DIDACTICA SLOVENICA – PEDAGOŠKA OBZORJA ZNANSTVENA REVIJA ZA DIDAKTIKO Izdajatelji Published by □ Pedagoška obzorja d.o.o. □ Univerza v Novem mestu Glavni in odgovorni urednik Editor-in-chief □ Dr. Marjan Blažič Uredniški odbor Editorial board □ Dr. José Manuel Bautista Vallejo, Huelva, Španija □ Dr. Marija Javornik, Maribor, Slovenija □ Dr. Gabriela Kelemen, Arad, Romunija □ Dr. Ljupčo Kevereski, Bitola, Makedonija □ Dr. Nikola Mijanović, Nikšić, Črna gora □ Dr. Bojana Perić Prkosovački, Novi Sad, Srbija □ Dr. Jasmina Starc, Novo mesto, Slovenija □ Dr. Lazar Stošić, Beograd, Srbija □ Dr. Boško Vlahović, Beograd, Srbija □ Dr. Janez Vogrinc, Ljubljana, Slovenija Lektor Proofread by □ Meta Kmetič Prevodi Translated by □ Ensitra prevajanje, Brigita Vogrinec Škraba s.p. 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Copyright © 2023 – Pedagoška obzorja podjetje za pedagoški inženiring d.o.o. 2023 letnik 38 1 DIDACTICA SLOVENICA pedago{ka obzorja znanstvena revija za didaktiko Vsebina Contents Dr. Melita Lemut Bajec, 3 Stališča učiteljev in dijakov do integrativnega dr. Silva Bratož, kurikula dr. Tina Štemberger, Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes towards an Mateja Ceket Odar Integrative Curriculum Dr. Ivana Zajc 19 Ocenjevanje esejev na maturitetnem izpitu iz materinščine Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School- Leaving Exam Dr. Alena Letina, 32 Uporaba učnih strategij in metod pri Katija Kalinić poučevanju narave in družbe Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and Social Studies Classes Dr. Tatjana Kozjek, 48 Analiza z učenci povezanih socialnih stresorjev dr. Vanja Ida Erčulj med učitelji Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School Teachers Dr. Ingrid Emmerová, 63 Agresivno vedenje učencev do učiteljev dr. Tomáš Jablonský, Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards Teachers dr. Mojca Blažič Danijela Jelisavac 76 Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo Teacher Burnout and Job Satisfaction during the Epidemic Dr. Monika Mithans, 96 Vzgojiteljevo delo z otroki s posebnimi potrebami Živa Lipovec, Teachers’ Work with Children with Special Needs Sabina Ograjšek in Kindergarten Kaja Lenič 112 Vzgojni stili staršev Parenting Styles Dr. Melita Lemut Bajec, dr. Silva Bratož, dr. Tina Štemberger, Mateja Ceket Odar Stališča učiteljev in dijakov do integrativnega kurikula Prejeto 8. 12. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 8. 12. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 373.5.016:316.644 UDC 373.5.016:316.644 KLJUČNE BESEDE: sodobna šola, integrativni ku- KEYWORDS: modern school, integrative curriculum, rikul, medpredmetni timski pouk, sodelovalno učenje, cross-curricular team teaching, cooperative learning, projektno učenje project-based learning POVZETEK – Sodobna šola omogoča kakovostno, ABSTRACT – A modern school enables high-quality, trajno in uporabno znanje; razvija kritično in ustvar- integrated and useful knowledge; develops critical and jalno mišljenje ter vzgaja samoiniciativnega posame- creative thinking; educates autonomous individuals, znika, zmožnega najrazličnejših oblik sodelovanja. capable of performing teamwork activities. It is based Osnovana je na integrativnem kurikulu, ki se udejanja on an integrative curriculum, which is implemented prek timskega in medpredmetnega pouka, projektnih, through team and cross-curricular teaching, and problemskih, raziskovalnih idr. oblik poučevanja. Pri- through project-based, problem-based, research-based spevek predstavlja študijo primera, s katero smo želeli and other forms of learning. The article presents a case na izbrani srednji šoli preveriti stališča učiteljev in study which was carried out with the aim of exploring dijakov do integrativnega kurikula. Raziskava je po- teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards an integra- tekala v obliki projektnega dne, ki je medpredmetno tive curriculum in a chosen secondary school. The re- povezal discipline in predmetna področja z namenom search took the form of a project day, which cross-cur- krepitve in povezovanja znanja, razvoja odnosov ter ricularly linked disciplines and subject areas with the veščin. Ugotavljamo, da integrativni kurikul pomemb- aim of solidifying and integrating knowledge, and de- no doprinaša k aktivni vlogi dijaka, krepitvi veščin, veloping relationships and skills. Findings suggest that odnosov in pripadnosti, pri čemer učitelji in dijaki the integrative curriculum significantly contributes to zavzamejo drugačne vloge kot sicer. Poudarjen je the active role of the student, to the strengthening of pomen sodelovalnega in ustvarjalnega učenja. Kljub skills, attitudes and feelings of belonging, with teach- mnogim doprinosom integrativnega kurikula pa posa- ers and students taking on different roles as they would mezni učitelji še vedno izražajo dvome in nestrinjanje otherwise. The importance of cooperative and creative oz. tožijo, da so preobremenjeni in zato novosti niso learning is underlined. Despite the many contributions pripravljeni uvesti v pouk. of the integrative curriculum being highlighted, indi- vidual teachers still express doubts and disagreements, or complain that they are stressed out and are therefore not ready to introduce this novelty into the classroom. 1 Uvod Sodobna šola omogoča izgradnjo kakovostnega, trajnega in uporabnega znanja, ra- zvoj kritičnega in ustvarjalnega mišljenja ter vzgaja samoiniciativnega posameznika, zmožnega najrazličnejših oblik sodelovanja (Rutar Ilc, 2005). Zasledovanje omenjene- ga predpostavlja vpeljavo integrativnega kurikula (IK), ki se udejanja prek najrazličnej- ših oblik in pristopov učenja in poučevanja, npr. timskega in medpredmetnega pouka, projektnih, problemskih in raziskovalnih oblik učenja in poučevanja (Eržen idr., 2008; 4 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Kunaver, 2008; Poznanovič Jezeršek idr., 2008; Kokotsaki idr., 2016; Beane, 2020). Uvajanje sodobnih učnih pristopov v šolski sistem predstavlja podstavo družbenega napredka (Maksimović idr., 2020, str. 71). Prispevek začnemo s predstavitvijo značilnosti IK, izpostavimo medpredmetni tim- ski pouk, sodelovalno in projektno učenje. Sledi opis kvalitativne raziskave, ki smo jo na izbrani srednji šoli izvedli v obliki projektnega dne z namenom, da ugotovimo stališča učiteljev in dijakov do IK. Zanimalo nas je, kako dijaki in učitelji doživlja- jo dejavnosti, izvedene na način IK, in kaj te doprinašajo k vzgojno-izobraževalnemu procesu, s katerimi izzivi se soočajo učitelji pri njihovem udejanjanju in čemu naj se v prihodnje glede na sedanjo izkušnjo nameni poudarek. Zaključimo z ugotovitvijo, da IK pomembno doprinaša k aktivni vlogi dijaka v učnem procesu, krepitvi veščin, odnosov in pripadnosti, pri čemer učitelji in dijaki zavzamejo drugačne vloge kot sicer. Poudar- jen je pomen sodelovalnega in ustvarjalnega učenja. Kljub mnogim doprinosom IK, ki jih je pokazala pričujoča raziskava, pa ne moremo mimo nezainteresiranosti, dvoma, nestrinjanja in preobremenjenosti, ki se pojavljajo ob uvajanju IK in nanje opozorijo posamični učitelji in dijaki. 2 Integrativni kurikul Integrativni kurikul predpostavlja interdisciplinarno delovanje vseh udeleženih na način povezovanja konceptov med predmeti in znotraj predmetov ter prek sodeloval- nega učenja in poučevanja vzpostavlja krožne in vijačne konvergentne učne poti ter doprinaša k nastanku povezanega in celovitega znanja (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, str. 20). Pomembno prispeva h kakovosti medsebojnih odnosov, večji vključenosti in motivira- nosti sodelujočih, boljšemu akademskemu znanju, razvoju veščin kritičnega mišljenja in vseživljenjskega učenja, razvoju mišljenja na višjih taksonomskih ravneh, ustvar- jalnosti, državljanski pismenosti idr. (Anderson, 2013; Costley, 2015; Drake in Reid, 2018). Ima jasno opredeljene kurikularne cilje, ki so hierarhično nadrejeni predmetnim ter so del vsakoletnega procesa načrtovanja (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, str. 28). Pri načrto- vanju kurikularnih povezav je poleg ciljev, pričakovanih učnih rezultatov in dejavnosti pomembno razmisliti tudi o pripravljenosti in usposobljenosti učiteljev ter organizacij- ski prožnosti (prav tam, 2010, str. 36; Kokotsaki idr., 2016). Učitelj poleg vloge vodje prevzema tudi vlogo mentorja, usmerjevalca, motivatorja idr. (Cencič idr., 2008, str. 9) ter samostojno izbira take dinamične pristope, da z njimi zadovolji kar največ dijakovih potreb. Ker vpeljava IK predstavlja odklon od tradicionalnega pojmovanja pouka, mo- rajo najprej učitelji sami pristop ozavestiti in ga razumeti, nadalje jih je treba za njegovo izvajanje tudi usposobiti. Šele ko IK ponotranjijo, lahko začnejo z njegovo vpeljavo, ki sledi načelom sodelovalnega poučevanja in se začne z izmenjavo idej, razgovori, medsebojnimi opazovanji, skupnimi učnimi dejavnostmi, izmenjavo učiteljev ter se po- polnoma uresniči v timskem poučevanju (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, str. 37). Dr. Lemut Bajec, dr. Bratož, dr. Štemberger, Ceket Odar: Stališča učiteljev in dijakov... 5 Medpredmetni timski pouk Timsko medpredmetno poučevanje se nanaša na sodelovanje učiteljev pri pripravi in izvedbi pouka. Stopnja uskladitve in porazdelitve odgovornosti med učitelji dolo- ča vrsto timskega medpredmetnega sodelovanja (Stewart in Perry, 2005) in se v pol- nem pomenu besede zgodi takrat, ko sodelovanje poteka v vseh fazah – od priprave do izvedbe in refleksije. Prisotnost dodatnega učitelja/učiteljev spodbudi ustvarjalnost in prožnost učnega procesa, omogoča podajanje raznolikih, posamezniku prilagojenih navodil in učnih aktivnosti (Hughes in Murwaski, 2001), ponuja veliko priložnosti za poglabljanje in razširjanje znanj ter daje celosten pogled na večplastnost situacije/ problema. Prek vzpostavitve interaktivnega, sodelovalnega in diferenciranega učnega okolja pride do večjega zanimanja, medsebojnega sodelovanja, večje sproščenosti in boljšega razumevanja učnega gradiva (Crow in Smith, 2003). Tako učno okolje spod- buja samorefleksijo, razvija spretnosti in ključne zmožnosti, ki mlade vzgajajo v zdrave, odgovorne osebe, zavedajoč se pomena vseživljenjskega učenja in svoje vloge v družbi znanja (Kobilšek, 2018). Sodelovalno učenje Sodelovalno učenje vpliva na spoznavne, čustveno-motivacijske in socialne procese (Peklaj idr., 2009, str. 70), omogoča boljše učne dosežke, večje vztrajanje v programih in ustvarja pozitivnejša stališča do učenja, pomembno prispeva k boljši samopodobi in močnejši povezanosti skupine v primerjavi s tekmovalnim in individualnim učenjem (Johnson in Johnson, 2002). Pravo skupinsko delo sloni na kognitivnem konfliktu, ki razvija ponavljanje, razjasnjevanje in razširjanje znanja, posameznika vodi do preverja- nja lastnega razumevanja in preizkušanja novih idej, pripomore k jasnejšemu predme- tno specifičnemu izražanju, natančnejšemu utemeljevanju in pojasnjevanju ter razvoju metakognitivnih zmožnosti (Laal in Ghodsi, 2012). Učenec mora razviti svoj pogled, ga utemeljiti in primerjati s pogledi drugih, kar mu pomaga pri presojanju kakovosti lastnih rešitev in iskanju novih poti (Šteh, 2004, str. 157). Bolj kot so učenci med seboj povezani, bolj čutijo, da so odgovorni za svoje delo in uspeh celotne skupine (Johnson in Johnson, 2002). Na ta način jih vzgajamo v inkluzivnosti, spoštovanju, upoštevanju drugih in medsebojni pomoči (Gillies, 2016). Projektno učenje Projektno učenje/projektno delo/projektna metoda je ena izmed aktivnih oblik IK, ki je zelo blizu problemskemu in raziskovalnemu učenju, vključuje pa vse bistvene značilnosti sodelovalnega učenja. Osredinjenost na dijaka spodbuja delo nekoliko nad njegovo sposobnostjo, pomembno doprinaša k njegovi vključenosti v učni proces ter od njega zahteva vrednotenje, presojanje, analiziranje, sintetiziranje idr. (Krajcik in Blumenfeld, 2006; Kokotsaki idr., 2016). Učitelji se za projektno učenje odločajo z namenom poglabljanja znanja ter tako učence navajajo na delovno okolje, v katerem se bodo nekoč znašli in bo od njih zahtevalo skupinsko znanje za upravljanje projek- tov (Helle idr., 2006; Al-Balushi in Al-Aamri, 2014). Na ta način se ustvarjajo nove 6 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) povezave, kar vodi do hitrejšega usvajanja novega znanja in razvijanja zmožnosti, saj spodbuja vertikalno (več znanja) in horizontalno učenje (razvijanje zmožnosti, kot so npr. zmožnost upravljanja projekta) ter povezovanje deklarativnega in proceduralnega ter interdisciplinarnega in metakognitivnega znanja (Helle idr., 2006). Projektni pouk omogoča učencem več samostojnosti, tako da ti prek lastnih interesov, sposobnosti in učnih stilov pridejo do zanje smiselnih podatkov oz. uvidov (Grant, 2002). 