%). Within the framework of »Natura 2000,« around 36% of the country is protected in regional and landscape parks. Population 1,964,036 (2002), the vast majority are Slovenes (83.06% in 2002). Ethnic minorities (2002): Hungarians (0.32%) and Italians (0.11%) are considered indigenous minori- ties with constitutionally protected rights. Other ethnic groups (2002): Serbs (1.98%), Croats (1.81%), Bosnians (1.10%), Macedonians (0.20%), Montenegrins (0.14%), Albanians (0.31%), Romany (0.17%), and others (6.14%). There are indigenous Slovene minorities in Italy, Austria, and Hungary. Between 250,000 and 400,000 Slovenes (depending on whether second and subsequent generations are counted) live out- side the country, mostly on other continents and in European Union countries. Population density: 97 inhabitants per km 2 . Birth rate (2002): 8.8 per thousand. Mortality (2002): 9.4 per thousand. Natural increase per 1,000 inhabitants: 3.1 (1985), 1.9 (1990), 0 (1995), –0.2 (2000), –0.6 (2002). Age distribution (2002): 70.0% 15–64 years, 15.3% 0–14 years, 14.7% 65 and over. Life expectancy (2002): 72 years (men), 79 years (women) Urban population (2002): 50.1%. Religion (2002): The majority of Slovenes are Roman Catholics (57.8%), although there are some small communities of other denominations: Protestants (0.8%), Orthodox (2.3%), Muslims (2.4%), and others. Official language: Slovene, which in addition to singular and plural employs the almost unique dual conjugation form for two people. In ethnically mixed regions, also Italian and Hungarian. Some Important Milestones The ancestors of present-day Slovenes first settled in the area in the 6 th century. 7 th century: The Duchy of Carantania was the first Slovene state. 745: Carantania became a part of the Frankish empire; the Slavs converted to Christianity and gradu- ally lost their independence. 10 th century: The Freising manuscripts, the first known writings in the Slovene and Slavic dialect in Latin script. 14 th century to 1918: All the Slovene regions passed into the possession of the Habsburgs, later the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The Reformation brought literacy and the first printed book in 1550, and in 1584 the first Slovene translation of the Bible was printed. 1809–1813: The establishment of the Illyrian Provinces – half of Slovenia was included in Napoleon's French empire – strengthens Slovene national consciousness. 1848: The United Slovenia movement demands the unification of all Slovenes in a single province with- in the Austrian Empire. 1918: At the end of W orld War I, after the unsuccessful attempt at T rialism (the division of the Habsburg Monarchy into Austrian, Hungarian, and Yugoslav parts) and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Slovene ethnic territory is divided among four countries; within the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes 8 Milan Oro`en Adami~ About Slovenia (Kingdom of Yugoslavia), Slovene territory is initially divided into two administrative units (under Ljubljana and Maribor authorities) and then incorporated in the Drava ban's domain. 1919: Prekmurje is included in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. November 29, 1945: The Slovenes secure their own republic within the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. September 15, 1947: The greater part of Primorska is rejoined to Slovenia on the basis of the T reaty of Paris. April 1990: First democratic elections. December 23, 1990: 88.5% of voters cast their votes for an independent Slovenia in a referendum. June 26, 1991: Proclamation of Slovenia's independence. December 23, 1991: The new Slovene constitution is adopted. January 15, 1992: Slovenia is recognized by all the members of the European Union. May 22, 1992: Slovenia becomes a member of the United Nations. March 29, 2004: Slovenia becomes a member of NATO May 1, 2004: Slovenia becomes a member of the European Union. Government and Political System Constitutional type: parliamentary democracy. Conventional long/short name: Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia. Local long/short form: Republika Slovenija, Slovenija. Legislative authority: National Assembly (90 deputies). Capital: Ljubljana (260,543 in 2002). Other main cities: Maribor, Celje, Kranj, V elenje, Koper, Novo mesto, Ptuj, Jesenice, T rbovlje, Nova Gorica, Murska Sobota. Municipalities: 193 (11 have the status of City Municipality: Celje, Koper, Kranj, Ljubljana, Maribor, Murska Sobota, Nova Gorica, Novo mesto, Ptuj, Slovenj Gradec, Velenje). Economy Currency: T olar (SIT), made up of 100 stotins (192.26 SIT = 1 EUR, July 2004). GDP per capita: 8,699 USD (1990), 9,527 USD (2000), 11,775 USD (2002). Real growth of GDP: 3.4% (2002). Standardized rate of unemployment (ILO): 7.7% (1998), 7.2% (2000), 6.4% (2003). Inflation rate: 9.1% (1997), 7.9% (1998), 6.1% (1999), 3.8% (2003). International Trade Exports of goods and services: 6.7% (1998), 1.7% (1999), 8.2% (2003). Imports of goods and services: 10.4% (1998), 8.2% (1999), 8.4% (2003). Main foreign trading partners: Germany, Italy, Croatia, Austria, France, Bosnia-Herzegovina, United States of America, Russia, United Kingdom, Hungary, and The Netherlands. Source of data: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, http:/ /www.stat.si/eng/index.asp 9 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 10 SLOVENIA AT THE JUNCTION OF MAJOR EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHICAL UNITS Drago Perko V ery few countries, even considerably larger ones, can boast the landscape diversity found in Slovenia since the Alps, the Pannonian Basin, the Dinaric Alps, and the Mediterranean meet and interweave in this small corner of Central Europe (Melik 1954, 1957, 1959 and 1960; Melik 1963; Ile{i~ 1979; Gams 1986; Oro`en Adami~ and Perko, Kladnik 1995; Perko 1995; Gosar 1996; Fridl, Marin, Oro`en Adami~, Pav{ek, Perko, [imenc and Verta~nik 1996; Ogrin 1997; Perko 1997; Fridl, Kladnik, Oro`en Adami~ and Perko 1998; Gams and Vri{er 1998; Natek and Natek 1998; Perko 1998; Gams 2001; Perko and Adami~ 2001; Perko 2001b). So in spite of its small size, Slovenia is famous for its great natural diver- sity, variability, and transitional characteristics. Many geographers have observed that Slovenia is a natural geographical laboratory. The Alps are the largest and highest mountain chain in Europe. Along them runs the divide between the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea and the dividing line between the Continental and Mediterranean climates. Covering about 200,000 km 2 , the Alps are more than 1,200 kilometers long and in some place up to 250 kilometers wide. They run from France in the southwest to Austria in the northeast. The southeastern part of the Alps extends into Slovenia. The Pannonian Basin lies between the Alps to the west, the Carpathians to the north and east, and the Dinaric Alps to the south. Running about 600 kilometers from north to south and 700 kilometers from west to east, it covers almost twice the area as the Alps. The western margin of the Pannonian Basin extends into Slovenia. The Dinaric Alps are the southeastern continuation of the Alps between the Pannonian Basin and the Adriatic Sea. And form the divide between the Black Sea and the Adriatic. They are 700 kilome- ters long and almost 200 kilometers wide at the center. They cover less than half the area of the Alps. The northwestern part of the Dinaric Alps extends into Slovenia. The Mediterranean is the area around the Mediterranean Sea. It runs almost 7,000 kilometers from Gibraltar to the Bosporus Strait, and between T rieste and Durrës on the Adriatic Sea where it runs along the Italian Apennines to the southwest and the Dinaric Alps to the northeast it is almost 700 kilome- ters long. Covering an area of 132,000 km 2 , the Adriatic Sea is somewhat larger than the Dinaric Alps. The northern margin of the Mediterranean extends into Slovenia. In Slovenia, geography plays the leading role in landscape research. A pioneering role was played by the geographer Anton Melik, a member of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, who pub- lished the first regional monograph of Slovenia in four extensive volumes between 1954 and 1960 (Melik 1954, 1957, 1959 and 1960) as well as the first general monograph of Slovenia (Melik 1963). At Melik's initiative, the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts founded the Geographical Institute in 1946 (formally in 1948), and this institute has carried his name since 1976. Almost half a century later, the Anton Melik Geographical Institute, which now works in the framework of the Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, prepared the second regional monograph of Slovenia entitled Slovenia: Landscapes and People (Perko, Oro`en Adami~ 1998) and the Geographical Atlas of Slovenia (Fridl, Kladnik, Oro`en Adami~ and Perko 1998). Three years later, the Institute also prepared the first national atlas of the country, the National Atlas of Slovenia (Fridl, Kladnik, Oro`en Adami~, Perko and Zupan~i~ 2001), which was published in Slovene and English versions. All three books contain chapters on regionalization and the typification of landscapes in Slovenia with numer- ous maps. The Institute has also published numerous other publications about Slovene landscapes. 11 12 Drago Perko Slovenia at the Junction of Major European Geographical Units Table 1: Some basic characteristics of landscape types in Slovenia. Landscape Surface Proportion of Mean Mean Most frequently Most frequent Solar energy types area (ha) surface area (%) elevation (m) inclination (°) occurring rock vegetation received (MJ/m 2 ) limestone 51.5%; beech 36.9%; Alpine mountains 306,148 15.1 1,054.5 24.5 carbonate gravel and high-mountain 3705 conglomerate 17.4% vegetation 18.7% older volcanic beech 31.7%; Alpine hills 466,008 23.0 582.4 16.9 rocks with tuff 20.9%; beech, chestnut, 3953 metamorphic rock 16.9% and oak 30.6% carbonate gravel and red pine 39.3%; Alpine plains 81,928 4.0 373.3 4.0 conglomerate 74.2%; beech 25.4% 4080 clay and silt 9.3% Alpine landscapes limestone 23.9%; beech 33.4%; together 854,084 42.1 731.6 18.4 carbonate gravel and beech, chestnut, 3877 conglomerate 17.4% and oak 18.9% marl 29.7%; clay beech, chestnut, Pannonian low hills 299,428 14.8 288.7 8.8 and silt 27.8% and oak 86.5%; 4131 beech 4.6% silicate gravel 58.4%; English oak 27.3%; Pannonian plains 129,663 6.4 196.0 0.8 clay and silt 31.5% hornbeam and 4178 English oak 25.1% Pannonian landscapes clay and silt 28.9%; beech, chestnut, together 429,091 21.2 260.7 6.4 silicate gravel 21.3% and oak 77.1%; 4146 red pine 4.7% 13 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Landscape Surface Proportion of Mean Mean Most frequently Most frequent Solar energy types area (ha) surface area (%) elevation (m) inclination (°) occurring rock vegetation received (MJ/m 2 ) limestone 58.9%; beech and Dinaric plateaus 380,918 18.8 667.7 13.7 dolomite 29.4% fir 40.4%; 3947 beech 23.5% Dinaric valleys and limestone 46.3%; hornbeam and corrosion plains 189,715 9.4 403.3 6.6 clay and silt 23.2% fir 32.4%; 4122 beech 16.5% Dinaric landscapes limestone 54.8%; beech and together 570,633 28.2 579.8 11.4 dolomite 26.6% fir 34.9%; 4005 beech 21.9% Mediterranean flysch 72.6%; sessile oak 31.9%; low hills 106,090 5.2 305.8 11.1 clay and downy oak 30.7% 4373 silt 11.9% Mediterranean limestone 82.1%; beech and hop hornbeam plateaus 67,300 3.3 426.0 7.7 flysch 10.9% 74.7%; downy oak and 4381 hop hornbeam 19.8% Mediterranean flysch 48.6%; beech and hop landscapes together 173,390 8.5 352.4 9.8 limestone 38.7% hornbeam 32.7%; 4376 sessile oak 22.0% limestone 29.5%; beech 23.9%; beech, Slovenia 2,027,198 100.0 556.8 13.1 dolomite 14.6% chestnut, and 4012 oak 23.9% Also active in the field of landscape studies has been academician Ivan Gams, author of the uni- versity textbook Essentials of Landscape Ecology (Gams 1986) and several textbooks on the Slovene landscapes with maps of the regionalization of Slovenia (Gams and Vri{er 1998; Gams 2001). Based on the predominant natural features, Slovenia is divided into the Alpine, Pannonian, Dinaric, and Mediterranean landscapes (Perko 1997; Perko 1998; Fridl, Kladnik, Oro`en Adami~, Perko and Zupan~i~ 2001; Perko 2001a; Urbanc 2002). Alpine landscapes The Alpine landscapes lie in northern Slovenia, cover two fifths of its territory, and are subdivid- ed into mountain, hill, and plain landscapes. The Alpine mountains in northwestern Slovenia are largely composed of carbonate rock, primarily limestone and dolomite. Rivers carved deep valleys that glaciers reshaped during the Ice Ages. Above the forest line, which runs at an altitude of around 1,600 m, a fifth of the surface is covered by dwarf pine, while below it, four fifths is covered by thick forest. Beech, beech-fir, and spruce forests domi- nate. The density of settlement is three times smaller than the Slovene average. Only the wider valleys are more densely populated, while extensive high mountain areas are completely uninhabited. The pop- ulation here is increasing only slightly. The most imposing mountains are the Julian Alps around Mount T riglav (2,864 m), Slovenia's high- est mountain. Below it is the Triglav glacier, the southeasternmost glacier in the European Alps. Triglav 14 Drago Perko Slovenia at the Junction of Major European Geographical Units Figure 1: Alpine landscapes: in the background, the Julian Alps, the Karavanke mountains with Mount Stol (2,236 m), and the Kamnik-Savinja Alps converge; in the foreground is the Sava Plain (Savska ravan) with forest-covered conglomerate and cleared gravel river terraces near the small town of Radovljica in the northwestern part of the Ljubljana Basin (photography Marjan Garbajs). National Park was established to preserve the many natural beauties of this area. On the south side, the blue-green So~a River winds through its deep valley toward the Adriatic Sea. Its upper section, the T renta V alley, is one of Slovenia's most beautiful alpine valleys. Farther south lies T olmin (population 3737 accord- ing to the 2002 census), the only larger town in the central part of the So~a Valley. Picturesque glacial valleys open to the north: Krma, Kot, Vrata, and Planica. The latter is called the »Valley of Ski Jumps« and is the cradle of ski flying, one of Slovenia's most popular winter spectator sports. From the north side of the Julian Alps, the rivers flow to the Black Sea. The Sava Dolinka, which runs past Jesenice (13,429) and its ironworks, and the Sava Bohinjka, which flows from glacial Lake Bohinj, Slovenia's largest nat- ural lake (328 ha), past the cosmopolitan tourist resort of Bled (5,252) and Lake Bled (145 ha), which boasts a small picturesque island with a church, join to form the Sava River. T oward the east, the Karavanke moun- tains (highest peak Mount Stol, 2,236m) stretch along the Austrian border, and south of these, the Kamnik-Savinja Alps (Mount Grintovec, 2,558 m). Below Mount Skuta (2,533 m) are remnants of a glac- ier, and the romantic Logarska dolina valley at the head of the Savinja River is especially attractive. T o the south and east, the broad band of the Alpine hills borders the Alpine mountains. These are composed primarily of dolomite, limestone, metamorphic rocks, claystone, siltstone, and flint sand- stone and conglomerate. Two thirds of the surface is covered by forest. There is a pronounced prevalence of various beech forests. The density of settlement is twice as much as in the mountains. Isolated farms appear in this region, each typically consisting of a large house and outbuildings sur- rounded by an unbroken cultivated parcel of land cleared from the forest. In other places, small nucleate villages formed whose buildings stand separately in a random order but as a recognizable compact group, as do the agricultural plots. Increasing numbers of farmhouses are being converted into vacation hous- es owned by townspeople, some farms are engaged in farm tourism, and remote villages are in decline. The main sources of income are livestock production, forestry, and employment in smaller industri- al centers in the valleys. In the western part, which is well known for its lacemaking, are the towns of Idrija (5,878) with its famous but now abandoned mercury mine, and medieval [kofja Loka (12,289). In the mining-oriented eastern part can be found the ironworks of Ravne na Koro{kem (7,797), V elenje (26,742) with its lignite mine, and T rbovlje (16,290), the largest of the mining towns in Slovenia's biggest hill region, the almost 100-km-long Posavsko hribovje with its largely exhausted coal deposits. The Alpine plains were formed by rivers that deposited gravel and sand on the bottoms of basins and formed terraces. Older terraces where gravel cemented to form conglomerate have been karsti- fied and overgrown with forest, primarily red pine, while fertile fields cover the younger gravel terraces where mainly potatoes and corn are cultivated. Cultivated fields cover a quarter of all the surface area. Settlements on the plains are large and greatly urbanized. The density of settlement is six times larg- er than the national average. In the northern part of the Ljubljana Basin, Slovenia's largest basin, the Sava River and its tributaries filled the Sava Plain, where more than a fifth of all Slovenia's population lives on only one thirtieth of its territory. Here are the Slovenia's capital Ljubljana (258,873), the indus- trial city of Kranj, the fourth largest city in Slovenia (35,587), and several smaller but economically significant towns: Radovljica (5,937), T r`i~ (3,920), Kamnik (12,197), and Dom`ale (11,582). The Celje Basin is Slovenia's second largest basin. On its floor, the Savinja River and its tributaries created the Savinja Plain. Here are found Celje (37,834), Slovenia's third largest city, once the seat of the histori- cally important Counts of Celje, and @alec (4,919), surrounded by vast hop plantations that reflect Pannonian climate influences from the east. Pannonian landscapes The Pannonian landscapes lie in eastern Slovenia and cover a fifth of its territory. They are com- posed of densely settled and intensively cultivated areas where forest no longer covers even a third of the surface. They are divided into low hill and plain landscapes. 15 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview The winegrowing Pannonian low hills, which meet the Alpine mountains in the west, are com- posed of weakly agglutinated rocks, primarily marl, sand, and clay, and are therefore vulnerable to landslides. Dispersed settlements that are not compact are prevalent, with cultivated land between the houses. Homes are most frequently located on the tops of rounded ridges. Below them on the sunny slopes are vineyards, which produce high quality wine, and orchards, while on the shady slopes there is primarily forest, mostly beech, chestnut and oak, which covers a good third of all the surface. Farmers are engaged primarily in winegrowing and fruit growing. In the middle of the vineyards, traditional wooden wind-rattles turn in the wind, driving birds away. Many of the ridge houses have been con- verted into vacation houses, and the population is decreasing slightly. The largest Pannonian low hill regions are Slovenske gorice and Gori~ko, Slovenia's most northerly region. The vast Pannonian plains lie between the low hills along the slow and meandering Mura, Drava, and Krka rivers on which numerous mills once operated. Vulnerable to flooding, these plains are of major agricultural importance. Maribor (93,847), Slovenia's second largest city, and Ptuj (18,339), its oldest inland city, are located on the Drava Plain; Murska Sobota (12,437) on the Mura Plain; and Kr{ko (6,994) with its nuclear power plant near, the medieval town of Kostanjevica na Krki (701), and the Krakovski gozd nature reserve – the remains of a once vast lowland swamp forest – are on the Kr{ko Plain. T oday, forest covers less than a fifth of the surface of the plains, the lowest proportion in Slovenia; only the more frequently flooded areas are still covered with forests of English oak. In order to exploit the arable land more efficiently, people built their homes and outbuildings only along the main traf- fic routes. Large long villages arose with buildings evenly distributed in a row on one side or both sides of the road. The large stork nests frequently seen on the chimneys of these single-story houses add a pic- 16 Drago Perko Slovenia at the Junction of Major European Geographical Units Figure 2: Pannonian landscapes: in the foreground, the cultivated Drava Plain (Dravska ravan); in the background, first the vineyard-covered Dravinja Low Hills (Dravinjske gorice), behind them the steeper Haloze region known for its frequent landslides, and above it the table-shaped Mount Dona~ka gora (882 m), (photography Marjan Garbajs). turesque touch. V ast farming plots extend behind the houses, usually divided into unbroken strips. The farmers are primarily involved in crop farming and raising livestock. Thermal and mineral water ris- ing to the surface at tectonic faults in this region formed the basis for the development of health resort tourism (Roga{ka Slatina, Radenci, ^ate`, and [marje{ke T oplice). Dinaric landscapes In the south, the Alpine and Pannonian landscapes are replaced by the Dinaric landscapes, which run from northwest to southeast and occupy the greatest part of southern Slovenia. Dinaric landscapes, primarily the karst valley systems and the interim karst plateaus, constitute a good quarter of Slovenia. The Dinaric plateaus are composed almost entirely of limestone and dolomite and are the most forested regions of Slovenia; forest covers almost three quarters of their surface. Beech and beech-fir forests dominate. Surface waters are rare, and droughts and forest fires occur frequently. The traditional economic branches are forestry and the related wood industries. Small nucleate villages with irregu- larly distributed buildings are dominant. Because of unfavourable natural conditions, the farms survive on forestry and livestock production. The population density is six times smaller than the Slovene aver- age, and the population is decreasing, even though the majority of households are equipped with modern telecommunication and household equipment. Dinaric valley systems and corrosion plains where forest still covers two fifths of the surface run between the Dinaric plateaus. The corrosion plains are largely composed of limestone and dolomite, 17 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 3: Dinaric landscapes: in the foreground, the Dinaric karst plateau of Nanos (1,262 m) rises steeply above the Mediterranean flysch Vipava Valley (Vipavska dolina) and the Vipava Low Hills (Vipavska brda); in the background, beyond the Pivka valley system (Piv{ko podolje) and Postojna, Dinaric plateaus and valley systems alternate (photography Marjan Garbajs). while in the valley systems is some clay and flysch as well. Farthest east lies Bela krajina, a low corro- sion plain with strong Pannonian influences, and the undulating landscape around Novo mesto (22,415), the capital of Dolenjska. T oward the west are valley systems (»podolje«) important for traffic with karst poljes that provide the greatest proportion of arable land but also the threat of flooding: Dolenjsko podol- je, Ribni{ko-Ko~evsko podolje with Ko~evje (9,027), Notranjsko podolje with the famous intermittent Cerknica Lake (three hundred years ago, the Slovene polymath Janez V ajkard V alvasor was made a mem- ber of the Royal Society in London as a result of his research describing this unusual phenomenon), and Piv{ko podolje with Postojna (8,548). In contrast to the unfriendly surface is the fairy-tale underground world carved out by water. More than seven thousand caves rich with stalactites, stalagmites, and other karst cave formations have been discovered so far below the Dinaric and neighbouring Mediterranean karst regions. Among them are the [kocjan Caves, which have been on the UNESCO list of worldwide cultural and natural heritage sites since 1986 and are famous for the world's largest underground canyon, 2.5-km-long and 130 m high, and the world famous Postojna Cave, which has been visited by several million people. The karst underground is also famous for its fauna, which has adapted to life without light. The best known species is the cave salamander Proteus anguinus, which is endemic to the Dinaric karst region and the symbol of Slovenia's natural science. Mediterranean landscapes T o the southwest, the Dinaric landscapes join the Mediterranean landscapes, which occupy some- thing less than a tenth of Slovenia. It is divided into the more densely populated flysch low hills with their vineyards and orchards and the less densely populated lower karst plateaus. Here are found typ- ical Mediterranean settlements with each building attached to the next. The houses are built of stone and have one or two floors. Every village has at least one square with a common stone well, which due to the modern water supply infrastructure today has only architectural value. The settlements locat- ed on elevations are the most outstanding. One example is [tanjel, where houses built from local stone run along the contour lines of the sunny side of a hill. This compact village is surrounded by a wall and retains the appearance of a small medieval town. T oday it is protected as a first-class architectur- al monument of the Slovene cultural heritage. The Mediterranean plateaus are composed almost completely of limestone and are therefore pro- nouncedly karstified. A typical example is the Kras region, which gave name to the science of karstology since it was here on Slovene territory that the study of karst phenomena created by the dis- solving of permeable limestone began. Many other Slovene terms have also been incorporated in the international terminology for karst phenomena. The tourist sightseeing of caves began here as well. The oldest tourist cave in the world is Vilenica near Diva~a, where entrance fees were collected as early as the first half of the 17 th century. The grey-white colour of the karst stone complements the white colour of the Lipizzaner horses from the Lipica stud and the intensely red terra rossa soil. The Mediterranean plateaus have the highest amount of sunshine in all Slovenia, receiving on average almost 4,400 MJ per m 2 yearly. The Mediterranean low hills receive almost as much solar energy. In the extreme southwest they reach Slovenia's 47-km-long Adriatic coast and its great concentration of population and variety of activities. Here are three towns with typical ancient Mediterranean town centers: Koper (23,726), Slovenia's largest port, which ships around ten millions tons of goods annually, the fishing town of Izola (10,381), and the tourist town of Piran (4,143). The Adriatic cuts most deeply in land at the Bay of Piran. On its northern side is Portoro`, the largest Slovene tourist center, and there were once vast salt works not far away at the delta of the Dragonja River on the border with Croatia. At present, salt is only extract- ed from a small portion of the salt pans, while due to their halophyte vegetation and numerous bird 18 Drago Perko Slovenia at the Junction of Major European Geographical Units species the abandoned areas are extraordinarily interesting from the point of view of the natural sci- ences. Also interesting is the nearby precipice at Strunjan, the tallest flysch cliff on the Adriatic coast. The immediate coastal area of the Koper Low Hills with its vineyards and orchards – in some places the cultivated terraces are unfortunately greatly overgrown – rises rapidly to the high and imposing limestone wall of the karst rim, behind which the extensive karst corrosion plains of ^i~arija and Kras begin. The Kras plateau descends in the north to the Vipavska brda region and the fertile Vipava V alley, which is notorious for its violent bora winds. To the west, the Kras plateau extends to the So~a River and the border city of Nova Gorica (13,491) and in the northwest rises again to the flysch winegrow- ing and fruit growing Gori{ka brda region, which in turn approaches the Alpine mountains in the north where we began our journey through Slovenia's regions (table 1). Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Oro`en Adami~, M., Perko, D. (editors) 1998: Geografski atlas Slovenije (Geographical atlas of Slovenia). Ljubljana. Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Oro`en Adami~, M., Perko, D., Zupan~i~, J. (editors) 2001: National atlas of Slovenia. Ljubljana. Fridl, J., Marin, I., Oro`en Adami~, M., Pav{ek, M., Perko, D., [imenc, S., Verta~nik, C. 1996: Slowenien. Kultur Atlas Europa. Gotha. Gams, I. 1986: Osnove pokrajinske ekologije (Essentials of landscape ecology). Ljubljana. Gams, I. 2001: Geografske zna~ilnosti Slovenije (Geographical characteristics of Slovenia). Ljubljana. Gams, I., Vri{er, I. (editors) 1998: Geografija Slovenija (Geography of Slovenia). Ljubljana. Gosar, A. (editor) 1996: Slovenia – a gateway to Central Europe. Ljubljana. Ile{i~, S. 1979: Pogledi na geografijo (Looks on geography). Ljubljana. 19 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 4: Mediterranean landscapes: in the foreground in the Koper Low Hills (Koprska brda) lies the picturesque Istrian ridge village of Padna (205 m) with its greatly overgrown cultivated terraces; in the background, first the village of Korte and then the Bay of Piran on the Adriatic Sea (photography Marjan Garbajs). Melik, A. 1954: Slovenski alpski svet. Ljubljana. Melik, A. 1957: [tajerska s Prekmurjem in Me`i{ko dolino. Ljubljana. Melik, A. 1959: Posavska Slovenija. Ljubljana. Melik, A. 1960: Slovensko primorje. Ljubljana. Melik, A. 1963: Slovenija: geografski opis (Slovenia: geographical description). Ljubljana. Natek, K., Natek, M. 1998: Slovenija (Slovenia). Ljubljana. Ogrin, D. 1997: Slovenske krajine (Slovenian landscapes). Ljubljana. Oro`en Adami~, M., Perko, D., Kladnik, D. (editors) 1995: Krajevni leksikon Slovenije (Lexicon of places in Slovenia). Ljubljana. Perko, D. 1995: Slovenija in njene pokrajine (Slovenia and its landscapes). Mali atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana. Perko, D. 1997: Slovenija na stiku velikih evropskih pokrajinskih enot (Slovenia at the junction of major European regional units). Traditiones 26. Ljubljana. Perko, D. 1998: The regionalization of Slovenia. Geografski zbornik (Acta geographica) 38. Ljubljana. Perko, D. 2001a: Landscapes. National atlas of Slovenia. Ljubljana. Perko, D. 2001b: T errain. National atlas of Slovenia. Ljubljana. Perko, D., Oro`en Adami~, M. (editors) 2001: Slovenija – pokrajine in ljudje (Slovenia – landscapes and people). Ljubljana. Urbanc, M 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji (Cultural landcapes in Slovenia). Ljubljana. 20 Drago Perko Slovenia at the Junction of Major European Geographical Units SLOVENIA AS A EUROPEAN CONTACT AREA Milan Bufon Slovenia: Area of Contact or Periphery? In a wider sense, we could say that in the framework of the natural sphere, four European land- scape macroregions meet on the Slovene territory, and at the same time, in the framework of cultural sphere, Slovenia is also the meeting place of four major European language groups: Slavic, Germanic, Romance, and Finno-Ugric. In this view, Slovenia, together with Austria, is the only European coun- try at the contact point of all the listed language groups; however, these groups only actually coexist inside the national territory of Slovenia. This was even more true of past periods when Slovene terri- tory was included in the multi-ethnic Austrian state, which enabled the dynamic flow of various ethnic and language groups within the national territory, particularly in the direction of larger urban cen- ters. In spite of this, the Austrian census for 1910 established that the Slovene population on today's territory of Slovenia comprised over 80% of all the inhabitants of the territory with the remaining pro- portion more or less equally divided between Germans and other nationalities, among whom Italians and Hungarians were the most numerous. Because these »strong« neighbouring ethnic and language communities, especially the Germans but also Italians and Hungarians, were dominant on the local and even more so on a wider regional level, their influence was evident in the gradual assimilation of nearby Slovene populations to these communities, which was particularly obvious at the »edges« of Slovene ethnic territory or in areas where today a Slovene population is present as a minority outside the borders of Slovenia (according to Slovenia's estimates, more than 80,000 Slovenes live in Italy, more than 40,000 in Austria, and about 5,000 in Hungary – Zupan~i~ 1998). This procedure of »normalization« or standardization of the structure of the population in the frame- work of state systems and the subsequent assimilation of minority social groups into the majority pattern, was here, as elsewhere in Europe, most pronounced in the first half of the twentieth century when inten- sive political-geographical changes and consequential changes to national borders occurred. Here, I would like to point out only that to a certain degree, a similar »normalization« also occurred after W orld War I and World War II, especially in the territory of the Upper Adriatic (Bufon 1997 and 2002b) but also in the remaining territory of Slovenia (Gosar 1993), when the number of members of the German, Italian, and Hungarian communities fell drastically, first due to emigration of public servants and later of other categories of the population who were in one way or another connected with the aggressor countries. Regardless of the various »backgrounds« and causes of the changing of the ethnic structure in Slovenia after World War I, it also contains the influence of a certain social and geopolitical »reorientation« of Slovene territory toward the south, since it became a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and later of the Federative Socialist Yugoslavia. This »reorientation« did not have immediate consequences from the viewpoint of the ethnic struc- ture of Slovenia, since in 1971 it showed an almost »pure« national image (about 95% of the population was of Slovene nationality). After 1971, the proportion of the Slovene population in Slovenia decreased to about 90% in 1981 and less than 88% in 1991 due to the intensive immigration flow of the labour force from other Yugoslav republics. This is why the numbers of immigrant non-autochtho- nous groups, which since the independence of Slovenia have only partly assimilated into the Slovene population, today by far exceed the numbers of autochthonous minorities (the latter today total less than 1% of the entire population of Slovenia) and are mostly concentrated in industrial centers where they comprise mostly between 15% and 30% of the urban population, in Jesenice even more than 35%. 21 22 Milan Bufon Slovenia as a European Contact Area A D R I A T I C S E A Proportion of Slovenes 80 to 84% 85 to 89% 90 to 94% 95 to 100% Population by settlements 100 to 199 0t o9 9 200 to 499 500 to 999 1000 to 1999 2000 to 4999 5000 to 9999 20,000 to 99,999 10,000 to 19,999 100,000 to 199,999 200,000 and more 0 to 49% Ethnically mixed area 0t o3 0 (content is not shown due to personal data protection) 50 to 74% 75 to 79% © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Drago Perko, Peter Repolusk Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km In general, the positive migration balance is the only source of demographic increase for the country, which in the last few years has no longer recorded a natural increase in population. In short, as with many other countries of Western and Central Europe, economic migration has played an important role in the process of the industrialization of Slovenia, which in this way gained recognition as a kind of »Yugoslav Switzerland.« After 1991, a renewed political and social reorientation toward the north and west appeared, because of which the level of communication with Vienna and Brussels today is as it was with Zagreb and Belgrade before independence. The transportation role of Slovene territory has also changed: if the north- west-southeast direction dominated the Slovene traffic »cross« in the past, today, because of the Yugoslav conflict, the southwest-northeast direction dominates strongly. Although Slovenia has an important strategic and traffic position from the international viewpoint (Klemen~i~ and Genorio 1993), it still remains somewhat on the »edge« of developmental currents because Ljubljana is 300 to 500 kilome- ters away from the closest European metropolises. The position of geocultural and geopolitical contact and simultaneous peripheralness brings a number of discrepancies. The great majority of Slovenia's economic exchange occurs with countries of the European Union and Slovenia itself soon ranked among the main candidates for the next expansion of the Union, but a recent survey indicated that only a few citizens of the member countries of the European Union know Slovenia well enough to support its enter- ing the Union. But also, many Slovene economists still think it would be better for Slovenia to preserve its status of »developed among the developing« relative to the space of former Yugoslavia rather than to head for the insecurity brought by the status of »developing among the developed« in the frame- work of the European Union (Bufon 2003). Slovenia as a Border Area The border status of Slovenia can easily be understood from the ratio between the amount of nation- al territory (20,256 km 2 ) and total length of its political borders (1,160 km), on the basis of which we can calculate that in Slovenia, every 100 km 2 has on average 5.7 kilometers of international border. In Europe, only Luxemburg has a higher level of border character (almost 9 kilometers of border per 100 km 2 of territory). If we take a 25 kilometer wide border zone to define the criteria of establishing the bor- der area and multiply that zone by the length of political borders, we establish according to this criteria that Slovene border areas essentially cover the entire national territory, this ranks Slovenia, together with Switzerland and Belgium, in the category of small border countries where border areas comprise 75% to 100% of the national territory (Bufon 1996). Somewhat more concretely, we can further define the degree of Slovenia's border character by calculating the proportion of Slovene border municipal- ities that lie not more than 25 kilometers from a national border of all the municipalities in Slovenia. According to this method, some 61% of Slovenia's municipalities can be defined as border municipalities, and if the border zone is limited to only a 10-kilometer distance from the border line, their propor- tion still totals 50%. The border character of Slovenia is further underlined by the fact that Slovenia's capital Ljubljana is on average only 60 kilometers from the Austrian border, 90 kilometers from the Italian border, and 110 kilometers from the Croatian border, while the Hungarian border, about 220 kilo- meters away, lies the farthest away. In congruence with the border character of Slovenia, its cross-border traffic increased from about 140 million passengers in 1992 to 180 million in 2002 (considering only road border crossings). This means that almost half a million people on average travel across Slovene border crossings every day. Of the total cross-border traffic, Slovene citizens make almost 30% or just above 50 million annual cross- 23 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Ethnic structure in 1991. p ings, meaning that about 140,000 Slovene citizens or 7% of the entire population of Slovenia cross the Slovene borders daily. This data also gives us a clear picture of the level of the border character of Slovenia, since in accordance with the above data it is possible to calculate that on average every Slovene citizen (including children and older people) visits a foreign country once every fourteen days. Among for- eign citizens, according to the data from the Statistical Office of Slovenia, Croatians (about 40 million or 22% of all crossings), Italians (about 38 million or 21% of all crossings), Austrians (about 23 mil- lion or 13% of all crossings), and Germans (about 13 million crossings) dominate, followed by Czechs (3 million), Hungarians (2.5 million), Swiss (2 million), and Slovaks and Dutch (about 1 million) while residents of other former Yugoslav republics together total over 2.5 million crossings of Slovenia's bor- ders. This distribution indicates that the structure of cross-border crossings in the territory of Slovenia is a combination of prevailing local, inter-state, and transitional traffic, which is more pronounced in the summer period although Slovenia is the tourist destination of less than a million tourists. The dis- tribution of crossings over Slovene borders according to border sectors is illustrated in Table 1, where the change in the structure of border crossings from 1992 to 2001 is also evident. T able 1. Changes in the structure of border crossings by border sectors in Slovenia between 1992 and 2001. 1992 1995 2001 passengers proportion passengers proportion passengers proportion in millions (%) in millions (%) in millions (%) SLO/I 51.4 36.0 74.5 41.3 64.9 36.3 SLO/A l 39.4 27.6 50.7 28.1 48.6 27.1 SLO/H l 1.9 1.3 4.8 2.7 4.1 2.3 SLO/CRO 50.2 35.1 50.3 27.9 61.3 34.3 T otal 142.9 100.0 180.3 100.0 178.9 100.0 Source l : Statistical Office of Slovenia. In general, in trends of border traffic by border sectors, we observe an intensive increase of cross- ings over the Slovene-Italian border until 1995 and then a decrease or stabilization to about 65 million crossings, which is undoubtedly the result of introducing special gasoline cards for the residents of 24 Milan Bufon Slovenia as a European Contact Area Table 2. Some basic characteristics of Slovene border sections. 12345 SLO/I 17.4 35.0 38.5 17.3 38.0 SLO/A l 27.9 24.0 26.3 7.4 27.6 SLO/H l 7.6 6.0 6.6 6.8 2.2 SLO/CRO 47.1 26.0 28.6 4.8 32.2 T otal 100.0 91 100.0 7.8 100.0 1 – Proportion of total length of Slovenia's land border; 2 – Number of road border crossings, where the extent of cross-border traffic is recorded; 3 – Proportion of border crossings or border buildings 4 – Average number of border crossings per 100 kilometers of border; 5 – Proportion of total cross-border traffic (average for 1992–1998 period). Source l : Processing of data from the Statistical Office of Slovenia Friuli-Venezia Giulia that allowed gasoline to be purchased at the considerably lower »Slovene« price in the Italian border zone. T raffic over Slovene-Austrian border crossings also increased between 1992 and 1995 and then stabilized at about 50 million crossings annually. The largest relative increase in cross-border movement was recorded on the Slovene-Hungarian border, which had been almost her- metically sealed until the early 1990's. Between 1992 and 1995, border traffic increased here by some 150% and then stabilized at about 4 million crossings annually. A major oscillation on the annual level is recorded for cross-border movements on the Slovene-Croatian border, which reached a maximum in 1994 with 66 million crossings, almost a third more than in 1992, decreased greatly in the follow- ing year, and then began to rise again in the last few years. It is clear from Table 2 that relative to the length of the border, the mean cross-border traffic is of above-average intensity on the Slovene-Italian border, which comprises only 17% of the total border length but records some 38% of all border traffic, in proportion with the length of the Slovene-Austrian border, and below average for the borders with Croatia and Hungary. Of all the borders, the Slovene-Italian border is the most accessible or furnished with border crossings, since almost 40% of all Slovenia's border crossings are in this border sector, on average more than seventeen border cross- ings per 100 kilometers of border. This figure is even higher in the southern part of the Slovene-Italian border where the density of border infrastructure rises to twenty-five border crossings per 100 kilo- meters of border or one border crossing every four kilometers, while the general Slovene average totals less than eight crossings per 100 kilometers of border. Only the Slovene-Austrian and Slovene-Hungarian border sections with about 7 border crossings per 100 kilometers of border approach this average, while the Slovene-Croatian border section remains below-average »equipped« with border infrastructure with less than five border crossings per 100 kilometers of border. W e should draw attention to the fact that two European traffic corridors cross Slovenia: Corridor 5 on the Milan–T rieste–Ljubljana–Budapest route and Corridor 10 on the Nürnberg–Graz–Maribor–Zagreb route. The transit importance of Slovenia relative to linking Europe's west and north with its south and east will undoubtedly be further reinforced in future with the construction of a suitable road and rail network, and at the same time, the possibilities for the integration of border regions, which are now entirely included in the Interreg programs, will increase as well. Conclusion: Slovenia as Europe's »Integration Laboratory« Cross-border integration depends on a number of factors, including wider geopolitical conditions and the diverse history of individual border sectors, inter-state political and economic relations, bor- der accessibility, the degree of social and cultural affinity, regional conditions, and the dynamics of socio-economic development in border regions (Klemen~i~ and Bufon 1994). In the case of Slovenia, previous research shows that a combination of international factors such as an increase of business exchanges, tourist streams, and transit traffic and regional factors that are primarily related to the flow of people, goods, and communications in the framework of border regions leads to the more com- prehensive development not only of individual traffic corridors or border centers but also of the wider border area. In this way, different border areas along Slovenia's borders have already developed into true border regions, even though, in contrast to other Euro-regions, they are still not based on insti- tutional but rather on spontaneous forms of cross-border links, which also occupy a smaller territorial area (Bufon 1998). The considerable influence of local factors is therefore characteristic of them, orig- inating more from common territorial bonds than in the international political and economic demands of any given moment. Here, we observe the seemingly paradoxical fact that those border areas which have experienced the greatest problems relative to the splitting of previously unified adminis- trative, cultural, and functional space in the recent past also have the greatest possibilities for developing into border regions. 25 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview In this sense, border areas and the cross-border relations developing in them have great significance not only in the field of social and economic integration at the inter-state and inter-regional levels but also in the preservation of cultural characteristics and the strengthening of inter-ethnic coexistence and links. In border areas, all this opens up a series of new aspects that are becoming increasingly impor- tant in the process of European integration, the abolition of the traditional functions of political borders, and the greater appreciation of mutual understanding in the culturally very diverse European space. After Slovenia joins the European Union, along with planning the social and spatial development of border areas, it will be necessary to think more thoroughly about Slovenia's new role as a border coun- try between the European Union and the Balkans from the viewpoint of its political and economic geopolitical integration and its effects on internal regional development. In short, it appears that Slovenia, considering its size and its properties as a European contact territory, might be a very suitable and handy »laboratory« for studying integration processes in conditions of preserving cultural diversity as well as for its spatial and social influences on the »new« and »old« border areas of Central Europe. Bufon, M. 1996: Slovenia: a Central European border country. Slovenia – A Gateway to Central Europe, p. 42–51, The Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia, Ljubljana. Bufon, M. 1997: Geopolitical and ethnic transformations in the upper Adriatic between conflicts and integration perspectives. Annales 10, p. 295–306, Koper. Bufon, M. 1998: Le regioni transfrontaliere nel processo di unificazione europea. L'Europa delle regioni e delle reti, Utet, p. 126–142, T orino. Bufon, M. 2002: Slovenia – a European contact and border area, Annales 12/2, p. 445–472, Koper. Bufon, M. 2002b: Confini, identita' ed integrazione: nuove prospettive per l'Alto Adriatico, SLORI, Trieste. Bufon, M. 2003: The geopolitical location of Slovenia in the perspective of European integration processes, Possibilities and Opportunities of Regional Structures on the Way to the European Union, Ljubljana, Dela 19, p. 123–139, Ljubljana. Bufon, M., Minghi, J. 2000: The Upper Adriatic borderland: from conflict to harmony. GeoJournal 52/2, p. 119–127, Dordrecht. Genorio, R. 1993: Geopolitical dimension of Slovenian emigration around the world, GeoJournal 30/3, p. 225–230 Dordrecht. Gosar, A. 1993: Nationalities of Slovenia – changing ethnic structures in Central Europe, GeoJournal 30/3, p. 215–223, Dordrecht. Klemen~i~, V ., Bufon, M. 1994: Cultural elements of integration and transformation of border regions – the case of Slovenia, Political Geography 13/1, p. 73–83, Dordrecht. Klemen~i~, V ., Genorio, R. 1993: The new state Slovenia and its function within the frame of Europe, GeoJournal 30/3, p. 323–335. Zupan~i~, J. 1998: Slovenci v zamejstvu. Geografski atlas Slovenije, DZS, p. 174–177, Ljubljana. 