3 Raziskava Metodologija Cilj raziskave je bil preučiti stališča dijakov in učiteljev do IK. Zato smo si zastavili naslednja raziskovalna vprašanja: □ RV1: Kaj po oceni učiteljev in dijakov IK doprinaša k vzgojno-izobraževalnemu procesu? □ RV2: Kako dijaki in učitelji doživljajo dejavnosti, izvedene na način IK? □ RV3: S katerimi izzivi so se pri preizkušanju IK soočali učitelji? □ RV4: Čemu po oceni dijakov pri organizaciji podobnih dejavnosti v prihodnje na- meniti poseben poudarek? Odločili smo se za študijo primera kot vrsto kvalitativne raziskave s poudarkom na razumevanju in interpretaciji raziskovanih situacij, procesov, odnosov, ravnanj idr. z vidika njihovih udeležencev (Vogrinc idr., 2008, str. 19). V raziskavi je sodelovalo 345 dijakov (15–19 let) srednjega strokovnega programa Predšolska vzgoja (12 razredov) in programa Splošna gimnazija (7 razredov) ter 37 uči- teljev različnih strokovnih področij izbrane srednje šole (32 učiteljic in 5 učiteljev). Povprečna delovna doba sodelujočih učiteljev je bila 20,85 leta. Dejavnosti, ki so trajale 7 šolskih ur, smo izvedli strnjeno v projektni obliki. Zaradi lažjega razumevanja učiteljev in dijakov smo jo poimenovali projektni dan. Učitelje smo spodbudili, da pripravijo dejavnosti, ki bodo v kar največji možni meri odslikavale IK. Nagovorili smo jih k preizkušanju metod, oblik in tehnik aktivnega učenja, ki se bistveno razlikujejo od metod tradicionalnega pouka ter bodo vključevale novejše, ak- tualnejše poudarke, ki bodo omogočali interdisciplinarnost in povezovanje z lokalnim okoljem ter poudarjale dijakovo ustvarjanje, soustvarjanje in vzpostavljale dober odnos med voditeljem in udeleženci (Katalog obveznih izbirnih vsebin, 2019). Postopki zbiranja in obdelava podatkov Za zbiranje podatkov smo uporabili evalvacijska lista za učitelje in dijake, na katera smo zapisali iztočnice, ki so povzemale raziskovalna vprašanja in nam podale naslednje vsebinske sklope: doprinosi k doseganju vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev, doživljanje iz- vedenih dejavnosti, izzivi učiteljev in predlogi. Po raziskavi, ki smo jo izvedli konec novembra 2021, je 21 učiteljev izpolnilo evalvacijo prek spletne aplikacije MS Forms, Dr. Lemut Bajec, dr. Bratož, dr. Štemberger, Ceket Odar: Stališča učiteljev in dijakov... 7 16 učiteljev pa je naknadno odgovore oddalo v ustni obliki na konferenci učiteljskega in vzgojiteljskega zbora. Evalvacija z dijaki je potekala v ustni obliki. Razredniki so v pogovoru z dijaki na osnovi vnaprej pripravljenih iztočnic izpolnili skupni evalva- cijski list. Dobili smo jih 19. Pridobili smo kvalitativne podatke, ki smo jih kodirali in kategorizirali. Z njihovo pomočjo smo nato oblikovali pojasnilo proučevanega pojava (Vogrinc idr., 2008). Podatke, ki smo jih dobili od učiteljev in dijakov, smo obdelali in jih najprej interpretirali ločeno, potem pa še primerjali in izpeljali končne ugotovitve. 4 Rezultati in interpretacija Sledi predstavitev rezultatov glede na oblikovane vsebinske sklope. Doprinos k doseganju vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev – učitelji Zanimalo nas je, v čem učitelji pri izvajanju IK vidijo doprinos k doseganju vzgoj- no-izobraževalnih ciljev. V njihovih odgovorih smo prepoznali naslednje kategorije: krepitev veščin, aktivno učenje in krepitev pripadnosti različnim skupinam. Največ odgovorov se je nanašalo na krepitev veščin in govori o tem, da IK po- membno doprinaša h krepitvi veščin vseživljenjskega učenja: ustvarjalnosti, digitalni pismenosti, podjetnosti in ročnim spretnostim, da je končni izdelek skupek veščin, ki si jih dijaki praktično nabirajo, in skupina lahko doseže dosti več kot en sam. Izpostavili so tudi razvoj komunikacijskih veščin in veščin kritičnega razmišljanja, in sicer da dija- ke učijo kritičnega sprejemanja informacij glede na namen, učijo jih izražanja v besedni in pisni obliki. Izpostavljene so bile še veščine medosebnih odnosov: krepitev zaupanja in odgovornosti in razvijanja sposobnost dela v skupini in prilagajanja v njej. Velik pomen so učitelji pripisali tudi aktivni vlogi dijakov, ki se udejanja prek sode- lovalnega, medpredmetnega, timskega, izkustvenega ter problemskega učenja in pouče- vanja, kar so izrazili z mnenji, da delajo na drugačen način kot pri običajnem pouku, da omogoča izvajanje aktivnih metod dela, da v svojo sredo lahko povabijo zunanje sode- lavce, ki predstavijo temo z drugega zornega kota, in da aktivne metode dela spodbujajo sodelovanje, medpredmetnost, saj je dodeljen čas, ki omogoča sproščeno, neobreme- njeno delovanje, raziskovanje, krepitev prečnih veščin, prehajanje iz teorije v prakso. V posameznih odgovorih se kaže še pomen krepitve pripadnosti različnim skupi- nam. Pravijo, da se s sodelovanjem med razredi krepijo vezi in pripadnost šoli, zaupanje in odgovornost, razvijajo sposobnosti zavedanja o smislu pripadnosti lokalni skupnosti, državi, EU in svetu in da razvijajo zavedanje pomena človekovih pravic in enakosti kot osnove za solidarnost in odgovornost v sodobnem svetu. Ugotavljamo, da večina učiteljev v dejavnostih, izvedenih na način IK, vidi mo- žnost za razvoj in krepitev mehkih veščin, pri katerih gre za kombinacijo kognitivnih, metakognitivnih, medosebnostnih, intelektualnih in praktičnih spretnosti ter etičnih vrednot, ki posameznikom omogočajo prilagajanje trenutnim okoliščinam in učinkovito spopadanje z osebnimi in profesionalnimi izzivi (Vadnjal, 2013). 8 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Med spletnimi odgovori izstopa le en odgovor: “Doprinosa ne vidim.” Četudi je osamljen, tak odgovor zahteva premislek o okoliščinah – je odklonilen odnos odraz trenutne zadrege, gre za posameznikovo držo ali morda tak posameznik ne premore sa- morefleksije. Dejstvo namreč je, da le “sposobnost, da drug na drugega gledamo objek- tivno, nepristransko od zunaj, da ocenimo svoje pozitivne in negativne vidike,” (Petlák, 2021, str. 42) posamezniku omogoča priložnost za profesionalno rast in razvoj. Na konferenci učiteljskega zbora so posamezniki izražali dvom oz. nestrinjanje z IK, češ, da gre za “igračkanje” in ne vodi do izpolnitve maturitetnih ciljev, zato se jim tak način dela zdi povsem brezpredmeten. Ugotavljamo, da nekateri učitelji IK ne pripisujejo dovoljšnega pomena ali se ga morda celo ne zavedajo, saj večino učnih ur pripravijo in izvedejo prek ustaljenih učnih pristopov (Mihelič, 2010, str. 27), mnogo- krat frontalno, z izrazitim zasledovanjem ciljev, ki jih predvideva eksterno preverjanje znanja (matura) (Fidler, 2005). Doprinos k doseganju vzgojno-izobraževalnih ciljev – dijaki Odgovore dijakov, ki se nanašajo na doprinos IK k doseganju vzgojno-izobraže- valnih ciljev, lahko strnemo v naslednje sklope: drugačne oblike in metode dela, spre- menjena učiteljeva in dijakova vloga ter priložnosti za poglabljanje odnosov z učitelji. Kot doprinos so dijaki izpostavili drugačen način dela, ki omogoča veliko več so- delovalnega učenja. To so poudarili z izjavami, v katerih so navedli, da so delali v sku- pinah, se veliko pogovarjali v dvojicah, da so ves čas morali delovati kot skupina, da je vsakdo moral nekaj prispevati in da so se prek sodelovanja povezali. Mnogo dijakov so pritegnile avtentične učne situacije, saj so po njihovih besedah imeli možnost, da so se tudi sami preverili v vlogi novinarja in sodnika, da so poglabljali svoje znanje o stva- reh, ki jih zanimajo, in spoznali novo tehniko učenja. Številni odgovori so se nanašali na spoznanje, da IK ponuja priložnosti za drugačne načine učenja. Izpostavili so, da so bili spodbujeni k razmišljanju izven okvirjev in da projektni dan ponuja možnosti in priložnosti za drugačne in nove načine dela, ki si jih pri običajnem pouku ne morejo privoščiti. Izpostavili so tudi spremenjeno učiteljevo in dijakovo vlogo ter tako potrdili dogna- nja didaktičnega konstruktivizma: “Učiteljici sta bili bolj mentorici in sooblikovalki, svetovali sta nam, nas usmerjali in spodbujali, da smo sami prišli do odgovorov oz. izdelka.” Učitelj tako ni več “prenašalec znanja, edini vir informacij in lovec na napake, ampak je predvsem mentor, animator in ustvarjalec optimalnih okoliščin za učenje” (Skela, 2008, str. 182). Takšen način delovanja pa daje priložnosti za poglabljanje od- nosov. Dijaki so npr. zapisali, da so se povezali z učiteljicama in doživeli bolj pristen stik med učiteljem in učencem. Ugotavljamo, da dijaki prepoznavajo pomen IK, ki predpostavlja učenje z razume- vanjem in povezovanjem vsebin, tako individualizacijo in prilagodljivost učnega pro- cesa kot prednosti sodelovalnega učenja, kar vodi do ustvarjanja trajnega, uporabnega in kakovostnega znanja (Novak, 2004; Wall in Leckie, 2017). Aktivne oblike učenja presegajo kopičenje in zapomnitev spoznanj ter povezujejo učne situacije z izkušnjami in življenjskimi okoliščinami, ki so učencem blizu ter jih miselno in čustveno aktivirajo (Marentič Požarnik, 2008, str. 11; Dowden, 2007). Dr. Lemut Bajec, dr. Bratož, dr. Štemberger, Ceket Odar: Stališča učiteljev in dijakov... 9 Doživljanje izvedenih dejavnosti – učitelji Učitelje smo vprašali, kako so dejavnosti, izvedene na način IK, doživeli. Prepo- znali smo naslednji kategoriji: pozitivna izkušnja in odsotnost celotne slike. Iz odgovorov je razbrati predvsem pozitivno izkušnjo. Večine ni “nič zmotilo” oz. niso ničesar pogrešali. Zapisali so: “dobra, zanimiva, lepa izkušnja”, “izkušnja, ki bogati”, “en super izpeljan dan”, “zadoščenje, da sem z dijaki okrepila zavest, kako pomembno je biti aktivni deležnik trajnostnega razvoja”, “hvaležnost, da imamo tako super dijake”, “lep izdelek in zanimiv proces”, “drugačna dinamika v razredu, na hodnikih, med kolegi”. Več učiteljev je pogrešalo pregled nad celotnim dogajanjem v obliki končne ple- narne predstavitve. Eden izmed učiteljev je zapisal, da bi si želel zaključno predstavitev delavnic, ki zaradi epidemije žal ni bila izvedljiva, druga učiteljica pa, da je pogrešala plenarno predstavitev, ki sicer predstavlja v pripravi veliko breme za učitelja, po njenem mnenju pa najbolj krepi šolsko skupnost ‒ dijaki se vidijo in si z zanimanjem prisluhne- jo, učitelji pa imajo možnost slediti odličnim primerom medpredmetnega povezovanja. Bilo je tudi izraženo mnenje udeleženca, da je manjkal pogled na to, kaj so ustvarili drugi. Plenarna predstavitev, ki so jo učitelji pogrešali, v polnosti odseva IK, ki je po- memben za izgradnjo celovitega in integriranega znanja ter vodi do povezovanja na konceptualni ravni, ki izhaja iz skupnega problema oz. problemskega vprašanja (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010) – v našem primeru krovne teme projektnega dne. Tudi pri doživljanju izstopajo posamezni manj naklonjeni komentarji. Ena izmed učiteljic je zapisala, da bi si želela, da sodelovanje ne bi bilo obvezno, druga pa, da se ji zdi, da se je izpela. Bilo je podano tudi mnenje, da so bili dijaki nezadovoljni. Podobno nenaklonjeni so bili posamezni učitelji, ki so se do tega vsebinskega sklopa opredelili ustno. Izpostavili so preobremenjenost z izjavama, da je to le še ena v vrsti mnogih na- log in da je preveč vsega. Bilo je podano tudi mnenje učitelja, da ne zmore več. Sprašu- jemo se, ali so njihovi odzivi odraz obremenitev, do katere pride zaradi posameznikove nezmožnosti obvladanja novih kompleksnih situacij, ali prihaja do preobremenjenosti zaradi organizacijske strukture ali je to posledica človekovih lastnosti in to izhaja iz (ne)usklajenosti posameznikovih zmožnosti z jasno opredeljenimi zahtevami delovne- ga procesa (Molan, 2012). Doživljanje izvedenih dejavnostih – dijaki Odgovore dijakov, ki se nanašajo na doživljanje dejavnosti, izvedenih na način IK, lahko strnemo v naslednje sklope: odlična izkušnja, nezanimive teme, vztrajanje pri ustaljenih učnih pristopih in nezainteresiranost učiteljev. Dijaki so večinoma poudarjali, da je bilo super, da so bili sproščeni in da ni bilo vsakodnevnih skrbi in obveznosti, npr. testov in spraševanja, in tako so bolj polno so- delovali in se učili, da so se z učitelji in sošolci spoznali v drugačni luči, da so bili teme življenjske, zanimive in da bi večkrat morali delati na tak način. Kljub vsemu pa so se našli tudi posamezniki, ki so izpostavili izbor zanje nezanimivih tem, kar se vidi v izjavah, v katerih je navedeno, da jih teme niso pritegnile in so jim bile dolgočasne. Eden izmed dijakov tudi ni razumel, v kakšni zvezi je bila njihova delavnica 10 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) z izbrano temo projektnega dne. Ključno je spoznanje, da le zanimiva in smiselna vsebi- na, ki odseva resnično življenje in dijake miselno izzove, da izhajajo iz svojih izkušenj, znanja in zmožnosti, deluje motivacijsko in vodi do večje osredotočenosti na učno snov (Pérez-Cañado, 2012). V odsotnosti pravkar povedanega so morda nekateri dijaki čutili, da je “bil dan potrata časa”, saj je bila podana tudi izjava dijakinje, da ni niti strokovno niti osebno napredovala, in druge, da bi raje imela pouk, da ji je bilo brez veze. Prav tako je nekatere dijake zelo zmotila uporaba ustaljenih učnih pristopov, saj so nekateri dejali, da so samo sedeli in pisali, da je bilo precej enolično, dolgočasno, statično, preveč še vedno pasivnega spremljanja (predavanj), četudi naj bi bil dan dru- gačen. Nekateri dijaki so izpostavili občutek, da niso bili slišani, kar lahko ponazorimo z izjavo: “Učitelj nam je vsilil določene ideje in četudi nam ni bilo všeč in bi ideje radi spremenili, nam to ni bilo dovoljeno.” Eden izmed dijakov je zapisal, da je uvajanje sodobnih oblik dela brezpredmetno, dokler učni sistem ostaja okostenel, star in neaktu- alen. Vztrajanje na ustaljenih učnih pristopih dijaku ne daje možnosti aktivne vloge, ne vzgaja h kritični izgradnji in usvajanju znanja ter ne omogoča izražanja ustvarjalnosti (Lemut Bajec, 2022). Prav ustvarjalnost pa je “ena najbolj iskanih lastnosti v družbi in omogoča premagovanje različnih izzivov v življenju” (Dolinar in Likar, 2021, str. 64). Nekateri dijaki so izpostavili nezainteresiranost učiteljev. Opazili so, da je bilo delo pripravljeno na hitro, da ni bilo dobro organizirano in načrtovano. Eden izmed njih je za- pisal: “Predvideno je bilo za dve šolski uri, opravili smo ga v 20 minutah, ostali čas smo se “dolgočasili”. Učiteljica je ob tem zgolj opazovala naše delo, ni nas usmerjala in po po- trebni nadgrajevala zaposlitve. Tako smo preostali čas preživeli na telefonih. Delali smo, ker smo pač morali, vključno z učiteljico.” Sklepamo, da se učitelji še vedno ne zavedajo svoje vloge in vpliva na učinkovitost učnega procesa. Učitelj je tisti, ki poskrbi za vzpo- stavitev spodbudnega učnega okolja in ki vpliva na motivacijo učencev, izgradnjo znanja, razvoj zmožnosti in odnosov (Lemut Bajec, 2022). Nujno je torej zavedanje o nenehnem prilagajanju in usklajevanju vključenih v učni proces, ki temelji na zaupnem in odprtem odnosu (Stewart in Perry, 2005). Ob upoštevanju navedenega bi se izognili opažanjem: “Mentorici nista bili niti kompatibilni niti usklajeni; čutilo se je veliko napetosti med njima.” Ker se večina učiteljev zaveda pomena in učinka sodelovanja, zgornja osamljena opazka ni zaskrbljujoča. Je pa dobra iztočnica za pogovor o vplivu zgleda učiteljevega sodelovanja na uspešnost sodelovanja med učenci (Gliha Olenik, 2018). Izzivi – učitelji Nadalje nas je zanimalo, kaj je učiteljem predstavljalo izziv v izvajanju dejavnosti. V njihovih odgovorih smo prepoznali naslednje kategorije: vodenje dijakov, izvajanje pouka in načrtovanje. Največ odgovorov se je nanašalo na vodenje dijakov skozi učni proces. Ena izmed učiteljic je izpostavila izziv motiviranja za delo na izbrani temi, druga pa izziv, kako bi jih usmerjala pri izbiri ustreznih virov in jih naučila pravilno vrednotiti. Zanimivo je tudi razmišljanje, kako z dijaki iti do neke mere iz cone udobja in se spustili na podro- čje, ki je zanimivo, vendar v njem nihče “ni doma”. Posamični odgovori so izpostavljali medpredmetno timsko poučevanje, kot npr.: “Največji izziv mi je bila povezava predmeta, ki dijakom ni prioriteta, s temo projek- Dr. Lemut Bajec, dr. Bratož, dr. Štemberger, Ceket Odar: Stališča učiteljev in dijakov... 11 tnega dne (če je pač to navezovanje smisel in namen) in temu ustrezno motiviranje.” Nekaterim učiteljem je bil izziv vzpostaviti pristen odnos z razredom, v katerem ne poučujejo, oz. poglabljanje vezi z dijaki. Veliko odgovorov se je nanašalo tudi na načrtovanje izvedbe dneva. Eden izmed učiteljev je dejal: “Izziv bi lahko postal težava, če s kolegico ne bi pravočasno začeli z načrtovanjem. Tako pa sva dosegli, da sva bili pred izvedbo povsem sproščeni.” Ugotavljamo, da so učitelji kot izziv zaznali izvajanje pouka, usklajevanje ciljev predmeta s krovnimi cilji projektnega dne ter vzpostavitev odnosa z dijaki. Z omenje- nimi izzivi so se učinkovito spopadli prek pravočasne vzpostavitve timskega in med- predmetnega sodelovanja učiteljev. Na ta način so potrdili spoznanja Šimenca (2004), ki poudarja pomembnost priprave jasne didaktične strukture dejavnosti za soočanje z izzivi ter posledično vzpostavitev varnega in spodbudnega učnega okolja. Predlogi poudarkov dijakov za delo v prihodnje Nazadnje nas je zanimalo, čemu želijo dijaki, da se pri organizaciji podobnih dni v prihodnje nameni poseben poudarek. Njihove odgovore lahko strnemo v dva sklopa: še več sodelovalnega in ustvarjalnega učenja in vključenost dijakov v proces načrtovanja. Dijaki si želijo sodobne šole, ki prek sodelovanja spodbuja ustvarjalno in hevristič- no učenje. “Vztrajanje pri zahtevi samostojnega iskanja odgovorov in rešitev prispeva k razvoju kognitivnih sposobnosti in ustvarjalnih potencialov, kar so temelji hevristične- ga učnega pristopa.” (Prkosovački idr., 2020, str. 54). Navajajo, da bi radi nekaj ustvar- jali, izdelovali konkretne izdelke, imeli več delavnic glasbe, likovne umetnosti, risanja grafitov, šli ven, imeli več delavnic športa, kuhanja, se ukvarjali s konkretnimi življenj- skimi problemi in zanje iskali konkretne rešitve ter delali v skupinah in med seboj sodelovali. Ugotavljamo, da se dijaki zavedajo vrednosti in doprinosa IK, ki zagotavlja kakovostno, trajno in uporabno znanje ter spodbuja razvoj kritičnega in ustvarjalnega mišljenja (Rutar Ilc, 2005, str. 8) in tako dijake navaja na prihodnje delovno okolje, ki bo od njih zahtevalo celostni pristop k obravnavi problema (Helle idr., 2006). Prav tako si dijaki želijo, da bi bili v prihodnje vključeni v proces načrtovanja pro- jektnega dne. Želijo si, da bi jih učitelji vnaprej vprašali, kaj jih zanima, in na to temo pripraviti delo, da bi drugo leto sami zbrali temo in da bi tudi proces, potek dela načr- tovali skupaj z njimi. Z upoštevanjem dijakovih potreb, motivacije, interesov, znanja, sposobnosti in mnogih inteligentnosti bi zagotovo pripomogli k večji osredinjenosti učnega procesa na učenca (Kač, 2005, str. 136; Peklaj idr., 2009; Wall in Leckie, 2017) in tako pripomogli k izgradnji trajnejšega in učinkovitejšega znanja. 5 Razprava in zaključek V sodobni šoli, osnovani na IK, se učni proces udejanja prek timskega in medpred- metnega pouka, projektnih, problemskih, raziskovalnih, sodelovalnih idr. oblik pouče- vanja in učenja, kar omogoča kakovostno, trajno in uporabno znanje, razvija kritično in 12 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) ustvarjalno mišljenje ter vzgaja samoiniciativnega posameznika, zmožnega najrazlič- nejših oblik sodelovanja. S pričujočo raziskavo smo preučili stališča učiteljev in dijakov do IK. Ugotavljamo, da učitelji ocenjujejo, da IK pomembno doprinaša k aktivni vlogi dijaka v učnem proce- su, krepitvi veščin in pripadnosti. Dijaki doprinos vidijo v drugačnih, neustaljenih obli- kah in metodah dela, ki postavljajo učitelje in dijake v drugačne vloge ter obenem dajejo priložnosti za poglabljanje odnosov. Poudarjajo pomen sodelovalnega in ustvarjalnega učenja. Želijo biti slišani oz. upoštevani tako pri načrtovanju kot izvedbi dejavnosti. Omenjene ugotovitve se skladajo s postulati IK, ki v središče postavlja dijaka in ga an- gažira, med drugim tudi na način sodelovalnega učenja in uporabe višjih taksonomskih ravni mišljenja, kar pomembno pripomore k porastu zanimanja za delo. Skupaj z učitelji naslavlja teme, ki ga še posebej zanimajo, ter tako hitreje ponotranji pomen in smisel proučevanega gradiva. Tako poveže izkušnje, ki jih pridobi v učilnici, z resničnim sve- tom in s svojimi osebnimi izkušnjami. Vse to pa ga navaja na vseživljenjsko učenje (Watkins in Kritsonis, 2011; Vars, 2001; Mustafa, 2011; Costley, 2015). Tako učitelji kot dijaki so dejavnosti, izvedene na način IK, doživeli kot pozitivno izkušnjo, četudi so nekateri učitelji izpostavili, da jim je bilo v izziv načrtovati in izvesti pouk, ki bo omogočal ustrezno vodenje dijakov. Sprašujemo se, ali je težava v nepo- znavanju IK ter sodobnih učnih metod in oblik dela ali morda v njihovi zgolj sporadični uporabi. Dejstvo je, da je srednja šola usmerjena predvsem v maturo in ciljno zasledo- vano znanje. Omenjeno je tudi v skladu z dognanji avtorja Beane (2020), ki ugotavlja, da se ideja IK umika pritiskom standardov znanj, ki jih določajo učni načrti in eksterna preverjanja znanj. V razmislek pa je treba vzeti tudi odgovore dijakov, ki so opozorili na izbor zanje nezanimivih tem in na dejstvo, da so nekateri učitelji še naprej vztrajali v ustaljenih učnih pristopih ter odražali očitno nezainteresiranost za nov način dela. Domnevamo, da bi to lahko bili tisti učitelji, ki so izražali dvom oz. nestrinjanje z IK oz. so izpostavili preobremenjenost z delom. Omenjene slabosti, tj. nezainteresiranost, dvom, nestrinjanje in preobremenjenost, se pojavljajo tudi v literaturi, in sicer zlasti v povezavi s pomanj- kanjem znanja, izkušenj oz. odsotnostjo ustrezne komunikacije, ki bi olajšala organiza- cijo takega dela (Quintero idr., 2016; Muller idr., 2008). Omenjeno je mogoče preseči s postopnim uvajanjem modela IK, z vključevanjem vseh učiteljev v nastanek programov ter spodbujanjem k timskemu in medpredmetnemu sodelovanju, ki bo vključevalo tudi oblikovanje interdisciplinarno in problemsko zastavljenih nalog. V svetu hitrih spre- memb je eden od ključnih ciljev in nalog usposobiti učence za ustvarjalno razmišljanje. Sodobna inovativna didaktika podpira take pristope pri pouku in učenju, ki spodbujajo učence na razmišljanje. Bistvenega pomena za razumevanje in uvajanje inovacij v učni proces z namenom modernizacije in razvijanja učnega procesa so temeljni teoretični koncepti dejavnikov pouka (Stanković in Blažič, 2017). Na ta način bodo prej izposta- vljeni posamezniki postali bolj sodelujoči, produktivni ter bodo izražali manj odpora. Haramati (2015) še poudarja, da IK ne more uspeti, če udeleženi ne razumejo jezika izobraževanja. Zato bi bilo “za večanje učinkovitosti celostnega izobraževanja smiselno več pozornosti nameniti ne samo dodatnemu strokovnemu izobraževanju, temveč tudi formalnemu izobraževanju učiteljev” (Kopačin in Birsa, 2022, str. 119). Rezultati pričujoče raziskave potrjujejo pomembnost IK za vzgojo posameznikov, sposobnih delovanja v interdisciplinarno delujočem svetu. Dejstvo, da je raziskava tra- Dr. Lemut Bajec, dr. Bratož, dr. Štemberger, Ceket Odar: Stališča učiteljev in dijakov... 