26 Milan Bufon Slovenia as a European Contact Area RELIEF Matej Gabrovec Mauro Hrvatin In the middle of the Pliocene, the relief of today's Slovenia was still predominantly level, mainly due to strong chemical weathering and abundant denudation in the moderately humid and warm cli- mate of the time. From this period, numerous flatlands still remain today. The geomorphological processes that leveled the landscape ceased with the tectonic and climate changes in the upper Pliocene and in the Pleistocene. Due to the gradual cooling of the climate, mechanical weathering increased in the upper Pliocene and primarily reduced the surface areas of impermeable rock, which were then much more widespread than they are today. Through vertical and lateral erosion, the rivers carved deep valleys, above which the remains of former terraces have survived. Even greater changes occurred with the fre- quent climate changes in the Pleistocene. The temperature dropped in the cold periods by more than 10° C, and therefore glaciers formed in the mountain areas. Frequent freezing caused extremely strong mechanical weathering. The rivers deepened their valleys by 100 to 300 meters and at the same time filled young tectonic depressions with huge amounts of gravel. In the Holocene, the initially very rapid river erosion was followed by periodic accumulation of material from the upper parts of the valleys ([ifrer 1994). According to the geomorphological development in Slovenia, we distinguish fluviodenudational, glacial, karst, and coastal relief. In some areas, the genetic types of relief intertwine. In the mountains, for example, that were reshaped by glaciers in the Pleistocene, the chemical weathering of carbonate rock dominates today and we speak of glacial-karst relief (Gabrovec and Hrvatin 1998). Fluviodenudational relief has developed on areas of impermeable rock. Within this type, we fur- ther distinguish destruction and accumulation relief. Characteristic of destruction fluviodenudational relief is the interweaving of valleys and intervening ridges. In the mountainous area, rivers in some places carved their riverbeds in the shape of narrow and deep gorges. The small Mlinarica and Mostnica rivers in the Julian Alps, for example, carved gorges several dozen meters deep. Characteristic of mountain- ous areas are ravines such as I{ki vintgar and the valley of the Hudinja River below Vitanje. In hilly areas, the valleys are usually wider and have alluvial bottoms, for example, the valleys of the Pesnica and [~avnica rivers in Slovenske Gorice. On slopes covered by a thicker layer of weathered debris and soil, slumps are frequent. They are most frequent in Kozjansko and Haloze, where they are triggered mainly by heavy rains. Landslides are more frequent on less resistant sediment in the subalpine hills. Among the largest belong landslides in the upper Savinja Valley, the Poso~je region, and below Kladje Pass in the Cerkljansko Hills. Rockfalls and debris flows are periodically triggered from mountain walls and the steep rocky slopes of mountain valleys. The best known in recent years are the rockfalls in T renta and the debris flow triggered in the Mangart mountain chain that partially destroyed the village of Log pod Mangartom (Zorn and Komac 2002). Accumulation fluviodenudational relief occurs on plains and basins and on the bottoms of wider valleys and karst poljes. This relief was formed by rivers that deposited several dozen meters of grav- el, sand, or clay in tectonic depressions. Rivers that had their watersheds in glaciated areas during the Pleistocene deposited large quantities of material in the cold periods and carved out riverbeds in it dur- ing the warmer periods. Numerous fluvioglacial terraces are the result of the many alternations of cold and warm periods and the corresponding depositing and carving by the rivers. The best-preserved ter- races are found in Dobrava between Radovljica and Kranj. On older terraces, limestone pebbles 27 28 Matej Gabrovec, Mauro Hrvatin Relief A D R I A T I C S E A 404 1495 1107 1114 1027 1268 1796 1262 1178 1047 1099 1289 812 1028 643 1543 1522 1699 2125 1272 1012 2132 2558 2350 2062 1577 1557 2143 2236 2133 1678 1025 1630 1562 1021 1029 1204 1220 1122 686 979 882 352 948 2864 2679 2587 1642 2547 2740 2244 1922 Krim Veliki Sne`nik Trdinov vrh Slavnik ^rni vrh Grintovec Stol Porezen Kum Triglav Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Karst landforms Collapse doline Pocket, blind valley Dry valley Corrosion plain Alpine corrosion plain Cave, pothole Uvala, polje Alpine corrosion plains Corrosion plains Mountains Hills Low hills Flat lands Morphological units Landforms Antropogenic landforms Cultivation terraces Mining subsidence Coastal landforms Sea cliff Polygenetic landforms Sharp, rounded peak Mountain ridge Hill ridge Low hill ridge Escarpment Glacial landforms Cirque Trough Terminal moraine Fuvial-denudational landforms Narrow, wide river valley Alluvial fan Floodplain River terrace Scree Slumps area Landslide, rockfall © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Matej Gabrovec, Mauro Hrvatin Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km agglutinated into conglomerate, which in places such as the Udin bor{t terrace near Kranj is already well karstified. The thickness of Quaternary alluvium in the areas of accumulation fluviodenudation- al relief varies substantially, from five to two hundred meters. Where narrow valleys open onto wider valleys or plains, the rivers deposited alluvial fans. Among the larger ones are the [entjernej fan, which was created by streams coming from the Gorjanci mountain range at the edge of the Kr{ka ravan plain, and the fan of the I{ka River at the junction of I{ki vintgar and the Ljubljansko Barje moor. Accumulation relief also occurs at the foot of some steep slopes where extensive fossil and recent screes are found. Glacial relief appears in the mountainous areas, where it originated due to glacial erosion and accu- mulation in the colder periods of the Pleistocene. Cirques formed high in the mountains below rocky ridges. Larger cirques include Za Akom and Pod srcem in the Julian Alps above Gozd Martuljek and Okre{elj above the Logarska dolina valley in the Kamni{ke-Savinjske Alps. Glaciers filled former river valleys and reshaped them into U-shaped glacial valleys with broad flat bottoms and steep sides. The effects of glacial erosion are most distinctive in watershed areas of the valleys of the Sava Bohinjka, So~a, Kamni{ka Bistrica, and Savinja rivers. Smaller glaciers also left traces at places in the Karavanke Mountains and in the Trnovski gozd and Sne`nik regions. T erminal moraines mark the outer margins of the for- mer glaciers. On formerly glaciated areas, denudation and karstification dominate today. The glaciers below Mount Triglav and Mount Skuta are not the remains of Pleistocene glaciation since they only formed in the colder period of the Holocene. Because each of them only covers a few hectares, their influence on the formation of the surface is insignificant. Karst relief is characteristic primarily of the Dinaric and Alpine areas. Common characteristics of karst are the intensive chemical weathering of the rock and the underground karst flow of the waters. On the basis of the hardness or mineralization of karst waters, it was determined that the karst surface in Slovenia lowers by two to ten millimeters per century, less on barren karst and more on karst areas covered by soil (Gams 2003). W e distinguish between limestone karst and dolomite karst relief. The characteristic surface of lime- stone karst is composed of karst depressions and rounded peaks. The most frequent karst depressions are dolines. In places, their density is extremely high; for example, on the Vrta~e and [ahen flats in Ribni{ko polje and Ko~evsko polje, there are more than two hundred dolines per square kilometer. The larger karst depressions include uvalas and karst poljes. In Notranjska, the best known are Cerknica polje and Planinsko polje, and in Dolenjska, Ribni{ko polje and Ko~evsko polje. Slovenia's largest karst corro- sion plain is in Bela krajina, a several-kilometer long and wide flat surface that is heavily dotted with dolines. Where waters flow from impermeable rock onto limestone bedrock, blind valleys developed, for example in the limestone Podgrajsko podolje along the streams flowing down from the flysch Brkini ridge. Around the karst springs of the Ljubljanica, Unica, and Krka rivers, pocket valleys were formed that end in steep slopes or even vertical walls. Because of the course taken by the karst waters, numer- ous caves and shafts were formed in the underground. The largest caves in Slovenia occurred near the sinkholes of major rivers. The Postojna cave system and Planinska cave were formed by the Pivka River, and the [kocjan Caves and Ka~na jama Cave by the Reka River. The deepest shafts explored so far, over 1,000 meters deep, are found on Mount Rombon and Mount Kanin and on the Dleskov{ka plateau. With a depth of 1,533 meters, the ^ehi 2 shaft on Rombonski podi is among the ten deepest shafts in the world. Due to the collapse of the ceilings of karst caves, deep depressions were formed on the sur- face. Among those above the underground streams in the watershed of the karst Ljubljanica River are the 124-meter deep Un{ka koli{evka collapse depression and the La{ka kukava collapse depresion. Enclosing a space of 2.75 million m 3 , the latter is the largest in Slovenia. Although underground waters dominate in karst regions, some rivers such as the Kolpa and Krka flow on the surface. Among dry val- leys, the most distinctive is the ^epovan Valley between the plateaus of Banj{ice and Trnovski gozd. 29 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Morphological units and landforms. p Surface karst forms are more rare on dolomite karst, and therefore this type of karst relief is usu- ally less distinctive than limestone karst relief. Larger karst caves such as Jama near Sveti Trije kralji near Rovte are also relatively rare. Small and shallow dry valleys called dells are characteristic. Along with the chemical dissolving of the rock, erosion and denudation also play an important role on dolomite and therefore dolomite karst relief in many places resembles fluviodenudational relief. This type of relief, characteristic of the watershed of the Temenica River, is often called »fluviokarst«. Due to its lack of resistance to mechanical weathering or brittleness, erosion foci are frequent on dolomite. The coastal type of relief is limited to a narrow belt along Slovenia's Adriatic coast. The most dis- tinctive relief features are overhanging cliffs up to seventy meters high formed by abrasion erosion and eroded at their feet by the waves. The largest cliffs rise between Izola and Piran. Along the coast below the surface of the sea spreads a several-dozen-meters wide abrasion terrace that ends in a sharp edge at the depth of nine meters (Oro`en Adami~ and Rejec Brancelj 1998). In many places the geological structure is clearly visible in the relief. This applies above all to larg- er geological structures, among which we include faults, folds, and thrusts. In many places, river valleys have been carved in tectonically damaged rock along faults. The So~a and Idrijca rivers carved part of their valleys along the Idrija fault, and on karst, the Notranjska valley system formed with numerous karst poljes. A folded area can be reflected in the form of a parallel oblong series of ridges and valleys, for example in the Posavsko Hills. In some places, the fronts of thrusts are visible as distinctive relief levels. The steep limestone slope of T rnovski gozd above the flysch Vipava V alley is the front of the T rnovo thrust. Human intervention is increasingly evident in the relief. Among the most important anthropogenic relief features are transportation right of ways, quarries and other excavations, and cultivation terraces. Major changes in relief occur due to the subsidence of the ground above abandoned mine shafts. The worst consequences of subsidence due to coal mining are visible in the vicinity of V elenje and T rbovlje. Lakes developed where groundwater filled the subsidences over mines. Cultivation terraces that made cultivation easier and simultaneously reduced soil erosion on slopes are frequent in the hills above Koper. Along with the relief features described above, which more or less incontrovertibly fall into indi- vidual genetic types of relief, there is a multitude of those that developed due to the interaction of various geomorphological processes and are therefore called polygenetic features. Among the more typical relief features of this kind are variously shaped peaks, ridges, and slopes. Relative to the dissection of the surface, we distinguish six types of relief: plains, low hills, hills, moun- tains, and low and high plateaus. Plains developed through accumulation processes. T oday, accumulation occurs only on the youngest flood plains of rivers and streams. Older conglomerate terraces are already karstified. In the low hills and hills, denudation and erosion processes dominate. These two relief types are distinguished according to the differences in altitude between the ridges and the valleys: in low hills, they reach 300 meters at most, and in hills, between 300 and 1,000 meters. In the mountains, the peaks and ridges reach above the tree line. In Slovenia, the tree line is at around 1,700 meters. The moun- tains were glaciated during the Pleistocene, and numerous glacial features have survived. Today, fluviodenudational and karst processes dominate here. The low hills, hills, and mountains are dissected by numerous valleys, but on plateaus valleys are found only exceptionally due to the dominant karst processes. On plateaus, rounded peaks alternate with various karst depressions. Low plateaus reach up to 700 meters above sea level, while on high plateaus the peaks reach over 1,000 meters. Gabrovec, M., Hrvatin, M. 1998: Povr{je. Geografski atlas Slovenije, Ljubljana. Gams, I. 2003: Kras v Sloveniji v prostoru in ~asu. Ljubljana. Oro`en Adami~, M., Rejec Brancelj, I. 1998: Morje. Geografski atlas Slovenije, Ljubljana. [ifrer, M. 1994: Povr{je Slovenije. Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana. Zorn, M., Komac, B. 2002: Pobo~ni procesi in drobirski tok v Logu pod Mangartom. Geografski vestnik 74-1. Ljubljana. 30 Matej Gabrovec, Mauro Hrvatin Relief W ATERS Mauro Hrvatin Slovenia is a country characterized by an abundance of water in a great variety of forms. We usu- ally distinguish between surface and subterranean land waters and the sea. Surface land waters include the river network, lakes, marshes, moors, snowfields, and glaciers while subterranean land waters include groundwater, karst, thermal, and mineral waters. The river network consists of a multitude of rivers, streams, and brooks totaling almost 27,000 kilo- meters. The average density of the watercourses in Slovenia is 1.33 kilometers per square kilometer, among the highest density found in Europe. Surface watercourses are not equally distributed because about 40% of Slovenia is karst and therefore almost without surface watercourses. In this regard, some Slovene karst plateaus stand out especially. In contrast to the karst regions, elsewhere the river network is very branched and in places the density of watercourses exceeds three kilometers per square kilometer. The divide between the Black Sea and the Adriatic Sea runs across Slovenia. Rivers from four fifths of Slovene territory flow several hundred kilometers to the Black Sea and from less than one fifth to the Adriatic Sea. The Black Sea river system comprises the watersheds of the Mura, Drava, Sava, and Kolpa rivers, while the Adriatic river system includes the watersheds of the So~a and Reka rivers and of the small rivers that flow directly to the sea. Short watercourses are characteristics of Slovenia's water network, and only forty-six rivers are more than twenty-five kilometers long. The longest river is the Sava, which runs 221 kilometers on Slovene territory, followed by the Drava with 142 kilometers and the Kolpa with 118 kilometers. The longest rivers that flow their entire length within Slovene territory are the Savinja (102 km) and the Krka (94 km). The Mura, So~a, Sotla, Ledava, Dravinja, Pesnica, Idrijca, [~avnica, Reka, and Sora (together with the Poljanska Sora) rivers all have more than fifty kilometers of their length on Slovene territory or along the national borders. According to the volume of water, the Drava takes first place with an average annual discharge of 322 m 3 /s at Dravsko polje. The discharge of the Sava near ^ate` (289 m 3 /s) is close behind, while the discharge of the Mura near Gornja Radgona (157m 3 /s) is already smaller by half. The So~a, Kolpa, Ljubljanica, and Krka rivers have average annual discharge of more than 50 m 3 /s. In Slovenia, the average annual precipitation is 1,570mm. Of this, 42% evaporates and the remaining 58% runs off via watercourses. Runoff coefficients indicating the proportion of water flow- ing into watercourses differ considerably according to the individual regions of Slovenia. The differences are caused primarily by the quantity and the regime of the precipitation and the rock and relief char- acteristics in the regions. The highest runoff quotients, which exceed 80%, are found in the Upper Poso~je region. In most of the country, they range between 40% and 60%. The lowest values are found in Prekmurje where they only rarely exceed 30% (Kolbezen 1998). According to the average oscillation in the discharge during the year, we distinguish four types of discharge regimes. The snow regime is characteristic of the Drava and Mura rivers, whose watersheds extend into the glaciated and snow-covered high mountains of Hohe and Niedere Tauern in Austria. The single discharge maximum occurs at the transition of the spring into the summer, and the mini- mum in the winter. The snow-rain regime is characteristic for the alpine Kamni{ka Bistrica, Tr`i{ka Bistrica, Kokra, Koritnica, Me`a, Radovna, and T olminka rivers and the upper reaches of the Sava, Savinja, and So~a. The primary discharge maximum occurs with the thawing of snow in late spring, and the secondary maximum occurs during the fall rains. The winter discharge minimum is more distinct than the summer one. The rain-snow regime is characteristic of the Dravinja, Idrijca, Kolpa, Krka, Ledava, 31 32 Mauro Hrvatin Wa t e r s A D R I A T I C S E A 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Ledava Polana Mura Gornja Radgona Pesnica Zamu{ani Dravinja Videm Sotla Rakovec Savinja La{ko Sava Rade~e Sava Litija Kamni{ka Bistrica Kamnik Kokra Kokra So~a Kr{ovec So~a Solkan Sora Suha Ljubljanica Vrhnika Reka Cerkvenikov mlin Ri`ana Kubed Vipava Miren Idrijca Hote{k Savinja Nazarje Me`a Oti{ki Vrh Sava Radovljica Krka Podbo~je Sava ^ate` Kolpa Radeni~i Drava Borl Krka Podbukovje Triglav glacier Skuta glacier Ljubljana marsh Pokljuka marshes Pohorje marshes Blejsko jezero Cerkni{ko jezero Ormo{ko jezero Bohinjsko jezero Ptujsko jezero River Gauging station 0 1 2 Black Sea catchment Water features Discharge regime Adriatic Sea catchment Divide types Distinct divide Indeterminate divide Glacier Marsh Discharge coefficient = monthly average/annual average months Discharge coefficient Groundwater area Karst spring Mura river catchment rain regime Drava river catchment Sava river catchment snow–rain regime Kolpa river catchment snow regime So~a river catchment Other Adriatic river catchments rain–snow regime © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Marko Kolbezen, Mauro Hrvatin Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Ljubljanica, Mirna, Pesnica, Sora, Sotla, [~avnica, and Vipava rivers and in the lower stretches of the Sava, Savinja, and So~a. The spring snow discharge maximum always exceeds the fall rain maximum, but the summer discharges are substantially lower than those in winter. The rain regime is character- istic for the Pivka, Reka, and Ri`ana rivers in southwestern Slovenia. Above-average discharges occur here in the colder half of the year from November to April, while in late spring and summer the dis- charges are modest due to high temperatures and strong evapotranspiration (Hrvatin 1998). With heavier and longer rains, floods occur along numerous watercourses, threatening about 500 km 2 of land. The largest flood areas are on the Ljubljansko Barje moor (80 km 2 ) and along the Dravinja (66.5 km 2 ) and Krka (62 km 2 ) rivers. Flood areas larger than 20 km 2 are also found along the lower stretch- es of the Savinja and Sava, along the Sotla and Kolpa, and on Cerkni{ko polje. Floods can be regular, occurring according to the river regime at specific times of the year, and have an anticipated spread, for example, the annual floods along the Krka River, on the Ljubljansko Barje moor, and on Planinsko polje. Extraordinary floods occur at unusual times of the year and have an exceptional spread or impact. Destructive floods struck the river basins of the Idrijca, Sora, Kamni{ka Bistrica, Savinja, Me`a, Dravinja, Pesnica, [~avnica, and Sava rivers in 1990. T o protect the land from floods and erosion, extensive regulation work has been undertaken in Slovenia for more than a hun- dred years (Oro`en Adami~ 1998). In the past, the power of rivers was harnessed by more than 4,000 water-driven flourmills and sawmills, but most of these were abandoned in the 20 th century. They were replaced by hydroelectric power plants that produce more than one third of Slovenia's electric energy supply. River water is also used for cool- ing in thermoelectric power plants and the nuclear power plant in Kr{ko, as technological water in industry, and for irrigation. Due to the pollution of the river water, it can no longer be used directly for the supply of drinking water (Bat and Uhan 1997). Natural lakes in Slovenia are rare and small, and are divided into glacial and karst lakes. The largest and best-known glacial lakes are Lake Bohinj and Lake Bled. Lake Bohinj measures 3.18 km 2 and has a maximum depth of 44.5 meters. It is a discharge type, so its water is quickly renewed. Lake Bled, with a surface area of 1.40 km 2 and a maximum depth of 30.6 meters, is somewhat smaller. In the high moun- tains of the Julian Alps, there are several smaller glacial lakes, among which the Triglav lakes, Kri{ka lakes, and Krn lakes are best known. The disappearing Cerknica Lake measures 21 km 2 during normal flooding, and with exceptional- ly high waters its surface area exceeds 28 km 2 . On average, it lasts for almost ten months of the year. It usually fills up during the fall rains and disappears only in the summer months of the following year. Only a few karst lakes never disappear. One such lake is Jezero near Podpe~ below Mount Krim, which is Slovenia's deepest lake with a depth of 47 meters. Artificial lakes include reservoirs beside hydroelectric power plants, multi-purpose water reservoirs, and lakes that developed in depressions above abandoned mines. Marshes are areas where the ground is waterlogged. In recent decades, their surface area has been rapidly shrinking due to intensive drainage. Larger hydromeliorations of marshy areas were carried out along the Ledava, Mirna, Mura, Pesnica, Polskava, [~avnica, and Vipava rivers and along the lower course of the Krka River. In 1990, marshes together with fishponds and reed ponds occupied only 2,200 hectares. A moor is a special kind of marshland with vegetation whose dead remains are deposited as peat. One well-known moor is Zelenci near the source of the Sava River, while the once much larger Ljubljansko Barje moor was destroyed to a great extent by the cutting of peat. Snowfields and glaciers are an important and simultaneously very changeable element of the high-mountain areas. Comparisons between various historical sources and the current situation show that the number and size of formerly frequent and large mountain snowfields are decreasing. The glac- 33 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Inland waters. p iers on Mount T riglav and below Mount Skuta have also been rapidly shrinking in recent decades. The Triglav glacier, which covered almost 46 hectares in the 1880's, has dwindled today to a mere 1.4 hectares. Subterranean waters, which include groundwater, karst, thermal, and mineral waters, greatly sur- pass surface waters in quantity. The sites of groundwater are basins and river valleys with thick deposits of T ertiary and Quaternary gravel and sand alluvia. The most important sites are the Apa~e, Mura, and Ljutomer poljes in the Mura watershed; the Dravsko-Ptujsko polje in the Drava watershed; the Ljubljana, Kranj-Sora, and Kr{ko-Bre`ice poljes and the Kamni{ka Bistrica and Lower Savinja valleys in the Sava watershed; and the Vipava V alley and the So~a polje in the So~a watershed (Kolbezen 1998). At the moment, groundwater supplies more than half of Slovenia's drinking water. Because the basins are very densely populated, crisscrossed by traffic arteries, and intensively cultivated and at the same time polluted rivers are directly linked to the groundwater, there is a great and constant threat of pol- lution hanging over this important natural resource, either directly from the surface or indirectly from the rivers. The pollution of the groundwater could prohibit its use in the public water supply for years or even decades. The greatest threat of groundwater pollution occurs during droughts because the drop- ping level of the water table allows the penetration of polluted river water into the gravel and sand (Natek and Natek 1998). Karst waters feed the springs of the So~a, Sava, Idrijca, Vipava, Ljubljanica, Krka, and Kolpa rivers and many of their tributaries. Some karst springs such as the Ri`ana, Malen{~ica, Podroteja, and Mrzlek springs are vital for the water supply of entire areas. During droughts, they represent three quarters of all the available water supplies. Thermal and mineral waters are special types of subterranean water. So far, twenty-four natural thermal and thermo-mineral springs with temperatures between 18° C and 38° C have been discov- ered. Thermal waters are exploited mainly by the health resorts at ^ate`, Dolenjske T oplice, [marje{ke T oplice, Pod~etrtek, Ptuj, Rimske T oplice, T opol{ica, and Zre~e. The most important locations of min- eral water are in porous T ertiary sand and gravel (Radenci) and in tectonically fissured rock (Roga{ka Slatina). In the western part of Pomurje, there are extensive sites of thermo-mineral water containing dissolved CO 2 at depths between 700 and 1,300 meters. In addition to land waters, a small part of the Adriatic Sea including part of the Bay of Trieste and forty-seven kilometers of coastline belongs to Slovenia. While the Slovene share of sea surface is insignif- icant, the economic and geopolitical importance of the sea is incomparably greater. The Slovene sea is very shallow and only rarely exceeds the depth of twenty meters. It is deepest in the undersea basin off Piran, where it is thirty-seven meters deep. The average annual temperature of the sea is 15.8° C, the lowest is 8.1° C in February, and the highest is 24.0° C in August. Due to the abundant influx of fresh water, its average saltiness is lower than the Adriatic average and oscillates between 33‰ and 38‰. The currents are weak, and the amplitude between the mean low tide and mean high tide is only sixty-six centimeters on average (Bat and Uhan 1997). Due to its small size and closed character, the Bay of Trieste ranks among the most polluted parts of the Adriatic Sea. About 400,000 people live along the shoreline, and communal waste is joined by the waste generated by industry, maritime traffic, tourism, and, to a lesser degree, agriculture. A large influx of organic and inorganic material comes also from the Po River (Natek and Natek 1998). Bat, M., Uhan, J. 1997: Slovenija: Vodovje. Enciklopedija Slovenije 11. Ljubljana. Hrvatin, M. 1998: Discharge regimes in Slovenia. Geografski zbornik 38. Ljubljana. Kolbezen, M. 1998: Hidrografija. Geografija Slovenije. Ljubljana. Natek, K., Natek, M. 1998: V ode. Slovenija: geografska, zgodovinska, pravna, politi~na, ekonomska in kulturna podo- ba Slovenije. Ljubljana. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1998: Naravne nesre~e. Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana. 34 Mauro Hrvatin Wa t e r s THE TRIGLA V GLACIER Matej Gabrovec Borut Per{olja The Triglav Glacier is located in the Julian Alps at the altitude of 2,445 meters. The last hundred years of its half a millennium history has been marked by a retreating trend. The situation of the last four hundred years can be reconstructed by studying older moraines whose age has been established according to the overgrowth of the blue-green algae Chroococcus lithophilus Erceg ([ifrer 1963), by study- ing old paintings and photographs, and on the basis of individual mentions, particularly in the mountaineering literature. Fieldwork findings match the preserved descriptive and photographic mate- 35 Mali Triglav 2738 N N 1952 1995 2003 1999 Area (year) © Geografski In{titut , 2004 Antona Melika ZRC SAZU 02 04 0 60 80 100 m Cartography: Jerneja Fridl Figure 1: The size of the Triglav Glacier in 1952, 1995, 1999 and 2003. rials very well. In the last fifty years, the Triglav Glacier has been the subject of constant observations and research (since 1946) and this work ranks among the oldest uninterrupted scientific studies in Slovenia. Table 1: Survey of the surface area changes of the Triglav Glacier. Y ear Surface area in hectares Altitude of the upper edge Altitude of the lower edge 1900 32 2600 2280 1952 12.5 2565 2390 1995 3.0 2545 2415 1999 1.1 2510 2440 2003 0.7 2495 2445 Data on the surface area of the Triglav Glacier – including the oldest in the course of more than fifty years of uninterrupted monitoring and measuring – has been acquired in various ways. At first, annual measurements included measuring the distance from the ice to measurement points placed by the researchers on the margin of the glacier. Periodically, classical geodetic measurements were made with a theodolite, the first in 1952, and later in 1995 and 1999. In 1999, we took the first aerial photos using a photogrammetric camera in the usual stereo tech- nique. The shooting was successful, and the data enabled the high quality processing and presentation of a three-dimensional model of the glacier. We therefore repeated the aerial photography in 2001 and 2003, and on the basis of helicopter shots, 1:1,000-scale digital topographical plans of the Triglav Glacier and a digital model of heights were elaborated for all shootings. W e first used the ground penetrating radar on the T riglav Glacier in 1999 (V erbi~, Gabrovec 2002). On two cross-sections, we acquired data on the formation of the slope or basin where the glacier is sit- uated. In 2000, we again took georadar measurements on 14 cross-sections and upgraded the data on the sub-glacier surface. The three-dimensional data on the surface of the glacier, together with the data on its thickness, enabled us to calculate its volume in individual years. If the surface of the glacier shrank to one twentieth of its original size in half a century, its volume shrank to less than one hundredth of the original volume. 36 Matej Gabrovec, Borut Per{olja The Triglav Glacier Figure 2: The Triglav Glacier, 1975 (photography Milan Oro`en Adami~). Table 2: Survey of volume and thickness changes of the Triglav Glacier. Y ear Volume in m 3 Greatest depth in m Average depth in m 1952 1,700,000 45 18 1992 130,000 20 6 1999 35,000 10 3 In 1976, we began taking pictures of the glacier regularly, about once in a month, from two per- manent positions in the vicinity of the T riglavski dom Lodge on Mount Kredarica (2,515 m). More than four thousand pictures allow us to monitor the condition of the glacier during the year and to make comparisons between individual years. At the end of the 1990's, the methodology of photogrammet- ric processing was applied to the photographs and an elaboration of a plane model of the surface of the glacier in different periods was done (Triglav, Kosmatin Fras, Gvozdanovi~ 2000). In its present condition, the Triglav Glacier no longer deserves its name. All the typical character- istics of a glacier are changing or even disappearing. With the reduction of the thickness and surface area of the glacier, the structure of the ice has changed. For the formation of glacier ice with a volume density of 870–910 kg/m 3 , the decisive factors are a sufficient quantity of snow precipitation, the dura- tion and manner of transformation, and the weight from the top on lower-lying layers. Bluish-green glacier ice is practically gone, replaced by thicker and darker water ice that only needs a continuous weight to complete its transformation. Visible proof of the movement of the glacier are glacier fissures, which occur due to the differences in the velocity of different parts of the glacier. These are clearly visible in old photographs from the beginning of the 20 th century, as well as in scenes from the first Slovene movie, V kraljestvu Zlatoroga/In 37 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 3: The Triglav Glacier, 2003 (photography Matej Gabrovec). the Kingdom of the Goldenhorn, made in 1931. It is obvious that in the last few years, the glacier has no longer moved since the last glacier fissure was observed in October 2001. Gravitational movement (con- secutive as well as regelation movement) has stopped due to the physical entrapment of the glacier in a shallow bowl (Per{olja 2003), which we were able to identify on the subglacier surface using georadar measurements. In the second half of the 1980's, the glacier divided into many smaller parts. The disintegration of the glacier was followed by the covering of individual parts by rubble (Gabrovec 1998). This means that the T riglav Glacier will probably not thaw entirely since the rubble deposits will protect it and con- vert it into fossilized or trapped ice (Per{olja 2003). The annual changing of the glacier is the consequence of a complicated combination of the effects of various climatic factors in the warm and cold halves of the year, its thawing and growing periods. Changes over a longer period are also the result of global climate changes. Cooling during the transi- tion from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age (Little Ice Age) caused the occurrence of the T riglav Glacier. The rapid shrinking of the glacier in the last decade is undoubtedly connected to the rising tempera- ture in this period. The data from the meteorological station on Mount Kredarica (2,514m) in the immediate vicinity of the glacier is clear proof of this (Nadbath 1999). On the other hand, abundant snow precipitation in 2001 (Vrhovec, Velkavrh 2001) temporarily stopped the shrinking of the glaci- er, and a similar event happened in the 1970's ([ifrer 1987). Gabrovec, M. 1998: The T riglav Glacier between 1986 and 1998 (T riglavski ledenik med letoma 1986 in 1998). Acta Geographica (Geografski zbornik), 38: 89–110. Ljubljana. Nadbath, M. 1999: The T riglav Glacier and Climate V ariations (T riglavski ledenik in spremembe podnebja). Ujma 13: 24–29. Ljubljana. Per{olja, B. 2003: The Skuta glacier gained leadersheap (Prvenstvo prevzema ledenik pod Skuto. Scientia (Znanost), 13. 10. 2003. Ljubljana. [ifrer, M. 1963: New findings about the glaciation of T riglav. The T riglav Glacier during the last 8 years (Nova geo- morfolo{ka dognanja na Triglavu. Triglavski ledenik v letih 1954–1962). Acta Geographica (Geografski zbornik), 8: 157–210. Ljubljana. [ifrer, M. 1987: The T riglav Glacier in the years 1974–1985 (T riglavski ledenik v letih 1974–1985). Acta Geographica (Geografski zbornik), 26: 97–137. Ljubljana. T riglav, T., Kosmatin Fras, M., Gvozdanovi~, T. 2000: Monitoring of Glaciers Surface with Photogrammetry, Case Study on Triglav Glacier (Spremljanje povr{ja ledenikov s fotogrametrijo, {tudija na primeru Triglavskega ledenika). Acta Geographica (Geografski zbornik), 40: 7–30. Ljubljana. Verbi~, T., Gabrovec, M. 2002: The ground-penetrating-radar measurements of the Triglav Glacier (Georadarske meritve na Triglavskem ledeniku). Geographical Bulletin (Geografski vestnik), 74-1: 25–42. Ljubljana. Vrhovec, T., V elkavrh, A. 2001: Maximum snow depth on Kredarica (Najve~ja debelina sne`ne odeje na Kredarici). Geographical Bulletin (Geografski vestnik), 73-2: 25–32. Ljubljana. 38 Matej Gabrovec, Borut Per{olja The Triglav Glacier KARST IN SLOVENIA Nadja Zupan Hajna W ord kras (karst) entered to international scientific terminology from Slovenia; and also some other words like dolina, polje ect. Kras is a low carbonate plateau between Diva~a, Se`ana and Trieste, and from there the technical term derives. The term karst – kras has a pre-indoeuropean origin from word karra, which means rock – stone. The ancient word for »stone« gave the origin to the ancient name for the region (Carusadus, Carsus) and this word changed according to different languages into Kras (Slovene), Karst (German) and Carso (Italian). From this toponym the international term – karst – for such type of landscape is derived. Kras, carbonate plateau, and its topographical and hydrological phenomena was becoming large- ly known after scientists and travels in last centuries published theirs descriptions about it. A lot of works were published in German language, so the translation of Kras to Karst entered into terminology denot- ing a special type of landscape. Karst is developed everywhere where carbonate rocks are presented. In Slovenia karst covers 43% of the surface; 35% is on limestone and about 8% on dolomite, that is about 8.800 km 2 . Karst is devel- oped in carbonate rocks from Devonian to Miocene age. Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones are the most favourable for karstification in our region. In Slovenia, the prevalent limestones display great purity, for they contain a very insignificant amount (1–2%) of insoluble residue (Gams 1974, 2003, Ogore- lec & Rothe 1993). According to Herak (1972), the limestones from the Dinaric Karst contain different parts of CaCO 3 , with regard to the sedimentation conditions in the given period. Thus the Lower T riassic limestones contain from 80% to 95% of CaCO 3 , Lower Cretaceous between 95% and 98%, while Upper Cretaceous contain from 98% to 100% of CaCO 3 . Our karst was not always green as it at the present. Less then hundred years ago there was bare land- scape with grass and some bushes. That was due to different land use, for example pasturing was much more intensive. One of basic properties of karst is underground waters drainage. All meteoric water very soon flow in the karst. In the past there was not enough drinking water so people collected water from roofs. At present people use big karst springs for water supply, about 50% of drinking water in Slovenia derives from karst waters. Karst Types in Slovenia Related to geological, hydrological and morphological conditions in Slovenia, karst is divided into three larger units (Habi~ 1969): Alpine karst, Dinaric karst and intermediary pre-Alpine and pre-Panonnian isolated karst which are subsequently, due to morphological and hydrographical properties, subdivided into smaller regions. 1. Alpine karst, high mountainous and mountainous karst in Julian, Savinjske Alps and Karavanke. 2. Dinaric karst, divided in high and low karst of Primorska, Notranjska and Dolenjska. 3. Dinaric-alpine intermediary and isolated karst in the area of Idrijsko, Cerkljansko and T olminsko, Polhograjski Mountains, Posavske folds, Gorjanci Mountain in some other places of N Slovenia. Alpine karst is presented in mountain region of NW and N part of Slovenia. Different parts are named after main mountain belts. Limestones and dolomites are from Devonian to Cretaceous age, but Triassic carbonate rocks prevail. Main tectonic structures are expended in E-W direction. In that 39 40 Nadja Zupan Hajna Karst in Slovenia Figure 1: Alpine karst in NW Slovenia. The deepest Slovenian caves are presented in the area (photography Jurij Senega~nik). Figure 2: Cerknica polje is the biggest karst polje in Slovenia. Intermittent lake is characteristic for the lowest part of the polje (photography Marjan Garbajs). type of karst simple runoff of underground prevails (Habi~ 1969). All known surface karst features and caves may be found. For high mountain karst surface pavements, all kinds of karren, »kotli~i« – small depressions with vertical walls, and konte – big dolines, are characteristic. There is also a lot of shafts and caves. In Julian Alps, on Kanin mountain, the deepest caves in Slovenia were found. Dinaric karst is a karst with numerous dolines, karst poljes, levelled surfaces and plateaus (Kranjc 1997). It is divided in Low and High Dinaric karst. Low Dinaric karst is divided in littoral karst which is represented by Kras plateau and karst of inner Slovenia. Kras plateau has levelled surface with many dolines, collapse dolines and caves, with the most famous of them [kocjanske jame, Ka~na jama, Labodnica ect. On its edges there is a lot of blind valleys. High Dinaric karst consist of high plateaus and large basins between them. Because of high altitude it is mostly forested. The longest and the most well known cave of this region is Postojnska jama. Intermediary karst and isolated karst of middle part of Slovenia is developed in limestones and dolomites from Paleozoic to Neogene in the belt between Alps and Dinarids. The tectonic structures are in Alpine, E-W , and in Dinaric, NW-SE, directions. These karst units mostly belong to simple flow-off hydrographical regions. Isolated karst is represented by single shallow islands of limestones and dolomites of various ages in the central part of Slovenia, strongly differing in structure and hydrol- ogy (Habi~ 1969); this is why different hydrogeological types of isolated karst exist in this part of Slovenia. Pre-Pannonian isolated karst in the eastern part of Posavsko hribovje and Slovenske gorice is a spe- cial type of superficial and underground karst developed in the Miocene lithothamnian, marl and sandy limestones. Karst Morfology On the karst surface all types of karren are presented, from thin rillenkarren, to larger runnels and lapies (large karren) where the limestone surface is bare and exposed to precipitations. If karren were 41 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 3: Doline is the most common relief feature in the karst in Slovenia (photography Matej Gabrovec). 42 Nadja Zupan Hajna Karst in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Andrej Mihevc Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Karst types Karst landforms Subalpine karst High Dinaric karst (mainly higher karst plateaus) Low Dinaric karst (mainly lower karst plateaus and corrosion plains) Dry valley Polje Uvala Collapse doline Blind valley Cave, pothole Alpine karst plateau Corrosion plain Rounded peak Karst river canyon Alpine karst developed under soil cover they are rounded. Also some other features were developed under soil cover as notches and holes and for them smooth surfaces are characteristic. Depressions are the predominant features on karst surface in Slovenia. There are all kinds, from small solution pits as kamenitza and doline, to large as big collapse dolina, uvala and polje. Doline is maybe the most common morphological feature in our region. Usually they are solution forms. Dolines are presented in all karst types in Slovenia, but they are developed mostly on karst plains, there are few on slopes. Their bottoms are usually filed by soil and they are also protected against the wind bora. Because of these two reasons they are cultivated a lot of times. Collapse dolines are much bigger then solution dolines and they indicate their connection to cave collapses. One of the biggest are in the area of [kocjanske jame caves and Diva~a village. There are Sekelak, Globo~ak, Risnik, Radvanj, ect. The biggest karst depression is karst polje. Karst poljes are characteristic for Dinaric karst in South of Slovenia. Cerknica polje is the biggest of them. Cerknica polje is a karst polje developed in the important regional fault zone, Idrija fault, in »Dinaric« direction (NW-SE). In the same fault zone are developed also Planinsko polje, Lo{ko polje and Babno polje. For the formation of karst polje in this fault zone along tectonic structures were the most important factor karst processes in the level of water table fluctuation in the bottom of the depression. Bottom of Cerkni{ko polje covers 38 km 2 in elevation of about 550 m and it is formed on Upper Triassic dolomite. On the polje borders are presented Triassic and Jurassic dolomites and Cretaceous limestones. Inflows are on E, S and part- ly on W sides of polje. The largest tributary to polje is Cerkni{~ica draining the dolomite catchment area. Str`en flows on the W side of polje towards the ponors in the middle of the polje, from where water flows directly to Ljubljanica springs, and towards NW side of polje, from where the water flows to Rakov [kocjan. From the foot of Javorniki mountain to the contact with dolomite in the polje bot- tom is 12 ponor caves. They are connected to Karlovica cave system to which also the highest waters from polje flows. It the system there is more the 7 km of passages. The intermittent lake covers about 26 km 2 when is full. Another set of karst poljes is spread out SE of Ljubljana, in Dolenjska region. Caves At this moment is in Cave Register of Slovenian Speleological Association and Karst Research Institute more than 8.200 caves. They are horizontal and vertical, connected to cave systems, with active water flows to fossil ones completely filed by sediments. The longest is Postojna cave system with 20.5 km and the deep- est is ^ehi 2 with 1500 m in W Julian Alps on Kanin mountain. Deepest on single pit is Vrtiglavica with 643 m and the second is Brezno pod V elbom with 501 m in one single drop also on Kanin mountain. One of very well known are also [kocjanske jame (Mihevc 2001), they are included in Unesco's W orld Heritage List because of their significance. The Dinaric karst is inhabited by the richest obligate subterranean fauna in the World (Sket 2002) and the richest part of it in the aquatic (stygobiotic) fauna is in Slovenia. Postojnska jama cave is the type locality of first described cave animal, beetle Leptodirus hochenwarti and European cave salamander Proteus anguinus. For tourist visit is arranged about 20 caves. Vilenica cave is probably the oldest documented tourist cave of the World. At the beginning of 17 th century the landlord left over the income from the visitors to the parish priest of the church at Lokev. One of the most famous and oldest show caves is Postojnska jama cave where important tourist development started in 1818. Between the years 1818 43 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 4: Karst surface. p and 1992 it was visited by 26.000.000 people. On of the most beautiful are [kocjanske jame with their large underground canyon. Gams, I. 1974, Kras. Slovenska matica, p. 359, Ljubljana. Gams, I. 2003: Kras v Sloveniji v prostoru in ~asu. Zalo`ba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, p. 516, Ljubljana Habi~, P . 1969: Hidrografska rajonizacija krasa v Sloveniji. Kr{ Jugoslavije, 6, p. 79–91, Zagreb. Herak, M. 1972: Karst of Yugoslavia. Karst. Important Karst Regions of the Northeren Hemisphere. Elsevier Publishing Co., p. 25–83, Amsterdam. Kranjc, A. 1997: Kras, Slovene Classical Karst. Zalo`ba ZRC, Ljubljana. Mihevc, A. 2001: Speleogeneza Diva{kega kras. Zalo`ba ZRC SAZU, p. 27, 180, Ljubljana. Ogorelec, B. & Rothe, P . 1993: Mikrofazies, Diagenese und Geochemie des Dachsteinkalks und Hauptdolomits in Sud-West-Slowenien. Geologija, 35 (1992), p. 81–181, Ljubljana. 44 Nadja Zupan Hajna Karst in Slovenia MODERN CLIMATE CHANGE IN SLOVENIA Darko Ogrin Basic characteristics of climate in Slovenia From the perspective of climate units, Slovenia has a warm humid temperate climate like the rest of Europe, with the exception of its mountain regions. It is characteristic of this climate that the aver- age temperatures of the coldest month do not drop below –3° C and that at least four months have an average temperature above 10° C. Relative to precipitation, all seasons receive approximately the same amount with no distinctive dry or wet periods. In a more detailed climate analysis, along with its posi- tion in temperate geographical latitudes close to cyclogenetic areas and the considerable height diversity of its surface, the transit character of Slovenia's territory between the Alps and the Dinaric mountains and the Mediterranean and the Pannonian Basin is important. Thus, in spite of its mod- est geographical size, three types of the climate meet and interweave on Slovene territory: alpine, Mediterranean, and continental (Ogrin 1996). Compared with the standard alpine, Mediterranean, and continental climates, the character of all three climates are not typical due to the intertwinement of their main features, and therefore we often add the prefix »sub-« (submediterranean, subcontinental, subalpine climate). The distinctive transit character of climate types in Slovenia and the variability of 45 Figure 1: The warm conditions in Slovene Istria, the Vipava Valley, and Gori{ka Brda in submediterranean Slovenia allow the growing of some southern cultures, including olive trees, a typically Mediterranean culture. Because of one of its northernmost locations in Europe, olive trees are threatened by frosts, which occur on average every twenty years (photography Darko Ogrin). 46 Darko Ogrin Modern Climate Change in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Coastal submediterranean climate Climate of lower mountain area in western Slovenia Climate of lower mountain area in northern Slovenia Climate of higher mountain area Temperate continental climate of western and southern Slovenia Temperate continental climate of central Slovenia Temperate continental climate of eastern Slovenia Temperate continental climate of southeastern Slovenia Inland submediterranean climate Submediterranean climate Temperate continental climate Mountain climate © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Darko Ogrin Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km the climate make climate classification, establishing borders, and denomination difficult. In general, moving away from the Alps and the High Dinaric plateaus toward the east and northeast, continental climate features grow stronger; toward the south and southwest, Mediterranean features; and with increas- ing altitudes in the Alps and High Dinaric plateaus, the features of the alpine climate. Characteristic of the alpine climate found in the Julian Alps, the Karavanke Mountains, the Kam- ni{ke-Savinjske Alps, the Pohorje mountain range, and the highest parts of the High Dinaric plateaus (Trnovski gozd, Sne`nik) is that the average temperature of the coldest month is below –3° C and of the warmest, to the upper tree line (1,900 to 2,000 meters), above 10° C. The upper tree line is the divid- ing line between the climates of the high and the low mountain worlds. The latter also includes mountain valleys where summer temperatures are on the level of those in continental Slovenia, while due to pro- nounced temperature inversions, average winter temperatures are below –3° C. Also characteristic of the alpine climate is the least insolation in Slovenia (1,500 to 1,800 hours per year) and a very high level of precipitation (from 1,800 to more than 3,000 mm of precipitation per year). T o the south and southwest of the Alpine-Dinaric barrier, whose relief opens toward the Adriatic Sea, Slovenia has a submediterranean climate. Here are the most days with sun (up to 2,350 hours per year), the average temperatures of the coldest month are above the freezing point, and those of the warmest months are higher than 20° C. Due to the retentive action of the sea, temperatures in October are higher than those in April. The precipitation regime is submediterranean with high precipitation in the fall and at the end of spring or beginning of the summer and low precipitation in the winter and summer. The coastal climate variant immediately along the Bay of T rieste has the highest temperatures in Slovenia, and its hinterland variant has somewhat lower temperatures but more precipitation (from 1,200 to 1,600 mm per year). A temperate continental climate is characteristic for the greater part of Slovenia, with the conti- nental character of the climate intensifying toward the northeast. Average January temperatures are between 0° C and –3° C, while July temperatures are between 15° C and 20° C. Due to its location in the western part of the subalpine hills and in the area of the Dinaric barrier (which is why it is often called a »subalpine« climate), the temperate continental climate of southern and western Slovenia is characterized by large precipitation (1,300 to 2,000 mm) with a submediterranean precipitation regime. The temperate continental climate of central Slovenia has a mitigated continental precipitation regime (high precipitation in summer, low in winter) with less precipitation (1,000 to 1,300 mm). In the tem- perate continental (subpannonian) climate of eastern and southeastern Slovenia, October temperatures in the lowlands are equal to April temperatures while in the hills the April temperatures are higher, the continental precipitation regime is more pronounced, and the annual amount of precipitation (between 800 and 1,000 mm) is the lowest in Slovenia. Trends of climate change in the last 150 years In Slovenia and its immediate vicinity, there are two meteorological stations in Ljubljana and T rieste that have been operating without interruption for more than 150 years. The T rieste station began work- ing in 1841, and the Ljubljana station in 1851. With the data from Ljubljana, we can illustrate the changes in the temperate continental climate of central Slovenia, and with the data from Trieste, the changes in the submediterranean climate of southwestern Slovenia. The locations and instrumentation of the two stations have changed numerous times throughout their history, and therefore the homogeneity of their data set is somewhat questionable. This is particularly true for Ljubljana, where after World War II the station was moved to the outskirts of the city, which by the end of the 20 th century had become 47 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 2: Climate divisions in Slovenia. p part of the consolidated urban complex. Given that the data was never corrected, the data for Ljubljana, especially with regard to establishing the changes in the air temperature, represents a mix of the influ- ence of the local urban climate and the general trends of climate change. The data set for T rieste, where the station was also moved several times but never out of the city limits, is more homogeneous. Furthermore, the temperature data was also corrected so that it corresponds to the measurements it would have had if the station had been operating the entire time at its current location in the center of the city not far from the sea. Below we present the main trends in the changing of annual and seasonal temperatures and pre- cipitation. The general course of temperatures between the two stations coincides, somewhat less for the course of precipitation, with the difference that the variability for Ljubljana is larger. At both sta- tions, the temperatures indicate a general trend of increase, particularly the winter temperatures. In the last 150 years in Ljubljana, the average annual temperature rose by 1.4° (trend: 1 K/100 years), which is more than the standard deviation for annual temperatures, while in Trieste, which is under the cli- matic influence of the sea, only by 0.4° (trend: 0.2 K/100 years). In the last 150 years, winters in Ljubljana warmed by 2.5° (1.6 K/100 years), and in T rieste by 1.1° (0.7 K/100 years). In both cases, a pronounced warming trend in all seasons except fall has been evident in the last decade. A negative trend appears only in the summer temperatures of T rieste (–0.2 K/100 years), mostly due to the above-average warm summers at the beginning of the operation of this station and the relatively cooler summers in the sec- ond half of the 20 th century until the 1980's. Since 1980, the summers have also begun to become warmer. 48 Darko Ogrin Modern Climate Change in Slovenia Figure 3: Average deviation and the trend of average annual temperatures in Ljubljana and Trieste between 1850 and 2002. Average seasonal relative variability of precipitation at both stations is between 30% and 40%, and annually 17% (Ljubljana) or 20% (Trieste). At both stations, a lowering trend in the annual amount of precipitation is evident (T rieste: –80 mm/100 years; Ljubljana: –36 mm/100 years), largely due to the drop in the amount of precipitation in the fall (Ljubljana: –38 mm/100 years; T rieste: –44 mm/100 years). The drop in fall precipitation in the second half of the 20 th century in Ljubljana brought about a change in the precipitation regime. The submediterranean regime with its primary climax in the fall was replaced by the subcontinental regime that has its climax of precipitation in the summer months. In Trieste, the summer and spring precipitation has also decreased along with the fall precipitation, while the win- ter precipitation shows no trend. In Ljubljana, spring precipitation has also decreased along with the fall precipitation, but summer and winter precipitation has increased slightly. It is interesting that in the last fifteen years, in Ljubljana and in Trieste, the fall precipitation has started to strengthen, which if this trend continues heralds another change of the precipitation regime in Ljubljana. It is characteristic for the last fifteen years that temperatures in Slovenia have increased significantly. Average annual temperatures in all Slovene regions are 0.5° to 1° higher than the average temperatures between 1961 and 1990, the winters are 1° warmer, and the summers 1° to 1.5° warmer. The year 2000 was even the warmest since systematic measurements have been taken. Temperatures in the interior of Slovenia are becoming ever more similar to those in submediterranean Slovenia, where the warm- ing trends are less pronounced. There have been no major changes in the quantity of precipitation, but the greater intensity of downpours and a lower number of days with fog and of days with snow blan- ket were found, which causes problems for lower-lying ski areas. Due to high summer temperatures and the irregularity of precipitation, considerable damage has been caused in the last decade by fre- quent droughts, which along submediterranean and subpannonian Slovenia, have also encompassed central Slovenia where they do not normally occur. 49 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 4: Free-growing palm in the center of Ljubljana. Will conditions for growing of thermophilic plants and cultures improve in central Slovenia due to the predicted climate change in the 21 st century and the increasingly higher temperatures? (photography Darko Ogrin). Although regional scenarios of future climate change are even less reliable than global ones, a fore- cast for Slovenia of the climate in the 21 st century has been elaborated that considers the changes in the general circulation of atmosphere and previous trends in climate elements (Kajfe` - Bogataj 2001). More reliable is the forecast of temperatures, which should increase by 1° ± 0.5° by 2025, and in the long term by 2° ± 1° by 2075. The forecast of precipitation is less reliable. The forecast also predicts more intensive warming in the cold half of the year, smaller daily temperature spans, fewer days with a snow blanket, more intensive precipitation and a changed precipitation regime, and more frequent and more intensive extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and thunderstorms. It is expected that the negative consequences of climate change will nullify the positive effects linked to the prolongation of the vegetation period, the improvement of conditions for growing thermophilic plants, and the increase in the choice of plant cultures at higher sites. Climate of Slovenia, 1996. Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Hidrometeorolo{ki zavod RS, Ljubljana. Kajfe` - Bogataj, L. 2001: Klimatske spremembe in njihove posledice – dejstva in predvidevanja. Gozdarski vest- nik 59, p. 4. Ljubljana. Ogrin, D. 1994: Modern age climatic fluctuation in the area of the Gulf of T rieste. Geografski zbornik 34, Ljubljana. Ogrin, D. 1996: Podnebni tipi v Sloveniji. Geografski vestnik 68, Ljubljana. Ogrin, D. 2003: Spreminjanje temperature zraka in padavin po letnih ~asih v Ljubljani in T rstu v obdobju 1851–2002. Dela 20, Ljubljana. 50 Darko Ogrin Modern Climate Change in Slovenia SOILS OF SLOVENIA Bla` Repe Slovenia is a small country covering a mere 20,273 m 2 , but boasts great diversity in geology, relief, hydrological systems, and vegetation. This diversity is clearly reflected in its pedological character- istics. Principal pedogenetic factors and processes in Slovenia Because of its exceptional diversity and distinct variation over short distances, the bedrock is the most important pedogenetic factor in Slovenia. Through mechanical and chemical weathering, min- eral elements enter the soil and have a decisive influence on its basic characteristics. A special stamp is given to Slovenia by the carbonate rock and the corresponding karst surfaces, which is why we often divide soils relative to their origin on carbonate or noncarbonate bedrock. As a pedogenetic factor, relief has an indirect influence on the development of the soil with alti- tude, inclination, and exposition. Inclination substantially influences the distribution of the soil mass and water in the soil, while exposition and altitude influence the water regime and the temperature regime of the soil. The climate above the ground directly influences the climate of the soil, i. e., its warmth and water-air regime. The climate of the soil is directly linked to the degree of disintegration of mineral components and particularly effects the disintegration and proportions of organic matter. However, from the view- point of pedogeography, regional climatic changes are minor because of Slovenia's small size, and we often treat the climate as a constant. The importance of water as a pedogenetic factor is reflected in the fact that the basic division in the Slovene classification system distinguishes automorphic and hydromorphic soils. The influence of water is reflected in its movement through the soil profile. Vertical movement causes the shifting or washing away of tiny particles (nutrients, minerals of clays, and organic matter) that leads to the for- mation of horizons and therefore types of soil. The rising of water and the deposit of dissolved matter is a rare phenomenon in Slovenia because of its humid climate. Water also moves through the soil hor- izontally and influences the shifting of soil in the area (erosion, denudation, solifluction …). And finally, lack of movement or stagnation of water in the soil leads to alternating oxidation and reduction process- es and thus to the formation of gley, pseudogley, and peat soils. The living world (plants and animals) constantly changes the soil mechanically and chemically and together with the decomposition of dead matter contributes to the influx of organic and nutrient sub- stances. This ensures the preservation of the basic quality of the soil, its fertility. Dead organic matter thus influences a whole range of properties of the soil (structure, water-air regime, accessibility to nutri- ents …). Because of the large proportion of forest in Slovenia, the influx of organic matter into natural soils is practically permanently guaranteed. T oday, man represents one of the most important pedogenetic factors. From the pedogenesis point of view, the changes that man causes are momentary and began with Neolithic cultivation. Man can have a positive influence on the soil by improving the fertility, but his negative influence on the soil is of much greater concern, primarily anthropogenetically accelerated water and wind erosion, chemi- cal (pollution, salinization), and mechanical (soil compaction) degradation, and the increasingly frequent irreversible use of soil as a consequence of urbanization. 51 52 Bla` Repe Soils of Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Soil types according to relief Planosol on clay and sand Lithosol on carbonate rocks Histosol and Humic Glaysol on clay Rendzina on carbonate rocks Fluvisol and Gleysol on gravel and sand Ranker, Cambisol and Luvisol on silicate gravel and sand Rendzina, Cambisol and Luvisol on carbonate gravel and sand Gleysol and Fluvisol on clay and sand Chromic Cambisol and Rendzina Acrisol Chromic Cambisol, Chromic Luvisol (Terra Rossa) Eutric Cambisol on carbonate rocks, marl and flysch Soils of plains and wider valleys Soils of hills and mountains Soils of karst plains and plateaus Dystric Cambisol on silicate rocks and flysch © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Franc Lovren~ak Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Due to its varied relief, great inclinations, and abundance of precipitation, Slovenia is potentially quite threatened by water erosion, but for the moment it is safe because of the high proportion of for- est and the abandonment of farming on unsuitable land. The pollution of the soil is mostly the consequence of industrial and urban development, and in some places pollution exceeds the allowed limits several times over. This problem is of major concern in the valleys and basins, which are unfor- tunately the only areas suitable for intensive agriculture and settlement and are also areas of groundwater supplies. The greatest problem, however, is the fact that the most fertile soils are located in areas of interest for urbanization, industrialization, and the construction of infrastructure. Because Slovenia has little surface area suitable for agriculture, its must guard its soils as a strategic asset, espe- cially as we lost over 17,000 hectares of fertile soil between 1958 and 1988 (Medmre`je 2), and a further 4,078 hectares between 1993 and 1997 (Okolje v Sloveniji 2002, 2003). As a pedogenetic factor, time is treated as the period in which the soil is formed. From the geo- logical point of view, this process is exceptionally short, and from the human point of view, very long. Due to extremely dynamic factors and processes, the soils in Slovenia are relatively young since the major- ity are younger than 10,000 years (Prus 2002). T o have a complete picture of the formation of soils in Slovenia, it is necessary in addition to know- ing pedogenetic factors to have a good knowledge of pedogenetic processes. Among the most important are the weathering of the bedrock and the formation of clay minerals, leaching, braunifi- cation, acidification, and gleying and pseudgleying. 53 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Distribution of soils in Slovenia. p Figure 2: The arial view on Alpine and subalpine Slovenia (photography Jurij Senega~nik). Alpine and subalpine Slovenia Decisive factors for the formation of the soil in the highest parts of Slovenia are the geological foundation and the relief, primarily the inclination and the altitude. In the broadest sense, we divide soils into those formed on carbonate bedrock and those on noncarbonate bedrock. On sloping sur- faces, the development of the soil goes from poorly developed regolith on scree and extreme inclinations through young and often shallow rendzina on carbonate rock or ranker on a silicate base. Older forms are brown forrest soils and distric brown soils on lesser inclinations where signs of leaching may already appear. On flat plateaus (Jelovica, Pokljuka) with abundant precipitation where the runoff is hin- dered, gleyed peat soils were also formed. In the valleys and basins of central Slovenia (Ljubljana basin, Celje basin) fertile eutric brown soils developed on gravel deposits and leveled relief and on older terraces are often leached and therefore acid. Immediately beside the rivers spread belts of brown fluvisols soils. According to the international FAO classification, various forms of leptosols (lithic, umbric, rendzic), cambisols, luvisols, fluvisols, and histosols are found in alpine and subalpine Slovenia. Submediterranean Slovenia A distinctive duality in the bedrock is characteristic here due to the alternating hard carbonate rock (limestone and dolomite) and the softer flysch. On the hard carbonate bedrock, a mosaic soils is char- acteristic where the types of the soil and their thickness alternate over exceptionally short distances. The alternating materials are mainly shallow rendzina, brown forrest soil, and in the Kras region as a special form, a distinctly red jerina or jerovica (previously called »terra rossa« but according to the international FAO classification, this is chromic cambisol) that can exceed depths of two meters in indi- vidual pockets. The experts do not entirely agree about the origin of the latter, whether it is still forming 54 Bla` Repe Soils of Slovenia Table 1: Occurrence of soils in Slovenia. Type of soil Proportion [%] Acrisols 0.7 Leached soils 1.1 Distric brown soils on Ice Age river rubble 2.2 Distric brown soils on noncarbonate flysch 3.6 Distric brown soils on various silicate rock 20.6 Eutric brown soils on rocks with alkaline or neutral reaction 6.4 Eutric brown soils on sandstone and flysch 7.5 Eutric brown soils on Ice Age river rubble 2.1 Regolith and rendzina on limestone and dolomite 2.6 Rendzina on limestone and dolomite and on Ice-Age river rubble 9.1 Brown forrest soils, typical and leached 32.2 Jerina (Chromic cambisol) 0.4 Riverine soils 2.2 Pseudogleyed soils, distric 5.0 Pseudogleyed soils, eutric 0.2 Gleyed soils 3.4 Peat soils 0.5 today in warmer and dryer submediterranean Slovenia or if jerina is the relict remains of a warmer period in the past. The typical red colour is the result of the presence of hematite. Due to the alter- nating mineral structure of flysch, even the soils on flysch are not uniform (Koper littoral region, Brkini, Gori{ka Brda). Typical is the undeveloped form regosol, but otherwise various forms of rendzina and distric and eutric brown soils occur, creating good conditions for vineyards and orchards. The latter soils rank among the most fertile soils of this part of Slovenia (Vipava Valley), but on plains they are often pseudogleyed or gleyed and thus become marshy. According to the international FAO classification, various types of regosols, leptosols, cambisols and eutric fluvisols are found in submediterranean Slovenia. Dinaric Slovenia Soils in the karst Dinaric Slovenia are similar to those in the Kras region described above. Formations on limestone and dolomite distinctly prevail, alternating at short distances (rendzina and brown for- rest soils). However, pockets of soil between intervening rock outcroppings are even more distinctive here. The cultivation on such surfaces is very difficult because the rock must be cleared. The undulat- ing and very irregular relief presents a further obstacle. The thicker layers of soil were created artificially by removing rocks from the surface and adding soil at the bottom of dolines. The rocks were used to build the typical stone walls that form property boundaries and protect the soil from wind ero- sion. Flat relief is found at the bottom of larger uvalas and karst poljes, but the fine silt and clay deposits hinder the flow of water through the soil. Floods are frequent, and therefore gley and pseudogley are to a large degree suitable only for meadows. The absence of surface waters due to the karst surface also means a relatively small proportion of riverine soils, although especially in Dolenjska they represent important field surfaces. A special type of soil developed in Bela Krajina [ [Do not understand the problem?] ] where thick layers of insoluble residues gathered on limestone plateau. The unique anthropogenic land use in the form of collecting and mowing of fern for strewing litter almost completely stopped the influx of organ- ic matter and nutrients and greatly impoverished the soil. In spite of the carbonate bedrock, heavily acidic and leached acrid soils were formed with a typical secondary forest association of birch and eagle fern (Pteridio aquilinum). According to the standards of the international FAO classification, various forms of leptosols, cam- bisols, fluvisols, gleysols, luvisols, and acrisols are found in Dinaric Slovenia. Subpannonian Slovenia A smaller presence of carbonate rock is characteristic of northeastern Slovenia, and therefore soils typical of noncarbonate bedrock, ranker and distric brown soils, dominate on sloping relief. Along with the bedrock and the relief, water is also a decisive pedogenetic factor. Due to the abundance of surface waters, the high level of the water table, and the relatively flat surface, the most riverine, gleyed, and pseudogleyed soils in Slovenia are found here and have a predominantly distric character. The great part of these surfaces is also marshy or has been subject to drainage and land improvements in order to acquire field surfaces. A substantial proportion of the region is covered by T ertiary flysch hills where the eutric soils make intensive winegrowing possible. In spite of the naturally poorer fertility of the soil, the northeastern part of the country became the most important agricultural area of Slovenia because of its flat surface. 55 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview According to the international FAO classification, various forms of fluvisols, regosols, leptosols, cam- bisols, planosols, and gleysols are found in subpannonian Slovenia. Gams, I. 1974: Kras. Ljubljana. Gams, I., Vri{er, I. 1998: Geography of Slovenia. Slovenska matica. Ljubljana. Jazbec, R., et al. 1992: Exploring Life in Soils. Zavod RS za {olstvo in {port, Ljubljana. Lobnik, F., Hudnik, V ., Turk, I., Prus, T., Vr{~aj, B., Zupan, M., Kadunc, V ., Miheli~, R. 1994: Soils are Also Part of the Environment, T ehni{ka zalo`ba, Ljubljana. Lovren~ak, F. 1994: Soil Geography. Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana. Perko, D., Oro`en Adami~, M. 1998. Slovenia: Landscapes and People. Mladinska knjiga, Ljubljana. Repe, B. 2002: Soil Degradation in Slovenia. Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana. Repe, B. 2003: Study Material for Soil Geography. http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/geo/gradiva/studijska_gradiva/pedo- geografija/gradiva_pedogeografija.html; (11. 11. 2003) Internet 1: http:/ /www.bf.uni-lj.si/cpvo/Novo/main_Pedologija%20-%20VedaOTleh.htm (28. 4. 2004) Internet 2: http:/ /www.bf.uni-lj.si/cgi-bin/slo/cpvo/xshxp005.htm (11. 2. 2003) Environment in Slovenia, 2003. Ministrstvo za okolje, prostor in energijo. Ljubljana. Prus, T. 2002: Soil Classification. Center for Pedology nad Enviroment Protection. Biotechnical faculty, Ljubljana. Stritar, A. 1973: Pedology. Biotechnical faculty, Ljubljana. Stritar, A. 1990: Landscapes, Landscape Systems. Soil Use and Conservation in Slovenia. Partizanska knjiga, Ljubljana. [kori~, A. 1973: Soil Classification in Yugoslavia. Zagreb. Zupan, M., Gr~man, H., Ko~evar, H. 1996: Practical Work in Pedology. Biotechnical faculty, Ljubljana. 56 Bla` Repe Soils of Slovenia Figure 3: Subpannonian Slovenia (photography Luka Pintar). VEGETATION OF SLOVENIA Bla` Repe The natural vegetation in Slovenia is forest, which is the primary vegetation on more than nine tenths of our territory. As with the majority of other features, Slovenia is also distinctly transitional in terms of its vegetation, which is therefore correspondingly diverse. Because Slovenia lies at the contact of four major landscape units, Wraber (1960) divided Slovenia into six phytogeographical areas based on veg- etation associations: Alpine, Subalpine, Dinaric, Subdinaric, Submediterranean, and Subpannonian. In 1987, Zupan~i~ and his colleagues laid the foundations for a new division of Slovenia into three regions and four provinces: • Alpine-High Nordic region, – Alpine province, • Euro-Siberian-North American region, – Central European province, – Illyrian province, • Mediterranean region, – Adriatic province. Habitat factors Basically, all the physiogeographical elements contribute to the diversity of the forest vegetation cover but first place goes to climate, which dictates the main zonation of the vegetation cover. The inter- weaving of alpine, continental, and Mediterranean climate influences is of special importance since it influences the distribution and quantity of precipitation, the course of temperatures and with it the length of the vegetation period, potential evapotranspiration, etc. Relief, which influences vegetation according to altitude, position, inclination, and insolation, is directly connected with the climate, primarily the mezzoclimate and microclimate. Thus, altitude veg- etation belts often formed in hilly and mountainous areas. Because of the short vegetation period, low temperatures, the long and abundant snow cover, and the constant and strong winds, the forests end in a distinct upper tree line. It is lower in Dinaric Slovenia, where it is composed of beech stands (Fagus sylvatica) at altitudes up to 1,600 meters but is considerably higher in the alpine areas where spruce and larch (Picea abies and Larix decidua) forests grow to the altitude of 1,900 meters. Dwarf pine (Pinus mugo) grows above the upper forest limit, followed by a belt of mountain grassland. Microclimatic con- ditions, especially in the dolines and collapsed dolines of the Dinaric area, are fostered by the occurrence of temperature inversions, and corresponding vegetation inversions appear where vegeta- tion belts follow one another in the reverse order. Horizontal and vertical zonation is interrupted by geological, pedological, and water conditions. The latter influence the vegetation primarily in connection with the formation of the relief and with the bedrock where the water flow is hindered and the groundwater is close to the surface. Such con- ditions enable the growth of various higrophytic and hydrophytic (marsh and moor) plants, mostly meadow plant associations. The soils directly reflect the geological parent material and foster the formation of azonal edaph- ic associations that form mainly due to variations in the texture and soil reaction, the supply of nutrients, and the water-air conditions. 57 58 Bla` Repe Vegetation of Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Real vegetation types Settlements, cultivated surface and pasture Dwarf pine and other highland vegetation Red pine Spruce Beech Beech, fir Beech, chesnut, oak Fir European hornbeam, fir, partly birch Oak, occasional elm European hornbeam European hornbeam, oak, occasional black alder or willow Durmast Downy oak Beech, European hophornbeam, occasional European hophornbeam Downy oak, European hophornbeam © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Mauro Hrvatin, Drago Perko Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km T oday, man is the greatest transformer of forest in Slovenia. Since the distant past, he has exploit- ed and cut down forests for his needs, clearing forest areas and converting them to meadows and pastures. He introduced rapidly growing and economically interesting species, particularly the Norway spruce (Picea abies), thus reducing biotic diversity and greatly increasing the threat to forests. Through drainage and the lowering of the water table, some hydrophytic stands have completely disappeared (e. g., forests of black alder, Alnus glutinosa, in Prekmurje). Through characteristic and constant exploitation, man degraded primary plant associations and completely changed the appearance of the landscape (litter forests of birch and eagle fern, Betula pendula and Pteridium aquilinum, in Bela Krajina) or deliber- ately created completely new associations (forests of black pine, Pinus nigra, in Kras). Due to the pollution of the air, water, and soil, poisonous materials accumulate in plants and cause disturbances in physi- ological processes, hinder their growth, or even cause their destruction (drying of silver fir, Abies alba, in the Dinaric area). Types of natural vegetation in Slovenia Slovenia is a natural habitat for over sixty forest associations, in which grow 45% deciduous trees and 55% conifers. Three quarters of these habitats are overgrown with beech forests (Fagetum) with beech (Fagus sylvatica) as Slovenia's most frequent naturally occurring tree (32% of the wood stock). In former beech habitats, man largely introduced Norway spruce (Picea abies), which today is the most numerous tree in Slovenia (33% of the wood stock). Table 1: Most extensive tree associations in Slovenia. Forest association Surface area [ha] Castaneo sativae-Fagetum 321,979 Omphalodo-Fagetum 146,608 Ostryo-Fagetum 129,231 Blechno-Fagetum 91,057 Lamio orvalae-Fagetum 82,653 Anemono trifoliate-Fagetum 64,857 Hacquetio epipactidis-Fagetum 60,326 Ostryo carpinifoliae-Quercetum pubescentis 50,361 Avenello flexuosae-Piceetum 42,879 Galio rotundifolii-Abietetum albae 36,505 Abio albe-Carpinetum betuli 36,372 Seslerio autumnalis-Fagetum 31,659 Ranunculo platanifoliae-Fagetum 30,296 Homogyno sylvestris-Fagetum 25,963 Vaccinio myrtilli-Pinetum sylvestris 22,883 Source: Marin~ek, ^arni 2002. Various forms of thermophilic submediterranean forests grow in the Primorska area, mostly con- sisting of downy and sessile oak (Quercus pubescens, Quercus petraea) and hop hornbeam (Ostrya 59 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Distribution of vegetation in Slovenia. p carpinifolia) and flowering ash (Fraxinus ornus). Autumn moor grass (Sesleria autumnalis) dominates the herbaceous layer. The bottoms of the valleys and basins in central Slovenia are overgrown with low- land forests of sessile oak and hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), which to a large degree have been cleared since these are the main areas of settlement and agriculture. Flood plain forests of English oak (Quercus robur), hornbeam, and black alder (Alnus glutinosa) are characteristic of the plains of northeastern Slovenia. In the high mountains, the most frequent associations are those with Norway spruce (Picea abies), silver fir (Abies alba), European larch (Larix decidua), and beech, which transform into associations with dwarf pine (Pinus mugo) above the upper tree line. In the rest of Slovenia, beech forests in various forms are absolutely dominant. On non-carbonate bedrock, mostly in central and northeastern Slovenia, these are acidophilic beech groves with deer fern (Blechnum spicant) and sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), often mixed with Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). On carbonate bedrock, the lowest lying are submontane beech forests with Hacquetia epi- pactis, Lamium orvala or hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia). In the montane belt of the subalpine area, they transform into an association with the Anemone trifolia that often reaches to the upper tree line. In the Dinaric karst region of Slovenia, the belt to the upper tree line is formed by the largest areas of unbroken forest in Slovenia, the Dinaric fir-beech forests (Abieti-fagetum) or the association of beech with Omphalodes verna. Changes in the proportion of forest in Slovenia Before the appearance of man, forests covered more than 90% of the surface of Slovenia. The only exceptions were distinctly wet habitats and the mountains above the upper tree line. 60 Bla` Repe Vegetation of Slovenia Figure 2: The beech forests (Fagetum) are the most frequent (photography Luka Pintar). From the first human settlement to the beginning of the 20 th century, the proportion of forest in the territory of Slovenia fell continuously. The main reasons were primarily the spread of agriculture and stock farming, as well as the cutting of forests for various needs (heating, construction, indus- try, etc.). The lowest proportion, recorded in the late 19 th century (ZGS 2002), was 36%, which is still high compared with the rest of Europe and points to the distinctly protective function of the forest. With the start of the Industrial Revolution and even more after World War II, agriculture began to wane heavily and farmland was abandoned, at first the less favourable and later even the best farm- land. In spite of attempts to expand agricultural areas through land improvement and the drainage of wetlands, the proportion of forest began to rise steeply. Table 2: Changes in the proportion of forest in Slovenia after World War II. Y ear Forest [km 2 ] * Y ear Forest [km 2 ] * 1875 36.4 1990 52.8 1947 43.4 1995 54.2 1953 42.0 1998 54.8 1956 43.7 1999 55.0 1958 45.3 2000 55.9 1961 46.5 2001 56.4 1980 51.6 2002 56.7 * – not including overgrowing surfaces Source: Statistical Yearbook 2003. 61 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 3: A typical mountain forest landscape (photography Jurij Senega~nik). Today, forests cover more than 60% of the country, which ranks Slovenia among the most heavi- ly forested countries in Europe (among European countries, only Sweden and Finland have more forest), and the proportion is still increasing. Table 3: Proportion of total surface area (Slovenia covers 20,273 km 2 ) according to categories of ground cover [%]. Forest together with Agricultural Open Waters Built up Transportation overgrowing surfaces infrastructure 63.3 30.5 1.6 0.7 2.8 1.1 Meadows and pastures are disappearing, cultural landscapes are disappearing, and many areas of Slovenia are threatened with the loss of their traditional appearance. Furthermore, the unchecked spread of cities and the transportation infrastructure threatens to eliminate the few remaining green oases at the bottoms of valleys and basins that at least to some extent help improve the quality of life of the urban population. Gams, I., Vri{er, I. 1998: Geografija Slovenije. Slovenska matica. Ljubljana. Letno poro~ilo Zavoda za gozdove Slovenije (ZGS), 2002. Ljubljana. Lovren~ak, F . 1977: Zgornja gozdna meja v Kamni{kih Alpah v geografski lu~i. Geografski zbornik 19 (1976). Ljubljana. Lovren~ak, F. 1987: Zgornja gozdna meja v Julijskih Alpah in na visokih kra{kih planotah Slovenije. Geografski zbornik 26 (1986). Ljubljana. Lovren~ak, F. 2003: Osnove biogeografije. Oddelek za geografijo, Filozofska fakulteta, Ljubljana. Marin~ek, L. 1987: Bukovi gozdovi na Slovenskem. Ljubljana. Marin~ek, L., ^arni, A. 2002: Komentar k vegetacijski karti gozdnih zdru`b Slovenije v merilu 1:400.000. Bilolo{ki in{titut Jovana Had`ija ZRC SAZU. Zalo`ba ZRC, Ljubljana. Okolje v Sloveniji 2002, 2003. Ministrstvo za okolje, prostor in energijo. Ljubljana. Perko, D., Oro`en Adami~, M. 1998. Slovenija: pokrajine in ljudje. Mladinska knjiga. Ljubljana. Puncer, I. 1980: Dinarski jelovo-bukovi gozdovi na Ko~evskem. Razprave 4. raz. SAZU 22 (6). Ljubljana. Statisti~ni letopis Slovenije 2003. Zavod Republike Slovenije za statistiko. http:/ /www.stat.si/letopis/index_letopis.asp (28. 4. 2004) Wraber, M. 1960: Fitocenolo{ka raz~lenitev gozdne vegetacije v Sloveniji. Zbornik ob 150 letnici botani~nega vrta v Ljubljani. Ljubljana. Zupan~i~, M., Marin~ek, L., Seli{kar, A., Puncer, I. 1989: Consideration on the phytogeographic divison of Slovenia. Biogeografia, vol. XIII (1987). Bologna. 62 Bla` Repe Vegetation of Slovenia BIODIVERSITY IN SLOVENIA Ana V ovk Kor`e Slovenia occupies less than 0.004% of the entire world's surface and 0.014% of its land. Its numer- ic share of the world's population is slightly higher. However, Slovenia is also home to more than more than one percent of al known species of living beings on earth and more than 2% of continental (land and freshwater) species. This means that every hundredth known species of all current living beings or every fiftieth known continental species lives in Slovenia. Such a high number ranks Slovenia among the naturally richest areas of Europe and even the world (Mr{i} 1997, p. 9). This richness is the con- sequence of the contact between the Mediterranean, Alpine, Pannonian, and Dinaric macroregions and directly reflects these biogeographical regions. Human activity has also contributed to the biodiversi- ty in the territory of today's Slovenia, the result of the interweaving of the Slavic, Germanic, and Romance cultures. Due to its modest number of natural resources and exceptionally divers natural characteris- tics, Slovenia's biotic diversity has been well preserved. Table 1: Natural characteristics of Slovenia (Part 2: State of Biodiversity, p. 13). Regional elements Characteristics Geological foundation Junction of four geotectonic units (Eastern Alps, Dinaric Alps, Pannonian Basin, Adriatic-Apulian foothills) and diverse geological foundation Biogeographical regions The Alps (30%), Dinaric Alps (30%), Mediterranean Basin (10%), and Pannonian plain (30%) on an area of 20,273 km 2 give Slovenia a transitional character. Relief Diverse relief; altitudes from 0 to 2,864 meters; 1 / 6 of the territory covered by Quaternary sediments; about 44% of the bedrock is carbonate, largely karstified (more than 7,000 registered caves). Hydrological conditions Two river systems: 2 / 3 of the water flows to the Black Sea, 1 / 3 to the Mediterranean; five watershed: the So~a, Sava, Drava, and Mura rivers and the Slovene littoral; relatively large karst area without surface watercourses. Land use 61% of the surface is covered by forest; 36% of the surface is farmland Flora About 3,200 higher plants (ferns and flowering plants); 60 endemic taxa, 22 of which with exclusive or predominant distribution in Slovenia Fauna 13,000 to 15,000 species; about 4,000 endemic animal species (mostly subterranean animals) Regrettably, in recent decades the development of industry, agriculture, and the transportation infra- structure and urbanization have contributed substantially to the pollution of surface and underground waters, soil, and air as well as to the destruction of individual natural areas. The consequence of pol- lution, particularly the destruction of parts of environment, is decreasing biotic diversity at the ecosystem, species, and genetic levels, which causes a decrease in landscape diversity. Relative to past and present economic development, a study of the condition of natural and semi-natural habitats revealed that the most threatened habitat types in Slovenia are the littoral, shoreline, and maritime habitat types, run- ning waters and their corresponding wetlands, dry grasslands, and subterranean habitats with an emphasis on subterranean fauna (Part 2: State of Biodiversity, p. 13). 63 Forests are the dominant original (natural) ecosystems in Slovenia, and among non-forest ecosys- tems are areas above the tree line, the sea and its shoreline, and subterranean ecosystems. Slovenia is a country of forests as they cover 61% of the surface (Statistics Y earbook of Slovenia 2003) and, regard- ing forest cover, ranks in third place in Europe. In Slovenia's large complexes of unbroken forest, species have been preserved that no longer have adequate living space for their survival in many other places (for example, bear, wolf, lynx, wild boar). The varied and mosaic composition of Slovenia's regions is the consequence of natural assets, tra- ditional settlement patterns, and the recent intensive urbanization and construction of infrastructure. According to Ile{i~'s geographical regionalization of 1979, Slovenia is divided on the basis of climate and geological conditions into five basic regions: alpine, subalpine, subpannonian, karst, and littoral. Specific flora developed in each of these regions. The alpine region encompasses northwestern Slovenia and its highest mountain groups: the Julian Alps, Karavanke Mountains, and Kamni{ke-Savinjske Alps. Due to the prevalence of carbonate rock and the younger mountain-forming processes, a very irregular relief with large altitude differences between the highest Slovene peaks and the glacial valleys is characteristic of the region. The vegetation adapt- ed to the alpine climate. In the valleys, there are rare and partly preserved shrubby meadows. With increasing altitude, deciduous forests are replaced by spruce forests and then a belt of dwarf pine with larch and high-mountain grass. Settlements are rare in the Alps with villages clustered on high-lying sun-lit terraces and isolated farms higher up. For raising cattle, forests were cleared to make pastures. The subalpine area stretches from the border with Italy along the Nadi`a River across the western subalpine hills, the central Slovene plain with Ljubljana, the eastern subalpine hills along the Sava River to the Pohorje and Kozjak mountains along the Austrian border. The area is composed of limestone, dolomite, and igneous and metamorphous rock, and there are extensive gravel deposits in the Ljub- ljana and Celje basins. Due to the diverse geological composition, the surface is irregular. Rounded hills 64 Ana Vovk Kor`e Biodiversity in Slovenia Figure 1: The moor on Pohorje (photography Matev` Lenar~i~). of softer rock alternate with steep rocky peaks of limestone and dolomite that reach or exceed 1,000 meters above sea level. Beech forests in associations with spruce, hornbeam, and characteristic white wood rush and wood anemone cover extensive surfaces. The Cerkljansko, Idrija, and [kofja Loka hills are steeper, while in the eastern part the surface is more gently sloping with individual higher peaks (Pa{ki Kozjak, Kum, Lisca, Bo~) of limestone where characteristic calciphilic plants grow on rendzi- na. For the needs of agriculture and settlement on the plains, the wetlands along periodically flooding streams were drained. Subpannonian Slovenia encompasses all of eastern Slovenia, the region with the Posavsko-Obsoteljsko and Kr{ko hills, Kr{ko-Bre`i{ko polje, and the Krka River valley with its peripheral areas. The plains are composed of clay sediments and gravel alluvia on which riverine soils developed and in some places moist pseudogley. There are cultivated fields on hydromeliorated areas and meadows elsewhere. This part of Slovenia is known for its vast plains and its hills where grapevines grow well due to the temperate con- tinental climate. Forests cover steep and shady sites, and in recent decades, the proportion of forest has increased. There are flood groves along the Mura River of major ornithological significance, and the reser- voirs built to retain floodwaters along the Ledava, Pesnica, and Drava rivers perform a similar role. Along with central and southern Slovenia, the karst regions of Slovenia's interior also encompass the Gorjanci mountain range to the east and Trnovski gozd and Banj{ica ridges in the west. The relief is characteristically karstic with all the variety of karst phenomena from karst poljes and disappearing rivers to dolines and caves. A continental climate is connected with average altitudes of around 500 meters. Preserved fir-beech forests and karst poljes are characteristic of the region. Littoral Slovenia encompasses southwestern Slovenia from the Adriatic Sea to Matarsko podolje, the Vipava Valley, Kras, and the So~a Valley to Most na So~i and has a submediterranean climate. The uniformity of the region is reflected in its littoral vegetation and ecosystems from natural karst vege- 65 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 2: The Se~ovlje salt flats (photography Milan Oro`en Adami~). tation to reforested areas of black pine. T ruck farming, vineyards, orchards, and olive groves have changed the region to a great extent. Moors are another special biotic feature. High and transitional moors are found on the southeastern border of the spread of European moors. They stretch from the Julian Alps across Pokljuka and Jelovica to Pohorje. The total area of all fourteen of Slovenia's remaining high moors is barely one hundred hectares, and they are considered under threat. Low moors on plains and hills are more frequent and interesting from the physiognomical, vege- tation, and ecological points of view. They are surrounded by meadows or farmland, and therefore there is a constant potential threat of drainage. Hydromeliorations, reservoirs, and the consolidation of farm- land have already completely destroyed them in places. The Se~ovlje salt flats and the [kocjan Caves are already on the Ramsar List of W etlands of International Importance (UNESCO), and areas with exceptional biotic diversity that match the criteria for inclu- sion on this list include the flood plain of the Mura River with its unique oak groves, oxbow lakes, and marshy meadows, the Drava River from Maribor to Sredi{~e ob Dravi; the primeval Krakovski gozd forest, the wetlands along the lower Sava River, the Ljubljansko Barje moor, the area of the karst Ljubljanica river with its low moors, and the gravel beds of the So~a River. Domestic animals are an ancient cultural asset of mankind. In the centuries of development after domestication, subspecies evolved from geographically isolated populations and within them types adapt- ed to the conditions of a specific environment and climate. Slovenia's autochthonous domestic animals include the Lipizzaner horse, the cow, Jezersko-Sol~avska sheep, the [tajerska chicken, the Carniola bee, and several others. Urban ecosystems give a visual appearance to populated areas and occur in many forms such as garden allotments, parks, gardens, green belts, river embankments, fishponds, lakes, and suburban forests. Open green areas in cities, which are constantly dwindling, are a refuge for specific plant and animal species and have an important function in urban ecology. Agency Republic Slovenia of Environment, 2001: Review state of Biodiversity and landscape variety in Slovenia, Ljubljana. National Atlas of Slovenia, Publishing House Rokus, 2001, p. 69, Ljubljana. Mr{i}, N. 1997: Biodiversity in Slovenia – Slovenia a hot point in Europe. Direction RS for nature protection, p. 9, Ljubljana. Agency Republic Slovenia of Environment, 2003: 2. part: State of Biodiversity, p. 13, Ljubljana. Statistics yearbook of Slovenia 2003, Statistical office of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana. http:/ /www.arso.gov.si/oprema/biotska_raznovrstnost0.pdf http:/ /sigov1.sigov.si/zgs-sfs/kdo_smo/predpisi/prog_razvoja.htm http/ /zakonodaja.gov.si/rpsi/r00/predpis 66 Ana Vovk Kor`e Biodiversity in Slovenia NATURAL DISASTERS Milan Oro`en Adami~ Natural disasters pay us unwelcome visits year after year: earthquakes, floods, hailstorms, frosts, droughts, or landslides. Prevention and protection from them is a very important question for devel- opment and the future because even if there is no major disaster, they consume two to three percent of Slovenia's annual GDP every year. Because Slovenia is a country of great regional diversity, we find very diverse natural phenomena and a broad palette of natural disasters. There is no reason to think that natural disasters occur more frequently today than in the past, but we are undoubtedly more sensitive or vulnerable to their con- sequences. The Ljubljansko Barje moor and its margins started to become more intensely settled only in the middle of the last century, and the rise in the number of people employed in non-agricultural sectors greatly increased the population density in the valleys. It is characteristic that Slovenia suffers relatively few casualties in natural disasters, but the mate- rial damage they cause is great. Most deaths occur in avalanches (37%), followed by earthquakes (30%), lightning (13%), floods (12%), storms (6%), and other natural disasters (2%). It is estimated that an exceptional earthquake in the area of Ljubljana could result in 1,000 or more casualties. It has been over one hundred years since the last major earthquake shook Ljubljana and its surrounding area in 1895. How bad the consequences would be today from a possibly even stronger earthquake depends on how prepared we are for it. The earthquake will be the only impartial evaluator of our anti-earthquake pro- tection measures and earthquake-safe construction. The most threatened areas in Slovenia, where earthquakes up to 9° MCS can be expected (500-year recurrent period) are the Tolmin and Idrija areas, which encompass 1.79% of the surface of Slovenia where 0.54% of Slovenia's population lives. Part of the Ljubljana area, which otherwise lies in the 8° MCS zone, ranks in the 9° MCS zone relative to its microseismic regionalization. Areas of 8° MCS, where substantial earthquakes effects can still be expected, encompass 21.37% of Slovenia where 32.56% of the population lives. (The MCS scale, which is still a part of Slovenia's legislation, is gradually being replaced by the European EMS earthquake scale.) Slovenia experiences valley and torrential floods, flooding on karst polje, and sea floods. We dis- tinguish between ordinary or regular floods (one- to ten-year flood intervals) that are not ranked among natural disasters and major catastrophic floods (ten-year and longer flood intervals) that are. Floods threaten almost 3,000 km 2 of Slovenia. The majority are valley floods (237,000 ha) in about thirty major flood areas. Sea floods and karst polje floods are less extensive (70,403 ha). The most frequent causes of floods are violent downpours and the rapid melting of snow. Another very important cause of flood- ing lies in the local conditions of very dissected hilly areas and the impermeable bedrock of hills that accelerates the rapid run-off of water into the valleys. By clearing forests, cultivating the land, and build- ing almost 6,000 settlements, a road and railway network, and other structures, man has greatly changed the natural drainage conditions. Great changes in flood areas were also caused by the abandonment and deterioration of flourmills, sawmills, and their accompanying structures (dams) after World War II, especially in the years between 1945 and 1955. The torrential character of rivers and streams has also been intensified by numerous local water management projects and artificial embankments that mostly accelerate the rapid flow of the water. While they protect individual settlements, industrial buildings, roads, and bridges, the destructive effects of the water have increased downstream because of them. Where floods are a regular phenomenon, meadows, pastures, and groves of trees are usually found, which are the most economic forms of land 67 68 Milan Oro`en Adami~ Natural Disasters A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Anticipated strength of earthquakes Potential avalanche area Major fault lines Potential landslide area Area of major freezing rain Avalanches and landslides Freezing rain Flooding Potential flood area Area of 6 degrees MCS Area of 7 degrees MCS Area of 8 degrees MCS Area of 9 degrees MCS © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Matej Gabrovec, Milan Oro`en Adami~, Miha Pav{ek Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km use in these conditions. Into these areas, however, settlements have expanded with residential hous- ing and industrial buildings, railway lines, roads, and bridges that restrain floodwaters with their dikes and thus further increase the danger of catastrophes. With the excessive squeezing of floodwaters by built-up areas and other human encroachments, the destructive power of floodwaters can intensify great- ly. This situation occurred with the floods in Celje in 1954 and in the Upper Savinja Valley in 1990. About 7% of the population of Slovenia lives on land threatened regularly by floods, and more than a quarter of the population has their land, production means, and so forth in areas of major 50-year-interval floods. If the settling in these areas increases at the same rate as between 1961 and 1991, we can expect that floods will present a threat to more than a third of the population of Slovenia at the beginning of the next millennium. Table 1: Major flood areas in Slovenia. Flood areas Areas of regular Areas of catastrophic Greatest extent flooding at 1- to flooding at 10- to more of flooded 10-year intervals than 50-year intervals land (in ha) (in ha) (in ha) Ljubljansko Barje 2,353.10 5,681.10 8,034.20 Dravinja River 3,511.00 3,043.00 6,554.00 Krka River 5,167.00 1,012.20 6,179.20 Lower Savinja Valley 3,157.90 1,130.90 4,288.80 Sava River between Kr{ko and Bregana 2,210.20 1,244.50 3,454.70 Sotla River 2,692.70 558.50 3,251.20 Cerkni{ko polje – – 2,600.00 Kolpa River 659.00 1,387.00 2,046.00 P{ata River 614.20 898.80 1,513.00 Pivka River – – 1,151.80 Planinsko polje – – 1,100.80 Ri`ana and Bada{evica rivers – – 1,077.00 Ko~evsko-Ribni{ko polje 305.00 733.00 1,038.00 Mirna na Dolenjskem 787.90 188.90 976.80 Dragonja and Drnica rivers – – 900.00 Hudinja River 370.00 393.00 763.00 Mislinja River 63.30 685.30 748.60 Dobrepolje with Ra{ica 134.40 490.00 624.40 Bloke Plateau 331.80 258.40 590.20 Poljanska Sora River – – 590.00 Grosupeljsko-Radensko polje 84.50 425.20 509.70 In recent years, there has been little snow in Slovenia. However, it was exceptionally abundant in the 1951–1952 winter (Ljubljana 146cm). Many roads were impassable, and the main road toward Gorenjska was closed for five days, as was the railway line between Jesenice and Nova Gorica. In some places, people were cut off from the rest of the world for even longer periods. There was a general mobi- lization in Ljubljana to clear the streets. The negative effects of snow differ not only according to the thickness of the snow cover but also to the time of year and where the snow falls. A long-lasting and 69 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Natural disaster threat. p thick snow cover can cause great damage in the forests, and in 1952 more than 100,000 m 3 of wood was destroyed. Table 2: Victims of avalanches between 1777 and 1996. Casualties Reliable data Unreliable data Mountaineers, hunters, soldiers 71 17 In the open and on ski slopes 25 2 On roads and tracks 88 11 Inside buildings 285 157 T otal 469 187 Frosts on fruit trees are frequent in Slovenia at the end of winter and in early fall. Spring frost dam- ages blossoms and reduces the yield. Every 50 to 55 years, invasions of cold air cause frost on fruit trees with major damage. Hail typically falls on very limited surface areas. It is usually accompanied by a strong wind that considerably increases the damage already caused by the hail. Hailstorms cause the greatest damage in northeastern Slovenia, and Gori{ka Brda is also greatly threatened. 