13 jala le 7 šolskih ur oz. en šolski dan, zagotovo predstavlja njeno omejitev. Izvedena v nestrnjeni in dalj časa trajajoči obliki bi zagotovo podala bolj poglobljene uvide v do- prinose, doživljanja, izzive in priložnosti IK. Pri vsem tem pa se je potrebno zavedati, da enega samega predpisanega modela IK ni, da pa lahko vsaka posamezna šola znotraj svojih posebnosti najde uspešen model, ki bo odseval in živel postulate IK (Burkhardt, 2009, v: Wall in Leckie, 2017). Melita Lemut Bajec, PhD, Silva Bratož, PhD, Tina Štemberger, PhD, Mateja Ceket Odar Teachers’ and Students’ Attitudes towards an Integrative Curriculum A modern school provides high-quality, integrated and useful knowledge, develops critical and creative thinking, educates autonomous individuals and thus presents “the basis that is essential for any social progress” (Maksimović et al., 2020, p. 71). It is based on an integrative curriculum that presupposes interdisciplinary action of everyone involved, and creates a new quality of learning and teaching (Rutar Ilc, 2010; Dolinar and Likar, 2021). It assumes the integration of concepts between and within subjects, and through collaborative learning and teaching establishes circular and spiral con- vergent learning paths, which contribute to the emergence of a coherent and integrated knowledge that an individual is able to transfer to new situations (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, p. 20). An integrative curriculum has clearly defined curricular objectives, which are hierarchically placed above subject objectives and are part of the annual planning process. When planning interdisciplinary work, it is important (besides the objectives, expected learning outcomes and activities) to consider the extent to which teachers are ready and competent to introduce the above into the learning process; organisational flexibility of the institution also needs to be thought out (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, p. 36). In addition to being a leader, the teacher also takes on the roles of a mentor, guide, mo- tivator, facilitator, etc. (Cencič et al., 2008, p. 9), and is autonomous in choosing such dynamic approaches that meet as many of the students’ diverse needs as possible. As the integrative curriculum represents a diversion from the traditional notion of teaching, teachers themselves first need to understand the approach, and then be trained so as to implement it. Only when internalised, it is time for its implementation, which is carried out according to the principles of cooperative teaching through the exchange of ideas, discussions, peer observations, joint learning activities, teacher exchanges, and is fully realised in team teaching (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, p. 37). Collaboration among teach- ers is an example of good practice and teaches students to proceed in the same manner (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010, pp. 23–30). The article presents a case study which was carried out with the aim of exploring teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards an integrative curriculum in a chosen second- ary school. The following four research questions were set: □ RQ1: According to teachers’ and students’ assessment what does integrative curri- culum bring into the educational process? □ RQ2: How do students and teachers experience activities carried out according to the principles of the integrative curriculum? 14 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) □ RQ3: What challenges did teachers face when trying out the integrative curriculum? □ RQ4: According to pupils, what should be given special emphasis when organising similar activities in the future? The activities, which lasted 7 school lessons, were carried out in the form of a pro- ject day. Teachers were encouraged to prepare activities that mirrored the integrative curriculum as closely as possible. They were encouraged to try out methods, approach- es and techniques of active learning that significantly differ from traditional teaching methods; to integrate newer, more up-to-date issues/topics, allowing for interdiscipli- nary collaboration with the local environment, and to engage students to be active and creative, thus establishing a good rapport between the facilitator and the participants (Kranjc, 2019). The participants were 345 students (aged 15–19) of the Preschool Edu- cation Programme (12 classes) and the General Upper-Secondary School Programme (7 classes), and 37 teachers of different subject areas at the selected secondary school (32 female teachers and 5 male teachers). The average length of service of the partici- pating teachers was 20.85 years. After the research, which was carried out at the end of November 2021, the teachers and students completed an evaluation sheet. 21 teachers completed the on-line evalu- ation, while 16 teachers submitted their answers orally at the Teachers’ Meeting that followed the project day. The students expressed their opinions orally to their class teachers. Their answers were later written down on an evaluation sheet. We received 19 evaluation sheets. The data collected from teachers and students were first processed and interpreted separately, then compared; finally, conclusions were drawn. Firstly, we wanted to know what the major benefits of the integrative curriculum are according to teachers’ views. The findings suggest that most teachers see the activities carried out according to the principles of the integrative curriculum as an opportunity to develop and strengthen soft skills, which are a combination of cognitive, metacognitive, interpersonal, intellectual and practical skills, as well as ethical values that enable indi- viduals to adapt to current circumstances and cope effectively with personal and profes- sional challenges (Vadnjal, 2013). A lonely answer saying “I see no contribution” raises several questions, among others whether such an individual is capable of self-reflection, which is a basis for professional growth and self-development (Petlák, 2021, p. 42). Secondly, students also reflected on the benefits of the project day. They highlighted the teamwork; the changed roles in which the teachers and students found themselves, which presented an opportunity to deepen their relationships with one another as well as opportunities to try out different ways of learning; many students were attracted by the authentic learning situations. We find that students recognise the importance of the integrative curriculum that is implemented through individual and collaborative work and which assumes learning through understanding, individualisation and flexibility of the learning process, which in a stimulating learning climate allows for the creation of sustainable, integrated and quality knowledge (Novak, 2004). Active forms of learning go beyond the accumulation and memorisation of knowledge, and relate learning situ- ations to experiences and life circumstances that are close to the learners and activate them mentally and emotionally (Marentič Požarnik, 2000, p. 11). Thirdly, teachers were asked about their experiences related to the activities of the project day. Their answers revealed predominantly positive experiences. Several teach- Dr. Lemut Bajec, dr. Bratož, dr. Štemberger, Ceket Odar: Stališča učiteljev in dijakov... 15 ers missed the final plenary presentation, which enables the construction of holistic and integrated knowledge, the development of critical thinking, and leads to integration on a conceptual level, stemming from a common problem or problem question (Pavlič Škerjanc, 2010) – in our case the overarching theme of the project day. Fourthly, we were also interested in students’ perceptions of the project day ac- tivities. Most of them expressed high levels of satisfaction. Yet some highlighted the selection of uninteresting topics; they were also bothered by the use of long-established teaching approaches; and they pointed out the disinterest of some teachers. As Mihelič (2010, p. 27) notes, teachers often resort to traditional teaching approaches, often in a frontal manner, with a strong pursuit of the objectives directed by the external as- sessment (Fidler, 2005). Overall, there is a perceived lack of integrative, exploratory, problem-based, experiential, collaborative, etc. elements of the integrative curriculum. As Lemut Bajec (2022) stresses, such teaching does not mentally stimulate and engage students to critically acquire knowledge nor allows for their creativity, which is, among other things, one of the most sought-after qualities in today’s world as it enables one to overcome different life challenges more successfully (Dolinar and Likar, 2021, p. 64). Next, we wanted to know what was challenging in the implementation of the activi- ties for the teachers. They state that the very implementation of the lessons, the align- ment of the lesson objectives with the overarching objectives of the project day, and the building of rapport with the students was a challenge, which was addressed through the timely established teamwork. In this way, they confirmed the findings of Šimenc (2004), who stresses that a clear didactic structure of activities is of paramount importance if the teacher is to create a safe and stimulating learning environment and effectively cope with challenges. Finally, we were interested in students’ suggestions for future work. They empha- sised that they would like to see a modern school that promotes creative and heuristic learning through peer collaboration and their active engagement in the learning pro- cess. They would rather approach the task in their own non-prescribed way, which certainly leads to a greater development of their cognition and creativity (Prkosovački et al., 2020, p. 54). Moreover, students appreciate the contribution that the integrative curriculum brings to the school process, as it ensures quality, integrated and useful knowledge, promotes the development of critical and creative thinking (Rutar Ilc, 2005, p. 8), and thus prepares them for the future work environment, where they will need to tackle problems holistically (Helle et al., 2006). To conclude, the overall findings of the present research confirm the importance of the integrative curriculum. Namely, it educates young minds into individuals capable of functioning in an interdisciplinary world. Both students and teachers highlight many benefits: when carried out in a stimulating learning environment, the integrative cur- riculum adds to the broadening of knowledge, it develops skills, and establishes oppor- tunities to build rapport. Nonetheless, there are still a few teachers who are disinclined towards novel approaches and rather resort to the traditionally established teaching approaches. These teachers neither see nor acknowledge the real contribution of the integrative curriculum and thus miss out on the opportunities to create an innovative, creative and integrated learning environment. Therefore, it might be worth introducing in-service training for practising teachers and for prospective teachers (Kopačin and Birsa, 2022, p. 119). 