70 Milan Oro`en Adami~ Natural Disasters Figure 2: Demolished building at the end of Sv. Peter Street, today's Trubarjeva Street (Hefler, W., 1895, NUK). Buildings were not destroyed completely during the Ljubljana earthquake, but great damage was caused by falling chimneys, and walls and vaulted ceiling constructions cracked, particularly in those parts of the city where the structure of the ground was most vulnerable. Of 1,373 damaged buildings, only forty-nine were later pulled down. After the earthquake, a law was passed that required a suitable distribution of walls and the installation of iron reinforcing in the brick walls of new buildings. 71 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Although Slovenia has areas that have almost the most precipitation in Europe and although the greater part of its territory receives more than 1,200 mm of precipitation per year, longer periods with little precipitation occur every few years. The basic reason for drought in Slovenia is a relative lack of precipitation, which is mainly the consequence of the fluctuation in annual quantities of precipitation and its varied distribution throughout the year. The occurrence of drought is also heavily influenced by regional characteristics such as permeable carbonate rock in karst regions, steep slopes with a thin layer of soil, soils with little retention capacity, etc. The influence of meteorological factors on droughts in Slovenia is most obvious in the karst region. Water is already scarce here in normal years because it disappears into the heavily fissured bedrock. The largest part of Slovenia in covered by an area with thirty to forty stormy days every year that stretches from central Slovenia eastwards and at the same time like a tongue down the valley of the Sava River toward the northwest. The mountainous western part of Slovenia is most threatened by storms with forty to fifty stormy days a year and a maximum number in Skalnica near Nova Gorica with more than sixty stormy days every year. The areas of Gori{ka Brda and T rnovski gozd have fifty to sixty stormy days annually. The summer months of June, July, and August receive 75% of the storms. The damage caused by wind in Slovenia is considerably greater than we thought until recently. Strong winds are a regular companion of major downpours and thunderstorms. Hurricane winds and tor- nados are rare in the continental part of Slovenia. On August 23, 1986, a wind with a velocity above 17.2 m/s (8 on the Beaufort scale) ravaged the Notranjska region from Hotedr{ica to Vrhnika, across Bevke and Podpe~, to the southern margins of the Ljubljansko Barje moor. The bora, Slovenia most famous destructive wind, sweeps across the high Dinaric plateaus and down to the valleys and warm coastal areas. An extremely strong northwest and north foehn wind reaches extreme velocities main- ly in the Soca Valley and the Gorenjska region. Sleet strikes frequently, particularly in southeastern Slovenia and in transitional areas between the Mediterranean world and the interior. It causes the most damage to trees, forests, and a wide variety of infrastructure objects. Along with meteorological conditions, relief conditions are of great importance. Observations show that the intensity of sleeting can vary significantly and changes within short distances. During one catastrophic sleet storm that caused great damage to the electric power grid, the ice coating electric power lines exceeded 50 mm. Sleet thicker than this is rare and occurs approximately once every 30 years. The weight of the thickest measured sleet in Slovenia reached from five to 7.2 kilograms per meter of power line. Weak sleet up to 5 mm thick is frequent throughout Slovenia and occurs in southeastern Slovenia almost every year. Heavier sleet from one to two centimeter thick also occurs here every few years. Ah~an, S. 1988: Ugotavljanje in ocenjevanje {kode po naravnih nesre~ah. Ujma, no. 2., pp. 114, Ljubljana. Burton, I., Kates, R.W., White, G. F. 1978: The environment as hazard. 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Ujma, no. 1, pp. 55–57, Ljubljana. Lapajne, J. 1988: Veliki potresi na Slovenskem – II.: leto 1511. Ujma, no. 2. pp. 70–74, Ljubljana. Lapajne, J. 1989: V eliki potresi na Slovenskem – III, potres v Ljubljani leta 1895. Ujma, no. 3, pp. 55–61, Ljubljana. Naravne nesre~e v Jugoslaviji s posebnim ozirom na metodologijo geografskega prou~evanja, 1983. Zbornik zvez. simp. ZGD Jugoslavije, Ljubljana. Naravne nesre~e v Sloveniji, 1983. Znastvenoraziskovalni center SAZU, Geografski in{titut Antona Melika, Ljubljana. Natural Disasters and Vulnerability Analysis. Report of Expert Group Meeting (9–12 July 1979). UNDRO, 1982, Geneva. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1978: Posledice potresov leta 1976 v SR Sloveniji. Geografski zbornik 28, pp. 93–172, Ljubljana. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1980: U~inki potresa leta 1976 v Poso~ju. Potresni zbornik, pp. 81–122, T olmin. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1983: The Effects of the 1976 Earthquake in the So~a River Basin. Social and Economic Aspects of Earthquakes, pp. 533–556, New Y ork. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1984: Classification of earthquake prone areas on the basis of potential damage in Slovenia, Yugoslavia. Natural Hazards and Human Settlements Disasters – II, Research and Management, urednik Havlik S., Ekistics, Vol. 51, Athens. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1985: An Overview of Nature Disaster Problem with an Example of Earthquake Vulnerability Study. Seminar on T echnology for Disaster Prevention, vol. 9, pp. 110–121, T okio. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1990: Potres in preoblikovanje naselij v Reziji. Ujma, no. 4, pp. 76–78, Ljubljana. Oro`en Adami~, M. 1993: Naravne nesre~e v Sloveniji. Geografski obzornik, Ljubljana, pp. 8–13. Oro`en Adami~, M., Perko D. 1996: Potresna ogro`enost in varstvo pred potresi in naselij v Republiki Sloveniji. Elaborat, Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana. Oro`en Adami~, M., Sheppard, P ., T oma`evi~, M. 1988: Urban seismic risk reduction in Slovenia, Yugoslavia – an integrated aproach. Proceedings of Ninth W orld Conference on Earthquake Engineering. V ol. 7., pp. 643–648. T okio-Kioto. Oro`en Adami~, M., Sheppeard, P . 1986: Enginnering and Sociogegraphical Inplications of Rural and Urban Renewal in Seismic Regions. Papers of 8th conference on earthquake engeneering, vol. 2, pp. 245–253, Lizbona. Palm, R. 1990: Natural Hazards. The John Hopkins University Press, pp. 184, Baltimore, London. Potresni zbornik, 1980, Ob~inska konferenca SZDL, T olmmin, pp. 498. Radinja, D. 1983: Naravne nesre~e v geografski lu~i. Naravne nesre~e v Jugoslaviji s posebnim ozirom na meto- dologijo geografskega prou~evanja, pp. 17–29, Ljubljana. Ribari~, V. et. al., 1987: Seizmolo{ke karte za povratne periode 60, 100, 200, 500, 1000 in 10000 let. Zajednica za seizmologiju SFRJ, Beograd. Ribari~, V . 1985: Potresi na Slovenskem – Kaj storiti, kako ukrepati. R[TO in RSLO, Ljubljana. Social and Sociological Aspects. Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Vol. 12., United Nations, 1986, New Y ork. Ujma. Revija za vpra{anja varstva pred naravnimi in drugimi nesre~ami, ki jo izdajata Republi{ki {tab za civilno za{~ito in Republi{ki sekretariat za ljudsko obrambo. Ljubljana. Vidrih, R., Godec, M. 1992: Potresna nevarnost na obmo~ju Ljubljane. Ujma no. 6, pp. 78–81, Ljubljana. Zgornje Poso~je: zbornik 10. zborovanja slovenskih geografov, Tolmin – Bovec, 26.–28.9.1975. Geografsko dru{tvo Slovenije, Ljubljana, 1978. Zupka, D. 1988: Economic Impact of Disasters. Undro News januar/februar 1988, pp. 19–22, Geneve. 72 Milan Oro`en Adami~ Natural Disasters RECENT MASS MOVEMENTS IN SLOVENIA Matija Zorn Bla` Komac Since 1998, Slovenia has witnessed major mass movements caused by extreme precipitation (land- slides, debris flows) and earthquakes (rockfalls). Around 8,000 landslides are active (0.4/km 2 ) in Slovenia, which is more than the number of set- tlements in Slovenia. However, barely a quarter of these landslides present a threat to infrastructure and buildings. The largest known mass movement is the prehistoric Kuntri rockfall on the south slope of Mount Polovnik in the Julian Alps, which totals almost 200,000,000 m 3 (Zorn 2002). In the past, settlements were built on »safe« areas and potentially »dangerous« areas were only used for extensive activities, but as man's relationship with nature changed, his knowledge of mass move- ments was mostly lost. Due to human encroachments in higher areas, mass movements and man's interests often collide (Komac and Zorn 2002a). Table 1: Potential landslide and rockfall source areas in Slovenia. Area [km 2 ] Percentage of total surface Potential landslide source areas 1,214.2 6.0 Potential rockfall source areas 699.9 3.5 Recent mass movements Macesnik landslide in the upper Savinja V alley After extremely heavy rains, many landslides were triggered in the upper Savinja Valley in 1990. Due to the rise of the groundwater and the intensive clearing of forest thirty years earlier, the 2,200-meter long and 100-meter wide Macesnik landslide (2,000,000 m 3 ) occurred at the contact of limestone and dolomite with the slate claystone lying beneath. Between 1994 and 2000, the landslide moved 850 meters (0.3 meters/day) and then an outcropping of limestone stopped its progress. After it overcomes this rock barrier, its movement could accelerate and the landslide could reach the ham- let below which the valley narrows into a torrent. The houses beneath the landslide and the village of Sol~ava with its 241 inhabitants are under threat. Protection measures have not been successful because the landslide occurred on the area of a 350-meter wide and 30-meter deep fossil landslide (Pe~nik 2002). Rockfalls in the upper So~a V alley Earthquakes at higher elevations ground often trigger mass movements. Many such phenomena are known in Slovenia and the neighbouring regions. Extensive rockfalls and landslides were triggered by the Villach earthquake in Austria on January 25, 1348; the Idrija earthquake on March 26, 1551; the Ljubljana earthquake on April 14, 1895; the Litija earthquake on May 19, 1963; earthquakes in 73 74 A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Ljubljanica Savinja Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura Potential landslide source area Potential rockfall source area Mass movements mentioned in text 1 Ugovizza 2 Rate~e 3 Ciprnik landslide 4 Stov`je landslide 5 Log pod Mangartom debris flow 6 Kuntri rockfall 7 Kose~ landslide 8 Krn rockfalls 9 Osojnica rockfalls 10 Polog rockfall 11 Selo landslide 12 Slano Blato landslide 13 Macesnik landslide © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 Authors: Matija Zorn, Bla` Komac 1 2 3 13 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Matija Zorn, Bla` Komac Recent Mass Movements in Slovenia Kozjansko on June 20, 1974; and the Friuli earthquake in Italy on May 6, 1976. The appearance of the landscape was also changed by the earthquake in the upper So~a Valley on April 12, 1998 (M: 5.8; I: VII–VIII EMS), which had its hypocenter at a depth of eight kilometers and triggered more than one hundred rockfalls of various sizes. Several million cubic meters of material were moved (Ribi~i~ and Vidrih 1998). The rockfalls occurred in uninhabited and hard to reach areas several hundred meters above the bottoms of valleys. Their number increased with their relative altitude because the horizontal accel- eration and amplitude of seismic waves increase with altitude. The rockfalls did not affect people but only caused some damage to mountain pastures and mountain trails. The largest rockfalls occurred in the southwestern wall of Mount Krn (2,244 m), where rockfall material was deposited over fifteen hectares, and on Mount Osojnica above the valley of the T olminka River (30 hectares; Natek et al. 2003). Stov`je and Ciprnik landslides, and the debris flow in Log pod Mangartom A landslide (2,500,000 m 3 ) was triggered west of Mount Mangart (2,679 m) on November 15, 2000, between 1,340 and 1,580 meters above sea level that stopped in the valley of the Mangartski potok stream. Due to the abundance of water it carried with it, a debris flow occurred on November 17, 2000, that took seven lives and destroyed several houses and outbuildings in Log pod Mangartom. New houses were built for the stricken inhabitants, and the construction of safety barriers above the village is planned because the material remaining in the slide area is not stable. 75 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Potential landslide and rockfall source areas in Slovenia. p Figure 2: Rockfalls on Mount Krn (photography Matija Zorn). 76 Matija Zorn, Bla` Komac Recent Mass Movements in Slovenia Figure 3: Fan of the debris flow in Log pod Mangartom (photography Bla` Komac). Figure 4: The Stov`je landslide on the left and the alluvial fan of the debris flow in Log pod Mangartom on the right with Mount Mangart in the middle (photography Matija Zorn). On the night of November 18, 2000, a landslide (60,000 m 3 ) was triggered on the west slope of Mount Ciprnik (1,745 m) that partially changed into a debris flow and destroyed the forest and part of the road through the Planica Valley lying 600 meters lower. In both cases, the main cause of sliding was the Tamar rock formation (alternating layers of sand- stone, claystone, limestone, and dolomite) or its weathered debris (clay minerals) that swells when soaked. The parallel incidence of the rock layers also contributed to the movement. Heavy precipitation triggered both slides. In November 2000, 1,234 mm of rain (50% of the annual average) fell in Log pod Mangartom. Debris flows of larger dimensions occurred in the vicinity of Bovec and in the Planica Valley in the Pleistocene. In the historical period, place names and historical sources mentioning similar events 300 and 110 years ago also reveal their occurrence (Zorn and Komac 2002). Slano Blato landslide in the Vipava V alley A landslide caused by abundant precipitation occurred in the valley of the Graj{~ek stream above the village of Lokavec near Ajdov{~ina on November 18, 2000. The kilometer long and 280-meter wide landslide at 330–630 meters above sea level affected twenty-five hectares of flysch rock and slope rub- ble covered with forest and meadow vegetation. The highest velocity of the slide was 90 meters/day. The landslide lies below the thrust of carbonate rock of Trnovski gozd on the flysch of the Vipava Valley. Along the thrust, the rock is damaged and broken and therefore subject to weathering. On the slopes, a several dozen meter deep talus of slope rubble developed that is additionally labile due to the numerous abundant springs at the thrust contact. Landslides occurred here 200 and 100 years ago, and in the immediate vicinity near Selo there is an enormous (100,000,000 m 3 ) Pleistocene landslide (Kova~ and Ko~evar 2001; Popit and Ko{ir 2003). Mass movements above the village of Kose~ in the upper So~a V alley Above the village of Kose~, fissures developed on the slope during the earthquake on April 12, 1998, into which water flowed. Later, steps up to one meter high formed, alongside which one-decimeter hor- izontal shifts occurred until one of the larger landslides in Slovenia (675,000m 3 ) was triggered on December 22, 2001. It lies 130 meters above the village and moves at 1.2 meters per month. Rockfalls occur on the steep slope above the landslide, and after heavier precipitation, smaller debris flows (1,000 m 3 ) travel down the course of the Brsnik and Ro~ica streams to the valley (Komac and Zorn 2002c). The main causes are the fractured and unstable rock and the water that seeps out at the contact between Lower Cretaceous flysch and scaglia (plate limestone and marl) during rains. Mass movements endanger Kose~ and its 61 residents and Ladra and its 153 residents. Moving the inhabitants of six houses in the endangered area is foreseen. A map of the influence area of the Kose~ landslide and a map of the potential threat from major mass movements for the wider area of Kobarid have been elaborated. In the vicinity of Kose~, more sliding occurred on April 18, 1994, when a 50-meter long landslide covered a road (Pav{ek 1994; Natek et al. 2003; Ribi~i~ and Ho~evar 2003). T orrential alluvia in Rate~e and Ugovizza At the end of August in 2003, the tri-border area between Italy, Austria, and Slovenia was struck by a major storm. In the last three days of August, 274 mm of precipitation fell in Rate~e, considerably more than the August average (158 mm). Due to the large water discharge (0.7 m 3 /km 2 /s), the Trebi`a brook threatened to destroy houses in Rate~e and deposited debris and mud beneath the village. A sim- ilar occurrence in 1885 covered twelve hectares of cultivated fields and meadows. In August of 2003, torrential alluvia blocked traffic on the Vr{i~ and Predel passes and covered the road between Jesenice and Rate~e. Austrian Carinthia and Italy's V alcanale V alley were affected as more 77 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview than 400 millimeters of precipitation fell, destroying the road in thirteen places and cutting the Udine–Villach railway line. Fourteen days before the 100 th anniversary of a similar event that is remem- bered by the street name »Via 13. Settembre 1903 alluvione,« the Ugovizza stream covered the western part of the town of Ugovizza. T wo people died, and more than three hundred fled their homes. Sources from the end of the 18 th century also describe the dangerous nature of the Ugovizza stream. Rockfall near Polog in the T olminka River valley After abundant April precipitation, a rockfall composed of Cretaceous flysch with alternating lay- ers of marl, sandstone, calcarenite, and limestone breccia was triggered on May 5, 2004, near Polog in the valley of the T olminka River. The rockfall source and influence area is 600 meters wide and 450 meters long. The rockfall swept away twenty hectares of forest but does not present a direct threat to settlements or infrastructure. In two places, it filled the T olminka stream, which rose by ten meters in two 200-meter-long lakes behind the dams. Conclusion The mass movements described above are very large ones. The four large landslides together total six million cubic meters, about 1.5 tons of material for each resident of Slovenia. Other landslides are smaller. The average volume of 225 landslides of known size is 28,000 m 3 and their average area is 0.7 hectare. T ogether these landslides total 3.2 m 3 of material per capita and their surface is 0.8 m 2 per capita. 78 Matija Zorn, Bla` Komac Recent Mass Movements in Slovenia Figure 5: Wedge-shaped rockslide in the Lepena Valley triggered by the earthquake on April 12, 1998 (photography Matija Zorn). Table 2: Most important parameters of major landslides in Slovenia. Landslide Kose~ Slano Blato Stov`je Macesnik Area [ha] 10 20 25 19 Thickness [m] 10 10 10 10–14 Length [m] 600 1,100 900 2,200 Width [m] to 150 to 200 to 400 to 100 Altitude [m] 730–1,200 360–660 1,340–1,580 800–1,350 Volume [m 3 ] 675,000 1,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 Volume per resident of Slovenia [m 3 /capita] 0.3 0.5 1.3 1.5 Beginning of processes 22. 12. 2001 18. 11. 2000 15. 11. 2000 November 1990 Current state active active temporarily stable active Table 3: Basic characteristics of 225 landslides of known size in Slovenia. parameters average length (m) 128 width (m) 55 depth (m) 4 area (ha) 0.7 volume (m 3 ) 28,160 The geomorphic processes described here are natural processes that cannot be stopped, and there- fore appropriate adaptation is often the major limiting factor for urban and economic development. In higher regions, usable space is limited to just the edges of the valleys because other areas are threat- ened. From the perspective of geomorphic events, the phenomena we have witnessed in Slovenia in recent years are neither rare nor special. While alluvial fans, for example, seem to be »most suitable« places for building, we keep forgetting that they originated from the same exceptional geomorphic phe- nomena as those described above (Natek 2003). Not taking acquired experience or the actual threat to individual areas into account can have dev- astating consequences, and therefore the inclusion of potentially threatened areas in the Strategy of Spatial Development of Slovenia (2003) was necessary. With the implementation of legislation and regulations, we can hope for better spatial planning in the future, but we still need a detailed analysis of the poten- tial threat from mass movements to built-up and populated areas. Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2002a: Aplikativne mo`nosti geografije pri preu~evanju pobo~nih procesov (Application pos- sibilities of geography concerning slope processes). Dela, 18, pp. 171–193, Ljubljana. Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2002b: Recentni pobo~ni procesi v Zgornjem Poso~ju (Recent slope processes in the Upper So~a valley). Geografski obzornik, 49, 1, pp. 10–17, Ljubljana. Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2002c: Plaz nad Kose~em – geografski pogled na ujmo (Landslide above Kose~ – a geograph- ical view of the disaster). Ujma, 16, pp. 52–60, Ljubljana. Kova~, M., Ko~evar, M. 2001. Plaz Slano blato nad Lokavcem pri Ajdov{~ini (The Slano Blato landslide above Lokavec pri Ajdov{~ini). Ujma, 14–15, pp. 122–130, Ljubljana. Natek, K. 2003: Fizi~na geografija in preu~evanje ogro`enosti zaradi naravnih in drugih nesre~ (Phyisical geograpy and the study of human vulnerability due to natural and other hazards). Dela, 20, pp. 133–146, Ljubljana. 79 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Natek, K., Komac, B., Zorn, M. 2003: Mass movements in the Julian Alps (Slovenia) in the aftermath of the east- er earthquake on april 12, 1998. Studia geomorphologica Carpatho-Balcanica, 37, pp. 29–43, Krakow. Pav{ek, M., 1994: Zemeljski plaz pod Krnom (Landslide below the village of Krn). Ujma, 8, pp. 30–32, Ljubljana. Pe~nik, M. 2002: Mo`nosti nastanka zemeljskih plazov na osnovi geomorfolo{kih zna~ilnosti povr{ja v Zgornji Savinjski dolini (The possibilities of landslide occurrence according to the geomorphological characteristics of the relief in Zgornja Savinjska dolina). Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za geografijo, 86 pp, Ljubljana. Popit, T., Ko{ir, A. 2003. Pleistocenski plaz pri Selu v Vipavski dolini (Pleistocene landslide at Selo in the Vipava val- ley). Geolo{ki zbornik, 17, pp. 133–138, Ljubljana. Ribi~i~, M., Ho~evar, M., 2003: Mehanizmi plazenja nad Kose~em v ob~ini Kobarid in s tem povezani sanacijski ukrepi (Mechanisms of sliding above village Kose~ and with them linking remediation measures). Geologija, 46, 1, pp. 159–166, Ljubljana. Ribi~i~, M., Vidrih, R. 1998: Plazovi in podori kot posledica potresov (Earthquake-triggered landslides and rock- falls). Ujma. 12, pp. 95–105, Ljubljana. Zorn, M. 2002: Rockfalls in Slovene Alps. Geografski zbornik, 42, pp. 123–160, Ljubljana. Zorn, M., Komac, B., 2002: Pobo~ni procesi in drobirski tok v Logu pod Mangartom (Slope processes and the debris flow in Log pod Mangartom). Geografski vestnik, 74, 1, pp. 9–23, Ljubljana. 80 Matija Zorn, Bla` Komac Recent Mass Movements in Slovenia POPULATION DEVELOPMENT OF SLOVENIA FROM THE BEGINNING OF COUNTING TO THE PRESENT DAY Damir Josipovi~ According to its numbers, the Slovene population belongs ethnically and nationally among the small- er populations of European countries. However, it is distinguished by its historic endurance and continuity in Slovenia and in neighbouring areas since the 6 th century. The existence of the Slovene people as an ethnic group that survived in spite of strong assimilation pressures and which managed to preserve the Slovene language as the main distinguishing component of ethnicity largely throughout its rural hinterland provided the foundation for the formation of modern Slovenia. Throughout its history from its initial colonization in the 6 th century, Slovene ethnic territory shrank constantly. In the first few cen- turies after colonization, the settling area of our Slovene ancestors encompassed the majority of the territory of today's Austria, more than a third of Hungary and Croatia, and eastern border areas of today's Italy. Relative to the size of today's Slovenia, this ethnic territory shrank most in the north and east, and least in the west. As an independent country, Slovenia is the millennium-long dream of the Slovene people come true, but a considerable area populated by speakers of autochthonous Slovene dialects still remains outside the state borders. Thus today, Slovenia has autochthonous minorities in all four neighbouring countries. In the time since the first estimates of the population on the territory of today's Slovenia in the mid- dle of the 18 th century and the first censuses a good century later, the Slovene population has not increased as other European populations then comparable with the Slovene population have. In the 19 th centu- 81 Figure 1: Manual farm work has almost disappeared (photography Marjan Garbajs). 82 Damir Josipovi~ Population Development of Slovenia from the beginning of Counting to the Present Day Table 1: Number and gender of the population of Slovenia and changes in the number after the population censuses in the period between 1857 and 2002. 1857 1869 1880 1890 1900 1910 1921 1931 1948 1953 1961 1971 1981 1991 2002 TOTAL 1.101.854 1.128.768 1.182.223 1.234.056 1.268.055 1.321.098 1.304.800 1.397.650 1.439.800 1.504.427 1.591.523 1.727.137 1.891.864 1.913.355 1.964.036 Men (m) 535.945 545.614 576.964 601.031 618.065 643.898 622.168 673.248 675.353 712.034 760.770 835.998 918.766 923643 958.576 Women (w) 565.909 583.154 605.259 633.025 649.990 677.200 682.632 724.402 764.447 792.393 830.753 891.139 973.098 989712 1.005.460 Absolute Difference 0 26.914 53.455 51.833 33.999 53.043 –16.298 92.850 42.150 64.627 87.096 135.614 164.727 21.491 50.681 Absolute Diff. (m) 0 9.669 31.350 24.067 17.034 25.833 –21.730 51.080 2.105 36.681 48.736 75.228 82.768 4.877 34.933 Absolute Diff. (w) 0 17.245 22.105 27.766 16.965 27.210 5.432 41.770 40.045 27.946 38.360 60.386 81.959 16.614 15.748 Index 100 102.4 107.3 112.0 115.1 119.9 118.4 126.8 130.7 136.5 144.4 156.7 171.7 173.6 178.2 Chain Index 100 102.4 104.7 104.4 102.8 104.2 98.8 107.1 103.0 104.5 105.8 108.5 109.5 101.1 102.6 Index (m) 100 101.8 107.7 112.1 115.3 120.1 116.1 125.6 126.0 132.9 141.9 156.0 171.4 172.3 178.9 Chain Index (m) 100 101.8 105.7 104.2 102.8 104.2 96.6 108.2 100.3 105.4 106.8 109.9 109.9 100.5 103.8 Index (w) 100 103.0 107.0 111.9 114.9 119.7 120.6 128.0 135.1 140.0 146.8 157.5 172.0 174.9 177.7 Chain Index (w) 100 103.0 103.8 104.6 102.7 104.2 100.8 106.1 105.5 103.7 104.8 107.3 109.2 101.7 101.6 Source: [ifrer 1963; SURS; our own calculations; Census data refers to the current territory of Slovenia. Calculations for the current territory for censuses between 1857 and 1910 are summarized from @. [ifrer – Stanovni{tvo 3/1963). ry, the Slovene population ranked among the medium-sized populations of the European space and in numbers was roughly comparable with the neighbouring Croatian and Serbian populations, if we limit ourselves to just the populations in our immediate vicinity. However, the Serbian population in particular experienced a rapid expansion during the 20 th century, and today the Serbian population is about five times larger than the Slovene population, while the Croatian population is twice its size. The reasons for the very low increase in the Slovene population are numerous, the most important being emigration of a large part of active population mostly to overseas countries and the simultaneous start of a decline in the birth rate. One of the basic factors of this development is certainly the lack of a Slovene nation-state. Thus in comparison with other ethnic populations, demographic transition did not bring comparable population surpluses. The same is true of all populations who have been without their own state for a long time. Among the classic nation-states in Europe today, only the Estonian population is smaller than the Slovene population. The reason for this lies in the political power of the country, which could acquire speakers through its official language policy at the expense of languages whose status was not officially recognized. A comparison of census data shows that the number of inhabitants on the current territory of Slovenia has not even doubled since the first census and that growth was not steady in the periods between cen- suses. The period between 1857 and 1910 was marked by a quite constant but weak growth in the number of the population. This growth would have been considerably higher had the population not started to emigrate intensively in the second half of the 19 th century, mostly due to agrarian overpopulation and the general socio-economic crisis. The extent of emigration has been so large that along with the Irish and the Croats, Slovenes rank to the very top of European emigration. Between 1910 and 1921, the number of the population even regressed, which can be attributed to large war losses and the addi- tional emigration mostly from the western part of Slovenia (Primorska) that was granted to Italy as spoils of war after World War I. Between 1921 and 1948, the Slovene population did record growth, 83 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 0 200.000 1857 1869 1880 1890 1900 1910 1921 1931 1948 1953 1961 1971 1981 1991 2002 400.000 600.000 800.000 1.000.000 1.200.000 1.400.000 1.600.000 1.800.000 2.000.000 TOTAL Men Wo m e n Figure 2: Number and gender of the population of Slovenia according to censuses between 1857 and 2002 (Source: Ibid.). 84 Damir Josipovi~ Population Development of Slovenia from the beginning of Counting to the Present Day A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Ljubljanica Savinja Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Population growth index 2002/1991 120 and more (722) 110 to 119,9 (759) 100 to 109,9 (1434) 90 to 99,9 (1505) 80 to 89,9 (828) less than 80 (750) Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 Author: Damir Josipovi~ but this was reduced because of the continuation of emigration and losses as a consequence of World War II. After World War II with the post-war baby boom, emigration continued into the 1950's, but after that period Slovenia became an immigration area as a result of rapid industrialization. Emigration to foreign countries dropped markedly while the influx of the population from other parts of the for- mer Yugoslavia increased. Because the natural increase still ensured a relative surplus, the number of the population increased considerably with positive migration balance, especially in the period between 1971 and 1981. The data for the census years 1991 and 2002 is not quite comparable with pre- vious data because of a different definition of the population, which is now the same in Slovenia as it is in the majority of European Union countries. For this reason, the census data gives the impression that the population practically ceased to grow after 1981. However, this is not true. If we compare the data for 1981 and 1991 acquired using the same methodology, we realize that the population increased by a good 70,000. This increase is in accordance with the natural increase and the migration balance of the period of the 1980's. In the second half of the 1980's, immigration to Slovenia from other parts of Yugoslavia decreased considerably, but at the same time the natural increase also decreased, and in 1993 was negative for the first time since W orld War II. Since 1997, the natural increase in Slovenia has remained negative. The period between the last two censuses does mark a growth in the number of the inhabi- tants, but this growth is mostly due to immigration, a different method of gathering information, and a new definition of the population. The Slovene population in the last period is characterized by stagnation in the number along with an unfavourable age structure, which is rooted largely in the drastically reduced birth rate. This low birth rate ranks Slovenia at the bottom of European countries. The period of strong migration to Slovenia 85 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 3: Change in the population by settlements in Slovenia between 1991 and 2002 (Source: our own calculations, SURS). p Figure 4: Traditional pottery still lives today (photography Jo`e Pojbi~). from areas of the former Yugoslavia that concealed the seriousness of the decline of the birth rate ended with the independence of Slovenia. If the birth rate continues to decrease or stagnate, the migration balance will have to increase substantially to maintain the number of the population at the level of about two million. In the last decade, there has again been a trend toward a slight increase of immigration, but the increase is still far below the number necessary to replace annual generation losses. Within Slovenia, substantial differences exist in the number development of the population. The map shows the changes in the population according to settlements in the last period between census- es. Along with the general relative stagnation or the low total growth of the population of Slovenia, higher growth is distinctly evident mainly in the urban Ljubljana region while other, mostly rural and border areas have suffered strong depopulation. Such development is the consequence of the uneven regional development that Slovenia has witnessed particularly in the last decade. 86 Damir Josipovi~ Population Development of Slovenia from the beginning of Counting to the Present Day ETHNIC STRUCTURE OF SLOVENIA AND SLOVENES IN NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES Jernej Zupan~i~ Slovenes belong among the less numerous nations of the world and of Europe, and the Slovene lan- guage is among the less widespread languages. However, Slovene communities are historically recognized and acknowledged, ethnically and culturally vital, and spatially stabile. Of the some 2.5 million Slovenes and persons of Slovene ethnic origin, almost one third live outside Slovenia. Identification according to ethnic background is very difficult, especially among the second and later generations of emigrants, because the most recognizable sign and simultaneously the symbol of Slovene ethnicity, the language, has often already been replaced by the language of the area in which they live. However, the culture and consciousness of belonging has preserved. About 1,800,000 Slovenes live in Slovenia (during the 2002 census, 1,632,000 people identified themselves as Slovene. Because of the methodology used for this census, the number of members of most ethnic groups dropped significantly. The ethnicity of some 200,000 people was not established at all because it was unknown, they did not wish to identify themselves by ethnicity, etc. We therefore give, if possible, estimates for the number of individuals in ethnic minorities.), and the rest live in neighbouring countries as members of minori- ties and as immigrants in various countries around the world. Autochthonous Slovene minorities live in the border areas of all the neighbouring countries. In Italy, Slovenes occupy 1,500 km 2 of the terri- tory in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, where between 83,000 and 100,000 Slovenes live according to Slovene estimates, and 52,000 according to official (Italian) estimates. About 10,000 Slovenes live in the Friulian plain outside the region of autochthonous settlement. For several centuries the area belonged to the Aquileian Patriarchate and the Counts of Gorizia, mostly to the Habsburgs from the 15 th century to 1918, and after 1918, to Italy. The Slovene minority in Austria occupies about 2,600 km 2 of the territory in southern Carinthia and Styria, where according to official Austrian data from the 2001 census, about 13,000 Slovenes live, and according to Slovene estimations, around 45,000. More than 5,000 Slovenes live outside the autochthonous area, mostly in Vienna and Graz. After the fall of the Principality Karantanija, the area was under the dominance of the Franks, and then under the Habsburg Monarchy for almost a millennium until its collapse in 1918. The current border was set by the plebiscite in October of 1920. In Hungary, Slovenes occupy about 100 km 2 of the territory in Porabje and @elezna `upani- ja. According to official data of the 2001 census, there were about 2,500 Slovenes, while according to Slovene estimates, about 5,000 Slovenes live in Hungary (around 2,000 Slovenes live scattered elsewhere across Hungary). From the 11 th century on, the area was under Hungarian rule, and the current bor- der was set by the T rianon Peace T reaty in 1920. In the period between 1948 and 1990, this border was closed because of the »Iron Curtain« while connections with other areas of Slovene settlement were almost interrupted. The autochthonous Slovene minority in Croatia altogether numbers several hun- dred people who live in five small and separate areas. The majority of Slovenes in Croatia are emigrants and their descendants. Emigration, which totaled more than a fifth of the Slovene people, took shape in five phases: an economic phase until World War I, a predominantly political phase in the period between the two W orld W ars, deportees during W orld War II, deportees and refugees imme- diately following W orld War II, and economic emigration after 1960. According to estimates, the most citizens of Slovene origin lives in the United States (300,000), Germany (50,000), Canada (30,000), Argentina (30,000), Australia (25,000), Croatia (25,000), Serbia (10,000), Austria, Italy, France, Sweden, Brazil, and elsewhere. »Zdomci« or guestworkers represent a special type of emigration: tem- porary but as a rule long-term emigration that has left a visible impact on the external appearance and 87 function of Slovene regions. According to the 1991 census (the 2002 census no longer included this category of the population), there were almost 53,000 »zdomci,« mostly living in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy. The location of Slovene territory at the contact of the Slavic, Germanic, Romance, and Finno-Ugric peoples influenced the culture, language, and identity of this area and its population. In its ethnic struc- ture, the Slovene population dominated in all periods but was almost never homogenous, with the exception of a decade or so following World War II. Frequent changes of political borders and mass migrations – regardless of their causes – introduced great cultural dynamics into the Slovene space and its periphery that resulted in the presence in Slovenia of ethnic minorities, ethnic groups and immi- grant communities on the one hand and various Slovene emigrant communities dispersed throughout the world on the other. This situation defined the fundamental dimensions of the Slovene national ques- tion in the spatial, political, and cultural-lingual sense and greatly helped Slovenia create a system for the protection of minorities that is almost beyond compare elsewhere while still in the period of its partial autonomy in the framework of the former Yugoslavia. Slovenia's minority policies are impor- tant not only in terms of ensuring human rights, political peace, and international reputation but also contribute substantially to the development in particular of bordering peripheral areas. Major changes in the ethnic structure of the population of Slovenia The exposed geopolitical location of Slovene territory and its position between much more pop- ulous neighbours gave it great strategic significance in almost all historical periods. For this reason, the pressure on this territory has always been very strong and the sequence of various governing pow- ers fostered the change of political borders and of the ethnic structure of the population, which changed a great deal in the last century. According to the last census taken the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1910, the population of the territory of today's Slovenia included 82% Slovenes, almost 10% Germans, 2% Italians, and 1.5% Hungarians. In the current territory of autochthonous settlement of Slovene minorities in neighbouring countries, there were 110,000 Slovenes in Austria, 120,000 in Italy, and about 6,000 in Hungary. At the same time, this was also a period of the large Slovene exodus when almost half a million people left Slovene territory between 1870 and 1914. The population structure began to change rapidly after the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy when the German and Hungarian populations – previously the majority populations in the Monarchy – became minorities in the new country of Yugoslavia. The number of Germans in particular dropped rapidly, and of the prewar 106,000 Germans, 42,000 were left in 1921, and only about 29,000 ten years later. The number of Hungarians dwindled more slowly. Both communities grew smaller partly because of emigration but even more so because of an objective or solely »statistical« change of identity. On the other hand, the number of the Italians increased because Italy occupied western Slovenia following the Treaty of Rapallo that resulted from the British-Italian London Agreement. Slovenes moved away from the region in great numbers, flee- ing from the aggressive fascist administration of Mussolini's Italy, and some were even forcefully deported. At least 40,000 Slovenes left. The number of members of the Slovene minority in Austrian Carinthia dropped rapidly and heavily due to the oppressive measures of the Austrian authorities; in 1923, they numbered about 35,000, while the Nazi census in 1939 counted 42,000. The number of Slovenes in Hungary also decreased. Further radical changes followed, particularly during W orld War II and in the following decade. Along with the considerable number of victims among the Slovene population due to the fighting, deaths in concentration camps and the postwar mass executions took up to 80,000 peo- ple. More than 20,000 Slovenes settled in different countries as refugees and displaced persons, mostly in Argentina, Canada, Australia, and the United States. During the war, the Italians deported about 15,000 Ko~evje Germans to the territory of the wartime Third Reich in Posavje where more than 88 Jernej Zupan~i~ Ethnic Structure of Slovenia and Slovenes in Neighbouring Countries 40,000 Slovenes were deported from their homes in the German part of occupied territory. After the war, almost the entire German population left Slovene territory in fear of reprisals and because of depor- tations. The majority of Italians (about 22,000) in Slovene Istria also left in the decade after W orld War II because of strong Italian propaganda on one hand and poor economic prospects on the other. As a result, Slovenia became ethnically quite homogenous (in 1948, about 97% of the population was Slovene), but not for long. Although the permanent and temporary emigration of the Slovene popu- lation (over 30,000) continued primarily for economic reasons in the period after World War II, the number of immigrants soon outnumbered the number of emigrants after the rapid industrialization and social modernization. Slovenia became an immigration country and society with all the charac- teristic features of social relationships and processes. The number of members of various Yugoslav nations increased while the proportion of Slovenes dropped to 88% in 1991 and 83% in 2001. T oday, more than 50,000 Croatians, about 45,000 Serbs, 40,000 Bosnian Muslims, and 6,000 Albanians live in Slovenia. Among the autochthonous communities, there are 10,000 Hungarians, almost the same number of Romany, and about 3,000 Italians, and these three groups have special minority status and protection. According to the 2002 census, there were 2,258 Italians, 6,243 Hungarians, 3,246 Romany, 499 Germans, 181 Austrians, 28 Jews, 6,186 Albanians, 2,667 Montenegrins, 3,972 Macedonians, 38,964 Serbs, 35,642 Croats, 10,467 Muslims, 21,542 Bosnian Serbs, 8,062 Bosnian Croats and a number of other very small communities, altogether more than thirty different ethnic groups. In the 1990's, the num- ber of immigrants from non-European countries also began to increase: Chinese, Indian, Pakistani, etc. Although their numbers are very modest, an increasing trend is quite distinct. In the areas of autochthonous settlement of Slovene minorities in neighbouring countries, the steady numerical drop in the minority communities is primarily due to assimilation and partly to emigration from peripheral rural and border areas as well. For this reason, the spatial expansion of the settlement area along with the decrease in the number of minority communities and the dwin- dling of their relative number in areas of autochthonous-traditional settlement is a characteristic phenomena. Formal and actual situation of minorities in Slovenia and of Slovenes in neighbouring countries Efforts to solve the problems of minorities, minorities in Slovenia as well as Slovene minorities in the neighbouring countries, have been a constant in the internal and foreign policies of Slovenia. Thus, already in the period of postwar Yugoslavia – even while the echoes of W orld War II and its consequences were still resounding – the foundations for the protection of minorities were established. Thus, of course in accordance with the starting points of diplomatic achievements between Yugoslavia and neighbouring Italy and Hungary, the Hungarian and Italian minorities were granted legal protection, which was on a substantially higher level in Slovenia than in Croatia and Serbia, particularly if we consider the quite modest number of their members. After independence, Slovenia further increased the legal standards of protection, in spite of the fact that the situation of Slovenes in Italy and Hungary is legally and actu- ally considerably poorer. Slovenia therefore did not merely adhere to the principle of reciprocity. Minority protection covers several levels and spheres; those of key importance are: (1) representation: guaranteed mandates in parliament and positions for councillors in municipali- ties; on the basis of special additional voting rights, every member of a minority therefore has two votes in elections; (2) bilingualism: consistent bilingual topography and bilingualism in official institutions and docu- ments in the area of traditional settlement; (3) education: Italian and bilingual Slovene-Hungarian elementary and secondary schools in areas of autochthonous settlement; 89 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 90 Jernej Zupan~i~ Ethnic Structure of Slovenia and Slovenes in Neighbouring Countries A D R I A T I C S E A 12 343 4 5 722 3 36 130 102 148 2992 27 116 79 682 4176 15.564 675 1200 918 119 600 1320 21 750 5984 13 25 12 25 29 1680 203 578 761 368 136 100 1518 483 374 303 100 317 421 3356 1175 688 2047 946 1712 576 756 267 197 247 458 727 931 60 172 873 1471 560 30 606 62 143 701 186 296 368 2 23 35 7 16 25 14 99 69 12 31 52 63 17 137 480 162 120 298 880 160 17 17 17 197 521 224 336 73 723 687 208 185 325 1227 17 15 24 6 637 1220 303 555 710 816 867 1631 206 95 132 80 37 9 I91 I16 A53 A51 I15 A21 A14 H6 H5 H4 I30 H3 H2 H1 I35 I34 I33 I32 I31 I29 I42 I28 I27 I41 I24 I25 I36 I37 I38 I40 I39 I26 I23 I48 I46 I45 I50 I54 I55 I44 I49 I47 I22 I21 I43 I20 I18 I19 I17 I14 I13 I12 I11 I52 I53 I51 I10 I9 I7 I8 I6 I5 I4 I2 I1 I3 M6 M4 M1 M2 M3 M5 M7 A57 A56 A55 A50 A54 A52 A24 A25 A4 A31 A5 A27 A29 A30 A26 A28 A2 A32 A34 A33 A20 A3 A17 A12 A10 A13 A11 A7 A15 A8 A22 A19 A41 A6 A1 A16 A23 A18 A9 A46 A39 A48 A47 A38 A42 A40 A36 A44 A45 A37 A43 A49 Klagenfurt/Celovec Villach/Beljak Feldkirchen/Trg Hermagor - Pressegger See/[mohor St. Stefan/[t. [tefan Ebental/@relec Feistritz in Rosental/Bistrica v Ro`u Ferlach/Borovlje Grafenstein/Grab{tanj Keutschach am See/Hodi{e K ttmannsdorf/Kotmara vas Krumpendorf/Kriva Vrba Ludmannsdorf/Bil~ovs Magdalensberg/[talenska Gora Maria Rain/@ihpolje Maria Saal/Gospa Sveta Maria W rth/Otok Poggerdorf/Pokr~e St. Margarethen im Rosental/[marjeta v Ro`u Schiefling am See/[kofi~e Techelsberg am W rther See/Dholica Zell/Sele St. Veit an der Glan/[entvid na Glini Seeboden Spittal an der Drau/[pital Arnoldstein/Podklo{ter Feistritz an der Gail/Bistrica na Zilji Finkenstein/Bek{tanj Hohenthurn/Straja vas N tsch in Gailtal/^ajna Paternion Rosegg/Ro`ek St. Jakob in Rosental/[entjakob v Ro`u ö ö ö ö Velden am W rther See/Vrba Wernberg/Vernberk Bleiburg/Pliberk Diex/Djek{e Eberndorf/Dobrla vas Eisenkappel - Vellach/@elezna Kapla - Bela Feistritz ob Bleiburg/Bistrica pri Pliberku Gallizien/Galicija Globasnitz/Globasnica Griffen/Grebinj Neuhaus/Suha Ruden/Ruda St. Kanzian am Klopeiner See/[kocjan Sittersdorf/@itara vas V lkermarkt/Velikovec Wolfsberg Arnfels/Arne` Glanz/Klanci Leibnitz/Lipnica Sulztal a. d. Weinstrasse/Slatinski Dol Wagna Bad Radkersburg/Radgona Radkersburg - Umgebung/Radgona - okolica Halbenrain/Obrajna ö ö A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 A17 A18 A19 A20 A21 A22 A23 A24 A25 A26 A27 A28 A29 A30 A31 A32 A33 A34 A35 A36 A37 A38 A39 A40 A41 A42 A43 A44 A45 A46 A47 A48 A49 A50 A51 A52 A53 A54 A55 A56 A57 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 Savudrija Ka{tel - Kaldanija ^rnica [apjane - Rupa Prezid - ^abar [trigova I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I10 I11 I12 I13 I14 I15 I16 I17 I18 I19 I20 I21 I22 I23 I24 I25 I26 I27 I28 I29 I30 I31 I32 I33 I34 I35 I36 I37 I38 I39 I40 I41 I42 I43 I44 I45 I46 I47 I48 I49 I50 I51 I52 I53 I54 I55 Pontebba/Tablja Malborghetto - Valbruna/Naborjet - Ov~ja vas Tarvisio/Trbi` Resia/Rezija Lusevera/Bardo Montenaro/Gorjani Taipana/Tipana Tarcento/^enta Nimis/Neme Attimis/Ahten Faedis/Fojda Torreano/Tavorjana Pulfero/Podbonesec Savogna/Sovodnje Grimacco/Grmek Drenchia/Dreka S. Pietro al Natisone/[peter Slovenov S. Leonardo/[t. Lenart Stregna/Srednje Cividale del Friuli/^edad Prepotto/Prapotno Dolegna del Collio/Dolenje Cormons/Krmin S. Floriano del Collio/[teverjan Gorizia/Gorica Savogna d' Isonzo/Sovodnje Doberdo del Lago/Doberdob Ronchi dei Legionari/Ronke Monfalcone/Tr`i~ Duino - Aurisina/Devin - Nabre`ina Sgonico/Zgonik Monrupino/Repentabor Trieste/Trst S. Dorligo della Valle/Dolina Muggia/Milje Capriva/Koprivno Mossa/Mo{ S. Lorenzo/[lovrenc Farra/Fara Sagrado/Zagraj Fogliano - Redipuglia/Foljan Staranzano/[tarancan Moimacco/Mojmak Remanzacco Buttrio Manzano Corno di Rosacco/Koren S. Giovanni al Natisone Premariacco/Premarjag Pradamano Povoletto Tricesimo Reana del Rojale Campoformido Udine/Videm M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 Felsõszölnök/Gornji Senik Alsõszölnök/Dolnji Senik Szakonyfalu/Sakalovci Kétvölgy/Verice - Ritkarovci Apátistvánfalva/[tevanovci Orfalu/Andovci Szentgotthárd/Mono{ter Villach Beljak Tarvisio Tr b i ` Udine Videm Cividale del Friuli ^edad Gorizia Gorica Trieste Tr s t Szentgotth rd Mono{ter á Leibnitz Lipnica Hermagor [mohor Klagenfurt Celovec Jurij Rate~e Predel U~ja Robi~ Neblo Ro`na Dolina Vrtojba Ferneti~i Lipica Kozina [kofije Lazaret Se~ovlje Dragonja So~erga Starod Jel{ane Babno Polje Podplanina Petrina Vinica Bistrica ob Sotli Dobova Obre`je Dobovec Gru{kovje Zavr~ Sredi{~e ob Dravi Hodo{ Dolga vas Peti{ovci Razkri`je Radlje [entilj Trate Gornja Radgona Kuzma Holmec Vi~ Korensko sedlo Predor Karavanke Ljubelj Jezersko Gederovci Metlika No specific data Number of Slovenes Areas of settlement in Croatia and Hungary Municipalities in Austria and Italy International border crossing Percentages of Slovenes in neighbouring countries Less than 0.1% 0.2 to 0.9% 1.0 to 4.9% 5.0 to 9.9% 1 0 . 0t o1 9 . 9 % 2 0 . 0t o4 9 . 9 % 50.0% and more 206 H3, M2 A44, I8 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Author: Jernej Zupan~i~ © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 (4) media: full financial support for minority newspapers, radio stations, and television channels (Italian) or programs (Hungarian); (5) culture: a special fund from the national resources is devoted to minority cultural organizations; (6) economy: limited financial support exclusively for entrepreneurship among the minority popula- tion is available. Although the policies described above are consistently implemented, both minorities have substantial problems originating in their low numbers and peripheral locations. The minorities share the fate of the entire region. In particular, the situation of the Hungarians settled along the Slovene-Hungarian border is quite poor due to the structural problems of this demographically threatened region, and the minority is continuously dwindling as its young people move away. The autochthonous Romany com- munity, which also receives special care from the state, has different problems, mostly socioeconomic. In spite of substantial efforts, it is still a marginal community. Other groups of the population such as the small German, Austrian, and Jewish communities and the numerically superior communities of the ethnic groups from the former Yugoslavia that developed through immigration largely since the 1960's do not have any special minority rights as the Italians and Hungarians do. However, the constitution and the legislation enable them to protect their interests, especially in the field of cultural articulation and creativity. Slovene cultural, communication, and media space is quite open and, for example, offers numerous possibilities for the flow of information in foreign languages via cable television networks. The Slovene minorities in neighbouring countries have a substantially lower legal status. Bilingualism is a more sporadic phenomenon linked to settlements with a larger proportion of the minority Slovene population. Representation in government is not guaranteed. Cultural life and the media are indeed financed, but far from completely. The media, especially the electronic media including the broadcast of Slovene programming in the minority area, is substantially more modest, to a much larger degree subject to the laws of the market laws, and due to the pattern of settlement, largely inaccessible. In spite of limitations, minority education works well, especially secondary education. The actual situation of the Slovene minority is still not too bad. The somewhat larger Slovene communities, especially in Italy and Austria, enable a strong institutionalized network of political, cultural, and business associations that allow the members of the minorities to carry out important functions in the border areas. The ethnic diversity of the population of Slovenia and the bordering areas of neighbouring countries, espe- cially in the period of the open border, has contributed significantly to solving the regional problems of peripheral areas. The role of minorities in the open European space In the period of classical development of the European nation-states in the 19 th and 20 th centuries, ethnic minorities were an undesired phenomenon, especially in peripheral areas. T erritories acquired militarily or diplomatically were often populated by members of minorities that the authorities tried to get rid of in various ways or at least greatly reduce their size. Although specific protection of minori- ties already existed, the effect of this protection was very modest. Borders were guarded, and minorities were always subject to assimilation efforts. Although the negative attitude toward ethnic minorities per- sisted even in the developed and democratic countries of Europe, in general the awareness of the importance and role of the minorities in border areas changed substantially. On the declarative level – but unfortunately not much more than that – great attention was devoted to the minorities while the granting and implementation of special rights for the members of ethnic minorities remained an inter- nal matter of countries and the subject of bilateral intergovernmental relations. 91 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Indigenous Slovene minorities in neighbouring countries. p With the opening of borders and increased cross-border cooperation, the minorities gained some very real opportunities. Because members of the minorities are usually bilingual, are familiar with the legal and economic systems, the habits, mentality, and various peculiarities of both countries, and can easily establish contacts on both sides of the border, they soon proved to be not only the bearers but also the initiators of cross-border cooperation. Thus, Slovenia's western border with Italy, after the adop- tion and ratification of the Osim Agreement that allowed the border population to cross the border more frequently and to develop various forms of economic activity, became one of the most dynam- ic border regions with a high frequency of border crossings and numerous economic consequences. The border area ceased to be a peripheral region as the cooperation that began in the fields of politics and culture continued in the economic sphere. Agricultural production sought new market routes and methods of marketing and improved the technology of production. Industrial companies looked for optimal locations, which led to cooperation in the field of large and small industrial production. Huge progress was recorded especially in commerce (cross-border shopping on a massive scale) and later the commercial network and services in general expanded. On the Slovene side, a number of service com- panies and the entertainment industry with a chain of casinos were established on the basis of the heavy cross-border traffic. These were followed by insurance companies and a great upswing in banking, even though Slovenes in Italy already had considerable economic power because of banking. Carinthian Slovenes similarly developed strong small businesses, cooperatives, and also the banking sector. In the countryside, agriculture also plays an important role. Members of the Slovene minorities and to a some- what lesser extent the Italians in Slovene Istria thus contributed significantly to the presence of Austrian and Italian companies in Slovenia. T oday, the expansion of companies that have established themselves in Slovenia into other countries of southeastern Europe are in the foreground of interest, and in this context the minorities are seen in the role of bridge. Pursuing their plans for expansion, these companies are already recruiting residents of Slovenia orig- inally from the countries of the former Yugoslavia who know in detail how to do business in these areas and have contacts with relatives, friends, and other people there. Most of the second generation, the descendants of these immigrants, also have suitable qualifications and can undertake even the most demanding negotiations. The Slovene population as well has enough experience to undertake similar functions due to the experience of at least three or four generations who lived in the former Yugoslavia. The unified European economic space, including to an ever larger degree its communications space, is becoming increasingly recognized and uniform due to the increasing mobility of the population and the unification of standards and norms and is therefore ready for establishing contacts Having people with good local knowledge will soon no longer be necessary, and bridges will be established without them. In this context we encounter the crucial question: where will the opportunities for the mem- bers of the minorities be and what will be their role? Undoubtedly, the unhindered cross-border flow of information, activities, services, and goods will strengthen communication of minorities with areas of their »parent« nations. Undoubtedly, new horizons and searches for social and spatial functions will open in the peripheral (contact) areas, as will questions of ethnic development for both the minori- ties and the larger entities. Gosar, A. 1993: Nationalities of Slovenia: Changing Ethnic Structure in Central Europe, Geojournal, 30. 3., 215–224. Klemen~i~, V . 1993: National minorities as an Element of the Demographic and Spatial Structure of Alpine – Adriatic – Panonian Region, Geojournal, 30. 3., 207–215. National Atlas of Slovenia, Rokus, Ljubljana, 2000. Verska, jezikovna in narodna sestava prebivalstva Slovenije. Popisi 1921–2002, SURS, Ljubljana, 2003. Zupan~i~, J. 1999: Slovenci v Avstriji (Slovenes in Austria), Ljubljana. 92 Jernej Zupan~i~ Ethnic Structure of Slovenia and Slovenes in Neighbouring Countries SETTLING AND SETTLEMENTS Drago Kladnik Population density From a global view, Slovenia is relatively evenly settled because cores of population are dispersed throughout its territory. However, a more detailed survey indicates that due to its great landscape diver- sity, the population density is uneven (Figure 1). The average population density is 98 people per km 2 (Pannonian region 128 people per km 2 , Alpine region 108, Mediterranean region 106, and Dinaric region 54), which ranks Slovenia among coun- tries with a medium density of settling. A sixth of the country has an above-average population density, mostly in altitude belts below 400 meters where four fifths of the population lives or in the areas around Slovenia's largest settlements, which are mostly on the plains and along the shoreline of the Bay of Trieste. On the plains, the density is almost 500 people per km 2 , in the hill regions about 100, in the medium-high mountain regions about 50, and in the mountains about 25 (Perko 1998). In the hun- dred-meter belt between 0 and 100 meters live 426 people per km 2 , and between 1,000 and 1,100 meters only 5. Rough estimates indicate that almost a tenth of Slovenia is unpopulated (Kokole Vl., Kokole Ve., 1998) Characteristics of the settlement pattern Man settled the mountain areas of Slovenia as high as cereals can still successfully be grown. There are nineteen settlements above 1,000 meters, where around 1,600 people still lived in 1991. Above the limit of permanent settling, in otherwise unpopulated forest areas and occasionally even above the upper tree line, there are areas of periodic settlements including traditional summer dairy farms, forestry oper- ations, glassworks, and modern tourist settlements. Among periodic settlements also belong the settlements of vineyard cottages characteristic of the winegrowing areas of eastern and northeastern Slovenia. Recently, people have settled permanently in parts of these settlements. Owners or buyers from the cities have also converted numerous vineyard cottages into vacation homes. Some larger colonies of vacation homes have grown on attractive locations, either alongside existing settlements or com- pletely separate on their own. A great dispersion of settlements is characteristic of Slovenia. On average, there are about thirty settlements for every 100 km 2 , and therefore the distances separating them are relatively small. Just under two million people are distributed in almost six thousand settlements, about seventy of which are towns or cities. Only thirty-seven of these have more than 5,000 inhabitants, sixteen have more than 10.000, seven have more than 20,000, and only the two largest cities, Ljubljana and Maribor, have more than 100,000 inhabitants. Only a good half of the population lives in cities. The cities are encircled by 280 settlements in the immediate suburban vicinity and then another 660 very urbanized suburban settlements; more than 400,000 people live in these two groups of set- tlements. The next circle comprises urbanized and semi-urbanized rural settlements. Their number totals 965, and 300,000 people live in them. The remaining 350,000 people live in just under 4,000 rural settlements. 93 94 Drago Kladnik Settling and Settlements A D R I A T I C S E A Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Cerknica Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Piran Vuzenica Me`ica Prevalje Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Miklav` na Dravskem polju Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Tr`i~ Medvode [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Number of people per square kilometer 0t o1 1t o5 5t o1 0 10 to 50 50 to 100 100 to 500 500 and more © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Drago Perko Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Table 1. Size of settlements in Slovenia according to population in 1996. Size class Number of Number of Proportion of Proportion of Average size (number of settlements inhabitants settlements inhabitants of settlement inhabitants) in % in % (in population) up to 20 561 6,823 9.6 0.3 12 21 to 50 1,035 36,140 17.2 1.8 35 51 to 100 1,318 96,720 22.5 4.9 73 101 to 200 1,364 195,662 23.3 9.9 143 201 to 500 1,093 335,221 18.7 17.0 307 501 to 1,000 290 198,447 5.0 10.1 684 1001 to 2,000 105 146,170 1.8 7.4 1,392 2001 to 5,000 43 172,803 0.7 8.8 4,019 5001 to 10,000 21 139,210 0.4 7.1 6,629 10.001 to 20,000 9 128,530 0.2 6.5 14,281 20.001 to 50,000 5 150,544 0.1 7.6 30,109 50.001 to 100,000 1 98,811 0.0 5.0 98,811 More than 100,000 1 263,033 0.0 13.4 263,033 T otal 5,846 1,968,114 100.0 100.0 337 Source: Kokole Vl., Kokole Ve., 1998. Forms and types of settlements The dominant economic activity, the natural conditions, the characteristics of colonization, and the cultural environment determined the form and type of settlements, which is why settlements in different regions differ substantially from one another. The majority of Slovene settlements were cre- ated in the period when agriculture was the fundamental activity, which is reflected by their location and pattern of development (Drozg 1995). It is characteristic of solitary farms to stand alone and distant from each other, so there are no func- tional connections among them. An intermediate stage between the solitary farm and the consolidated settlement is the hamlet, which can also be a smaller part of a settlement that is spatially separated from the core. It is composed of only few farm households and does not have the formed center that is char- acteristic of consolidated settlements. In dispersed settlements, the farmhouses are scattered over a larger area. The settlement is there- fore not clustered because there are pieces of farm land between houses. The houses are arranged on the tops of ridges, and more rarely distributed along the margins of valleys or on hillslopes. The most widespread are consolidated settlements that can be either nucleate or roadside types. The types of nucleate settlements include the following (Drozg 1998): • Settlements of the alpine type built in a compact fashion where the buildings stand individually and are arranged in a group. Their positions are oriented in different directions, meaning that the ori- entation of one building does not match the orientation of its neighbour. The traffic network is very branched, and there are many side roads and field tracks. 95 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Population Density in 1991. p • Settlements of the subalpine or Central-Slovenia type with a central road along which buildings are arranged in groups. Some buildings border the road with their longer sides, and others with their shorter sides. The buildings stand individually. The roads are substantially less branched in comparison with the previous settlement type. • Settlements of the karst type with buildings joined in groups or »islands« of buildings that comprise a farm built around a central courtyard. These »islands« of buildings are arranged in clusters through- out the settlement, but the density of build-up is not high. The road network is very branched and dense, and there are many intersections and dead-end streets. • Settlements of the littoral type where the buildings are attached to one another to form a relatively straight row. Rows of buildings spread divergently through the settlements in various directions, and therefore the traffic network is very branched. Characteristic of it are a uniform lengthwise and cross- wise profile of streets and a compact pattern of development. Roadside settlements are of two types: • In settlements of the Pannonian type, the distance between buildings is uniform, the buildings are oriented in the same direction, and they follow one another in a row. They are arranged along one or both sides of the road, but they do not border it and stand equally distant from it. Characteristic of this settlement type is very branched traffic network with circular roads, and hence there are numer- ous intersections in these settlements; imposing trees often grow alongside the roads and roadside shrines are set up. • Settlements of the subpannonian type are similar to the previous type. The buildings are also arranged in a row, but there is only one road. There are frequently buildings on both sides of the road, which the buildings do not border and to which their distance varies. Suburbanized settlements are characteristic of the modern settlement pattern. These are charac- terized by a linear traffic network and an arrangement of buildings that is neither a group nor a row. Buildings stand individually in the middle of a lot, equidistant from one another and facing the same direction. The traffic network is composed of primary collecting roads, side roads, and access roads. The characteristic types of settlements spread over large consolidated areas, while individual types are only found in some regions (Figure 4). Suburbanized settlements are exceptional because they do 96 Drago Kladnik Settling and Settlements Figure 2: Isolated farmsteads in a clearing in the Pohorje mountain range (photography Jurij Senega~nik). 97 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 3: Nucleate settlement of [martno in Gori{ka brda (photography Marjan Garbajs). 98 Drago Kladnik Settling and Settlements A D R I A T I C S E A Vipava Mozirje [marje pri Jel{ah Cerknica Dravograd [o{tanj Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi Ribnica Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Z Z Z ZZ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z ZZ Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Suburbanized type Town or city Unpopulated area Subpannonian type Pannonian type Alpine type Karstic type Mediterranean type Roadside settlement Prealpine type Nucleate settlement Compact settlement Dispersed settlement Isolated farmstead Hamlet Predominant settlement forms © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Vladimir Drozg Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km not have specifically regional characteristics. The classification of settlement types roughly corresponds to natural-geographical and cultural-historical areas. The following connections are noticeable: • In the high mountains and subalpine hills (the higher parts of the Julian Alps, the Karavanke Mountains, and the Kamni{ke-Savinjske Alps, the upper part of the So~a Valley, the higher parts of the Pohorje mountain range, the Cerkljansko hills, the [kofja Loka hills, the Polhov Gradec hills, and the Posavsko hills), isolated farmsteads and nucleate settlements of the alpine and subalpine type dominate; • In lower parts of mountains, hilly regions, and the karst valley systems stand hamlets (mostly in Dolenjska, the hilly areas of Primorska, and Pannonian Slovenia), dispersed settlements (Slovenske gorice, Haloze, Gori~ko, and Kozjansko), consolidated settlements of the alpine type (Gorenjska, Savinja V alley, Notranjska, the Pivka valley system, and the lower parts of the Posavsko hills, [kofja Loka Hills, Cerkljansko Hills) and the subalpine type (Dolenjska, southern part of the Posavsko Hills, partly Notranjska), the karst type (Kras), and the littoral type (Vipava valley, Gori{ka Brda, Vipavska Brda, and Koprska Brda); • The plains, wide valleys, and gravel flood plains are dominated by consolidated settlements of the subalpine type (Celje basin, the Drava valley, also Gorenjska, Ljubljana basin and Dolenjska), the Pannonian type (Prekmurje, Mursko polje, and Bela krajina), and the subpannonian type (Dravsko polje and Ptujsko polje, the Kr{ko basin and Posotelje, the [~avnica and Pesnica valleys, and the east- ern margin of the Celje basin). Smallness, the main feature of Slovenia's cities, is also reflected by their modest morphological devel- opment. According to the type of ground plan and the level of its formation, the cities can be divided into seven characteristic types (Drozg 1998): • Cities with formed medieval, classicist, and modernist ground plans, • Cities with formed medieval and modernist ground plans and unformed classicist ground plans, 99 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 4: Settlement forms. p Figure 5: Roadside settlement of Dragonja vas in Dravsko polje (photography Jo`e Hanc). • Cities with formed medieval and modernist ground plans, • Cities with unformed medieval and formed modernist ground plans, • Cities with unformed medieval and modernist ground plans, • Cities with formed medieval ground plans, and • Cities with formed modernist ground plans. The higher the city ranks in the system of central settlements, the more complet its ground plan is. Only Ljubljana, Maribor, and Celje have formed ground plans from all the periods of construction history; otherwise, cities with only two formed ground plans, the medieval and the modernist, dom- inate. In some regional centers, for example, Kranj, Izola, Novo mesto, and Ptuj, only the embryos of a classicist ground plan exist. Many cities grew from modest medieval towns into industrial centers, which is why they have an unformed medieval ground plan and a formed modernist ground plan. The majority of rural towns have a formed medieval ground plan, and even though modest, it gives them a characteristic appearance. Drozg, V . 1995: Morfologija va{kih naselij v Sloveniji. Geographica Slovenica 27, In{titut za geografijo, Ljubljana. Drozg, V . 1998: Kme~ka naselja. Geografski atlas Slovenije, DZS, Ljubljana, p. 298–300. Drozg, V . 1998: Mesta. Geografski atlas Slovenije, DZS, Ljubljana, p. 301–305. Kladnik, D. 2002: Poselitev. Nesre~e in varstvo pred njimi. Uprava RS za za{~ito in re{evanje Ministrstva za obrambo. Ljubljana, p. 75–84. Kokole, Vl., Kokole, Ve. 1998: Naselja in poselitev. Geografija Slovenije, Slovenska matica, Ljubljana, p. 310–361. Perko, D. 1998: Gostota poselitve. Geografski atlas Slovenije, DZS, Ljubljana, p. 146–147. Ravbar, M. 1997: Slovene Cities and Suburbs in T ransformation. Geografski zbornik 37, Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Ljubljana, p. 65–109. 100 Drago Kladnik Settling and Settlements Figure 6: Medieval centre of Ljubljana (photography Jurij Senega~nik). THE NETWORK OF SETTLEMENTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF URBANIZATION IN SLOVENIA AT THE START OF THE 21 ST CENTURY Marjan Ravbar A look at the map below shows that according to European »standards« Slovenia's urban system is rel- atively unrecognizable as such since only the Ljubljana region exceeds half a million inhabitants, the Maribor region is smaller by half, the Celje region is smaller by half than Maribor, the conglomeration of coastal cities is again smaller by half than Celje, and the remaining urban areas number less than 50,000 people. In spite of this, a change in the spatial relationships with the neighbouring countries of the European Union, especially with cities in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (Italy) and Carinthia and Styria (Austria) is to be expected in the coming decades when borders will no longer present an obstacle. In accordance with its geopoliti- cal position, Slovenia's urban network will become a part of globalization trends, which are marked by (propulsive) production and service activities that have an increasingly supra-national character, even though they usually have an »individualist« approach relative to spatial planning. Globalization will increase com- petition between large economic regions, especially between the cities or urban regions that are the »motors« of regional development. The position, development, and role of the cities in the hierarchy will change in conditions of world competition. Development will increasingly depend on inclusion in the network of European economies. It is important for the Slovene urban system that it lies relatively close to European development axes or their development focal points, so it can be connected via the so-called »quick con- nections.« Since an appropriate infrastructure is one of the more important modern location factors, swiftness of decision is just as important. In this role, cities as development generators are important because of the development of public functions. These centers develop new network forms of economic, financial, research, educational, social, public, and service activities, etc., which thus became the bearers of development impuls- es. In global processes, network forms usually appear in the flexibility of production (for example by forming »technology parks«), the labour market (for example, in the polarization and hierarchization of employ- ment centers), the mobility of capital, the deregulation of inherited political, institutional, and tax mechanisms, and the injection of equity capital in the spectrum of public and social spheres. Conditions and modern problems in the development of cities: urban devel- opment between the rise and decline of the importance of urban centers Social developments in recent decades contributed to the fact that cities as a spatial phenomenon can no longer be defined as a separate process because their boundaries with the countryside are increas- ingly blurred and the cities are increasingly being transformed into unified urban regions. Furthermore, a hierarchical urban system is gradually replacing the horizontally planned network of cities. Polarization and specialization are the main characteristics of the current and future structure of cities. Continuing transformation, primarily in cities within the borders of the European Union, is to be expect- ed, while areas outside the so-called »interior« boundaries are expected to lose their importance. Regardless of their insignificance in comparison with the size of other European cities, it is indis- putable that along with their economic influence, important cultural and social impulses emanate from Slovene cities. T wo contradictory processes are characteristic of their further spatial development: demo- graphic and settlement growth »outward« with the transformation of predominantly agrarian land into mixed (agricultural-urban) land use areas and growth »inward« with the change of income-extensive 101 102 Marjan Ravbar The Network of Settlements and the Development of Urbanization in Slovenia … A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Portoro` Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana [empeter pri Gorici Slovenske Konjice Zre~e Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Drava Mura Bizeljsko Dobova Dobrna [tore Vojnik Nova vas Rakek Stari trg pri Lo`u Semi~ Stari trg ob Kolpi Vinica Lukovica pri Dom`alah/ Brdo pri Lukovici Menge{ Morav~e Trzin Medvode Apa~e Radenci Videm ob [~avnici Ivan~na Gorica Videm Zagradec Dol pri Hrastniku Kne`ak Podgrad Mojstrana/Dovje @irovnica/Zabreznica Duplica Zgornji Tuhinj/ Laze v Tuhinju Draga/Podpreska Ko~evska Reka Osilnica Pri Cerkvi-Struge/Lipa Vas/Fara Ankaran/Hrvatini Dekani [marje Cerklje na Gorenjskem Golnik/Srednja vas Preddvor Zgornje Jezersko Brestanica Kostanjevica na Krki Raka Senovo Rade~e Rimske Toplice Cerkvenjak Sveta Trojica v Slovenskih goricah ^ren{ovci Dobrovnik Turni{~e Dole pri Litiji Gabrovka Vodice Dobrova Horjul Ig Notranje Gorice/ Vnanje Gorice Polhov Gradec Preserje/Podpe~ [kofljica Velike La{~e Kri`evci pri Ljutomeru Rovte Fram Kamnica Limbu{/Pekre Miklav` na Dravskem polju Pernica Ra~e Spodnje Ho~e Spodnji Duplek Star{e Gornji Grad Ljubno ob Savinji Lu~e Nazarje Beltinci Cankova Gornji Petrovci Grad Moravske Toplice/ Martjanci Prosenjakovci Roga{evci/Sveti Jurij Branik ^epovan Anhovo/Deskle Dobrovo Dornberk Kanal Kojsko Kostanjevica na Krasu Miren Solkan Dolenjske Toplice Stra`a/Vavta vas [entjernej [kocjan @u`emberk Ivanjkovci Sredi{~e ob Dravi Sladki Vrh Spodnji Jakobski Dol [entilj v Slovenskih goricah Zgornja Kungota/ Plintovec Lucija Se~ovlje Pivka Cirkulane Gori{nica Jur{inci Kidri~evo Maj{perk Podlehnik Zavr~ Muta Podvelka/Brezno Ribnica na Pohorju Vuzenica Me`ica Prevalje Hrib-Lo{ki Potok Sodra`ica Lovrenc na Pohorju Selnica ob Dravi Krmelj Diva~a Dutovlje Komen Kozina/Hrpelje Seno`e~e Mislinja Makole Oplotnica Polj~ane Pragersko Lo~e pri Polj~anah Vitanje Planina pri Sevnici Ponikva [marje pri Jel{ah Gorenja vas Bistrica ob Sotli Kozje Pod~etrtek Rogatec Kobarid Most na So~i Podbrdo Mirna Mokronog [martno ob Paki [o{tanj Topol{ica Borovnica Izlake Polzela Prebold Vransko Vipava Facilities and services of central settlement Gravitation zone Rank of central settlement Below average Average Above average First level Second level Third level Fourth level Fifth level Sixth level Seventh level Of a fourth level center Of a fifth level center Of a sixth level center Of a seventh level center Shared roles as equally important regional centers Settlements that share roles as central settlements Kozina/Hrpelje © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Igor Vri{er Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km uses to income-intensive uses. In market economies, activities in city centers that do not create enough income per surface unit to cover all expenses, including city costs cannot survive. On abandoned (pre- dominantly) industrial surfaces close to city centers, new commercial and business centers are developing that can cover the increasing urban costs through more intensive land use. Non-profit pub- lic (including administrative) activities that remain in central locations in contradiction to market laws must be subsidized by the state if they wish to remain in the more accessible locations. The continuation of current urbanization trends is undoubtedly an unavoidable law of develop- ment that in spite of everything still demands the re-evaluation of the characteristics and comparable advantages of the existing urban system. This system is the fruit of a long policy of stimulating poly- centric development and its continuation for directing the mixed use of land in terms of dispersed concentrations and modern forms of urbanization with assessments of the available »reurbanization« potential. In this sense, the following strategies for directing the development of cities often apply: • »consolidation« of cities as a strategy of preserving and protecting usable buildings with the possi- bility of renovating the city fabric and preserving quality city neighbourhoods, suburban centers, newly suburbanized surrounding areas, village centers, etc.; • revitalization as a strategy of urban renewal and the further construction of cities based on this con- cept linked to the gradual restructuring of areas where the new use is also based on a denser structure of housing and employment possibilities; • sanitation as a strategy of introducing the new use of deteriorating industrial areas and areas of pub- lic infrastructure primarily for the construction of residential neighbourhoods; • expansion of the cities and suburbs by more consolidated building (concentrations within already built-up areas) in otherwise limited potential building land (Ko`elj 2001) employing concepts of mixed land use (Ravbar 2002). For the balanced spatial development of the cities, it is important from the national viewpoint that economic development increases the attractiveness of the functional area and consequently improves the quality of life. Along with this, in spite of the heterogeneity of function areas and their size, it is necessary to strive for the decentralized basis of the network of cities with a complementary activity structure. Last but not least, cities will continue to develop beyond their existing boundaries even though their further spatial expansion is unjustified for environmental and economic reasons. In future, it will be necessary of exploit the existing potentials for building concentrations within existing settlement areas. From the prospective viewpoint, two possible models confront each other: • the classic model of a centralized urban network based on the consolidation of the polycentric and hierarchical based system of central places, and • the model of a decentralized network of various development focal points in a region based on mod- ern principles of a »shallow« hierarchical network of relations or dispersed development poles around infrastructural focal points (Ravbar et al. 2001). Three decades of endeavours to apply the polycentric system of a network of settlements and mod- ern socioeconomic processes exclude the realization of a centralized urban network of settlements in Slovenia. The origins of the formation of urban regions offer diverse developmental challenges that are the consequence of various complementary reciprocal forms and developmental levels of urban- ization. The model of a »shallow« and decentralized network of satellite cities within functionally and gravitationally linked urban regions, which is based on modern principles of the network connection of developmental poles, is therefore more realistic for Slovenia and in harmony with modern aspira- tions for its socioeconomic and demographic development. This dictates the re-evaluation of the existing development strategies that should be based on the consideration of the specific needs of urban areas in the framework of national development orientations, accelerating the horizontal and vertical con- nections between national, regional, and local administrations, and closer links with the network of 103 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Urbanization in 1996. p cities in the European Union, which requires the establishment of a system of information on the spe- cial features of Slovenia's urban system and its vulnerabilities. Modern cities are therefore gradually changing from a hierarchical system of settlements into a more equalized network of focal points according to the principal of dispersed decentralization or into urban regions. Their further development places in the foreground a policy of regional development based on the following general objectives: • the balanced polycentric development of the network of cities by forming new relations with the coun- tryside in a unified urban system; • the formation of networks in accordance with the increasing specialization and division of labour that together create conditions for the elimination of too large structural differences on the margins of urban areas and between regions; • the connection of networks of different levels by combining national, regional, and local connect- edness with effective traffic connections among otherwise autonomous units; • settlement development oriented »inward«; • equitable access to goods and services of common importance through a modern infrastructure and the reduction of dependence on the automobile by encouraging the use of public transport and alter- native forms of individual transport (e. g., bicycling); • the improvement of environmental conditions by decreasing traffic flows, encouragement of intermodal systems of all types, and coordinated construction of the transportation and information infrastructure. Modern postindustrial cities can only be successfully restructured on the regional scale, and they must have a suitable (economically-justifiable) gravitational hinterland. The principal characteristic of an urban region is its »internal« polycentricity. In multi-pole urban regions, individual centers spe- cialize according to local advantages and potentials, although there is not a precisely determined hierarchy among them. Thus the importance or the role of individual centers in a region changes over time. The more diverse and complementary the structure of its work places is, the more connected its econom- ic activities are. It is worth pointing out that potentially fewer risks appear in urbanized areas that are spatially linked in a network than with activities that are only connected functionally. In the case of Slovenia, this concerns the network of cities that are (too) small and not linked in a uniform urban system. Another »weakness« of Slovenia's small cities is that their number is high relative to their total population and that they are located relatively close to each other. We believe that modern location conditions will trigger further differentiation in the hierarchical level of centers based on the activa- tion of modern development potentials. Given that settlement structures reflect the diversity of historical, social, cultural, and economic func- tions and that on this basis crystallization cores formed in certain areas, a five-level scheme of a network of centers as the basis for polycentric regional development is optimal in Slovene conditions, based on the achieved level of economic development: (1) international level of functions, (2) national level of func- tions, (3) regional level of functions, (4) intermunicipal level of functions, and (5) local level of functions. European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP), 1999: Na poti k uravnote`enem in trajnostnem razvoju EZ. Potsdam, 10.–11. maj 1999, izdajatelj Evropska komisija, Luksemburg. Ko`elj, J. 2001: T eze za dr`avno strategijo urejanja mest. MOP-UPP , p. 27, Ljubljana. Ravbar, M. 1993: Na periferiji modre banane. Evropske integracije in Slovenija. – Delo: Sobotna priloga (16.1.1), s. 21, Ljubljana. Ravbar, M. 1998: Prostorski vplivi pribli`evanja Slovenije Evropski zvezi, In{titut za geografijo, p. 120, Ljubljana. Ravbar, M. 2001: Zasnova poselitve in prostorski razvoj. In{titut za geografijo, p. 42, Ljubljana. Ravbar, M. 2002: Sodobne te`nje v razvoju prebivalstva in delovnih mest – pot k sonaravnemu in decentraliziranemu usmerjanju poselitve v Sloveniji? IB-revija, letnik 36/1, p. 12–41, Ljubljana. Schindegger, F., T atzberger, G. 2002: Polyzentrismus, ein europaeisches Leitbild fuer die raeumliche Entwicklung. Bundeskanzleramt Abt. IV/4, 74, Wien. 104 Marjan Ravbar The Network of Settlements and the Development of Urbanization in Slovenia … LAND USE IN SLOVENIA Franci Petek In its widest meaning, land use marks and defines human activity in the landscape. The charac- teristics of natural elements as well as the sociogeographical factors of a landscape are reflected in the distribution of categories of land use. The study of land use has a long tradition in Slovene geography. In the framework of agrarian geog- raphy and the geography of the countryside, land use was studied intensively in the middle of the 20 th century by Ile{i~ (1950, 1971) in connection with research into the distribution of cultivated fields and by Medved (1969, 1974) and Klemen~i~ (1972) in connection with the transformation of agriculture and of the countryside in general. In the last few years, due to major social changes, land use is again under study in Slovene geography (Gabrovec and Kladnik 1997 and 2001; Gabrovec, Kladnik, Petek 2001; Petek 2002; Urbanc 2002; Kladnik and Ravbar 2003; Hrvatin and Perko 2003). Basic source for the study of land use is the data of the land cadastre. The first stable land cadas- tre in the territory of Slovenia was the so-called Franciscan Cadastre (1822–1828), which was established in the first half of the 19 th century. Using the data from the land cadastre, Slovene geogra- phers can therefore study the changes in land use in the last two centuries and their connection with the changes in sociogeographical factors. The Franciscan Cadastre differentiated five basic land use cat- egories: cultivated fields and gardens, vineyards, meadows, pastures and alpine meadows, and forests. The modern land cadastre adds orchards to these basic categories. In Slovenia, there are more than five million parcels and 2,696 cadastral municipalities. Due to the slow recording of changes in the cadas- tre, the data lags behind the actual land use situation in the landscape. With ever greater availability and usability of satellite and aerial photographs, numerous maps of land use were created for various purposes in the last decade that illustrates as closely as possible the actual situation when the data was collected. At the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, the first map of actual land use for all of Slovenia was elaborated in 1993 by combining satellite-scanned data, outlines of forest areas made on the basis of aerial photographs, outlines of waters, the 100-meter digital relief model, data on roads and of hous- ing coordinates, and other necessary data. This map had a number of deficiencies, but the upgraded version from 2001 is already more precise and therefore much more useful. (Statistical GIS of Land Cover of Slovenia 2003). In 2003, the Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia elaborated the CORINE Land Cover (2004) map for Slovenia. This database was created on the basis of satellite photographs from 2000 and according to methodology of data collection is comparable with the databases of twenty-nine other European countries. Due to great relief diversity and the fragmented land and property structure of the surface of Slovenia, the actual situation of agricultural land use in this base is somewhat blurred. The most detailed study of land use is offered by the map of actual land use that originated in the framework of the Project of Modernization of Registration of Real Estate or its subproject Collecting Data and Monitoring the Use of Agricultural Land, which the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Food of the Republic of Slovenia took primary responsibility for coordinating. Digital 1:5000-scale orthophoto maps based on black-and-white aerial photographs taken between 1996 and 2001 were the source of data for this map of actual land use. However, the different times the data was collected also poses the greatest weakness of this map. In 2002, all the interpreted orthophoto maps were combined in one map of actual land use (Rotter 2001; Agricultural Land Use in Slovenia/Raba kmetijskih zemlji{~ 2002). We used the digital form of this source to illustrate the land use situation in Slovenia. 