16 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) The fact that the survey lasted only 7 school lessons or one school day is certainly a limitation worth considering. If conducted over a longer period of time, it would certainly provide more in-depth insights into the contributions, challenges and oppor- tunities posed by the integrative curriculum. 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Naslov / Address: Liminjanska 53, 6320 Portorož, Slovenija Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 041 607 900 E-mail: silva.bratoz@pef.upr.si Dr. Tina Štemberger (1980), izredna profesorica pedagoške metodologije na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze na Primorskem. Naslov / Address: Podgraje 27, 6250 Ilirska Bistrica, Slovenija Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 041 782 741 E-mail: tina.stemberger@pef.upr.si Mateja Ceket Odar, prof. (1973), srednješolska učiteljica slovenščine na Srednji šoli Veno Pilon Ajdovščina. Naslov / Address: Ulica Vena Pilona 75, 5270 Ajdovščina, Slovenija Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 051 354 457 E-mail: mateja.c.odar@ss-venopilon.si Ivana Zajc, PhD Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School-Leaving Exam Prejeto 11. 10. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 11. 10. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 373.5.091.27:82-4 UDC 373.5.091.27:82-4 KLJUČNE BESEDE: esej, maturitetni izpit, sistem KEYWORDS: essay, secondary school-leaving exam, ocenjevanja, književna didaktika, ocenjevanje jezika scoring system, literary didactics, language assessment POVZETEK – V članku predstavimo primerjalno ana- ABSTRACT – The article is a comparative analysis of lizo devetih različnih tipov esejev, ki so del maturite- nine different types of essays as a part of the second- tnega izpita iz materinščine ob koncu srednješolskega ary school-leaving exam in L1 on a literary topic from izobraževanja in smo jih obravnavali z vidika njihovih the point of view of their scoring systems. In terms of sistemov ocenjevanja. Z vidika ocenjevanja smo iden- scoring, two different types of essays have been found. tificirali dva različna tipa esejev: na eni strani eseje, On the one hand, there are essays that give a higher ki dodeljujejo višji odstotek točk kategoriji jezika, ki percentage of points in the category of language that jo razumejo kot pravilno rabo slovnice, pravopisa is understood as the correct use of grammar, punc- itd.; na drugi strani pa so eseji, ki dodeljujejo nižji tuation, etc. On the other hand, there are essays that odstotek točk za kategorijo jezika, ki jo tudi razume- give a lower percentage of points for the category of jo drugače, in sicer z vidika učinkovite komunikacije, language that is understood differently, namely as ef- ob tem pa višji odstotek točk dodeljujejo kategorijam, ficient communication, and give a higher percentage povezanim z vsebino – literarnim znanjem, argumen- of points for the categories pertaining to content – lit- taciji zamisli itd. Slovenski esej uvrstimo v prvi tip erary knowledge, argumentation, etc. The Slovenian esejev in za izhodišče njegovih morebitnih sprememb essay is categorised as the first type; possible changes predlagamo značilnosti esejev drugega tipa. Predla- are proposed for it to be based on the characteristics gamo uporabo opisno-kriterijskega ocenjevanja z ve- of the second type of essay. In other words, the use of a čjim poudarkom na literarnem znanju, argumentaciji descriptive-criteria scoring system is proposed, with a in osebnem odzivu. stronger emphasis on literary knowledge, argumenta- tion and personal response. 1 Introduction The essay as part of the upper secondary school-leaving exam in the first language (L1) is a written assignment, most often on a literary topic, that takes place at the end of upper secondary education. It is a metatext (a text about a literary text) or the candi- date’s text about their reading or communication with literature, as defined by Krakar Vogel (2008, p. 359). In the essay as part of the Slovenian upper secondary school- leaving exam, the student demonstrates not only their knowledge of the given literary work(s), but also their general literacy, the competence to create a coherent text and the ability to observe, experience, analyse, explain and substantiate, compare, evaluate and actualise literary works (Ambrož, 2015, p. 210). The fundamental goal of teaching liter- ature as part of the classes of Slovenian as L1 at the upper secondary level is the devel- opment of a cultured reader that experiences literature deeply (cf. Krakar Vogel, 2004, 20 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) p. 72), knows the literary system, and deepens their literary knowledge (cf. Žbogar, 2010, p. 425; Krakar Vogel and Blažić, 2012, pp. 12–15). Reading literature, especially classical works, develops the inter- and intracultural dialogue: the mutual recognition and understanding of one’s own cultural heritage and the cultural heritage of others in appreciating the differences between cultures (Žbogar, 2018, p. 84). These objectives should therefore be included in the essay on a literary topic in the upper secondary school-leaving examination. In this way, we can cultivate the students’ attitude towards books, which depends, among other things, on their experiences with books, the aware- ness that fiction is important, their emotional connection with reading, the search for values i n books, their interest in books, and a developed positive attitude towards them (Linnik and Barna, 2017, p. 33). Since the introduction of the general and external upper secondary school-leaving examination in Slovenia in 1995, various proposals for modifying the essay as part of this exam have emerged. With regular evaluations performed by researchers of liter- ary didactics in collaboration with teachers, the essay has developed over the years. Čokl and Bucik (2016, p. 16) proposed a new scoring system for the Slovenian essay: a descriptive-criteria scoring system in which the essay rubric includes a few criteria and each of them is described in the rating scale that identifies different levels of perfor- mance. The proposed new scoring system for the Slovenian essay was not explained in detail in terms of the criteria it should include and the proportions of points that should be given in different categories. In this article we propose some further improvements to the scoring system of the Slovenian essay based on our research. We present the re- sults of a comparative analysis of nine different European essays in the upper secondary school-leaving exam. Based on the results, the existing scoring system of the Slovenian essay model is evaluated and some modifications are proposed based on the examples from other European countries. 2 Scoring system of the Slovenian essay in the upper secondary school-leaving exam The essay in Slovenia as part of the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1 contributes 50 % of all points in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in the Slo- venian language. The evaluation of the essay consists of two categories: the first is the category of the essay’s content that earns the student 60 % of points and the second is the category of the essay’s language that earns the student 40 % of the points of the essay assignment. The evaluator scores the essay assignment for the secondary school- leaving exam in Slovenian as L1 by first evaluating the written product using the criteria for the holistic scoring system and placing it on a scale from 1 to 5. Then, an analytical evaluation of the content and language takes place and, finally, the evaluator compares this assessment with the overall assessment. If the scores differ significantly, the scor- ing of the written product is repeated (Krakar Vogel and Šimenc, 2000, p. 26). The way in which the essay is evaluated is important because it influences the preparation of students in class. Borstner (2012, p. 42) states that the only knowledge that the student finds worth acquiring is the knowledge that is evaluated. Ivana Zajc, PhD: Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School-Leaving Exam 21 3 Research method: a comparative analysis of different essay models The comparative analysis includes essays as part of the upper secondary school- leaving exam in L1 from various European countries: Slovenia, Austria, Italy, Croatia, Hungary, England, France, Switzerland and Russia. We also discuss the International Baccalaureate. The analysis thus covers nine different models, which are comparable to the Slovenian upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1 because they are essay parts of the upper secondary school-leaving exam in the mother tongue, which foresee a literary theme, i.e., writing about literary texts. In addition, they belong to the external secondary school-leaving exam and determine the completion of secondary education, which corresponds to the Slovenian secondary school programme. The comparative analysis includes the following examples of essays from the above- mentioned European countries: □ The Slovenian essay in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1; □ The Croatian essay called “comparative analysis of two or more texts”, the interpre- tive and discursive Croatian essay in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1; □ The Hungarian essay in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1, which in- cludes the analysis of literary texts; □ The optional Italian assignments on a literary topic (type A and B essay assign- ments) in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1; □ The French essay called “the comment and response to the issue” in the upper sec- ondary school-leaving exam in L1; □ The English essay within the literature module in the upper secondary school-leav- ing exam in L1; □ The Russian essay on a literary topic in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1; □ The optional essay on a literary topic in the Swiss upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1; □ The essay at the International Baccalaureate upper secondary school-leaving exam in Slovenian as Language A (mother tongue). The comparative analysis includes both the essay questions and the scoring systems of the essays that were conducted over the last six years when no major changes in the essay models took place. The criteria of the comparative analysis are based on the research questions: What scoring system do the essays use? What are the criteria in the essays which use the descriptive-criteria scoring system? What percentage of points is given in the scoring system for the categories of language on the one hand and for the category of content on the other? 