105 106 Franci Petek Land Use in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura Land use 0 2 4 6 8 10 % fields hop plantations vineyards orchards grassland overgrowth areas forests 60 % built-up areas wet areas alpine shrubs and meadows bare areas 17 % 01 02 03 04 05 0 km © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Source: Agricultural Land Use in Slovenia 2002 Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 The basic map of actual land use differentiates twenty-one categories, but for the sake of presentation we logically combined these into twelve categories. In comparison with the categories of land use men- tioned the with land cadastre, this source also distinguishes several other different categories. It differentiates between intensive and extensive meadows, which due to the problem of distinguishing these two categories were united into one category designated »grassland.« This category is compara- ble to the meadows and pastures of the land cadastre. Among permanent plantations, along with vineyards and orchards are also olive groves, and specially separated is land in overgrowth, which includes pri- marily abandoned meadows and pastures in the process of afforestation. On the original map, mistakes in classifications occurred for individual smaller areas of Slovenia, which have been partly cor- rected for this presentation. Based on the processing of land use categories (Agricultural Land Use in Slovenia 2002) in the Geographical Information System, Slovenia has 60.3% forest, 17.7% grassland, 10.2% cultivated fields, 5.3% built-up area, 1.4% rock surface, 1.2% each of vineyards, orchards, and land in overgrowth, 0.8% water areas and wetlands together, 0.5% heather and mountain meadow together above the upper tree line, and only 0.1% each of olive groves and hop plantations. Forests therefore strongly dominate and today Slovenia ranks among the most forested countries in Europe. However, land categories are not evenly distributed throughout Slovenia. Their distribu- tion is defined to a great extent by relief elements (inclination, altitude, and exposition) as well as by climate and soil conditions. Cultivated fields, for example, greatly dominate the Pannonian plains where they occupy some 52% of the surface and the alpine plains where they occupy a good quarter. On the other hand, in the alpine mountains cultivated fields occupy only 0.5% of the surface and on the Dinaric plateaus just 1.5%. Hop plantations only appear in the Savinja plain, while vineyards and orchards occur mostly in the Mediterranean and Pannonian hills. Forests overgrow as much as 81% of the Dinaric plateaus but only one fifth of the surface of the Pannonian plains. Population and economic activity present the greatest pressure on plains, above all in the alpine region, and therefore just under 18% of the sur- face of these areas is built up. Heather and mountain meadows (2.8%) and rock surfaces (9.1%) are significant land categories in the alpine mountains, the only Slovene region with land above the upper tree line. Land use is a dynamic landscape element. Changes in sociogeographical factors are reflected in changes of land use. Between 1950 and 1970, grassing over dominated in Slovenia (Medved 1970), mostly the conversion of cultivated fields into meadows. After 1970, afforestation dominated, the spontaneous change of other land categories into forest. In general, it is characteristic of Slovenia that between 1900 107 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Types of land use in Slovenia. p Table 1: Proportion of major types of land use in Slovenia in 1900, 1953, and 2000. Cultivated fields, gardens, Vineyards Meadows, pastures, Forests and hop plantations (%) (%) and orchards (%) (%) 1900 18.6 2.3 33.3 40.9 1953 17.8 1.6 33.0 42.2 2000 10.3 1.2 20.1 60.3 1900: Leksikon ob~in za Avstrijsko-Ilirsko Primorje (1906), Kranjsko (1906), [tajerska (1904), Koro{ko (1905); Mezögazdasági statisztikája 1897 za Prekmurje. 1953: Land Cadaster/Zemlji{ki kataster. 2000: Agricultural Land Use in Slovenia/Raba kmetijskih zemlji{~ 2002. and 2000 the proportion of agricultural land categories (cultivated fields, meadows, pastures, vineyards and other permanent plantations) decreased, while the proportion of forests and built-up areas increased. The proportion of agricultural land dropped from 54% to 32%, while the proportion of forests rose from 41% to 60%. In the case of alpine land, we established that the changes in land use in the 19 th century were most- ly influenced by the change in farming techniques (shift from pasture to barn stock farming, modern rotation without fallow periods, and the introduction of new cultures), the abolition of the feudal sys- tem after 1848 and of the servitude connected with it, which increased social differences among the population, and the decline of non-agrarian sectors of the time. In the first half of the 20 th century, changes in land use were influenced by economic changes, primarily the development of the first indus- tries and the start of the deagrarianization of the Slovene population. In the second half of the 20 th century, along with industrialization, the agricultural policy of the state, then burdened with Communist ide- ology, also influenced changes in land use. Since 1991 when Slovenia became independent and embraced a market-oriented agricultural policy, we can expect to see the further selective abandon- ing of farm land, which to a certain degree is already indicated by changes in land use. Agricultural Land Use in Slovenia 2002 / Raba kmetijskih zemlji{~ 2000. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of the Republic of Slovenia / Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana. CORINE Land Cover 2004. Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia/Agencija Republike Slovenije za okol- je. Ljubljana. Franciscejski kataster 1822–1828. Archives of the Republic of Slovenia/Arhiv Republike Slovenija. Ljubljana. Gabrovec, M., Kladnik, D. 1997: Some new aspects of land use in Slovenia. Geographica Slovenica 37. Ljubljana, pp. 7–64. (accessible also on: www.zrc-sazu.si/giam/zbornik/Gabrovec_Kladnik37.pdf.). Gabrovec, M., Kladnik, D. 2001: Land use. in: National Atlas of Slovenia. Ljubljana, pp. 138–145. Gabrovec, M., Kladnik, D., Petek, F . 2001: Land use changes in the 20th century in Slovenia. Land Use / Cover Changes in Selected Regions in the World Volume I. Asahikawa, pp. 41–52. Hrvatin, M., in Perko, D., 2003: Surface roughness and land use in Slovenia. Acta Geographica Slovenica 43/2. Ljubljana, pp. 33–86. (accessible also on: www.zrc-sazu.si/giam/zbornik/Hrvatin_Perko43-2.pdf.). Ile{i~, S. 1950: Sistemi poljske razdelitve na Slovenskem. Ljubljana, 119 p. Ile{i~, S. 1971: Le paysage rural en Slovénie. Leuven, 66 p. Kladnik, D., Ravbar, M. 2003: ^lenitev slovenskega pode`elja/Division of Slovene Countryside. Ljubljana, 196 p. Klemen~i~, V ., Crkven~i~, I. 1972: The social-geographical factors in forming the types of land utilization: (on some examples from the northwesternpart of Yugoslavia). Verona. Land cadaster / Zemlji{ki kataster 1953. Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia / Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana. Leksikon ob~in 1904–1906. Leksikon ob~in kraljestev in de`el zastopanih v dr`avnem zboru, Izdelan po rezultatih popisa ljudstva dne 31.grudna 1900. Dunaj. Medved, J. 1969: Vpliv velikosti kmetij na na~in in smer spreminjanja izrabe zemlji{~a. Ljubljana. Medved, J., Ile{i~, S., Vri{er, I. 1974: Recherches typologiques sur l'utilisation agricole du sol en Slovénie. Bulletin de la Société languedocienne de géographie. – ISSN 0373-3297. – T. 8, fasc. 2 (1974). Montpellier, pp. 172–190. Mezögazdasági statisztikája 1897. Budimpe{ta. Petek, F . 2002: Methodology of evaluation of changes in land use in Slovenia between 1896 and 1999. Acta Geogra- phica 42. Ljubljana, pp. 61–97. (accessible also on: www.zrc-sazu.si/giam/zbornik/petek42.pdf.). Rotter, A. 2001: Zajem rabe kmetijskih zemlji{~ v okviru Projekta posodibitve evidentiranja nepremi~nin. Zbornik Uporaba informacij o porovnosti in rabi prostora pri varstvu okolja in trajnstnem razvoju. Ljubljana. Statistical land cover GIS of the Slovenija/Statisti~ni GIS pokrovnosti tal Slovenije 2003. Statistical office of the Republic of Slovenia/Statisti~ni urad Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana. Urbanc, M. 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji/Cultural landscapes in Slovenia. Ljubljana, 224 p. 108 Franci Petek Land Use in Slovenia CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICUL TURE IN SLOVENIA T oma` Cunder The basic characteristic of Slovenia's agriculture is that for a long time it developed in exactly the opposite direction than taken by agriculture in the majority of other European countries. This applies especially for the agrarian structure and its development. While in developed western European coun- tries, together with the improvement of agricultural technology, the process of enlargement of farms and concentration and specialization of production were going on relatively fast, in Slovenia the exact opposite process occurred right up to the beginning of the 1990's, largely in the private sector of Slovene agriculture. This process is characterized by permanent decrease and fragmentation of the land prop- erty, by low working intensity of production and, in some areas, by gradual abandoning of production and the consequent overgrowing of farm land. Although Slovene agriculture is forced to manage in more difficult production circumstances due to the natural conditions, it is primarily socio-economic factors such as poor size and property structures of farms, the low level of professionalization, and the still rel- atively low work intensity, that decisively obstruct more rapid technological progress and modernization. Natural conditions for agricultural production Due to the distinctive dissection of the relief, Slovenia most certainly does not rank among the coun- tries with natural assets favourable to agricultural production. On the contrary, in the European space Slovenia belongs to the circle of countries with the most unfavorable production conditions because of its diverse and mountainous relief and large proportion of karst areas. While poorer production con- ditions do not necessarily make agricultural production impossible, they result in the lower production capability of farms and a smaller choice of cultures and production orientations, and in general they weaken the adaptability and competitiveness of Slovene agriculture. The quite specific and variegated structure of the use of farm land also influences the low level of adaptability of agriculture. With the exception of the flatlands of the sub-Pannonian region in the north- east and smaller consolidated areas in the bottoms of valleys and plains, Slovenia has no significant areas suitable for crop production. In spite of an advantageous geographical position that allows exten- sive and mostly qualitative production in fruit-growing and winegrowing, the proportion of land under permanent orchards and vineyards is much lower than in countries with similar production condi- tions. Some two thirds of all farm land is grassland that is poorly exploited on the average relative to the frequency and the manner of use, which is dominated by two- and three-harvest meadows, exten- sive pastures, and hayfields. The significance of agriculture in the general economy Just as in other developed countries, the significance of agriculture in the general economy is con- stantly decreasing in Slovenia. This is evident for all of the three indicators usually used to define the economic and social role of an activity: • the proportion of agriculture in the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP), • the proportion of people employed in agriculture, • the proportion of agriculture in foreign trade exchange. 109 Table 1: Proportion of agriculture in GDP, employment, and trade balance in Slovenia (in %). 1990 1995 2000 Agriculture in GDP 4.8 4.6 3.5 Employed in agriculture (registered employment) 7.0 6.4 4.8 Agriculture in total value of export 4.2 4.0 3.7 import 8.7 8.4 6.4 Source: Institute for Macro-economic Analyses and Development The 3.5% proportion of the total GDP ranks Slovene agriculture on the level of the less developed countries of the European Union and, with the exception of Poland and Hungary, is comparable with other countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Compared with the European Union, Slovene agriculture produces almost 10% less GDP per hectare of farm land or 2.2 times less per employee in the agricul- ture sector. The proportion of Slovenia in the international exchange of farm produce is practically negligible. It generally applies that Slovenia is net importer of food because the value of imported farm produce is almost twice the size of its export. Production structure of Slovene agriculture Because the natural and structural conditions in Slovenia to a large extent dictate the orientation of agriculture production, stock farming dominates with approximately 61% of the value of total agri- culture production. In the framework of vegetable production, the production of field crops dominates, although the production of fruit, grapes, and wine (all together about 12%) also represents an impor- tant part of the total agricultural production. Table 2: Structure of value of total agricultural production in Slovenia (in %). 1990 1995 2000 T otal agricultural production 100.0 100.0 100.0 Vegetable production 47.1 44.3 38.7 field crops 39.3 35.8 26.8 fruit 3.7 4.7 6.0 grapes and wine 4.1 3.8 5.9 Livestock production 52.9 55.7 61.3 beef and milk 25.5 31.9 36.7 pigs 11.5 12.2 11.2 other 15.9 11.6 13.4 Source: SURS and Institute of Agriculture of Slovenia. The extent and structure of vegetable production is to a large degree connected with livestock pro- duction: fodder comprises almost half of the total production. Corn is the prevailing field crop, covering about 40% of cultivated land, followed by cereals (20%) and potato (10% of cultivated land). Sugar 110 T oma` Cunder Characteristics of Agriculture in Slovenia beet and hops also represent an important part of field produce; the latter is traditionally export-ori- ented. The intensity of production is constantly increasing, although the average harvest still lags behind harvests in the European Union. The extent of fruit production has high annual oscillations, largely due to different climate condi- tions. Diverse natural conditions enable the production of various types of fruit, but in general the structure of production is dominated by apples, followed by pears, peaches, sour cherries, and cher- ries. Annual oscillations are also evident in the production of grapes and wine, where white wine varieties account for more than 70% of the production. In the structure of stock farming, cattle breeding dominates, mostly the combined production of milk and beef. According to the value of production pig breeding and poultry breeding follow, and recent- ly the significance of sheep breeding and goat breeding has increased. Relative to a fall in production, important changes have become visible recently in poultry breeding, largely the result of the loss of former Yugoslav markets. Agrarian structure During the Farm Census in 2000, there were somewhat more than 86,300 farms in Slovenia. According to the European scale of Standard Economic Power (ESU), which considers the production capabili- ty of operations, these farms are directly comparable with European farms. Compared with the majority of European Union countries, farms in Slovenia are extremely small. The size of the average Slovene farm was very close to the size of the average Central European farm only in 1931, and today, with an average of 5.6 hectares of farm land in use per household, it is some five times smaller than similar farms in the European Union. In spite of the great relative significance 111 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 0 5 10 15 20 25 sadovnjaki vinogradi travinje njive kmetijska zemlja gozd zemlja skupaj SLO EU ha 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 koze ovce konji plemenske svinje pra{i~i krave govedo {tevilo glav SLO EU Figure 1: Size of farms in Slovenia and in the European Union relative to average area of land and number of livestock. Source: SURS and EUROSTAT 112 T oma` Cunder Characteristics of Agriculture in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A DOBROVO VIPAVA SE@ANA KOPER LJUBLJANA METLIKA TR[KA GORA KOSTANJEVICA NA KRKI BRE@ICE STARA VAS- BIZELJSKO ORE[JE NA BIZELJSKEM IMENO OLIMJE SLOVENSKE KONJICE [MARTNO OB PAKI SLOVENSKA BISTRICA MARIBOR MALE^NIK GORNJA RADGONA KRAMAROVCI MA^KOVCI PTUJ LAHONCI IVANJKOVCI JURSKI VRH KOG VELIKA NEDELJA ORMO@ LJUTOMER JUR[INCI KAPELSKI VRH RA^KI VRH Go~e Police Sovjak ^rni Kal Marezige Zavrh Dolgova{ke Gorice Strehovci Moravci Meljski Hrib Vurberk Radovica Bodonci Ku{tanovci Bogojina Lokavec Sve~ina Zbigovci Ivanjski Vrh Nunska Graba Zavr~ Jan{ki Vrh Dramlje Tinska gora Malkovec Veliki Trn [maver Stra{ka gora Zavode Vinji Vrh Vinji Vrh Rodine Dobli~ka gora Tan~a gora Adle{i~i Debeli rti~ Golo Brdo Malija Vi{njevik Sv. Anton Hrastovlje Labor Ko{tabona Zemono Vane~a Neblo Cirkulane Podlehnik Rodni Vrh @etale Bistrica ob Sotli ^re{njevci Kobilje Lendavske Gorice Sebeborci Dornberk [empas Podgorci Mestni vrh Komen Mali Vrh Hrvatini Dobrovnik Kamnica Limbu{ Kromberk Gerlinci Kozjak nad Pesnico Vinarje Jan`ev Vrh [kocjan Dra{i~i @elezne Dveri Jeruzalem Svetinje Gorca Sladka Gora Vir{tanj Sromlje Sremi~ Tr{ka gora Bo~je Gadova Pe~ Lo`e Medana [martno Hrastovec Tur{ki Vrh Tomaj Bizeljsko Semi~ Bertoki Dutovlje Pekre Biljenski gri~i Branik Kova~a vas Ritoznoj 7 7 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 8 8 9 9 11 11 10 10 13 13 14 14 12 12 Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Rebula Friulian Tokaj Beli Pinot Sauvignon Malvazija Sivi Pinot Chardonnay Merlot Barbera Cabernet Sauvignon 1 1 Gori{ka Brda winegrowing district Rebula M Beli Pinot Chardonnay Merlot Barbera Cabernet Sauvignon alvazija La{ki Rizling Sauvignon Pinela Zelen Vipavska dolina winegrowing district 2 2 Koper winegrowing district M erlot Barbera Cabernet Sauvignon Cabernet Franc alvazija Beli Pinot Chardonnay Refo{k M 4 4 Refo{k Rebula La{ki Rizling M Beli Pinot Sauvignon Chardonnay alvazija Kras winegrowing district 3 3 La{ki Rizling @ametovka Beli Pinot Chardonnay Frankinja Modri Pinot Bela krajina winegrowing district 5 5 Dolenjska winegrowing district La{ki Rizling Sauvignon Beli Pinot Chardonnay Frankinja Modri Pinot 6 6 Bizeljsko-Sremi~ winegrowing district La{ki Rizling Sauvignon Beli Pinot Chardonnay Frankinja Rumeni Plavec @ametovka Modri Pinot 7 7 [marje-Vir{tanj winegrowing district La{ki Rizling Sauvignon Beli Pinot Chardonnay Frankinja Modri Pinot 8 8 Maribor winegrowing district La{ki Rizling R S R enski Rizling Sauvignon Beli Pinot ivi Pinot Chardonnay umeni Mu{kat Traminec 9 9 Radgona-Kapela winegrowing district La{ki Rizling Renski Rizling B [ipon Ranina eli Pinot Sivi Pinot Chardonnay Sauvignon Traminec 13 13 Lendavske gorice- Gori~ko winegrowing district La{ki Rizling [ipon Zeleni Silvanec Sauvignon Beli Pinot Chardonnay 14 14 La{ki Rizling [ipon Beli Pinot Chardonnay Sauvignon Renski Rizling Sivi Pinot Mu{kat Otonel Rumeni Mu{kat Traminec Ljutomer-Ormo` winegrowing district 12 12 Ptuj-Central Slovenske Gorice winegrowing district La{ki Rizling Renski Rizling [ipon Sauvignon Beli Pinot Chardonnay Rumeni Mu{kat Mu{kat Otonel Traminec Sivi Pinot 11 11 Haloze winegrowing district La{ki Rizling Renski Rizling [ipon Sauvignon Beli Pinot Chardonnay Rumeni Mu{kat Mu{kat Otonel Traminec Sivi Pinot 10 10 Primorska winegrowing region Winegrowing region border Winegrowing district border Wine road Wine cellar Vineyard area Superior winegrowing micro-district Other winegrowing micro-district Recommended varieties of grape in winegrowing district Posavje winegrowing region Podravje winegrowing region La{ki Rizling Sauvignon ... Pekre, Tr{ka gora Moravci, Vinji vrh KOG Winegrowing district © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Marjeta Natek, Drago Kladnik Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km of stock breeding, the difference in the number of cattle is even larger since the average European farm raises some six times more cattle per farm than the average Slovene farm. While in the period between 1981 and 1991 censuses the average size of farms in Slovenia did not change significantly, a period of moderate concentration of property and land began in the 1990's. In the period between the population census in 1991 and the Farm Census in 2000, the area of farm land in use thus increased by 0.7 hectares or a good 15%. The size structure of farms in Slovenia is practically incomparable with the size structure of farms in the European Union. Farms that have between five and ten hectares of farm land in use (25.5%) and farms that have between three and five hectares of farm land in use (21.0%) dominate. These farms comprise the foundation of agricultural production in Slovenia and manage some two thirds of all agri- cultural land in Slovenia. Along with this unfavourable structure, a major problem in Slovenia is also the considerable frag- mentation of property. It is interesting that in spite of various measures for greater land concentration, this fragmentation is even increasing. The data from land cadastres in Slovenia shows that on one hand the average size of parcels is continuing to decrease while on the other the average number of parcels per farm is increasing. The consequences of the unfavourable size structure of Slovene farms are evident in the social, eco- nomic, and production structure. Since the farms are too small to ensure the necessary income from farming alone, supplementary farms dominate. Only 20% of the farms in Slovenia are pure (full-time) farms. According to the data from the Farm Census in 2000, farming in Slovenia employs something over 100,000 full-time workers (annual working units/AWU), which means that the average farm in Slovenia employs almost 10% more A WU than the average farm in the European Union. The number of AWU per hectare of farm land reflects the low working efficiency in Slovene agriculture. On aver- age, four times more A WU are employed per hectare in Slovenia than in the European Union. Difficult production conditions, poorer technological equipment, a low level of professional skills among farm workers, and above all the extremely unfavourable socio-economic structure of farms all have a major influence on this. Conclusions Insufficient income for full employment and the corresponding unattractiveness of agriculture on the one hand and the immobility of production factors, primarily the land and the labour force on the other are the basic structural problems of agriculture in Slovenia. The increase of efficiency and com- petitiveness of agriculture is therefore the basic task of the agricultural structure policy, which also requires more explicit and target-oriented efforts by the country. The fact is that it is necessary to enlarge farms which are capable of development, improve their efficiency and increase general market orientation of agriculture. For this purpose, government poli- cy has numerous mechanisms at its disposal ranging from investment support and land policy to supporting market organization and the transfer of knowledge. In the restructuring of farms, the basic question arises of how and in what way to achieve improvement in the agrarian structure of farms in Slovenia. The real fact is that the country does not have many mechanisms for the effective general enlarge- ment of farms. Possible measures are either too large an intervention in legal regulations (limitation of land purchases or a restrictive tax policy) or very demanding measures relative to the budget (life annuities or subsidy on land renting. Here, the Fund for Agricultural Land and Forests must play an important role with more carefully planned work. 113 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 2: Winegrowing regions. p Cunder, T. 2001: Changing of agricultural structures in Slovenia. EU-Erweitugerung: Positionen der österreichischen unf europäischen Landwirtschaft: Sammelband zum 30. internationalen Symposium, veranstaltet von der Bundesanstalt für Agrarwirtschaft und dem Ökosozialen Forum Österreich am 7. und 8. Juni 2000, (Agrarische Rundschau, August 2001), Ökosoziales Forum Österreich: Bundesanstalt für Agrarwirtschaft, nr. August, p. 65–67, Wien. Dernulc, S., Ilja{, U., Kutin, B., Ore{nok, I., Cunde, T., Gole`, M., Juvan~i~, L. 2002: Popis kmetijskih gospodarstev, Slovenija 2000 (Agricultural census, Slovenia, 2000), (Rezultati raziskovanj, 15, Kmetijstvo in ribi{tvo, Agriculture and fishing, p. 777), Statisti~ni urad Republike Slovenije (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia), p. 256, Ljubljana. Rednak, M., Erjavec, E., Cunder, T. 1996: Ocena posledic ob morebitnem vstopu Slovenije v Evropsko unijo na ekonomski polo`aj kmetijstva na agregatni ravni (An assessment of the impact of possible Slovene accession into the European Union on the performance of agriculture as a whole). Sodobno kmetijstvo, 29, no. 9, p. 365–372, Ljubljana. 114 T oma` Cunder Characteristics of Agriculture in Slovenia Figure 3: Cultivated areas on gravel separate extensive patches of forest on conglomerate (photography Igor Maher). RURAL LANDSCAPES IN SLOVENIA Mimi Urbanc Drago Perko A small country in Central Europe, Slovenia nevertheless offers a variety of landscapes, and their diver- sity is remarkable relative to the size of the country. For natural geographical elements, the decisive factor was its location at the junction of major European landscape units, and for social geography elements, its location at the junction of different cultural spaces: Germanic, Romanic, Hungarian, and Slavic. Slovenia's cultural landscapes are distinguished by their diversity, their incorporation in the nat- ural environment, and high ecological and cultural-emotional value. The basic appearance of the landscapes was created in the Middle Ages, and this legacy is still quite evident. Economic and social developments in recent decades have triggered rapid changes in the appearance and function of the landscapes, especially the rural ones on which this article is focused. Rural landscapes comprise the greater part of Slovenia since built-up areas cover less than five percent of its surface and only the cap- ital city of Ljubljana has a population over 100,000 inhabitants. The Slovene language has two terms for »landscape«: »pokrajina« and »krajina«. A »pokrajina« is a spatial unit, part of the earth's surface, a region, a complex of landscape elements, primarily a con- cept taken from science, while »krajina« is the external appearance, aspect, landscape painting, physiognomy, primarily a concept taken from art. Thus, for example, geographers use the term »pokra- jina« while landscape architects use the term »krajina«, even though they mean the same thing with the two expressions (Perko 1998). A landscape painter is a »krajinar« in the Slovene language, his paint- ing is a »krajina«, and a landscape architect is a »krajinski arhitekt«, while the parts of Slovene territory, for example, the Julian Alps or Kras, are called »pokrajina«. Landscape types and regions The main natural characteristics of Slovenia's landscapes are determined by its location at the junc- ture of the Alps, the Pannonian plain, the Dinaric Mountains, and the Mediterranean. W e can distinguish four basic landscape types and nine landscape subtypes. The basic types are Alpine, Pannonian, Dinaric, and Mediterranean landscapes, while the subtypes are Alpine mountains, Alpine hills, Alpine plains, Pannonian low hills, Pannonian plains, Dinaric plateaus, Dinaric valleys or corrosion plains, Mediterranean low hills, and Mediterranean plateaus (Perko 1998; Urbanc 2002). Favourable natural conditions foster more rapid economic and social development and with it the intensive shaping and changing of the cultural landscape; unfavourable natural conditions limit human activity, life, and the spending of leisure time. Historical heritage of landscape development Slovenia's location at the junction of the Germanic, Slavic, Romanic, and Hungarian cultural spaces and the several millenniums of human settlement in its territory left deep traces on the landscape. The period of medieval colonization was particularly significant since during that time the landscape acquired its most basic features, which have been preserved to the present day with only minor changes. The legacy of this period is particularly evident in the shape and arrangement of settlements and the dis- 115 116 Mimi Urbanc, Drago Perko Rural Landscapes in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Cultural landscape types Alpine mountains Built-up areas Rural landscapes Urban landscapes Alpine hills Alpine plains Pannonian low hills Pannonian plains Dinaric plateaus Dinaric valley systems and corrosion plains Mediterranean low hills Mediterranean plateaus © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Drago Perko Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km tribution of cultivated fields. V arious state formations (Austria-Hungary, Yugoslavia, etc.), the admin- istrative measures linked with them, and the level of economic development reshaped natural landscapes into cultural landscapes. W e should also mention the recent years since independence dur- ing which extremely rapid and profound changes have taken place due to the changed economic and social situation. Rural landscapes and their elements that are today the subject of the greatest admiration (isolat- ed farms settlements high in the mountains, the varied forms of minute land division) are often the result of poverty or economic stagnation. The farmhouses characteristic of individual landscapes were constructed according to the existing level of technological development and were adapted to the dif- ferent needs of different people. Climate conditions also influenced the development of the landscape. At the end of the Middle Ages, winegrowing disappeared completely in Gorenjska (northwestern Slovenia) because the climate grew colder. Today, only local site names and place names testify to its existence (Blaznik 1970). The karst region is a typical example of the dilemmas linked to a cultural landscape. The Austrian authorities encouraged the deforestation of the karst region in the 18 th and 19 th centuries, an archetypal devaluation of a natural environment when the marvelous forests were replaced by the barren karst landscape (Ga{per{i~ 1995). However, it was precisely this barren karst landscape that not only carried the glories of karst phenomena into the world but also was the foundation for the for- mation of a unique cultural landscape. Reforestation in this case would mean the loss of natural and cultural values. The visual appearance of and changes to the cultural landscape are decisively dependent on the char- acteristics and development of agricultural production. This means that the concern for the cultural 117 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Cultural landscape types in Slovenia. p Figure 2: Technological developments greatly reduced the usefulness of the kozolec, which has become merely an ethnographic relict of past agriculture and is now threatened with extinction (photography Mimi Urbanc). 118 Mimi Urbanc, Drago Perko Rural Landscapes in Slovenia Figure 3: The original folk art that appears on the front panels of beehives is linked to beekeeping, a tra- ditional branch of Slovene agriculture (photography Jerneja Fridl). Figure 4: Ostrnice are thinner tree trunks with branches pushed into the ground on which hay is still dried in some Dinaric regions (photography Ale{ Smrekar). landscape is first and foremost connected with the agricultural policy of the government. From this viewpoint, the period following W orld War II must be mentioned in particular since it was marked by a negative attitude toward the farmer as a private producer and by measures regarding maximum land ownership due to which the average size of farms decreased. Only a small proportion of farmers were able to carry out modernization, not to mention that the proportion of rural population began to decrease rapidly. Simultaneously, a special class of people emerged: part-time farmers who sought extra income working in nearby factories. These people deserve credit that the countryside lived on and developed. These factors, however, prevented the normal development of Slovene agriculture (Klemen~i~ 1991), which – as a positive consequence – is reflected in the preservation of the particular cultural landscapes with which Slovenes are identified. Thus, administrative and political measures helped preserve Slovenia's cultural landscapes. The negative side of agriculture lagging behind other economic and social progress is evident in the abandoning of farmland, the aging of the rural population, the further frag- mentation of land, the small size of farms, and old-fashioned farming methods. Recent development and future prospects In recent decades, a laissez-faire approach began to appear that will continue, particularly after inclu- sion in the European Union. Free market policies will further accelerate the differentiation of the countryside, which is already acquiring clear outlines. In naturally more advantageous regions, inten- sive farming with large-scale cultivation is developing that requires large consolidated surface areas without interfering elements (e. g., hedges, free-standing trees, the traditional kozolec or hayrack). At the same time, the valleys and basins are centers of civilization where numerous activities intertwine and vari- ous users of the space compete with each other. First class agricultural land is disappearing due to 119 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 5: Stone walls that reflect the toil of past generations are collapsing in many areas due to the abandonment of farming and the subsequent overgrowth (photography Mimi Urbanc). expressways and the territorial growth of cities. Rural settlements are acquiring the status of suburbs, and the countryside as a whole is acquiring a different role since it is becoming a place of residence and recreation for the non-farming population. The boundaries between cities and the countryside are already quite indistinct in Slovenia. At the same time, the cultural landscape in the greater part of Slovenia is disintegrating, primarily in the low-hill and hill regions (Gabrovec, Kladnik 1997). A large- ly aging population remains on the farms, who are emotionally bound to the land and for the moment still maintain the appearance and function of the landscape with their work. However, further aban- donment of agricultural areas is to be expected in future since there are no young people except in areas closer to cities, and these no longer cultivate the land because their education allows them to work in better-paid non-farming jobs. The complete liberalization of the agricultural market would cause a con- siderable decrease in the number of farms and the gradual emptying of low-hill and remote regions and thus the loss of the identity of the countryside. Blaznik, P., Grafenauer, B., Vilfan, S. 1970: Gospodarska in dru`bena zgodovina Slovencev. Zgodovina agrarnih panog, D. 1, Agrarno gospodarstvo. Ljubljana. Ga{per{i~, F. 1995: Pogozdovanje Krasa. Enciklopedija Slovenije. Ljubljana. Gabrovec, M., Kladnik, D. 1997: Nekaj novih vidikov rabe tal v Sloveniji. Geografski zbornik 37. Ljubljana. Klemen~i~, V . 1991: T endence spreminjanja slovenskega pode`elja. Geografski vestnik 63. Ljubljana. Perko, D. 1998: The Regionalization of Slovenia. Geografski zbornik 38. Ljubljana. Urbanc, M. 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji. Geografija Slovenije 5. Ljubljana. 120 Mimi Urbanc, Drago Perko Rural Landscapes in Slovenia 121 Figure 1: Employment in Industry and Mining in 1961. p 122 Figure 2: Employment in Industry and Mining in 1991. p 123 Figure 3: Distribution of Industry in 1994. p 124 INDUSTRY , DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION Drago Kladnik Slovenia experienced three waves of industrialization: the first at the transition from the 19 th to the 20 th century, the second in the 1920's before the world economic crisis, and a third especially distinc- tive one after World War II (Vri{er 1998). The area of Slovenia already had several important mines and manufacturing workshops before the beginning of the industrial period. Along with metallurgy, glassworking was of great importance, based on rich forests and locations of silicate sand. The heralds of the industrial period were the coal mines, which were opened from the middle of the 18 th century until the beginning of the 19 th centu- ry; the first coal mine opened in 1752 in Zagorje ob Savi. Industrial companies in the narrow sense of the word began to appear in the first half of the 19 th cen- tury, first in the textile industry (Ajdov{~ina, Ljubljana, Prebold) and later with ironworks (Prevalje, Ravne na Koro{kem), a paper mill (Vev~e), and metalworking. Manufacturing operations using old production methods to produce metals, glass, cloth, linen, and leather either closed down or were forced to reform. Industrial production methods eventually became dominant in the second half of the 19 th centu- ry and the structure of the industrial sector diversified greatly. Along with ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy and metalworking, factories producing construction materials at brickworks, lime kilns, and a while later at cement factories and the furniture and lumber, chemical, textile, leather, food-pro- cessing, and tobacco industries played an important role. In 1852, there were 116 industrial companies in Carniola and the Slovene part of Styria, and in 1912 there were 441 companies with 30,230 employ- ees (Vri{er 1998). In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, industry in Slovenia experienced a new rise due to new markets and the poor industrialization in other parts of the country that continued until the world economic cri- sis in the 1930's. The most successfully developed were the textile, furniture and lumber, metallurgy, chemical, paper, and tire industries. In the areas that belonged to Italy at the time, the furniture and lumber and construction material industries were of greatest importance. After 1945, new and renovated factories were at first still primarily concentrated in the so-called »industrial crescent« that had formed before World War II. From Gorenjska, this crescent stretched via Ljubljana, Zasavje, Celje, and Maribor to the Me`i{ka V alley. Because regional disparities had increased, the planned industrialization of regional centers (Koper, Novo mesto, Nova Gorica, Murska Sobota, Ptuj, V elenje, Ko~evje) began at the end of the 1960's in accordance with a policy of polycentric devel- opment. Later, it was expanded to include numerous rural settlements (Vri{er 1998). This distribution of factories helped considerably in raising the standard of living in the countryside. Due to the increased level of employment and the modernization of the transportation network, daily commuting of the labour force from the countryside to industrial and other employment centers increased greatly (Figure 1 and 2). 122 Drago Kladnik Industry, Developmental Aspects of Industrialization A D R I A T I C S E A Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Proportion of labour force employed by cadastral municipality 10.0 to 19.9% 20.0 to 29.9% 30.0 to 39.9% 40.0 to 49.9% 50.0% and more 0.0% 0.1 to 9.9% © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Igor Vri{er, Drago Kladnik Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km 123 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview A D R I A T I C S E A Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Sava Bohinjka Sava Dolinka Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Proportion of labour force employed by cadastral municipality 10.0 to 19.9% 20.0 to 29.9% 30.0 to 39.9% 40.0 to 49.9% 50.0% and more 0.0% 0.1 to 9.9% © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Authors: Igor Vri{er, Drago Kladnik Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km 124 Drago Kladnik Industry, Developmental Aspects of Industrialization A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Semi~ Sladki Vrh Kromberk Kranjska Gora Mozirje Stari trg Nazarje Oti{ki Vrh Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Poljubinj Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko [tore Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Prevalje Polzela [o{tanj Vir Ribnica Ru{e Zre~e Kidri~evo Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Medvode Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec [empeter pri Gorici Postojna Bled Radovljica Lesce Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja Dravinja Dragonja Me`a Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Drava Mura Number of employees by industrial center 20 to 49 1t o1 9 50 to 99 100 to 199 200 to 499 500 to 999 1000 to 1999 5000 to 9999 2000 to 4999 10,000 to 19,999 20,000 and more Production of crushed rock, gravel, sand, and related construction materials Manufacture of lumber, wood products, paper, and paper products Manufacture of textiles and textile products Manufacture of fur, footwear, and leather products Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco Publishing, printed matter, production and manufacture of secondary raw materials, manufacture of miscellaneous products Manufacture of electrical machinery and appliances Metalworking, machinery construction, vehicle production, and shipbuilding Quarrying and manufacture of nonmetallic minerals Fferrous and nonferrous metallurgy Coal mining and production of petroleum derivatives Electric power production Manufacture of chemicals, chemical products, and rubber Branches of industry © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Igor Vri{er Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Modern aspects of industrialization In spite of modern development trends, industry remains one of the most important economic activ- ities. It employs a third of the active population and contributes more than a quarter of the GDP (26.8% in 2001, rising to 33.0% in 1990) (Statistical Yearbook 2004). In the last few decades, the branch structure of industry experienced substantial changes. Some branches, ferrous metallurgy and coal mining in particular, became less important even though they played a leading role until the 1960's, and at the same time, new activities appeared such as the elec- tro-technical and machinery industries. The structure of industry was further diversified by numerous new branches such as the automobile, pharmaceutical, and clothing industries that did not exist in Slovenia before World War II. With the independence of Slovenia in 1991 and the introduction of the market economy, the major- ity of industrial companies found themselves in difficulty due to the loss of the major part of their extensive market in the former common country, the restructuring of production, the lack of investment funds, and privatization, but many companies have gradually managed to overcome these problems. Some went bankrupt, many were sold off plant by plant, and others were partly or entirely bought by for- eigner entrepreneurs or simply ceased operation. Simultaneously, some Slovene companies reoriented production to Balkan or Eastern European countries offering cheaper labour. In spite of distinct restructuring and individual successful companies, Slovene industry is still pre- vailingly extensive with too many employees, insufficiently orientated to foreign markets, technologically outdated in many branches, and has insufficient capital for investment, in some cases even for ensur- ing uninterrupted production. In general, low productivity and lack of innovation still characterize Slovene industry. The largest number of people were employed in Slovene industry in 1986, when factories employed 392,237 people and the extent of industrial production was greatest (graph). The economic crisis fol- lowing the disintegration of Yugoslavia and the rationalization in employment due to attempts to increase productivity between 1990 and 1994 caused a significant decrease in the number of work places. In June 1993, Slovene industry employed 263,432 people, some 120,000 less than in the 1980's. Industrial companies were located in 515 settlements, and there were few very large centers with more than 5,000 people employed. This number was exceeded only by the seven largest cities of Ljubljana, Maribor, Velenje, Kranj, Novo mesto, Celje, and Murska Sobota (Vri{er 1998). In the process of industrialization, individual industrial agglomerations were formed since indus- try as a rule established links and concentrates in locations with adequate infrastructure, transportation access, skilled manpower, or available natural resources. The largest agglomerations were the Ljubljana area (33,321 workers employed in industry), the Maribor area (23,000), V elenje with [o{tanj (12,349), and the Kranj area (12,327); in seven agglomerations, factories employed more than 5,000 workers; and in another 16, more than 2,000 workers (Figure 3). After Slovenia's independence, employment in industry dropped sharply. In 1995, industry employed only 240,685 people or 40.9% of all employed in the country, and by 2000, the number of people, employed in industry had dropped to only 203,486. However, the number increased somewhat to 211,958 in 2001. According to the number of people employed in the industry, the most important industrial branches in 1999 were the textile and leather industry (23,717), metallurgy (18,303), electro-technical (15,764), machinery (14,361), and food-processing (12,557); other branches employed less than 10,000 workers. Industry as a factor in environmental burdening Slovene industry was all too much based on the concept of industrial development from the first half of the 20 th century characterized by the planned development of basic industrial branches that would 125 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview create possibilities for the development of light processing industries devoted to the production of con- sumer goods. It was therefore not capable of adapting to modern trends of industrial transformation based on innovation, research and development, and the demanding technologies based on the use of science in production, automation, biochemistry, and information technology. Therefore, in spite of several more favourable indicators, the negative effects of environmental degra- dation are still present to a large degree. The most affected areas with barren areas are the Me`i{ka V alley, the [ale{ka V alley, Zasavje's »^rni revir« area, and the eastern part of the lower Savinja V alley. It is esti- mated that some three quarters of the environment devastation is attributable to industry (Vri{er 1998). Rivers were polluted more than average by leather factories ([o{tanj, Slovenj Gradec, Slovenske Konjice, Kamnik, [martno pri Litiji, Vrhnika), which in the last decade for various reasons either closed down and stopped production or reoriented their production. The contamination of the environment with poisonous PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) between 1962 and 1985 by the Iskra condensers factory in Semi~ can be marked as a catastrophe. Environmentally, the factory producing organic acids in Ilirska Bistrica was very problematic, dump- ing its toxic waste into the karst Reka River, which has a limited self-cleansing ability, and endangering the [kocjan Caves, which only after the closure of the factory could be added to the UNESCO List of World Natural and Cultural Heritage Sites. Fi{er, J., Vri{er, I. 1990: Industrializacija. Enciklopedija Slovenije, 4. Ljubljana, Mladinska knjiga, p. 128–139. Kladnik, D. 2002: Industrializacija. Nesre~e in varstvo pred njimi. Uprava RS za za{~ito in re{evanje Ministrstva za obrambo. Ljubljana, p. 117–127. Statisti~ni letopis 2004. Ljubljana, Statisti~ni urad republike Slovenije. Vri{er, I. 1992: Industrialization of Slovenia. GeoJournal, 27/4, Dodrecht, Boston, London, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 365–370. Vri{er, I. 1998: Industrializacija. Geografija Slovenije. Ljubljana, Slovenska matica, p. 401–427. Vri{er, I. 1998: Industrija. Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana, Dr`avna zalo`ba Slovenije, p. 220–225. 126 Drago Kladnik Industry, Developmental Aspects of Industrialization 0 50 100 150 200 250 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 leto employment production Indexes of employment and production in industry Figure 4: Indexes of employment and production in industry. GATEW AY TO WESTERN, CENTRAL, AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE Andrej ^erne Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, Slovenia can be marked as a very diverse country that has an advantage mostly due to its favourable geographical location, relatively suc- cessful market economy, political and economic stability, industrial tradition, highly skilled labour force, and relatively high quality natural and cultural environment. For centuries, the territory of Slovenia has been crossed by traditional transportation routes con- necting northern Europe with southern, eastern, and western Europe. Slovenia's location in the northwestern part of the Mediterranean's most inland bay on the Adriatic Sea where the Alps, the plateaus of the Dinaric Alps, and the western margins of the Pannonian Basin meet gives is a relatively quite advantageous traffic and geographical position distinguished by its transitional character and the links between these geographical regions. In the wider macroregional sense, this transitional character and these links have not changed since prehistoric times. Slovenia's location significantly influenced the outline of the traffic network, which adapted to requirements regarding the choice and quality of indi- vidual routes, safety, possibilities for overcoming natural obstacles, construction technology, and last but not least, to the prevailing means of overcoming distances by transportation methods whether via pedestrian traffic, caravans and horseback riders, wagons, the railway network, or the modern plan- ning of expressways. With the development of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe and the expansion of the European Union, these historic connections have today acquired new significance. From the transportation and geographical point of view, Slovenia is a territory that enables improving the transit character of Europe's transportation network with the further construction of missing sections and the modern- ization of existing sections of European traffic corridors in order to achieve the greatest possible economic and spatial integration effects. Through an appropriately developed transportation infrastructure, Slovenia ensures relatively suitable conditions for linking the European Union with the more important urban centers in W estern, Central, Southeastern, and Eastern Europe. Given its geographical position, the Port of Koper, modern transportation infrastructure, and the strategic orientation and economic trends of Slovenia, its neighbouring countries, and the member countries of the European Union, Slovenia is a »gateway« to Central and Southeastern Europe. The data on international borders and cross-border traffic says much about the geostrategic, traf- fic-geographical position, and the border and transit character of Slovene territory. In 2002, almost 171 million passengers crossed Slovenia's borders, including 167 million by road, 2.1 million by rail- way, 1.6 by sea, and just under one million by air. In the same year, in border traffic of goods transported by road alone, 33 million tons of goods crossed the Slovene border, including 22 million tons in tran- sit, 6.5 million tons imported, and 4.6 million tons of goods exported. For the neighbouring countries of Austria, Italy, Hungary, and Croatia, the territory of Slovenia is not just a transit territory across which they wish to establish traffic connections with European urban regions and their economic areas but also a destination area, where they wish to expand the gravita- tion influence of their important urban centers. The territory of Slovenia represents an important crossroads of main traffic routes between Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary, and between the three Central-European ports of Trieste, Reka, and Koper. Austria's priority traffic orientation is to the Port of Koper and the north-south land direction con- nected with it, which to a great extent is also bound to the Slovene economic space. The south direction 127 follows, while the west direction toward Italy has the least priority because Austria already has quali- tative traffic connections with Italy. Croatia's establishing as direct traffic connections as possible, mostly via Zagreb, with important urban centers in W estern Europe to a large degree also occurs via Ljubljana: Zagreb–Rijeka–T rieste, Zagreb–Maribor–Graz–Vienna–Berlin, Zagreb–Ljubljana–Villach. Italy's pri- ority traffic direction via Slovene territory is oriented toward the countries of Eastern and Southeastern Europe. The strategic interest of Hungary appears in its priority orientation to the Port of Koper and also the Port of Rijeka in Croatia. The Port of Koper, whose 20% share represents the transit traffic of goods, has a major impact on international traffic and connecting countries from different parts of Europe. This direction is followed by the orientation toward Italy, which is to a lesser degree destina- tion oriented into Slovenia. However, Slovenia's orientation in establishing traffic connections has different priorities. The most important is the north direction toward Austria and Germany, which are priority economic markets for Slovenia. The second most important direction is west toward Italy, which is also a very important economic partner for Slovenia. In the long term, traffic directions toward the east and south are very promising and have great prospects. Among them belongs the Port of Koper, which is of distinct inter- national and intercontinental importance (Guli~ 1999). The Port of Koper lies in the northernmost part of the Adriatic, and ships sailing to the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal can save five to ten days or up to 3,700 kilometers over using the North Sea access to Central Europe. From the viewpoint of the global interests of neighbouring countries and the existing and newly-created forms of economic cooperation in Eastern Europe, the transportation infrastructure net- work in Slovenia is most suitable in particular for Italy and Hungary. Both countries are interested in connecting the Po and Pannonian basins. As one of the most developed countries, Italy sees the future of its economic expansion in a breakthrough on the markets of Central and Eastern Europe. Hence its initiative and support of the Central European initiative, and in this framework, also the idea of the Barcelona–Trieste–Ljubljana–Budapest traffic connection. Hungary wishes to play a more important role in this newly forming economic cooperation between East and W est. The proposed priority solu- tions of the southwest-northeast connections partly oppose the interests of Croatia, which has its optimal traffic connections toward Western and Central Europe oriented via Slovenia. Several international connections important for development and traffic run across the territory of Slovenia, including two of the seven trans-European development and traffic corridors: • Northwest-southeast: London, Brussels, Frankfurt, Munich, Salzburg, Villach, Jesenice, Ljubljana, Zagreb, Belgrade, Ni{, Istanbul or Athens; Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Linz, Graz, [entilj, Maribor, Ptuj, Zagreb, Rijeka or the Balkan peninsula; • Southwest-northeast: Barcelona, Milan, Ljubljana, Maribor, Budapest, Kiev. European development corridors V and X cross on the territory of Slovenia, forming two impor- tant development axes of Europe. Corridor V establishes the Southern European development axis (Sunbelt), connecting countries from Spain to Ukraine. On this corridor are located the most impor- tant million-resident urban centers and traffic nodes of Barcelona, Milan, Zagreb, Budapest, and Kiev. Corridor X forms one of the most important development axes in the north-south direction and con- nects countries from Austria to Greece and Turkey. The most important urban and traffic nodes on this corridor are the million-resident metropolises of Munich, Vienna, Zagreb, Belgrade, Athens, and Istanbul. The routes of corridors V and X across the territory of Slovenia shows that they have their start and end points in Koper and an important traffic intersection in Ljubljana. These international traffic connections compose the so-called »Slovene traffic cross«, two highly developed traffic corridors intended as an intermodal and integral traffic system since they connect the road, railway, air, and maritime traffic included in the integral European traffic network. In the spa- tial sense, internal, interregional, and regional passenger and goods railway traffic is therefore extremely heavily concentrated on these two basic directions through Slovenia: the southwest-northwest Koper–Lju- bljana–Maribor–[entilj–Murska Sobota direction and the northwest-southeast Jesenice–Ljubljana– 128 Andrej ^erne Gateway to Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe Dobova direction. More than a half of all the traffic in Slovenia flows over 14% of the traffic network in the direction of the expressways, that is, on the Slovene traffic cross. Slovenia has been included in the joint European development policy since 1993. The strategy of development for the Slovene railway infrastructure was formed in the second half of the 1970's on the basis of the Perspective Plan for the Development of the European Railway Infrastructure (UIC), the European Agreement on Most Important International Railway Lines (UN-ECE) in the middle of the 1980's, the European Agreement on Most Important Lines of International Combined T raffic and Corresponding Installations (AGTC) at the end of the 1980's, and the European Network of Railway Lines for High Velocities (GEB) at the beginning of the 1990's (Analiza 2000). With 1.99 million inhabitants, an average density of 98 inhabitants per square kilometers, and about 6,000 settlements, in 2002 Slovenia was crisscrossed by 1,202 kilometers of railway lines (the proportion of electrified lines totals 42%) and 20,250 kilometers of roads including 457 kilometers of expressways, 94 ilometers of highways, 983 kilometers of main roads, 4,815 kilometers of region- al roads, and 13,901 kilometers of local roads (Statistical Yearbook 2003). Relative to the density of railway network per surface area, with 59 km/1,000 km 2 Slovenia was above the European Union aver- age, and relative to the density of railway lines, it ranks at the very top with 604km/million inhabitants. Table 1: Comparison of Slovenia with Italy and Austria in the field of railway and road infrastructure in 2000. Country Area Population Density of Length of Density of Density of % of Length of (× 1,000 km 2 ) population/ railway railway railway lines electrifiedexpressways* km 2 lines lines km/million railway in km km/1000 km 2 inhabitants lines Austria 83.9 8.1 97 6,281 74.86 775.43 60 1,634 Italy 301.3 57.7 191 16,499 54.76 285.94 66 6,478 Slovenia 20.3 1.9 98 1,201 59.16 603.52 42 427 *1999; Source: Statistical Yearbook 2002. On the basis of the relatively dense traffic network, a narrower traffic gravitation area for Slovenia developed that includes: Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Austria, and Germany, and a wider traffic gravitation area encompassing also Poland, Romania, Russia, Benelux, France, Switzerland, and Albania. With traffic across Slovenia, countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Monte Negro, Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria are connected with Central and Western Europe. All these facts have an important impact on the structure and spatial course of the traffic network and traffic flows. Approximately 90% of passenger traffic (number of trips) takes place within the coun- try, 7% are destination-origin trips with their destination or origin in the country, and 3% are transit trips with the destination and origin outside the country. On the basis of passenger kilometers, approx- imately 85% of traffic is internal and approximately 15% is transit and destination-origin passenger traffic. This situation is to a larger degree characteristic of private automobile traffic, while with pub- lic transportation, the proportion of transit and destination-original traffic is lower. Thus, internal traffic prevails on the roads, specifically passenger traffic. In passenger traffic, almost two thirds (62.5%) of the mileage goes to private automobiles (passenger kilometers), 30.1% to public transportation, and 7.5% to railway traffic (air and sea traffic are not considered). The major part of passenger traffic therefore goes to automobile traffic, which is also on the increase. On the roads, private automobile transportation dominates, and in passenger traffic, almost two thirds 129 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 130 Andrej ^erne Gateway to Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Savinja Mislinja Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura Expressway Road network Rail network Aviation network Maritime network Border crossings Major road Regional road Road tunnel International airport border crossing International maritime border crossing International rail border crossing International road border crossing Interstate road border crossing Major line Regional line Electrified line Double track line Single track line Railway tunnel International airport Sport airport Shipping port Marina © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 1995 Authors: Andrej ^erne, Stanko Pelc Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km 131 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview goes to private automobiles (passenger kilometers). The ratio between private and public passenger traffic shows that 60% of all passengers used cars and 40% used means of public transportation in 1977. T oday, it is estimated that the number of those who use cars is about 70% and the proportion of those who use means of public transportation is only about 30%. Table 3: Proportion of passenger traffic by type of transport between 1995 and 2001 (millions of passen- gers carried). Type of transport 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 City 53.4 55.5 56.11 65.3 57.2 59.0 54.6 Public roads 41.8 39.5 38.9 38.2 37.2 33.8 37.5 Railway 4.6 4.8 4.8 5.2 5.3 6.8 7.5 Air 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 Source: Statistical Yearbook 2002. More than 90% of internal public passenger traffic is carried by buses (55% city and suburban traf- fic, 45% interurban traffic), while 9% is carried by the railway. According to the purpose of trips, the proportion of daily migration is relatively high since 70% of all employed Slovenes commute to work daily. School children comprise about half the daily migration. Half of the commuters take public bus Table 2: Passengers carried and passenger kilometers in road and railway traffic between 1995 and 2001. Passengers carried (× 1,000) Passenger kilometers (× million) Road traffic Railway traffic Road traffic Railway traffic 1995 121,573 13,307 2,507 595 1996 113,411 13,683 2,348 613 1997 109,801 13,568 2,195 616 1998 102,561 13,907 2,098 645 1999 96,573 13,756 1,940 623 2000 74,560 15,010 1,581 705 2001 72,504 14,484 1,470 715 Source: Statistical Yearbook 2002. Table 4: Proportion of goods traffic according to type of transportation between 1995 and 2001. Type of transport 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Railway 66.3 62.6 64.6 66.1 66.8 65.3 64.7 Public road 19.8 21.6 20.4 19.5 18.5 19.3 20.2 Sea 13.9 15.8 15.0 14.4 14.3 15.4 15.1 Source: Statistical Yearbook 2002 Figure 1: Transportation network in 1996. p transportation, a good third take automobiles, and a quarter take the railway. Almost 70% of all pop- ulation has good access to the bus network, and a good half to the railway network. Regrettably, some areas still have extremely poor access to public transportation (^erne 2002). Characteristic of road goods traffic is the relatively high proportion of internal traffic and the small proportion of transit and destination-origin traffic, although the latter has increased in the last few years. On the railway, transit and destination-origin traffic dominates, while the proportion of inter- nal traffic is smaller. In the field of goods traffic, the ratio between road and railway expressed in tons of goods carried is 77:23, and expressed in net ton kilometers, 58:42 in favour of road traffic. Table 5: Goods traffic in road and railway traffic between 1995 and 2001. Internal transport (× 1,000 t) International transport (× 1,000 t) Net-ton kilometers (× million) Road Railway Road Railway Road Railway 1995 2,667 1,752 1,769 13,141 1,740 3,076 1996 2,714 1,811 1,831 11,344 1,705 2,550 1997 2,681 1,600 1,841 12,760 1,775 2,852 1998 2,334 1,591 1,905 12,805 1,903 2,852 1999 1,974 1,751 2,051 12,475 1,874 2,784 2000 2,146 2,028 2,323 13,036 2,090 2,857 2001 2,133 1,700 2,523 13,219 2,267 2,837 Source: Statistical Yearbook 2002. More than 90% of internal and 63% of international goods traffic flows on the roads. More than a half of the goods traffic across Slovene territory runs on the railway. From the international view- point, the proportion of goods transported via railway in Slovenia is relatively high. Here, the Port of Koper plays an extremely important role since three quarters of all the goods arriving at the Port of Koper are carried by railway. Of this traffic, the proportion of transit traffic is almost two thirds, most of which goes to or comes from Austria (26%), Hungary (15%), and the Czech Republic (8%) (^erne 2002). Analiza razvojnih mo`nosti prometne infrastrukture v prostoru. (2000) Strokovne podlage Ministrastva za promet za Prostorski plan Slovenije. /http:/ /www.sigov.si/mpz/2kabinet/1k.html. ^erne, A. 2002: Analiza stanja in razvojnih trendov prostorskega razvoja Republike Slovenije. Raziskovalna naloga, Znanstveni in{titut Filozofske fakultete, Oddelek za geografijo, Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Urad RS za prostorsko planiranje, Ljubljana. Guli~, A., Plevnik, A. 1999: Zasnova prometne infrastrukture v prostorskem planu Republike Slovenije. Zaklju~no poro~ilo projekta, Urbanisti~ni in{titut Republike Slovenije, Ljubljana. Statisti~ni letopis 2002. Statisti~ni urad Republike Slovenije, 2003, Ljubljana. 132 Andrej ^erne Gateway to Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe THE RECOVERY OF TOURISM IN SLOVENIA Anton Gosar The European political map at the dawn of the 21 st century is characterized by: • emerging new nation-states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, The Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro); • self-proclaimed entities (The Republic of Northern Cyprus), • entities constructed by the international community (the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the inter-entity division within) • areas which have been placed under short (Albania, Macedonia) or long term international protec- torate, or a form of it (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo); • the strengthening of the Atlantic core region due to the unified currency (Euro), the enlargement of the Euro-Atlantic security area (NATO) and the enlargement of the nation-state federation of the European Union with new member states: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, The Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Malta and Cyprus. Along with the political and economic disruptions, linked also to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the transition from communism to democracy, and from the socialist to market economy, the Southeastern Europe – including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and Slovenia, as an entity of former Yugoslavia – experienced worst times in tourism industry's history ever. As a destination, Southeastern Europe is and was lagging behind western destinations based on mea- surements of visitor arrivals, tourism amenities and receipts. With the exception of Ex-Yugoslavia, which was among the 10 most visited countries of the world in the 1980's, all other countries of the area, includ- ing Greece, can not be lined up along such giants as France, Spain or Italy. At this point we are not going 133 Table 1.: International Inbound Tourism – Number of Tourists (in 1000). Country/Y ear 1967 1977 1987 1997 2002 Albania – – – 28 49 Bosnia and Herzegovina 170 250 394 11 97 Bulgaria* 1783 4570 7594 1322 2560 Croatia 2083 3853 5621 4178 6544 Greece* 879 3961 7564 10070 14033 Macedonia 94 215 221 219 230 Romania* 1451 3685 5142 2957 3300 Slovenia 678 877 1137 616 1302 Serbia & Montenegro 718 1190 1272 156 560 Southeastern Europe 7856 18601 28945 16742 28675 * foreign citizens counted as tourists at border-posts in 1000 (all other countries count visitors as tourist as they spend one night in tourist amenities) Source: OMT Annuaire de Satitistique du Tourisme / WTO Yearbook of Tourism Statistics / OMT Annuario de Estadisticas del Tourismo, WTO Headquarter, Madrid, 1980, 1990, 1999, 2003; Statisticki godisnjak SFRJ (Statistical Yearbook of the SFR Yugoslavia), Belgrade, 1970. to question published hard data, statistics and the methodology being used. But it is worthwhile to men- tion that most countries of the region register tourists as such at border-posts, as they declare their intention accordingly. In the area of Ex-Yugoslavia, new nation-states follow the tradition of count- ing tourists as they registers at the first amenity (bed-nights). In terms of visitor arrivals, several indicators give some insight into this region's current standings and trends. The former Yugoslav republics experienced extreme growth in the 1980's. In particular the Mediterranean part (Eastern Adriatic) the coasts of Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro have experienced growth similar to Spain (Gosar 1989). Between 1991 and 1995, tourism collapsed completely. Ethnic violence and war have stopped most of international arrivals. What was one of the world leader as far as international tourism destinations is concerned, found in the late 1990's its tourist industry strug- gling. Where peace was established relatively soon, as in Slovenia, the present-day situation (arrivals and receipts) is finally comparable to the mid – 1980's, as close to 90% visits in the most prosperous year are registered. Their, In Slovenia, the past development is reconsidered, new goals are set and new tourism policies are implemented (Mihali~, Sir{e). Table 2: Southeastern Europe: Growth of International Tourism (in 1000). Country/Y ear Index 1977/1967 Index 1987/1977 Index 1997/1987 Index 2007/1997 2007* Albania – – – 151 74 Bosnia and Herzegovina 147 158 3 1322 146 Bulgaria 1783 4570 7594 1322 3840 Croatia 2083 3853 5621 4178 9816 Greece 879 3961 7564 10070 21050 Macedonia 94 215 221 219 531 Romania 1451 3685 5142 2957 4950 Slovenia 678 877 1137 616 2929 Serbia & Montenegro 718 1190 1272 156 1260 The Balkans 7856 18601 28945 16742 43013 * = related to WTO estimations. The Case of Slovenia Before the breakup of Yugoslavia, Slovenia's tourist economy played a major middle-man role in distributing visitors to the Adriatic. Slovenian based Ex-Yugoslavia's travel agencies, like KOMPAS, with its headquarters in Ljubljana, had in the 1980's a share of close to 43% of package tours and organized leisure stays in the Northern-Adriatic (Istrian Peninsula and the Kvarner Bay). With major links to the German tour-operators, like Neckermann, TUI and others, they succeeded in dominating the region- al travel industry in its most vital part, namely, in the area where the Mediterranean meets the European population axis (50° N) at its shortest distance. In times of the young automobile society, as leisure trav- el by air was less then rare and overseas resort almost non-existent, the geopolitical locality close to the consumer population and, at the same time, on the edge of the western world was of an outstanding importance. Slovenia's travel agencies soon became major tour operators in the Eastern Mediterranean and in Central Europe. British and American markets responded enthusiastically as the bus tours offered included the Balkans, and its most diverse part Bosnia, the area of the former Habsburg Empire (Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia), as well as the Catholic, Orthodox and Muslim worlds (Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and Turkey) on both sides of the Iron curtain combined. 134 Anton Gosar The Recovery of T ourism in Slovenia Slovenian companies invested also, with profit in mind, into hotels, marinas and other infrastructure in several republics of the former federation. The famous pilgrimage town of Medjugorje in Bosnia and Herzegovina received unrestricted Slovenian support, as it developed its hotel/motel infrastruc- ture. On Dubrovnik's major hotel area Lapad, the first hotel built in the early stage of modern tourism was a Slovenian development. No doubt, that Slovenia, the richest republic of the former multi-eth- nic federation, discovered the significance of tourism for its own and Ex-Yugoslavia's national economy in its early stage. Being rarely a final tourist destination, Slovenia accommodated itself to the fact that visitors most often just crossed the area towards places in the Mediterranean. Slovenia had 135 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Shooting rapids on So~a River (photography Jurij Senega~nik). Table 3.: Slovenia: Tourist Visits and Bed-Nights, 1965–2000. Y ear All visits No. visits No. visits All bed-nights Bed-nights Bed-nights (in 000) (in 000) (in 000) (in 000) (in 000) (in 000) National Foreign National Foreign 1965 743 483 2.617 1.433 1970 973 807 2.529 2.301 1975 1.311 841 3.854 2.590 1980 1.509 869 4.976 2.795 1985 1.697 1.056 5.093 3.729 1990 1.442 1.095 4.283 3.673 1995 844 732 3.448 2.435 2000 Source: Letopis SR Slovenije (Yearbook of Statistical Data on Slovenia), Ljubljana, 1970–1998. around 10% of the visits/overnights in former Yugoslavia. In the 1970's foreign tourists visiting Slovenia spent 3.1 days in exploring Slovenia, whereas visits to the Croatian coastal communes were an aver- age three-times longer (see above). Slovenia had, just before the breakup of Yugoslavia, close toa total of one hundred thousand beds but 89% of them were located in just 13 out of 66 Slovenian communes (Jer{i~ 1992). These were located along the major traffic and tourist transfer axis, which lead visitors from the Austrian border in the north to the border with Croatia in the south and constituted the back- bone of the tourist industry within Slovenia in the years 1965–1991. In 1986, in the peak year of Slovene tourism (2.821.000 guests, 9.213,000 overnights) 1.051,000 foreign visitors visited Slovenia. Predominantly the Slovene Littoral (58%) was popular among foreign guests. Surely Slovenes could succeed in attract- ing more foreign guests into Slovene Alps or into spa-resorts, where the combined share of foreign visitors was close to 39%, if they would promote resources and offer appropriate recreation and accommoda- tion facilities. A detailed survey of data in 1986 showed that out of 2.5 million tourist overnights in the Alps (27% of all) only one fourth were made in hotels, motels and boarding-houses (»penzioni«) (Gosar 1989). The conflicts on the Balkan peninsula have had an effect on both accommodation capacity and the structure of visits to Slovenia (T able 5, 6, 7)! The tragedy of the war was, at the same time, an impulse and a start of a re-thinking process in the tourism economy of the nation. Statistical data show that the pre-war path in tourism has already been changed at several levels of the tourist industry. A reduc- tion of available beds and the increase of quality of tourist amenities was set in 1993 already. Several new resources, in particular spas, gambling and diverse rural establishments (Barbi~ 1995; Drozg 1993), have increased the mosaic of Slovenia's tourist amenities at the end of the 1980's. The necessity for the change in the tourism policy resulted mainly from the new geopolitical reality in the region! Table 4.: Slovenia: Accommodation Type and Occupancy. Y ear Accommodation Accommodation Y early Occupancy Y early Occupancy All in Hotels All in Hotels 1965 42,546 16,349 26% 43% 1970 69,819 30,633 21% 44% 1975 67,437 30,080 26% 46% 1980 71,927 28,850 29% 47% 1985 82,772 27,399 28% 46% 1990 91,215 27,532 24% 44% 1991 74,964 28,274 18% 29% 1995 72,853 33,878 22% 33% 2000 Source: Letopis R Slovenije (Yearbook of Statistical Data on Slovenia), Ljubljana, 1970–2003. The break-up of Yugoslavia and the hostilities that followed and continued for five years in the neigh- borhood of Slovenia have had a disastrous impact on Slovenian tourism. The government of Slovenia issued a statement claiming a direct loss of 122 million US Dollars in tourism. The long term estimated loss was put at 316 million USD (Mihali~ 1995). Today, tourism experts consider the estimate of the losses as very low. In 1992 Slovenian tourism had reached, in term of nights spent in tourist ameni- ties, just 55.3% of its peak year 1986. In 1996 the Slovenian tourist market recovered to 65.3% of the visits and 73.3% of the bed-nights. Hotels showed an average yearly occupancy index of 33% over the period 1991–1996, a drastic fall to the 1986 figure of 47%. Spas were less affected by the reduced num- ber of visitors (occupancy index 54.2%). Comparison of statistical data shows the interest in visiting 136 Anton Gosar The Recovery of T ourism in Slovenia 137 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Table 5.: Slovenia: Tourists According to Residency (in 000). Y ear Domestic Guests Foreign Visitors to Slovenia Slovenia Ex-Yugoslavia Austria Italy Germany United Kingdom 1965 393 351 86 98 90 38 1970 543 539 110 217 235 45 1975 582 628 99 146 219 31 1980 658 850 77 132 273 30 1985 749 948 97 166 292 87 1990 651 789 87 282 227 82 1991 687 344 38 97 48 8 1995 845 125 117 160 136 14 2000 Source: Letopis SR Slovenije (Yearbook of Statistical Data on Slovenia), Ljubljana, 1970–1998. Table 6.: Slovenia: Tourists According to Regions Visited, 1990–2000. 1990 1995 2000 2002 Resorts T ourists Bed-Nights T ourists Bed-Nights T ourists Bed-Nights T ourists Bed-Nights Spa Resorts – The Pannonian 289 1,823 340 1,885 418 2,113 485 2,327 Lowland % Foreign 29% 26% 27% 27% 32% 30% 38% 36% Coastal Resorts – The 450 2,102 370 1,663 475 1,884 510 2,052 Mediterranean % Foreign 58% 66% 43% 38% 49% 48% 54% 53% Mountain Resorts– 601 2,117 441 1,443 523 1,613 566 1,749 The Alps % Foreign 46% 52% 42% 46% 57% 61% 64% 67% Ljubljana – The State 1,142 1,790 406 846 515 1,047 568 1,117 Capitol % Foreign 39% 38% 69% 73% 78% 79% 81% 80% Other Destination 54 123 20 47 26 63 32 76 % Foreign 37% 29% 60% 60% 65% 56% 69% 62% Slovenia 2,537 7,956 1,578 5,883 1,957 6,719 2,162 7,321 % Foreign 43% 46% 46% 41% 56% 51% 60% 55% Source: Letopis R Slovenije (Yearbook of Statistical Data on Slovenia), Ljubljana, 1970–2003. Slovenia heavily reduced in particular in traditional markets like Germany (–55.1%), United Kingdom (–86.4%) and the Netherlands (–82.8%). With the exception of Germany (recovery up to 67.8% of 1990), no improvements were shown by 1996. Neighboring Austrians enlarged their presence by more than a third, whereas Slovenes doubled their share in nights spent in tourist amenities from 25.6% in 1990 up to 60.5% in 1992 and 49.8% in 1996. The reduction of the income from of tourism was not as dras- tical as one would conclude out of the above statements. In 1989 US$ 657,839.000 were earned of tourism. In 1992 the income was just for a mere 2.6% lower (US$ 640.933.000) and 1996 showed earnings of US$ 1.221,735.000 (Zorko 1997). These result were due in particular to accomplishments in the gam- bling and duty-free segments of the tourist economy. The development strategy of the new nation-state put in 1994 priorities in tourism mostly within the field of education, research and promotion. At the same time it strongly suggested the need to improve the quality of services and of the general infrastructure (road construction), and has stated concerns regarding the environment in general. This paper has no intention of discussing the broad spectrum of these topics. It can report that a general trend towards improvement on every subject named above is well under way. By 2002 Slovenia will gain 318 kilometers of four lane highways, just to name the major projects of the state. Along with the general statement, the document discussed outlined five spe- cial segments of the tourist economy as goals for the next development period: • the development of new and reconstruction of existing spa-resorts (East Slovenia being East Central Europe's richest mineral/thermal water region); • the promotion of past cultural imprints, in particular in cities (traces of the Roman Empire's and several later states and cultures heritage can be found); • the realization of the »sustainable tourism« idea, in particular in Slovenia's alpine and karstic moun- tainous area (the South-Eastern Alps are the least developed area of the alpine bow (the T riglav National Park); Slovenia's landscape cover consists mostly of forests (52%) – it is in this regard the richest European country, other than Nordic countries); 138 Anton Gosar The Recovery of T ourism in Slovenia Figure 2: The Portoro` marina is one of the largest on the Adriatic Sea (photography Marjan Garbajs). • the improvement of tourist amenities and the opening of new attractions (casinos) in the area of the Mediterranean, close to the major consumer population (Italy); • the improvement and intensification of the crossborder flow (duty-free shops) and development of regional, transnational tourist areas – especially in the triangle Italy, Austria, Slovenia /Tromeja – das Dreilaendereck – T re Confini/ – being candidate for Winter Olympics in 2006 (Dolgan - Petri~, 1997). Table 7.: Slovenia: Visits to Selected Spa-Resorts, 1961–1995 (in 000). Resort 1961 1971 1981 1991 2000 Guest Nights Guest Nights Guest Nights Guest Nights Guest Nights Slovenia 822 2900 1902 5444 2419 7680 1425 4886 1576 5883 Spa-resorts 52 659 111 783 173 1224 241 1481 333 1993 6.3% 22.7% 5.8% 14.4% 7.2% 15.9% 16.9% 30.3% 21.1% 33.9% ^ate` 3 29 17 62 49 155 58 313 83 470 Moravci – – 10 41 18 96 33 174 51 246 Olimia – – – – 9 97 29 198 36 231 Roga{ka 21 267 24 241 34 329 33 226 43 265 Radenci 5 65 11 100 22 169 20 112 20 106 Source: Letopis R Slovenije (Yearbook of Statistical Data on Slovenia), Ljubljana, 1970–2003. The statistical data 1991–1996 show the improvement in two fields of action: in several spa-resorts of the Pannonian region (T ab. 8) and in the area of the Mediterranean (Portoro` – Portorose), includ- ing its hinterland. In both areas the success is a result of the coordinated action of the state and local entrepreneurs as well as of the inherited geopolitical situation. Spa-resorts, like ^ate{ke toplice, Atomske toplice, Moravci and Radenci have opened several new attractions (»Tropical Paradise«) and ameni- ties based on its (mineral/thermal) natural resource (Horvat 1996). In addition to it, they have enlarged their field of action with golf (Mokrice) and other medical and recreational amenities. Because of the uncertain political situation in the Balkans (1991–1996)), a large number of Slovenes, who normally would spent their vacation along the Adriatic coast of Croatia, have decided to enjoy the newly equipped and modernized spas. On the other hand has the Slovenian Littoral has gained out of the short term visits of its neighbors Italians and own nationals. The innovation in the field of tourism there is based on several gambling facilities, among which Nova Gorica has had by far the best results in visits. The improvement of the quality of accommodation and guest services and the construction of several new amenities, like ports (marinas), sport facilities and swimming pools with thermal waters, suggest that the Slovenian tourist industry has come to the conclusion that, along with the triple S (Sun, Sea, Sand) effect, other attractions must be offered/added – the triple E (Education, Experience, Emotion) to attract the increasingly »spoiled« visitors. Conclusion The hardest hit tourist destinations of the Balkans, Croatia and Slovenia (of former Yugoslavia), show a slight but continuing recovery from the direct and broader effects of the wars 1991–1995. In 1998 the recovery was at and above 60% of the level in 1990. But the structure of tourist visits is complete- ly different to the pre-war years. Instead of hosting German, Dutch and British tourists, a regional tourism-exchange takes place. Up to 75% of holiday makers come from Slovenia, Croatia, Italy and Austria. T ourist from the Czech Republic are the most noted non-regional visitors. Since Croatia and 139 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Slovenia are as close to the war torn part of the Balkans as Bulgaria, Greece, Romania and Hungary, it is most likely that the Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) bombing campaign by NATO, which goes on during the writing of the conclusions of this paper, will effect them equally. We, of course, can not speak of tourism – in the general known sense – in countries like Albania, Bosnia, Macedonia and Yugoslavia who participate in one or another way directly to the conflict. Barbu~, A. 1995: The Development and Promotion of T ourism on Farms in Slovenia, Rural T ourism Conference, p. 11, Jerusalem. Dolgan - Petri~, M., Gosar, A. 1997: Na~rtovanje turisticnega razvoja na obmo~ju italijansko-avstrijsko-slovenske meje (Tourism Development Planning in the Area of the Italo-Slovene-Austrian Border), Academica Turistica 4: Aktualna znanstvena misel, pp. 83–108, Ljubljana. Drozg, V. 1993: Wine Routes as an Element of the Regional Development of Borderline Regions. Dela 10 The Geographic Aspects of the Border Regions and Regional Development, Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, pp. 187–197, Ljubljana. Gosar, A. 1989: Structural Impact of International T ourism in Yugoslavia, GeoJournal 19-3, p. 277, Dordrecht. Gosar, A. 1997: Der Tourismus im Alpen-Adria Raum (Tourism in the Alpen-Adria Region), Angewandte Sozialgeographie Nr. 37: Slowenien, Kroatien, Bosnien-Herzegowina – Neue Staaten am Rande Mitteleuropas, pp. 63–80, Augsburg. Horvat, U. 1996: Natural Health Resorts in Slovenia. T ourist INFO 4, Commission on Sustainable T ourism, IGU: International Geographic Union, pp. 2–3, Waterloo. Jer{i~, M. 1992: T ourism in Slovenia; Slovenia. Geographic Aspects of a New European Nation, ZGDS – Association of Slovenian Geographers, pp. 63–75, Ljubljana. Letopis SR Slovenije (Y earbook of Statistical Data on Slovenia), Republi{ki zavod za statistiko, 1970–2003, Ljubljana. Mihali~, T. 1995: T urizem; Strategija gospodarskega razvoja Slovenije: infrastruktura, kmetijstvo, industrija in storitve (Tourism – Development Strategies of the Slovenian Economy); Zavod za makroekonomske analize in razvoj, pp. 187–202, Ljubljana. OMT Annuaire de Satitistique du T ourisme / WTO Y earbook of T ourism Statistics / OMT Annuario de Estadisticas del T ourismo, WTO Headquarter, 1980, 1990, 1998, 2003, Madrid. Vukoni}, B. 1997: T ourism in the Whirlwind of War, Golden Marketing, pp. 172, Zagreb. Zorko, D. 1997: T urizem v Sloveniji – rezultati in pri~akovanja (T ourism of Slovenia – results and ambitions), Academica T ouristica 3: T ourism Markets Beyond 2000, pp. 96–100, Ljubljana. 140 Anton Gosar The Recovery of T ourism in Slovenia TOURISM IN SLOVENIA Uro{ Horvat T ourist potentials of landscapes in Slovenia Slovenia comprises regions that are quite diverse in their natural and cultural character. Consequently, features of the landscape that can influence tourist amenities or its suitability for different modes of tourism and recreation vary considerably across relatively short distances. The Submediterranean region includes a forty-six kilometer coastal belt along the Adriatic Sea. T emperatures suitable for bathing and sunbathing (air: above 25° C; sea: above 19° C) last from the end of May until October. The medieval cores of coastal towns with their age-old urban organization and architectural heritage also offer an attractive environment for tourists. Behind the coastal belt at an altitude of 400–500 meters is the Karst region. The limestone plateaus are of typically karstic character with numerous morphologically interesting karst caves and karst sur- face phenomena. Typical of the cultural landscape are the old central cores of karst villages with their almost urban structure and the vineyard complexes scattered over the more fertile patches of karst soil. The Dinaric plateaus rise toward the interior of Slovenia and quite frequently reach altitudes of 1,000–1,200 meters or even more. From the viewpoint of tourist attractions, we need to point out the karst poljes (containing periodic karst lakes), underground karst caves (with long tunnels, great cav- erns, and rich dripstone decoration), and vast, sparsely inhabited forested plateaus (with the most diverse species of wildlife, including brown bears). The Alpine region covers the western and northern parts of Slovenia. Only a small portion of this area reaches altitudes over 2,000 meters. Typical of this region are sharp relief forms with glacially trans- formed valleys (which gives this landscape a high-mountainous character at lower altitudes), diversity of relief and vegetation (these vary over quite short distances, so the region is particularly suited for hiking and landscape sightseeing), considerably long-lasting snow cover (suitable for winter sports), mountain brooks and smaller rivers, etc. Alpine pastures are particularly characteristic of the cultur- al landscape, and together with the traditional architecture increase the landscape diversity of the region. Subpannonian hills with intervening plains are located in eastern and northeastern Slovenia. From the viewpoint of tourist attractions, we need to point out the »belvedere« ridges, sunny slopes with typ- ical vineyard landscapes, and the region's numerous thermal and mineral springs. T ourist flows to Slovenia and the development of tourism An important turning point that marked the beginning of more intensive tourist travel to Slovenia occurred in the middle of the 19 th century when a railroad was built linking Vienna (Austria), Ljubljana (Slovenia), and Trieste (Italy). The railroad enabled tourists to observe natural karst phe- nomena (in particular, the two world-famous caves of Postojna and [kocjan) or to visit health spas in eastern Slovenia. When the Salzburg (Austria)–Jesenice (northwestern Slovenia)–Ljubljana railroad was also built in the second half of the 19 th century, it linked Slovenia with southern Germany. The improved rail- road connections through the Slovene Alps contributed to the flourishing of alpine tourist resorts, 141 142 Uro{ Horvat T ourism in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Lendava Ajdov{~ina Ankaran Banovci Bled Bohinj Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Brestrnica Bre`ice Celje Cerkno ^ate` ob Savi ^rni Vrh ^rnomelj Diva~a Dobrna Dolenjske Toplice Dovje, Mojstrana Dravograd Gornja Radgona Gornje Lo`ine Gozd - Martuljek Grosuplje Ilirska Bistrica Izlake Izola Jesenice Jezersko Kamni{ka Bistrica Kandr{e Kobarid Ko~evje Kope Koper Kotlje Kozina Kranj Kranjska Gora Krn Kr{ko Krvavec La{ko Lesce Lipica Ljubljana Ljutomer Logatec Log pod Mangartom Lokve Maribor Mariborsko Pohorje Medno Metlika Me`ica Moravske Toplice Most na So~i Mo{e Mo{nje Mozirje Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ormo` Oto~ec Pesnica pri Mariboru Peti{ovci Piran Pod~etrtek Podkoren Podlehnik Podljubelj Pokljuka Portoro` Postojna Preddvor Ptuj Radenci Radlje ob Dravi Radovljica Mokrice Rakitna Rate~e Ravne na Koro{kem Roga{ka Slatina Rogla Se~a Seno`e~e Sevnica Se`ana Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Slovenske Konjice So~a Sol~ava, Logarska Dolina Spodnja Sorica Strunjan [empeter pri Gorici [entjur [kofja Loka [marje{ke Toplice Tolmin Topol{ica Trbovlje Trebnje Trenta Trojane Velenje Veliki Otok Vinica Vopovlje Vrhnika Zre~e @alec Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Pesnica Ledava Sora Ljubljanica Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Drava Mura Type of tourist area, proportion of domestic and foreign tourists Number of overnight stays by settlement Tourist intensity Less than 5000 5000 to 9999 10,000 to 49,999 50,000 to 99,999 100,000 and more Mountain tourist area Health tourist area Seaside tourist area Other tourist area 100 and more 10 to 99 Less than 10 number of overnight stays in settlement population of settlement = Foreign Domestic River section very popular for kayaking and canoeing Organized swimming area on lake Very popular for mountaineering, hiking, and excursions Valley very popular for observing and enjoying nature Attractive winegrowing landscape Guiding wine road Popular areas for outdoor recreation Less than 3.0 3.0 to 9.9 10.0 and more Ski centers by length of ski trails (in kilometers) © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 Author: Matja` Jer{i~ Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 01 02 03 04 05 0 km particularly beside Lake Bled and Lake Bohinj. At that time, Slovenia was a tourist destination for vis- itors coming mainly from Austria, Germany, and Hungary. After W orld War I, visitors from the larger cities in the former Yugoslavia gradually appeared as well. Slovenia's tourist gravitation area expanded after World War II, mainly the result of new highway connections across the Eastern Alps, as well between northern Italian cities and Slovenia. Highways opened the possibility for several important tourist road flows from more remote parts of W estern Europe. The international Ljubljana-Brnik airport also contributed to the extension of the Slovenia's tourist gravitation area in the 1960's. However, Slovenia was not only a destination area for international tourist travels; at the same time, it was also an important transit tourist area. A great number of tourists from abroad bound for the Mediterranean coast of southern Europe (the coasts of Croatia and Greece) only passed through Slovenia. The development of tourism in Slovenia after World War II is evident from the following indica- tors of tourist overnight capacities and tourist traffic. There were three major periods of tourist development: after World War II to the end of the 1960's (tourist traffic orientated mostly on domes- tic tourists), between 1970 and 1990 (the peak of tourist traffic), and after 1990 (a decrease in tourist traffic caused by the war in the Balkans). • From 1953 to 1990, the number of all tourist beds increased from roughly 30,000 to 90,000. In 2003, we had around 80,000 tourist beds, 32% in hotels. • In the same period, the total number of overnight stays increased from 1.1 to 9.2 million (in 1986). After the beginning of the war in the Balkans, they dropped to 5.8 million (in 1996). In 2003, we had around 7.5 million overnight stays. • The average number of overnight stays is the highest at health resorts (4.9 days) and seaside resorts (4.1 days); the average for Slovenia is 3.4 days. • The increasing significance of new types of tourism (short-term trips, transit tourism, winter tourism) became important particularly after the 1970's. Thus the seasonal concentration of tourist traffic became less acute (around 42% of overnight stays are recorded from June to August). International tourist flows in the last four decades established tourist starting points for Slovenia principally in the sphere of Western and Central Europe. Parallel to this, in the 1980's an important proportion of tourists (around 30%) came from former Yugoslav republics, especially Croatia and Serbia. After the war in the Balkans, the proportion of tourists from former Yugoslav republics dropped dras- tically to just 6%. In 2003, foreign tourists accounted for about 56% of overnight stays in Slovenia, coming mostly from Germany (10.8%), Italy (9.7%), Austria (9.2%), Croatia (3.5%), Great Britain (2.7%), The Netherlands (2.6%), Hungary (1.4%), the Russian Federation (1.3%), and elsewhere. Characteristics of Foreign T ourists in Slovenia The results of a survey in the 2000 summer season show the following: • 64% of foreign tourists stated that holidays were the main reason for coming to Slovenia, 17% came for business and educational reasons, and 11% were in transit. • Tourists were also asked about their motives for coming to Slovenia. They were drawn to Slovenia mostly by its natural attractions (25%), tranquility and possibilities to rest (19%), and the climate (17%). Only 8% of the tourists came due to »low« prices. • 56% of the tourists came to Slovenia by car or van, 14% by bus, and 18% by plane. The proportion of tourists travelling by car is highest for tourists from Croatia and Italy, while the proportion of tourists using buses is over one fifth for tourists from Austria and Germany. 143 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Tourism and recreation in 1996. p 144 Uro{ Horvat T ourism in Slovenia 70,0 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0 40,0 45,0 50,0 55,0 60,0 65,0 Y ear From Slovenia From other republics of former Yugoslavia From other countries % of overnight stays 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Figure 2: Share of overnight stays in Slovenia by origin of tourists. 