22 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) 4 Results of the comparative analysis Listed below are the results of the comparative analysis of European essays from the point of view of: □ The scoring systems used; □ The criteria used in the essays with the descriptive-criteria scoring system; □ The percentage of points given for the categories of language on the one hand and for the category of content on the other. Scoring systems for the essay assignment There are four scoring systems for essay assignments: □ The holistic scoring system: focused on the general impression of the candidate’s achievement; □ The descriptive scoring system: based on a few chosen criteria, the score is de- scribed according to the expected knowledge standards; □ The analytical scoring system: the essay is broken down according to the require- ments of the essay rubric; □ The descriptive criteria scoring system: the essay rubric includes a few criteria and each of them is described in the rating scale that identifies different levels of perfor- mance (Čokl and Bucik, 2016, p. 16; cf. Čokl and Cankar, 2008). The following table (Table 1) shows which scoring system is used by each analysed essay. Table 1 Scoring systems for the essay assignment Scoring system Essay (country) Holistic scoring Analytical Descriptive-criteria system scoring system scoring system Slovenia × × Austria × Croatia × Hungary × Italy × France × × Great Britain × Russia × × International Baccalaureate × Ivana Zajc, PhD: Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School-Leaving Exam 23 The results show that most of the essays use the descriptive-criteria scoring system and that the Slovenian essay is the only one that uses a combination of the holistic and analytical scoring systems. To eliminate the shortcomings of the current scoring system in the Slovenian essay, Čokl and Bucik (2016, p. 15) propose the introduction of the descriptive-criteria scoring system. They argue that this would solve the problems of the current scoring system in the Slovenian essay: the inadequate ratio between the propor- tion of the score for content and the proportion of the score for language; the 50-point grading scale, which in their opinion is too extensive; the unfounded determination of the scoring system; the unreliable re-evaluation of essays; the unfounded dispersion of positive marks; deducting the same number of points for unequal language skills, etc. (Bucik and Čokl, 2016, p. 15). But what are the descriptive criteria that the European essays use and which could be integrated into the Slovenian essay-scoring system? The descriptive criteria in the analysed essays refer to the content of the essay on the one hand and the structure, lan- guage, style and spelling of the text on the other. We found that in the individual essay rubric this descriptive criteria are included separately or together, and that in essays where there is no specific category for structure, language, style and spelling, such as the Italian and French essays, these aspects are partly included in the criteria of content that may include understanding the essay assignment (e.g., in Austria); taking into ac- count the source text; incorporating literary and general knowledge into the essay (e.g., in Hungary); and argumentation (e.g., in Russia). The descriptive criteria can also refer to the candidate’s personal approach and re- sponse (e.g., in Italy and England) or even to the content of the essay, e.g., the French model contains criteria related to the inclusion of examples from the text in the tex- tual analysis and the demonstration of a complex reading and artistic culture (cf. Tex- tes officiels, 2016). The International Baccalaureate essay, on the other hand, includes a description of the literary conventions of the genre among the criteria (cf. Paper 2 HL – Essay, 2018). Scoring of language and content In addition to the fact that the essays included in the comparative analysis differ in the type of scoring system and the criteria used, they also differ in the proportion of points allocated to the categories of language, style, spelling and structure on the one hand, and to categories relating to content on the other. The following table (Table 2) shows what percentage of points each of the essays included in the comparative analy- sis assigns to the categories related to language on the one hand, and to the categories related to content on the other. 24 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Table 2 Scoring of language and content Percentage of points by categories Essay (country) Language, style, spelling and structure Content and argumentation Slovenia 40 % 60 % Austria 75 % 25 % Croatia 50 % 50 % Hungary 50 % 50 % Italy 50 % 50 % France 10 % 90 % Great Britain 25 % 75 % Russia 58 % 42 % International Baccalaureate 20 % 80 % We found that the Slovenian essay assigns 40 % of the points to language, style, spelling and structure, and 60 % of the points to the content. The Italian, Croatian and Hungarian essays assign 50 % of points to both of the above-mentioned categories, whereas the Russian essay assigns 58 % to the categories of style, spelling and structure. The Austrian essay model assigns the highest proportion of points among the consid- ered models to the categories of style, spelling and structure, namely 75 %, while it allocates 25 % of points to the content. The lowest proportion of points for language, style, spelling and structure is assigned by the French essay at around 10 %, followed by the International Baccalaureate at 20 % and the English essay at 25 % for the language- related category. 5 Discussion With the comparative analysis of the scoring types of nine different essay models in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1 that include a literary topic, we found two different methods of grading essays: some essay assignments allocate a higher proportion of points to the categories of grammar, style, spelling, and structure than to content-related categories; in others more points are assigned to categories related to content. We found that in the first type of essays language is assessed from the point of view of correctness of grammar, punctuation, spelling, etc.; while in the second type of essays, this category is understood differently, that is from the point of view of the com- municativeness of language: a clear, comprehensible presentation of content and an ef- fective, coherent and organised presentation of ideas. These two types of scoring models imply different descriptions of the category of language: the first type of essay assesses language from the point of view of communication; on the other hand, there are essays Ivana Zajc, PhD: Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School-Leaving Exam 25 that describe language from the point of view of its correctness and errors. For example, in the International Baccalaureate, as the first type of essay, clarity, diversity and accu- racy, appropriateness of register, style and terminology (Paper 2 HL, 2018), as well as organisation and coherence of the presentation of ideas in the written product (Paper 1 HL, 2018) are part of the scoring categories. For example, the Russian essay as the sec- ond type includes adherence to spelling, language and punctuation rules (Ruski, 2016, pp. 5–6). The definition of what constitutes effective use of language in essays varies; it is important because it has a direct impact on the essay scoring and consequently on the preparation for the upper secondary school-leaving exam in the classroom. The Slovenian essay in the secondary school-leaving exam in L1 includes the scor- ing of grammar, style and structure, so it is a type-two essay. More precisely, the scoring system of the Slovenian essay includes spelling, textual structure, coherence, the use of appropriate and rich vocabulary and literary terms, the way the initial topic is treated, and the use of argumentation. Moreover, the Slovenian essay evaluates the category of language by deducting points according to specific types of grammatical and other errors. Thus, the points are not a consequence of using language effectively, however, you lose them for using it incorrectly, which is the only such example among the essays discussed. We found that compared to the Slovenian model, some of the analysed essay models that are type-one essays give a lower percentage of points for the category of language (from 10 % to 25 %). If the Slovenian essay gave a lower percentage of points to the category of language as those essays do, it could give a higher percentage of points to the category of content, literary knowledge, argumentation of ideas, and the interpretation of the emotional and other dimensions of the given literary works. The Slovenian essay is the only one of the discussed models that uses both holistic and analytical scoring systems. The evaluator first evaluates the content analytically, according to the requirements of each essay question, which means that the possible correct answers are broken down and scored accordingly. A similar breakdown of pos- sible essay answers as in the Slovenian model can be found in the Austrian model, but it is only a support for the evaluator in evaluating the content according to descriptive cri- teria and is not connected to the analytical criteria. Essay assignments that appear in the Croatian essay are also scored analytically, but the content is evaluated using general criteria, e.g., the structure of argumentation, the description of the reading experience (Ispitni, 2018/2019), not with criteria linked to the concrete content of the essay. Using the comparative analysis, we found that, except for Croatia and Slovenia, the examined European essays in the upper secondary school-leaving exam in L1 use the descriptive- criteria scoring system where the essay rubric includes a few criteria and each of them is described in the rating scale that identifies different levels of performance (Čokl and Bucik, 2016, p. 16; cf. Čokl and Cankar, 2008). Because of the common use and effi- ciency of this scoring system, which has been proposed for the Slovenian essay before (Čokl and Bucik, 2016, p. 16; Čokl and Cankar, 2008), we discuss possible descrip- tive criteria that the Slovenian essay could implement. Examples can be found in the English and French essays: the English essay includes descriptive criteria knowledge (the ability to respond to literary texts of three central genres: lyric poetry, epics and dramas, of different types and from different cultures); communication (clear wording of knowledge, understanding and insights that correspond to the literary theme); un- derstanding (understanding how the author’s choices of form, structure and language 26 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) affect the meaning of the text); personal response (forming informed and independent opinions and judgments about literary texts) (Scheme, 2017); researching literary texts from the point of view of different interpretations (A Level, 2014, p. 6). The French es- say includes the following descriptive criteria: the