0 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 6,000,000 7,000,000 8,000,000 9,000,000 10,000,000 Y ear Mountain t. r. Seaside t. r. Health t. r. Other t. r. Other 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 Number of overnight stays Figure 3: Number of overnight stays in Slovenia per resort type. • Over of third of the tourists came to Slovenia with the assistance of travel agencies. In deciding to spend holidays in Slovenia, the most important factors were personal experiences (39%) and rec- ommendations from friends (31%). Less than 20% of the tourists used the Internet to organize holidays in Slovenia. • 80% of foreign tourists stayed in hotels and spent on average 3.1 days in Slovenia. • Almost half of the foreign tourists were middle-aged. 45% were travelling in pairs, and three quar- ters stated that they live in cities with over 200,000 inhabitants. Almost three quarters of the tourists would spend their holidays in Slovenia again, and only 3% would not. More than half of the tourists gave the best mark in the evaluation of the hospitality of the Slovenes and the feeling of personal safety during the stay. More than 40% of the tourists evaluated very positively the peace and quiet, the possibility of communicating in foreign languages, and the qual- ity of the environment. The most negative marks were given to arrangements made for entertainment, shopping opportunities, and the quality of roads in Slovenia. Types of tourist resorts in Slovenia The vacation travels of tourists have been oriented particularly to three destination areas: the sub- mediterranean region, the alpine region, and the health spas of eastern Slovenia. Mountain tourist resorts were at first largely devoted to summer vacations, and hiking and moun- taineering were the predominant forms of tourist recreation. Their growth was made possible by the widespread network of well-marked mountain trails (8,700 km) and 160 alpine lodges. When downhill skiing became popular as a form of mass recreation after the 1960's, interest was aroused in the construction of skiing infrastructure at higher altitudes. T wo opposing currents of Slovene public opinion evolved: one was inclined to the megalomanic development of tourist infrastructure while the other strove to preserve the natural and cultural landscape. These opposing interests were spatially demarcated in a formal way by declaring the central part of the Julian Alps a protected area (T riglav National Park). Thus, winter sports tourism has remained limited to mountainous areas out- side the central Julian Alps. Kranjska Gora is the scene of World Cup alpine skiing, and on Mount Kanin, only an hour's drive from the coast, it is possible to ski almost into summer. Below Mount Kanin is the So~a River valley and the resort town of Bovec where the world's best kayakers and canoeists compete. Lake Bohinj, Slovenia's largest lake, is found in T riglav National Park. At the edge of the park lies the world-renowned tourist resort of Bled and its lake. In the middle of the lake is an island with a 17 th century pilgrimage church. Bled is the third largest tourist resort in Slovenia with almost 7% of all overnight stays. Seaside tourist resorts initially had the function of health resorts, but after the 1950's they became typical seaside swimming-oriented resorts. This specific swimming function limited the tourist sea- son to the summer months. After the 1980's, the growing popularity of recreation in the vicinity among the residents of larger towns relatively close to the coast and the widening of tourist offer by building facilities and introducing services for congress tourism, nautical tourism (there are 3 marines), etc., have mitigated the seasonal pattern. The center of tourism on the coast is Portoro`, the largest tourist resort in Slovenia (with almost 15% of all overnight stays). It offers numerous modern hotels, a marina, and an airport. Close to Portoro` are Piran, Izola, and Koper, three of Slovenia's oldest coastal towns with medieval cores and a rich archi- tectural heritage. Behind the coast is the world-famous karst region. First mentioned in the 13 th century, Postojna Cave is one of the most popular caves in Europe with more than 26 million visitors so far. The [kocjan Caves are on the UNESCO List of Natural and Cultural World Heritage Sites. Health resorts developed before W orld War II around springs of thermal and mineral water where no additional pumping was required. After the war, several new springs were developed for use by drilling. 145 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Between 1945 and 1960, health resorts were primarily intended for the so-called »social« tourism and health care, and only after the 1960's were they included in the international tourist offer more exten- sively. After the 1990's, Slovenia's spas and health resorts have widened their tourist offer from the preva- lent specialized medical service to include more varied recreational activities (swimming, tennis, golf, etc.) and wellness programs and thus became the most important tourist resorts in Slovenia (with around one third of all overnight stays). Among the world-renowned health spas in Slovenia are the Roga{ka Slatina Health Resort with 400 years of tradition, the Radenci Health Resort, the Moravske T oplice Health Resort, and the ^ate` Thermal Spa, the second largest tourist resort in Slovenia with 7% of all overnight stays. T ourist sites that are not dependent on natural landscape potentials such as historic, economic, admin- istrative, and transport canters comprise an important group. These are largely concentrated in cities. Ljubljana, the capitol of Slovenia, is the fourth largest tourist site in Slovenia (with 5.5% of all overnight stays). In the last twenty years, a variety of new tourist offers has appeared. Tourism in villages and on farms is well developed throughout Slovenia. Castle-hotels are also particularly attractive to tourists. V ery important for the tourist offer are congress centers and a variety of cultural, sports, and fair events. Active holidays (golf, horseback riding, recreational fishing, rafting, etc.) are increasingly popular. Slovenia has also ten casinos; the most important is in Nova Gorica. Along with vacation tourist flows, short-term travel flows have begun to occur in Slovenia more and more, particularly the flow of visitors from towns lying along the Italian border, for whom Slovenia's landscape had always represented an attractive nearby recreation area. Conclusion After this brief review, the following geographical characteristics of tourism in Slovenia can be listed: • T ourist sites in Slovenia depend on a variety of natural and cultural tourist amenities that have char- acteristically marked individual types of resorts. • The geographical position of Slovenia has influenced the development of a rather large tourist grav- itation area, and at the same time, different forms of tourism (vacation or stationary tourism, excursions, transit tourism). • The situation in the Balkans influenced tourist flows and decreased the tourist traffic, particularly from the former Yugoslav republics. • Owing to its small tourist market (compared with the neighbouring countries), tourist development in Slovenia has never led to »industrial tourism«. Therefore, the pressures on the environment and the problems of concentration that might occur as a result of advanced tourism are not acute, except in individual cases. • The essentially positive aspect of Slovenia's tourism (Slovenia's natural and cultural landscape as a pre- condition for outdoor recreation) offers further possibilities for development in the future. Jer{i~, M. 1992: Turisti~na geografija. DZS, Ljubljana. Jer{i~, M. 1992: Bli`nja rekreacija prebivalcev Slovenije. IG, Ljubljana. Zorko, D. 1999: Uvod v turizem. Ljubljana: Zavod RS za {olstvo, Ljubljana. Horvat, U. 2001: The influence of tourism on the development of the Roga{ka Slatina health resort. Geografski zbornik 41, Ljubljana. Annual Review of T ourism, Slovenia. Ljubljana: Statistical office of the Republic of Slovenia, 1954–2004. Survey on Foreign T ourists in the Republic of Slovenia in Summer Season 2000. Ljubljana: Statistical office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2001. 146 Uro{ Horvat T ourism in Slovenia REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SLOVENIA Simon Ku{ar Janez Nared T rends toward the unification of space have been an ever-present historical phenomenon and were the consequence of the belief that the power of a state depends on the number of its population since they pay taxes and serve in the army. T oday, unification is driven by economics. The common economic space formed by the European Union is thus an attempt to overcome European diversity and create the necessary mass of consumers. However, a common economic space does not necessarily mean equal conditions for individual national economies or more balanced development. The European Union faces great differences in achieved levels of regional development. In accor- dance with the »core-periphery« theory, it is usually divided into the central more developed part that includes Belgium, Denmark, Luxemburg, Germany, The Netherlands, and Great Britain and other coun- tries marked by slower or even stagnating development including Greece, Portugal, Spain, and the ten new members. The differences in the level of regional development achieved between individual mem- bers of the European Union are largely due to varied physical-geographical factors, different historical circumstances, political conditions, and economic development. On May 1, 2004, the European Union experienced a major change. Its previous fifteen members were joined by ten new members: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Each of these faces unique regional development problems. Here, we should not forget several common factors of regional development linked to their geopolitical cir- cumstances in the 20 th century. For several decades, the majority of the new joining members have been developing in the framework of a central planning system and a socialist social system that empha- sized the great importance of industry but forgot the fact that development is a constant factor and it cannot be based only on the ruthless exploitation of natural and human resources. However, it would be unjust to mention only the negative factors. Economic development after W orld War II also brought development in the social and infrastructure spheres. Slovenia, which with its 20,273 km 2 is one of the smallest countries in the expanded European Union, developed historically in the framework of the Habsburg Monarchy for a long time as a less developed peripheral region. The importance of the territory populated with Slovenes increased with the con- struction of the Vienna–Trieste railway in the middle of the 19 th century, and the rapid economic development of the once mostly rural provinces began. From the end of W orld War I until 1991, Slovenia was the most developed part of the various Yugoslav states (Kingdom of SHS, Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). The independence of Slovenia in 1991 brought a brief eco- nomic stagnation, but by the middle of the 1990's, stagnation and regression were replaced by growth and development in all fields. T oday, Slovenia is a member of the European Union. The degree of its achieved development can be compared with that of other members of the European Union on the basis of a comparative analy- sis of variables illustrating socioeconomic, spatial, and environmental characteristics. Modern regional policy sees potentials for more balanced regional development primarily in stimulating the develop- ment of the information society, technologically demanding industrial branches, research and innovations, and in the increase of human resources. For a comparative analysis, the following vari- ables were selected: Gross Domestic Product according to buying power per capita in EUR, real growth of the GDP relative to the previous year, the rate of inflation, the proportion of funds in the GDP devot- ed to research and development, the number of patents registered at the European Patent Office per 147 million inhabitants, the number of university graduates in the field of science and technology per 1,000 inhabitants aged 20 to 29, the level of unemployment, the growth of employment, and the pro- portion of households with access to the Internet. Table 1: Individual indicators of regional development in the European Union from 2001. Country GDP Growth Inflation R & D Patents/ University Level of Growth of % of per of GDP million graduates unemployment employment households capita (2000–2001) inhabitants with Internet Austria 26,140 0.8 2.3 1.9 174,150 7.3 3.6 0.7 46.2 Belgium 24,970 0.6 2.4 2.17 151,790 10.1 6.7 1.4 34.7 Cyprus* 18,190 4 2 0.27 14,464 3.7 4.4 – 20 Czech Republic* 14,160 3.1 4.5 1.22 10,701 5.6 8 0.4 11 Denmark 26,930 1.6 2.3 2.4 211,046 12.2 4.3 0.4 58.9 Estonia* 9,000 6.5 5.6 0.78 10,961 7.3 11.8 0.9 9.8 Finland 24,270 1.1 2.7 3.41 337,777 17.2 9.1 1.5 48.1 France 24,470 2.1 1.8 2.23 145,337 20.2 8.5 1.8 26.2 Greece 15,680 4 3.7 0.64 7,721 – 10.4 –0.4 11.7 Ireland 27,480 6.2 4 1.17 85,551 21.7 3.9 2.9 46.2 Italy 23,380 1.8 2.3 1.11 74,650 6.1 9.4 1.9 32.9 Latvia* 7,790 7.9 2.5 0.44 7,574 7.6 12.9 – 2.3 Lithuania* 8,690 6.5 1.3 0.69 2,435 14.8 16.1 –4 3.2 Luxemburg 45,360 1.2 2.4 – 211,330 – 2.1 5.6 43.6 Hungary* 12,020 3.8 9.1 0.95 18,971 3.7 5.6 0.4 – Malta* 16,219 –1.2 2.5 – 10,194 2.7 6.7 2.9 – Germany 23,460 0.8 1.9 2.51 309,864 8 7.8 0.4 37.9 The Netherlands 26,450 1.2 5.1 1.89 242,728 6.1 2.5 1.8 58.5 Poland* 9,550 1 5.3 0.64 2,522 7.4 18.5 –2.2 7.7 Portugal 16,510 1.7 4.4 0.85 5,497 6.4 4.1 1.4 23.4 Slovakia* 10,430 3.8 7.2 0.64 6,095 7.5 19.4 0.9 – Slovenia* 15,840 2.9 8.6 1.57 40,676 8.2 5.8 1.7 24 Spain 19,670 2.8 2.8 0.95 24,109 11.3 10.6 2.3 23.4 Sweden 24,790 0.9 2.7 4.27 366,564 12.4 4.6 1.9 64.3 Great Britain 24,620 2.1 1.2 1.89 133,450 19.5 5 0.6 46.5 Average EU-15 24,945 1.9 2.8 1.96 165,438 11.3 6.2 1.6 40.2 Average EU-25 19,843 2.7 3.6 1.5 104,246 9.9 8.1 1.1 30.9 Key: – – no data; * – members of European Union since May 1, 2004. Source: Eurostat. Structural Indicators. http:/ /europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/ (22. 4. 2004). Gross Domestic Product is the most frequently used variable for establishing the level of develop- ment achieved. In 2001, with 15,840 EUR of GDP per capita, Slovenia reached 65% of the average GDP per capita of the old European Union (EU-15) or almost 80% of GDP per capita of the expanded European Union (EU-25). Its GDP ranks Slovenia at the top of the ten new members. A similar height of GDP per capita was also reached by Greece, Portugal, and Spain. The growth of the GDP in Slovenia in 2001 was not as fast as in the majority of the other new mem- bers of the European Union, but it still exceeded the growth of the GDP in all of the old members. The level of inflation (8.6%) is still Slovenia's primary macroeconomic problem since it was higher only 148 Simon Ku{ar, Janez Nared Regional Development in Slovenia in Hungary (9.1%). Regarding the proportion of the GDP devoted to research and development (1.57% GDP), Slovenia ranks immediately behind the most developed countries of the expanded European Union. With 40,676 registered patents per million inhabitants, Slovenia overtook all the new mem- bers of the European Union. Slovenia ranks among the medium-developed countries of the expanded European Union also on the basis of the variable of number of science and technology graduates per 1,000 inhabitants aged 20 to 29. The level of unemployment in the country (5.8%) should not present a major problem 1 . The information society is also well developed in Slovenia. A quarter of households had access to the Internet in 2001, and today the proportion is probably much higher. With this pro- portion, Slovenia overtook all the new members of the European Union, as well as Greece, Portugal, and Spain. With its achieved level of development, Slovenia ranks among the most developed of the new mem- bers of the European Union and reaches the level of development of some of the less-developed members of the former fifteen. This is also proven by the cluster analysis made on the basis of the selected vari- ables. Slovenia ranked in the same group as the Czech Republic, Greece, Italy, Hungary, Portugal, and Spain. However, we must point out that the actual development of Slovenia is even higher than indi- cated by the analyzed data. Due to the dominance of single-family housing, the relatively well-preserved environment, the developed infrastructure, and the quality of education, the quality of life in Slovenia is higher than it was presented with above mentioned figures. However, this does not mean that with- in the country there are no differences in the achieved level of regional development. The structural changes that encompassed Slovenia following independence profoundly transformed Slovenia's spatial reality. Along with the events in the Balkans, the changed geopolitical situation and the transition from a planned economy to a market economy radically interfered with the previous economic, transportation, cultural, population, and political streams that had maintained the exist- ing economic, settlement, and social structures in Slovenia. Suspended ties with the countries of the former Yugoslavia meant the loss of Slovenia's most important market and created problems for numer- ous companies whose production had been oriented toward the undemanding Yugoslav markets. Simultaneously, the establishment of new borders caused the appearance of extensive border areas that began to decline as a result of the separation from their functional complementary vicinity. Numerous changes also occurred due to the social upheavals within Slovenia. Democratization and the introduction of a market economy combined with denationalization and privatization stimulat- ed social differentiation, which manifested itself in the appearance of few entrepreneurial elites on one hand and numerous marginalized groups (unemployed) on the other. This phenomenon often appeared in the framework of regional (spatial) disparities, because a number of the structural changes had a regional (spatial) dimension. Individual monostructural areas could not adapt to the rapid changes, resulting in numerous bankruptcies and mass layoffs of workers. The difficult situation in which these regions found themselves was often further aggravated by the poor qualification struc- ture of the labour force, the lack of flexible managerial and innovation structures, and a low level of entrepreneurial skills and initiative. The reaction of the government was also inadequate. Hoping to establish governing power structures as quickly as possible, the government often overlooked the prob- lems of individual regions and branches of the economy and applied numerous intervention measures that gave only minimal results instead of creating a suitable entrepreneurial system. The picture presented by the data on regions often blurs the view of the spatial distribution of indi- vidual phenomena. In order to obtain a comprehensive picture of regional development in Slovenia, we therefore analyzed the development of Slovene municipalities. W e combined the available data into three groups (T able 2) and evaluated them on the basis of the deviation from the average for each individual indicator. The first group attempts to encompass indi- cators of economic development to illustrate the economic structure and the labour market. The second 149 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 1 According to Pe~ar (2002), the level of unemployment in Slovenia in 2001 was 11.6%. 150 Simon Ku{ar, Janez Nared Regional Development in Slovenia A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Ljubljanica Savinja Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura Municipality To w n Strong above-average developed municipalities Above-average developed municipalities Below-average developed municipalities Strongly below-average developed municipalities Extremely below-average developed municipalities Development axis Koper–Ljubljana–Maribor Development pole © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 Author: Janez Nared group connects population and settlement indicators to present the main characteristics of settling. In the third group we illustrate the standard of living of the population using the »Number of cars per 100 inhabitants« indicator. The database foundations include data from the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, cal- culations by Pe~ar (2002), the Statistical Institute at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Ljubljana, and our own calculations. Table 2. Structure of available data. Group of indicators Standards Indicators economic structure economic power value added per employee, and labour market number of enterprises per 1,000 inhabitants quality of work places gross earnings per employee, taxable earnings per capita level of unemployment registered unemployment rate settlement and sociogeographical structure growth/decrease of population 1991–2002, population structure of municipalities age index physiognomic structure density of population of municipalities economic-geographical proportion of farmers among active population, structure of municipalities number of work places per 1,000 inhabitants, index of daily mobility standard of living level of motorization number of cars per 100 inhabitants Results There are eight strongly above-average developed municipalities. Although few, relative to their economic influence they are very important for the vitality of the national economy. They encompass 5.7% of the territory and contain 23% of the population. Concentrated here are 35.7% of all jobs, which makes these municipalities important employment centers for the surrounding population. The job density is 551 per 1,000 inhabitants, while the population density is 329 people per km 2 , which is more than three times the national average. They are marked by below-average population growth, which is a reflection of pronounced suburbanization. The relatively low level of unemployment also ranks among the important factors of their development. As a rule, the municipalities in the group of above-average developed municipalities are areas of daily mobility to the previous group and municipalities with important regional and local centers, (Nova Gorica, Se`ana, Idrija, Postojna, Celje, Slovenj Gradec, Maribor, Ptuj, and Murska Sobota). Together they encompass almost one fifth of the national territory and contain about 30.5% of the population. The population density (148.8 inhabitant per km 2 ) and job density (409 jobs per 1,000 inhabitants) are lower than in the previous group but still above the national average. A number of regional cen- ters belong in this group, so it provides a high proportion (35.1%) of all jobs. 151 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: The regional development in Slovenia and future perspectives. p The most numerous group comprises below-average developed municipalities (74), which cover almost half of the national territory and contain 30.2% of the population. In spite of total size of the municipalities in this group, their area only provides just over 20% of all jobs. Job density and popu- lation density are already below average. It is interesting that the average population growth in this group is the highest (3.5%), which can be explained by the fact that several municipalities situated in the sub- urban hinterland of Ljubljana that experienced a high increase in population in the period following independence are found in this group. Strongly below-average developed municipalities cover a quarter of Slovenia and lie mainly along the borders. These are traditionally backward, mostly agricultural areas with weak economic and pop- ulation structures. The consequences of less favourable natural conditions and past emigration are sparse settling (50.7 persons per km 2 ) and a modest proportion of the population (14.3%). The proportion of work places is also low. All the extremely below-average developed municipalities are found in eastern Slovenia. They encompass a good 4% of the territory and contain only 2% of the population with an average densi- ty of 44.5 persons per km 2 . They are marked by a weak economic structure with few enterprises and a modest number of work places. The consequence of this is a high proportion of farming population and commuters. The population is aged and falling sharply (–4.6%) because the birthrate does not ensure normal reproduction and many people are also leaving these areas permanently. A detailed evaluation of the economic structure of municipalities shows the economic bipolarity of Slovenia. Western and central Slovenia have an above-average economic structure broken by indi- vidual belts of below-average developed areas. On the other hand, extensive parts of eastern Slovenia are characterized by extremely and strongly below-average economic structures. The situation is of par- ticular concern in the Podravje and Pomurje regions where only the municipalities of Maribor, Ptuj, and Murska Sobota rise above the national average. The results of the analysis also show that the border areas are most limited in development, a reflec- tion of their distance from influential centers and the fact that the borders in most cases are based on natural barriers. Similarly, natural conditions also greatly obstruct the more successful devel- opment of the countryside, as analysis shows on one hand that the majority of enterprises and jobs are located in just few centers and on the other that the sparsely settled regions stagnate econom- ically. Leaving the process of development to current trends would in our opinion lead into four-level segmentation of development space of Slovenia. Catching the globalization streams would by expec- tations succeed only in Ljubljana, which has been for long the leading development pole of Slovenia. Based on the among-city cooperation and on university centers new development axis could be formed on relation Koper/Nova Gorica–Ljubljana–Maribor (the fifth traffic corridor). The active integration of the named axis would be possible only in close cooperation with Ljubljana. Other regions of Slovenia would be left to stagnation or to the step-by-step degradation, with the only exception of the individual regional centers. Regional development in Slovenia is not left merely to the operation of market mechanisms since the state is playing an active role in the stimulation of a more balanced regional development. Regional policy has its roots in the beginning of the 1970's. Since this period, problem areas have received spe- cial assistance from the state. At the turn of the century, a reform of regional policy was made. Regional policy is now a constituent part of the national development policy. Slovenia will increase welfare of all of its population, but based on the principles of sustainable development. The aim of the National Development Program is to reduce the economic gap relative to the average of the European Union and stop the increase of disparities among Slovene regions. In encouraging a more balanced region- al development in Slovenia, the common regional policy of the European Union will also play an important role. By 2006, Slovenia will acquire more funds from the Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund, than it will have to pay into the common European budget. The majority of the total 152 Simon Ku{ar, Janez Nared Regional Development in Slovenia 295.3 billion EUR in the period between 2004 and 2006 will be devoted to the stimulation of (region- al) development. Eurostat. Structural Indicators. http:/ /europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/ (22. 4. 2004). Nared, J. 2004: Developmental Aspects Of Slovene Rural And Border Regions. Europe at the Margins: EU Regional Policy, Peripherality and Rurality. http://www.regional-studies-assoc.ac.uk/events/presenta- tions04/nared.pdf (30. 4. 2004). Pe~ar, J. 2002: Regionalni vidiki razvoja Slovenije. Delovni zvezki, 11, 7. Ljubljana. Statistical Databank. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. http:/ /www.stat.si/eng/index.asp (28. 3. 2004). Strategija regionalnega razvoja Slovenije. Ljubljana, 24. 7. 2001. Ministrstvo za gospodarstvo, Agencija Republike Slovenije za regionalni razvoj, 37 str. Subnational Statistical Capacity Building. Needs Assessment Report. Statistical Institute at the Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, 2002. 153 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview 154 SLOVENIA AND THE CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Du{an Plut Katja Vintar Mally Even before entering the European Union (2004), Slovenia faced the changing significance of devel- opmental factors and the exhaustion of the previously existing development model, which subsequently led to its replacement with a sustainable development paradigm. Even though Slovenia did not form a national strategy of sustainable development, it explicitly strove for an equal treatment of the eco- nomic, social, and environmental dimensions of development in all the primary development documents, sector policies, and legislation (for example, the Strategy for Economic Development, the National Development Plan, environmental policy with the Environmental Protection Act and the National Environmental Action Program, regional policy with the Promotion of Balanced Regional Development Act and the Strategy of Regional Development of Slovenia, spatial planning policy, etc.). The realization of the principles of sustainable development, however, is limited just to sectors and is not comprehensive. For the strategic assessment of the opportunities and risks of sustainable development, it is of key importance that in the framework of the expanded European Union (EU-25) Slovenia ranks among: a. countries with medium-developed economies, with increasing interregional economic and social disparities also after gaining independence in 1991 and smaller areas of intensive and multilevel landscape degradation that at the same time are developmentally weak traditional industrial areas with structural problems; and b. countries with gradually improving environmental legislation, moderate general pollution, above-average pollution of water sources, unregulated and problematic waste management, inappro- priate use of space, various trends of population and economic pressure on the environment, and high material use and energy intensity ([pes 2000; Plut 2002; Poro~ilo 2003). The increase of regional disparities and the continuation of the predominantly dispersed pattern of suburbanization and the simultaneous depopulation and overgrowth of marginal and higher areas of Slovenia has magnified pressures on the environment in the already heavily polluted and vulnera- ble valley-basin and coastal ecosystems (Plut et al. 2002). A quantitative analysis and evaluation of thirty-two economic, social, and environmental indica- tors from the viewpoint of favourability for implementing sustainable development in twelve Slovene statistical regions responsible for the execution of regional policy draws attention to large interregional differences. According to the absolute difference between the average values of the best and worst ranked regions, these differences are greatest in the economic sphere (3.5) and substantially smaller in the social (1.83) and environmental (1.64) spheres (Vintar 2003). On the basis of the values for the three main development spheres and their average (i. e., indicator of sustainable regional development), the regions are classified into four groups relative to future possibilities of implementing sustainable development (Figure 1). From the viewpoint of the wider European context, the concept of a balanced development in Slovenia is not being fully realized. In the last decade, steady economic progress (1995–2002: GDP growth from 61% to 69% of the average of the pre-May 2004 members of European Union (EU-15) has been accom- panied by favourable social development (29 th place among 175 countries relative to the human development index) with the extension of the average life span, the level of social protection, stopping the increase of income-inequality, and lowering of the level of poverty risk. However, the trends are 155 156 Du{an Plut, Katja Vintar Mally Slovenia and the Challenges of Sustainable Development A D R I A T I C S E A Cerkno Kranjska Gora Mozirje Bohinjska Bistrica Bovec Cerknica Dravograd Gornja Radgona Ilirska Bistrica La{ko Lenart v Slovenskih goricah Lendava Ljutomer Metlika Ormo` Piran Radlje ob Dravi ^rna na Koro{kem Ribnica Ru{e Se`ana Slovenske Konjice Roga{ka Slatina Tolmin Trebnje Tr`i~ @elezniki @iri [entjur Ajdov{~ina Bre`ice ^rnomelj Grosuplje Hrastnik Idrija Kamnik Ko~evje Kr{ko Litija Logatec Postojna Bled Radovljica Ravne na Koro{kem Sevnica Slovenj Gradec Slovenska Bistrica Vrhnika Zagorje ob Savi @alec Celje Dom`ale Izola Jesenice Koper Kranj Murska Sobota Nova Gorica Novo mesto Ptuj [kofja Loka Trbovlje Velenje LJUBLJANA MARIBOR Reka Mirna Pivka Idrijca Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Pesnica [~avnica Ledava Sora Ljubljanica Savinja Kolpa Krka So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura very good good limited very limited © Geografski in{titut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, 2004 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Scale: 1 : 1,300,000 Author: Katja Vintar Mally Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts –1,5 –1 –0,5 0 –1 –0,5 0 –1,5 –1 –0,5 0 0,5 –0,5 0 –1 –0,5 0 –1,5 –1 –0,5 0 0 0,5 1 –0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 0 0,5 1 0 0,5 1 –0,5 0 0,5 1 0 0,5 all indicators environmental social economic -0,5 0 0,5 1 less favourable in the environmental sphere due to the high energy intensity, unfavourable level of the growth of »dirty« industries, and more intensive agriculture (Poro~ilo 2004). According to a series of environmental indicators, Slovenia ranks among the moderately polluted European countries with modest or exhausted stocks of non-renewable natural resources but with great landscape and biological diversity and various renewable natural resources that also perform indispensable ecosystem functions. Several wider industrial and mining areas of intensive and multilevel pollution stand out, which as a rule also lag behind in development. In the majority of cases, the forms of envi- ronmental degradation are not of an irreversible nature, which realistically allows for the clean-up of the environment or its polluted elements (Nacionalni 1999). The per capita consumption of natural resources and the generation of gas emissions and waste water per capita in Slovenia are substantial- ly above the sustainable accepted planetary level but somewhat below the level of the EU-15 countries (Table 1). According to the majority of the presented key indicators of pressures on the environment per capita or per unit of surface, Slovenia ranked among the countries with moderate pressures in the period between 1999 and 2001 in comparison with the EU-15 countries. A comparison of the key indicators of sustainable development for the EU-15 countries and Slovenia for the 1990's underlines the especially large consumption of material and energy per unit of GDP in Slovenia. A relatively large proportion of industrial branches consuming raw materials and energy and producing emissions intensively is characteristic of the Slovene export. According to Eurostat estimates, the emission of greenhouse gases in Slovenia increased between 1990 and 2001, while in the EU-15 coun- tries it decreased by two percent. Slovenia is also marked by a profligate use of space (and the necessary extensive and burdening infrastructure and use of energy connected with it) because it uses three to five times more space per every new residence than densely populated Denmark or The Netherlands. Also, the proportion of the total protected area in Slovenia (around 10% of the country in 2003) is too small from the comparative viewpoint. In the period following independence the quality of the environment and its components that are critically polluted are improving as a rule, but in general the pressures on the environment have increased slightly since the middle of the 1990's (Plut 2002). The key developmental and environmental concern is the modest inclusion of environmental com- ponents in government policies, particularly in industrial, transportation, and agricultural policies. The existing government mechanisms for increasing the competitiveness of the business sector place envi- ronmental protection incentives in the background or include them in insufficient measure. One of the key hindering factors for the necessary reduction of energy and emission intensity is the large pro- portion of energy-intensive state-owned companies. The principles of sustainable development and membership in the European Union demand the systematic and more consistent application of environmental principles and measures in national pol- icy, in the behaviour of companies and institutions, and in the organization of the material life of the family and the individual. Maintaining the current pattern of environmental protection and environ- mental policy will weaken Slovenia's advantages and development opportunities. Between 2005 and 2015, Slovenia will have to achieve the expected economic progress and the rise of welfare along with the more efficient use of its natural (environmental) capital, the preservation of nature, and a rise in the quality of the living environment. After 2010, due particularly to the exhaus- tion of environmental resources and the continuing (globally and locally) unacceptable consumption of natural resources and the resulting emissions per capita in Slovenia too a more determined transi- tion to a developmental-environmental model of strengthened sustainability and the optimal preservation of the environmental capital of Slovenia and its regions will be necessary. Along with the anticipated technological development and the transformation into a more energy-efficient informa- 157 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview Figure 1: Evaluation and implementation of sustainable development in Slovenian regions. p 158 Du{an Plut, Katja Vintar Mally Slovenia and the Challenges of Sustainable Development Table 1: Key synthesis and environmental indicators of EU-25 countries GDP ppp Human Ecological Population T otal primary Fertilizer Number Water Emission Municipal (2001) development footprint density (1999) energy supply consumption of cars exploitation of CO 2 waste EUR/capita index (2001) (1999) global person/km 2 (2000) per agricultural per 1,000 (1999) (2001) generation ha/person toe*/capita land area unit (1999) inhabitants % kg/capita (2000) tonnes/km 2 (1999) kg/capita Austria 1 26,140 0.929 4.73 97 3.51 7.11 495.5 3 8,150 556 Belgium 1 24,970 0.937 6.72 310 5.57 19.66 448.2 43 12,392 534 Cyprus 18,190 0.891 – 82 3.22 13.74 340.8 27 – 677 Czech Republic 14,160 0.861 4.82 130 3.95 6.28 334.7 21 12,430 334 Denmark 1 26,930 0.930 6.58 124 3.69 14.79 346.5 20 9,905 665 Estonia 9,000 0.833 4.94 30 3.32 1.90 330.8 1 12,307 462 Finland 1 24,270 0.930 8.42 15 6.30 13.69 403.2 2 12,035 – France 1 24,470 0.925 5.26 107 4.24 15.90 468.8 18 6,825 530 Germany 1 23,460 0.921 4.71 230 4.09 17.83 515.6 30 10,443 537 Greece 1 15,680 0.892 5.09 80 2.66 5.20 254.5 7 10,187 372 Hungary 12,020 0.837 3.08 108 2.45 6.26 224.1 7 5,932 454 Ireland 1 27,480 0.930 5.33 54 3.70 15.84 338.3 2 11,577 601 Italy 1 23,380 0.916 3.84 191 3.04 10.89 555.8 29 8,032 502 Latvia 7,790 0.811 3.43 37 1.54 2.19 218.1 1 2,887 242 Lithuania 8,690 0.824 3.07 57 2.03 5.23 294.5 1 4,508 294 Luxembourg 1 45,360 0.930 6.72 172 8.23 – 609.9 – 12,314 643 Malta 16,219 0.856 – 1219 2.10 7.92 470.7 109 – 481 The Netherlands 1 26,450 0.938 4.81 383 4.73 24.15 401.3 9 10,901 613 Poland 9,550 0.841 3.70 120 2.33 8.28 240.2 20 8,529 – Portugal 1 16,510 0.896 4.47 109 2.41 6.20 493.7 11 6,310 453 Slovakia 10,430 0.836 3.44 110 3.23 3.63 229.2 4 7,678 316 Spain 1 19,670 0.918 4.66 78 3.07 7.72 427.4 28 7,770 – Sweden 1 24,790 0.941 6.73 20 5.45 8.55 439.2 2 6,298 428 United Kingdom 1 24,620 0.930 5.35 246 3.85 11.88 413.9 8 9,141 493 Slovenia 15,840 0.881 3.58 98 3.29 (3.20**) 15.72 427.6 2 7,904 (7,332***) 584 Slovenia ranking 2 17 17 5 11 12 19 16 4–7 9 17 Source: Environment … 1999; Living … 2002; Europe's … 2003; Human …, 2003; Statisti~ni …, 2003 Notes: 1 pre-May 2004 members of the European Union (EU-15); 2 place in EU-25 according to favourability for sustainable development; – no data available; * tonnes of oil equivalent; ** National Energy Program (2003) data; *** emission of CO 2 in 1999 according to records of IPCC 159 Slovenia: a Geographical Overview tion society, the basic developmental and environmental goal of Slovenia is the stabilization of ener- gy use by 2015 (except in the event of exceptionally high economic growth). The key environmental goals and priority tasks in the field of environmental protection for Slovenia to achieve by 2013 are the following: • Improving the quality of water sources, reducing the damaging consequences of droughts and floods and enforcing the sustainable use of water on the basis of the economic cost of water; • Reducing the quantity of waste through changed production and consumer patterns, technological improvements, economic measures, advertising and informing the public, and increasing material use efficiency; • Reducing the emission of greenhouse gases; • Mitigating traffic pressures on environment; • Preserving landscape and biological diversity; • Reducing the degradation of the environment in wider areas of multilevel degradation (Zasavje, Me`i{ka Valley, the urban area of Celje, and the [ale{ka Valley) and in smaller critically polluted areas; • Accelerated integration of environmental requirements in sector policies and consumer patterns. In parallel with the environmental requirements, economic interests will also be forced to confront demands for the abolition of poverty, the guarantee of social security and justice, and the general improve- ment of the quality of life. With its inclusion in European integration processes, its desire to rapidly achieve the level of the countries with the most developed economies, and to raise the competitive- ness of its regions, this small but very diverse country will have to be very inventive in its search for opportunities of social and economic development within the existing environmental limitations. Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century. European Environment Agency, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Copenhagen, 1999. Europe's environment: the third assessment. European Environment Agency. Copenhagen, 2003. Human development report 2003. UNDP . New Y ork, 2003. Living planet report 2002. WWF. Cambridge, 2002 Nacionalni energetski program (osnutek predloga). Ministrstvo za okolje, prostor in energijo. Ljubljana, 2003. Nacionalni program varstva okolja. Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor. Ljubljana, 1999. Plut, D., [pes, M., Bre~ko, V . 2002: Slovenia-Country Studies-Northern Group. Environmental Problems of East Central Europe. London-New Y ork. Plut, D. 2002: Okoljevarstveni vidiki prostorskega razvoja Slovenije. Ljubljana. Poro~ilo o razvoju 2004. Urad RS za makroekonomske analize in razvoj. Ljubljana, 2004. Poro~ilo o stanju okolja. Ministrstvo za okolje, prostor in energijo, Ljubljana, 2003. Statistical Y earbook of the Republic of Slovenia 2003. Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Ljubljana, 2003. [pes, M. 2000: Geografske zna~ilnosti pokrajinsko ranljivih obmo~ij v Sloveniji. Geographica Slovenica 33/I. Ljubljana. Vintar, K. 2003: Sustainable regional development – a new challenge of Slovenian regional policy. Regional geog- raphy and its applications. Fren{tát pod Radho{te ü m. ISBN 961-6500-49-X Slovenia: a Geographical Overview © Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia Printed by: Littera picta d. o. o. Ljubljana 2004 SLOVENIA: a Geographical Overview A D R I A T I C S E A Salino Amaro Fagagna Flambro Savudrija Dajla Brtonigla Momjan Gro`njan Motovun Istarske T oplice Hum Vranja Ra~ja Vas Lisac Gerovo Skrad Ribnik So{ice Kostanjevac Kra{i} Rakov Potok Pojatno Hru{evec Jablanovec Klanjec Ld ersdorf ö Klöch Gnas Straden Sankt Anna am Aigen Sankt Peter am Ottersbach Paldau Ziprein Gleinstätten Sankt Gertraud Jakling Ht t e n b e r g ü Bad Wei enbach ß Gurk Weitensfeld Gl dnitz ö Tu r r a c h Ebene Reichenau Bad Kleinkirchheim Stall Flattach Obervellach Dellach Fr o l a c h (Borlje) ö Unterkolbnitz Mühldorf Lieserhofen Puch Wei enstein ß Paternion Gnesau Ludmannsdorf Ebriach (Obirsko) Oberboden Sirnitz Bodensdorf Griffen (Grebinj) Leutschach (Lu~ane) Wies Sankt Stefan ob Stainz Gams ob Frauental Zwaring Heiligenkreuz am Waasen Wolfsberg im Schwarzautal Nádasd Zalaháshágy Ivánc Bájansenye Szent- gyórgyvölgy Resznek Kondorfa Kerkafalva Zalabaksa Golubovec Belec Orehovec Rakovec Paru`evina 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Leibnitz (Lipnica) Feldkirchen (Trg) Deutschlandsberg Ta r c e n t o (^enta) Tricesimo Manzano Cormons (Krmin) Majano Gradisca d'Isonzo (Gradi{~e) Ronchi (Ronke) San Giórgio di Nogaro Lignano Sabbiadoro Grado (Grade`) Villa Opicina (Op~ine) Umag Opatija Dugo Selo Ivani}-Grad Lenti Szentgotthárd (Mono{ter) Jastrebarsko Glina Ogulin Duga Resa ^akovec Va r a ` d i n Kri`evci Sesvete V elika Gorica Zapre{i} Samobor Sisak Petrinja Monfalcone (Tr`i~) Gorizia (Gorica) Gemona del Friuli (Gumin) Spittal an der Drau Villach (Beljak) W olfsberg Sankt V eit an der Glan Cervignano del Friuli KLAGENFURT (CELOVEC) UDINE (VIDEM) KARLOV AC (KARLOVEC) TRIESTE (TRST) RIJEKA (REKA) ZAGREB Hodo{ Kri`evci Prosenjakovci Kapelski Vrh Pesnica Pri Mariboru Spodnja [~avnica Zgornja Kungota Razkri`je Pince Ti{ina Perto~a Puconci Banovci Zlatoli~je Fram Kog Lahonci @etale Spodnja Hajdina Stoperce @i~e [martno ob Paki Nazarje Sol~ava Koprivna Logarska Dolina Vransko Blagovica Trojane Laze Zgornji Tuhinj Morav~e 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T oplicah Radovica Livold Kani`arica Vinica Osilnica Hrib-Lo{ki potok Nova vas Blo{ka Polica Dolenja vas Fara Kostel Adle{i~i Lo` Dolenja vas Godovi~ Lokve Dobrovo Anhovo Gorenja Trebu{a Dolenja Trebu{a Vrsno Livek Kal-Koritnica Log pod Mangartom Trenta @irovnica Preddvor Zgornje Jezersko Dra`go{e Kropa Bohinjska Bela Zasip Stara Fu`ina @aga Breginj Robi~ Most na So~i Ba~a pri Modreju Koritnica Vo j s k o ^epovan Plave Ro~inj ^rni Vrh Kalce Planina Babno Polje Kne`ak Prestranek Kute`evo Podgrad Obrov Kozina Hrastovlje Se~ovlje Pregara [koflje Harije Prem Jel{ane Starod Predjama Col Podkraj Budanje Komen T omaj Seno`e~e [tanjel Dutovlje Podnanos Razdrto Sovodenj Otale` Podbrdo Kresnice Gornji Grad Vitanje Gornji Doli~ Ribnica na Pohorju Zgornja Kapla Oti{ki Vrh Dolga Gora Dobrna Videm pri Ptuju Maj{perk Kuzma Gornji Petrovci Moravske T oplice Dobrovnik Tu r n i { ~ e Beltinci ^ren{ovci Ve r ` e j Odranci Lendava Ljutomer Radenci Lenart v Slov. goricah Miklav` na Dravskem polju Ru{e [entilj v Slov. goricah Kamnica Lovrenc na Pohorju Radlje ob Dravi Vuzenica Dravograd Prevalje Me`ica Polzela [empeter v Savinjski dolini Mozirje Ljubno ob Savinji ^rna na Koro{kem Mislinja [o{tanj Tr`i~ Golnik Lesce Mekinje Vo d i c e Naklo Bohinjska Bistrica Hru{ica Mojstrana Kranjska Gora [en~ur Zgornje Bitnje @iri Bovec Cerkno Gorenja vas @elezniki T olmin Kobarid Deskle Kanal Cerknica Rakek Ravne T opol{ica Prebold Dol pri Hrastniku [martno pri Litiji Selnica ob Dravi Ra~e Polj~ane [entjernej Ivan~na Gorica Metlika Sevnica La{ko [tore Vojnik Senovo Dob Cerklje na Gorenjskem Ig Notranje Gorice Trzin Brezovica pri Ljubljani Horjul Izlake Brestanica Ribnica Leskovec pri Kr{kem Stra`a Rade~e Tr e b n j e Mirna [entjur Rogatec @u`emberk Medvode [marje-Sap [kofljica Se`ana Diva~a Branik [empas Vipava Pivka Ankaran Vrtojba Miren Solkan Piran Dekani Spodnje [kofije Portoro` Ilirska Bistrica [marje pri Jel{ah Slovenske Konjice Oplotnica Zre~e Pragersko Kidri~evo Spodnje Ho~e Muta Ormo` Dornava Sredi{~e ob Dravi Gornja Radgona Slovenska Bistrica Roga{ka Slatina Bre`ice Kr{ko Hrastnik @alec Slovenj Gradec Ravne na Koro{kem ^rnomelj Ko~evje Grosuplje Litija Menge{ Bled Radovljica Idrija Ajdov{~ina Postojna Lucija Vrhnika Logatec Zagorje ob Savi Murska Sobota Ptuj Celje Trbovlje Kamnik Dom`ale [kofja Loka Nova Gorica Koper Izola Kranj Jesenice Novo mesto V elenje MARIBOR LJUBLJANA Cuestalta Hoher Trieb Zuc dal Bôr Monte Sernio Creta di Aip Trogkofel Iôf di Montásio (Monta`) Monte Oisternig Oisternig Veliki Risnjak Bukova Gora Kalnik Ivan{~ica Sljeme Beli gri~ Debela Kosa U~ka Polinik Rei eck ß Gro Rosennock ßer Hohe Pressing Wöllaner Nock Mödringberg Dobratsch (Dobra~) Magdalensberg ([talenska gora) Großer Speikkogel (Golica) Bärofen Ladinger Spitze (Velika Svinja) Klippitztörl Reißkofel Latschur Monte Mangart Monte Canin 2199 2197 2188 2279 2753 2052 1528 1431 642 1059 1030 778 1174 1394 2784 2965 2440 2370 2145 1693 2166 1059 2140 1720 2079 1644 2371 2236 Srebrni breg Slivnica Krim Vrem{~ica Veliki Sne`nik Mali Golak Ple{a Trdinov vrh Mirna gora Sveta Ana Goteni{ki Sne`nik Korada Sveta gora Slavnik Trstelj Ko{enjak ^rni vrh Ur{lja gora Stor`i~ Grintovec Ojstrica Velika Raduha Boskovec Kepa Golica Stol Ko{utnikov turn Porezen To{~ Kum Mrzlica Bo~ Gomila Lisca Veliki Javornik Triglav Veliki Mangart Visoki Kanin Matajur [krlatica Jalovec Stol Krn Rodica Vogel ^rna prst 404 1495 1107 1114 1027 1796 1262 1178 1047 932 1289 812 681 1028 643 1543 1522 1699 2132 2558 2350 2062 1587 2139 1836 2236 2133 1630 1021 1220 1122 979 352 948 1023 2864 2679 2587 1642 2740 2645 1673 2244 1966 1922 1844 Möll Görtschitz Gail Torre Torre Iudrio Stella Ausa Fella Gurk Glan Gurk Metnitz Laßnitz Sulm Raab Rába Zala Bednja Lonja Odra Mirna Korana Mre`nica Dobra Dobra Glina Sunja Kanal Sava-Odra-Sava Lonja Krapina Glogovnica Drau Drau Mur Kupa Sava Sava Isonzo Reka Pivka Idrijca Ba~a Kokra Sotla Savinja D ravinja Dragonja Vipava Me`a Mislinja Paka Pesnica [~avnica Sora Rin`a Krka Krka Kolpa So~a Sava Sava Drava Mura Drava I S T R A ^ I ^ A R I J A G O R S K I K O T A R H R V A T S K O Z A G O R J E K O R A L P E S A U A L P E G U R K T A L E R A L P E N K R E U Z E C K G R U P P E G A I L T A L E R A L P E N A L P I G I U L I E P O H O R J E G O R I ^ K O G O R J A N C I H A L O Z E S L O V E N S K E G O R I C E KO^EVSKI ROG J A V O R N I K I GOTENI[KA GORA S U H A K R A J I N A B E L A K R A J I N A P O S A V S K O H R I B O V J E B R K I N I J U L I J S K E A L P E K A M N I [ K O - S A V I N J S K E A L P E K A R A V A N K E K R A S C R O A T I A C R O A T I A HUNGARY HUNGARY S L O V E N I A S L O V E N I A A U S T R I A A U S T R I A I T A L Y I T A L Y Cartographer: Jerneja Fridl 01 02 03 04 05 0 km Republic of Slovenia Republic of Slovenia 4 9 4 0 0 5 6 1 6 9 8 7 9 ISBN 961-6500-49-X SLOVENIA a Geographical Overview SLOVENIA a Geographical Overview naslovnica.qxd 22.3.2012 12:15 Page 1