development of a relevant problem; a large number of in-depth examples that clarify the topic; diverse examples that refer to texts from the corpus or outside it and their commentary; thinking that fully responds to the given problem; a broad reading and artistic culture. In several studies, Čokl (2013, 2016) and colleagues (cf. Čokl and Cankar, 2008; Čokl and Bucik, 2016) argue that the proportion of points in the Slovenian essay which is intended for assessing the language is too high, proposing that language should not account for more than 25 % of the points (Čokl, 2016). Čokl and Cankar (2008, p. 56) argue that because 40 % of points in the Slovenian essay are aimed at the category of language it overshadows the category related to content and literary knowledge. One possible way of modifying the Slovenian essay is a lower proportion of the language score which would give more weight to the categories related to the content of the essay. Furthermore, in the analysed European essays the content is not only understood in the sense of the predetermined content of the essay (i.e., what information the essay assign- ment should contain) as in the Slovenian essay, but also in the sense of the organisation of the content with argumentation, substantiation of claims, demonstration of literary knowledge, etc. The essay as a part of the Slovenian secondary school-leaving exam is the only model included in the comparative analysis that is based on literary works which are known in advance. In other models the candidates do not know on which literary works their essays will be based so they have to study a wider literary corpus. Moreover, in the Slovenian essay model the scoring precisely specifies the content of the essay assignment, but in the other analysed European essays the criteria connected to the content are linked to the candidate’s competence of argumentation of their own ideas and their literary knowledge. Their essay rubrics include categories that empha- sise literary knowledge, argumentation, a personal approach to interpretation, and a reflexion of the values in literary works that could serve as an example for possible changes of the Slovenian scoring system: taking into account the given literary work and integrating literary and general knowledge (Hungary); argumentation (Russia); the personal approach of the candidate (Italy, Great Britain); the integration of examples from the literary work into textual analysis (France); the description of the literary con- ventions of the genre (International Baccalaureate). With the wider inclusion of knowl- edge about the literary system, the argumentation of ideas and the personal response, the Slovenian essay would more efficiently reach the principal learning objective of literary classes at the secondary school level: the evolution of the cultured reader with a well- developed literary competence – the competence to receive literary texts (cf. Grosman, 2004; Zupan Sosič, 2011a, 2011b; Zajc, 2019; Žbogar, 2020). It is the competence to experience, analyse and critically read literary works, create and recreate literature, and recognise its fictionality, aesthetic, ethical and cognitive effects (Žbogar, 2015, p. 1221). The cultured reader has a positive attitude towards reading, is motivated to experience a variety of literary works in depth, and knows how to articulate their content, form, their textual and intertextual components with the help of his/her knowledge (Krakar Vogel, 2004, p. 72). He or she reads and interprets literature by knowing, understanding and valuing the different parts of the literary system as part of the socio-cultural system Ivana Zajc, PhD: Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School-Leaving Exam 27 (Krakar Vogel and Blažić, 2012, p. 15). The reflexion of values such as success, solidar- ity, responsibility, equality, honesty and personal growth are increasingly important in contemporary education in Slovenia (Drobnič et al., 2021, p. 123) and literature enables the reader to explore different values through fictional worlds. The cultured reader also gets to know the context of the creation of literature and thus gains literary knowledge, which is also foreseen by the curriculum for secondary schools (Žbogar, 2018). In the article, we present some options for changing the scoring system of the Slo- venian essay in the secondary school-leaving exam in L1 based on examples from other European countries; however, we point out that any modifications to this essay are com- plex. The possible changes we identify in this paper are connected to the evaluation pro- cess and to the essay assignments, and should be evaluated within the framework of the outlined direction of the possible renovation of the Slovenian essay as a whole. These are the areas that will need to be addressed in future research, as changing a certain element of the essay consequently causes new changes in its other aspects. All innova- tions must be thoroughly thought out and coordinated with the central goal of literature classes at the secondary school level. Dr. Ivana Zajc Ocenjevanje esejev na maturitetnem izpitu iz materinščine Od uvedbe splošnega eksternega maturitetnega izpita v Sloveniji leta 1995 so se pojavljali različni predlogi za spremembo eseja kot dela tega izpita pri predmetu slo- venščina. Z rednimi evalvacijami raziskovalcev s področja slovenske literarne didaktike in ob sodelovanju učiteljev se je podoba maturitetnega eseja pri slovenščini skozi leta spreminjala, sistem ocenjevanja pa je ostal enak. Navodila za ocenjevanje maturitetnih esejev pri slovenščini so bila ob uvedbi splošne mature v Sloveniji sprva analitična, nato še komplementarno celostna, kar je oblika navodil, ki se je ohranila do danes. Esejsko nalogo pri maturi iz slovenščine ocenjevalec, kot navajata Krakar Vogel in Šimenc (2000, str. 26), točkuje tako, da pisni izdelek najprej oceni z merili za celostno ocenjevanje ter ga uvrsti na lestvico od 1 do 5. Zatem analitično oceni vsebino in jezik, to oceno pa na koncu primerja s celostno oceno. Če se oceni v veliki meri razhajata, točkovanje pisnega izdelka ponovi. Čokl in Bucik (2016, str. 16) sta predlagala nov sistem točkovanja maturitetnega eseja, in sicer opisno-kriterijski sistem točkovanja, pri katerem ocenjevalni obrazec vključuje kriterije, ki so opisani v ocenjevalni lestvici z različnimi stopnjami. V članku se ukvarjamo z vprašanjem, katere kriterije naj bi opisno-kriterijski sistem točkovanja slovenskega eseja vseboval in kakšna naj bi bila razmerja točk za različne kategorije – na eni strani kategorije, povezane z jezikom, na drugi tiste, povezane z vsebino esejske naloge. Na to vprašanje odgovorimo na podlagi rezultatov primerjalne analize ocenjevanja devetih evropskih esejev na literarno temo pri materinščini, ki so del eksterne mature ob koncu srednješolskega izobraževanja, ki ustreza slovenski gimnaziji. Primerjalna analiza vključuje eseje v okviru maturitetne- ga izpita iz različnih evropskih držav: Slovenije, Avstrije, Italije, Hrvaške, Madžarske, Anglije, Francije, Švice in Rusije, pa tudi mednarodne mature. Analiza tako zajema 28 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) devet različnih modelov, ki so primerljivi z maturitetnim esejem pri slovenščini kot ma- terinščini v Sloveniji, ker gre za esejske dele mature iz maternega jezika, ki predvide- vajo literarno temo, to je pisanje o književnosti, so del eksterne mature in zaznamujejo zaključek srednješolskega izobraževanja v programu, ki ustreza slovenskemu gimnazij- skemu programu. Primerjalna analiza evropskih maturitetnih esejev je temeljila na na- slednjih kriterijih: sistemi točkovanja, ki jih eseji uporabljajo; tipi opisnih kriterijev, ki jih uporabljajo eseji z opisno-kriterijskim tipom točkovanja; odstotek točk za kategorijo jezika na eni strani in kategorijo vsebine na drugi. Na podlagi rezultatov primerjalne analize esejev v članku izoblikujemo predloge za možne modifikacije slovenskega eseja pri slovenščini na splošni maturi in predstavimo primere dobre prakse. Izhodišče za predlagane spremembe je bil temeljni cilj pouka književnosti, tj. vzgoja kultiviranega bralca, ki ima visoko razvito literarno zmožnost kot eno temeljnih zmožnosti, ki jih raz- vijamo pri pouku književnosti in vključuje književno in bralno kulturo (Žbogar, 2020, str. 38–39). Gre za zmožnost branja in interpretacije književnih besedil (prim. Krakar Vogel, 2004; Grosman, 2004; Zupan Sosič, 2011a; Zupan Sosič, 2011b; Krakar Vogel in Blažić, 2012; Zajc, 2019; Zenuni, 2021; Žbogar, 2020). Evropske modele ocenjevanja esejev smo glede na rezultate primerjalne analize razdelili v dve skupini: prvi dodeljujejo višji odstotek točk v okviru kriterijev, ki so pove- zani z jezikom (pravopis, skladnja ipd.), drugi pa dodeljujejo višji odstotek točk v okviru kriterijev, ki so povezani z vsebino eseja, književnim – literarnoteoretskim in literar- nozgodovinskim – znanjem, argumentacijo ipd. Poleg tega omenjena tipa ocenjevanja kategorijo jezika razumeta različno: prvi z vidika pravopisne, slogovne ipd. pravilno- sti, drugi z vidika komunikativnosti, jasnosti in učinkovitosti jezikovne rabe. Implicitne opredelitve kategorij v ocenjevalnih obrazcih maturitetnih esejev so pomembne, ker povratno vplivajo na priprave na pisanje eseja in širše na pouk slovenščine na gimna- ziji. Slovenski maturitetni esej spada v prvi tip esejev in je edini med analiziranimi, pri katerem se točke za določene pravopisne ipd. napake odštevajo. V primerjavi s sloven- skim esejem evropski eseji drugega tipa dodeljujejo nižji odstotek točk (od 10 do 25 %) kategoriji jezika. Slovenski esej 40 % točk pripiše jeziku, slogu, črkovanju in zgradbi ter 60 % točk vsebini, medtem ko italijanski, hrvaški in madžarski esej pripišejo obe- ma omenjenima kategorijama 50 % točk, ruski esej pa kategorijam sloga, pravopisa in strukture dodeljuje 58 % točk. Avstrijski esej kategorijam sloga, pravopisa in strukture pripisuje največji delež točk med obravnavanimi eseji, in sicer 75 %, medtem ko za vse- bino namenja 25 % točk. Najnižji delež točk za jezik, slog, pravopis in strukturo predvidi francoski esej, in sicer približno 10 % točk, sledita mu mednarodna matura z 20 % točk in angleški esej s 25 % točk. Če bi pri slovenskem eseju zmanjšali delež točk, ki jih lahko kandidat prejme znotraj kategorije jezika, bi lahko večjo težo pri skupni oceni maturite- tnega eseja doprinesla vsebina eseja, ki je povezana s kategorijami književnega znanja, argumentacije lastnih zamisli, osebnega odziva kandidata itd. Slovenski esej je edini od obravnavanih esejev, ki uporablja tako celostni kot tudi analitični sistem točkovanja. Ocenjevalec vsebino najprej analitično ovrednoti glede na zahteve posameznega opisnega vprašanja, kar pomeni, da možne pravilne odgovore razdeli in ustrezno točkuje. Podobno razčlenitev možnih esejskih odgovorov kot v slo- venskem modelu najdemo tudi v avstrijskem modelu, vendar gre le za oporo ocenjevalcu pri ocenjevanju vsebine po opisnih kriterijih in ni neposredno povezana z analitičnimi kriteriji kot pri slovenskem eseju. Esejske naloge, ki se pojavljajo v hrvaškem eseju, se Ivana Zajc, PhD: Scoring of Essays in L1 in the Secondary School-Leaving Exam 29 točkujejo tudi analitično, vsebina pa se ocenjuje po splošnih kriterijih, npr. struktura argumentacije, opis bralne izkušnje (Ispitni, 2018/2019), in ne s kriteriji, vezanimi na konkretno vsebino eseja. S primerjalno analizo smo ugotovili, da z izjemo hrvaškega in slovenskega obravnavani evropski eseji na maturi uporabljajo opisne kriterije, ki so po- vezani z ocenjevalno lestvico, ki identificira različne stopnje uspešnosti (Čokl in Bucik, 2016, str. 16; prim. Čokl in Cankar, 2008). Zaradi pogoste uporabe in učinkovitosti tega sistema točkovanja, ki so ga za slovenski esej raziskovalci že predlagali (Čokl in Bucik, 2016, str. 16; Čokl in Cankar, 2008), se ta model ocenjevanja kaže kot možna modifi- kacija slovenskega eseja na maturi, vendar raziskovalci doslej niso podali konkretnih predlogov opisnih kriterijev, ki bi jih uporabili. Primere opisnih kriterijev, ki bi jih lahko implementirali v slovenski esej, najdemo v angleških in francoskih esejih: angleški esej med drugim vključuje merilo vključevanja književnega znanja, kandidatovega razume- vanja, kako avtorjeve izbire oblike, zgradbe in jezika vplivajo na pomen besedila, pa tudi njegovega osebnega odzivanja (oblikovanje ozaveščenih in neodvisnih mnenj in sodb o literarnih besedilih) (Scheme, 2017) ter raziskovanja literarnih besedil z vidika različnih interpretacij (A Level, 2014, str. 6). Francoski esej vključuje naslednja merila za opisne kriterije: relevantno soočanje z zastavljenim problemom, številčni poglobljeni primeri, ki pojasnjujejo tematiko, raznoliki primeri, ki se nanašajo na besedila iz kor- pusa ali zunaj njega, komentar, ki v celoti odgovarja na dani problem, široko bralno in umetniško kulturo (cf. Textes officiels, 2016). Slovenski esej je edini izmed analiziranih, pri katerem so literarna dela, o katerih učenci pišejo, znana vnaprej, pri drugih evrop- skih esejih pa kandidati s tem niso vnaprej seznanjeni in se pripravljajo na podlagi širšega korpusa literarnih besedil, kriteriji ocenjevanja teh esejev pa ob tem izpostavijo književno znanje, argumentacijo in osebni pristop k problemu. Med primeri dobre pra- kse in učinkovitih opisnih kriterijev, ki bi jih ob morebitnih spremembah lahko vključili v ocenjevalni obrazec slovenskega eseja, so: uporaba književnega in splošnega znanja (madžarski esej), zmožnost argumentacije (ruski esej), osebni pristop kandidata (itali- janski in britanski esej), vključevanje primerov iz literarnega dela v besedilno analizo odlomka (francoski esej), opis literarnih konvencij žanra (esej na mednarodni maturi). Z večjim poudarkom na književnem znanju kot poznavanju literarnega sistema, argu- mentaciji lastnih zamisli in osebnem odzivu bi slovenski maturitetni esej učinkoviteje dosegal osrednji cilj gimnazijskega pouka književnosti pri predmetu slovenščina: vzgo- jo kultiviranega bralca, ki ima visoko razvito literarno zmožnost (prim. Grosman, 2004; Zupan Sosič, 2011a; Zupan Sosič, 2011b; Zajc, 2019; Žbogar, 2020). Gre za zmožnost doživljanja, analiziranja in kritičnega branja literarnih del, ustvarjanja in poustvarja- nja literature ter prepoznavanja njene fikcionalnosti, estetskih, etičnih in spoznavnih učinkov (Žbogar, 2015, str. 1221). Kultivirani bralec ima do branja pozitiven odnos, je motiviran za poglobljeno doživljanje najrazličnejših literarnih del in zna s svojim znanjem ubesediti njihovo vsebino, obliko, njihove besedilne in medbesedilne sestavine (Krakar Vogel, 2004, str. 72). Literaturo bere in interpretira s poznavanjem, razume- vanjem in vrednotenjem različnih delov literarnega sistema kot dela družbeno-kultur- nega sistema (Krakar Vogel in Blažić, 2012, str. 15). Kultivirani bralec spoznava tudi kontekst literarnega ustvarjanja in tako pridobi literarno znanje, ki ga predvideva tudi učni načrt za gimnazije (Žbogar, 2008). Čeprav v članku predstavimo nekaj možnosti sprememb ocenjevalnih obrazcev slovenskega maturitetnega eseja na podlagi konstruk- tivnih tujih zgledov, pa hkrati opozarjamo, da so vsakršne modifikacije maturitetnega eseja kompleksne in zahtevajo tako spremembe ocenjevalnih obrazcev, ki jih predlaga- 30 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) mo v pričujočem prispevku, kot tudi procesa ocenjevanja in vzporedne spremembe esej- skih nalog v okviru začrtane smeri prenove eseja kot celote, kar vključuje med drugim tudi učinkovito usposabljanje učiteljev za pripravo dijakov na pisanje esejske naloge in njeno ocenjevanje. To so področja, ki jih bo potrebno obravnavati v prihodnjih razi- skavah, saj sprememba določenega elementa maturitetnega eseja posledično povzroča nove spremembe v njegovih drugih vidikih, vsakršne novosti pa morajo biti temeljito premišljene in usklajene z osrednjim ciljem pouka književnosti na gimnaziji in učnim načrtom za slovenščino v gimnazijskih programih. REFERENCES 1. A Level English Literature: Drama and Poetry pre-1900. Sample Question Paper. (2014). Avai- lable at: https://www.ocr.org.uk/Images/171432-unit-h472-1-drama-and-poetry-pre-1900-sam- ple-assessment-materials.pdf (retrieved 3. 6. 2022). 2. Ambrož, D. et al. (2015). Predmetni izpitni katalog za splošno maturo – slovenščina. Ljubljana: Državni izpitni center. 3. Borstner, M. (2012). Posodobljeni učni načrti za gimnazijo ter procesi preverjanja in ocenjeva- nja znanja. V: Žakelj, A. and Borstner, M. (Eds.). Razvijanje in vrednotenje znanja (pp. 40–48). Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo. 4. Bucik, V. 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(2016). “Poems look like a mathematical equation”: Assessment in poetry education. International Journal of English studies, 16(1), 1–17. 28. Zajc, I. (2019). Literarna zmožnost kultiviranega bralca in Evropski literarni okvir. Jezik in slovstvo, 64(3–4), 57–67. 29. Zenuni, A. and Kevereski, L. (2021). Influence of Multidimensional Cognitions on Academic Performance. Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, 36(2), 181–192. 30. Zupan Sosič, A. (2011a). Na pomolu sodobnosti ali o književnosti in romanu. Maribor: Litera. 31. Zupan Sosič, A. (2011b). Trivialnost. Slavistična revija, 59(2), 147–160. 32. Žbogar, A. (2010). Ljubezen v sodobni slovenski kratki pripovedni prozi in srednješolski pouk književnosti. V: Zupan Sosič, A. (Ed.). Sodobna slovenska književnost: (1980–2010) (425–431). Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete. 33. Žbogar, A. (2015). Reading Ability and Literary Competence in Language Arts Classes in Slo- venia. 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Naslov / Address: Vipavska 13, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenija Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 031 355 535 E-mail: ivana.zajc@ung.si Alena Letina, PhD, Katija Kalinić Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and Social Studies Classes Prejeto 13. 12. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 13. 12. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 373.3.091.3(497.5) UDC 373.3.091.3(497.5) KLJUČNE BESEDE: poučevanje, osredotočeno na KEYWORDS: frequency of application, student-cen- učenca, poučevanje, osredotočeno na učitelja, strate- tred and teacher-centred teaching strategies and meth- gije in metode poučevanja, pogostost uporabe ods, primary school class teachers POVZETEK – Cilj raziskave je bil preučiti preference ABSTRACT – The paper presents the results of a sur- osnovnošolskih učiteljev pri uporabi učnih strategij in vey which aimed to determine the preferences of pri- metod, namenjenih učencem in učiteljem, pogostost mary school class teachers toward student-centred or njihove uporabe pri poučevanju narave in družbe, teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods, the prav tako pa tudi povezanost med zapisanimi spre- frequency with which they are used in science and so- menljivkami. Raziskava je bila izvedena na vzorcu cial studies classes, and the correlation between these 301 osnovnošolskega učitelja z območja Republike variables. The research was conducted on a sample of Hrvaške. Rezultati kažejo, da imajo učitelji pozitiv- 301 class teachers from the Republic of Croatia. The no mnenje o uporabi strategij in metod poučevanja, results indicate that teachers prefer student-centred namenjenih učencem. Kljub temu učitelji v vsakdanji teaching strategies and methods. Despite of that, in pedagoški praksi statistično značilno pogosteje upo- their teaching practice they employ teacher-centred rabljajo na učitelja osredotočene strategije in metode teaching strategies and methods significantly more fre- poučevanja, predvsem pri uresničevanju učnih rezul- quently in terms of statistics, especially in the realisa- tatov, ki jih določa kurikulum v osrednjem delu pou- tion of the learning outcomes set by the curriculum in ka. Z raziskavo je potrjena pozitivna korelacija med the main part of the lesson. Moreover, a positive corre- mnenji učiteljev o uporabi določenih strategij in me- lation between the teachers’ opinion about the applica- tod poučevanja ter pogostostjo njihove uporabe. V za- tion of certain teaching strategies and methods and the ključku je obravnavan vpliv pridobljenih rezultatov na frequency of their use has been determined. The impli- prihodnje raziskave na tem področju ter na izboljša- cations of the obtained results for future research on nje in nadaljnjo posodobitev pouka narave in družbe. this topic, as well as for the advancement and further modernisation of primary science and social studies teaching, are considered in the conclusion. 1 Introduction The main aim of education is the development of personality autonomy, so teach- ing and learning should be an interaction in which learners, supported by teachers, will come to new cognitions independently, thus developing their competencies (Klafki, 1992). Such a view of education resulted in a serious criticism of teacher-centred teach- ing and the actualisation of active learning and student-centred teaching strategies. The weakness of the traditional paradigm of teaching is reflected in the passive role of stu- dents, the receptive learning process and the poor applicability of knowledge in every- day life. Such an approach cannot meet students’ developmental, biological, social or self-actualising needs, curiosity and desire to act. Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 33 According to Polić (2000), the transition from teacher-centred to student-centred teaching primarily implies a change in the methodological procedures, i.e., the applica- tion of student-centred teaching strategies and methods. Polić (2000) emphasises five peculiarities of student-centred teaching: □ the cognitive and value unity of the methodical procedure – teaching which pro- motes the development of students’ personalities, □ respect for pupils’ educational needs – stimulating students to solve problems and think divergently, □ problematising the existing – inciting students to have a critical relationship with the existing cognition, □ inquiry-based approach – directing students toward individual research and collec- tion of data which enables them to be creative, and □ content and methodical correlation – which enables the holistic study of nature and the students’ environment. Lea, Stephensen and Troy (2003) highlight the following characteristics of student- centred teaching: active instead of passive learning, emphasis on deeper understanding and learning, increased student responsibility and autonomy, teachers’ and students’ interdependence, reciprocal respect between teachers and students, and teachers’ reflec- tive approach to teaching and learning. Huge differences in the teacher-centred and student-centred approach are especially noticeable in teaching the natural science group of subjects. Shymansky et al. (1984), when studying the possible structures of the science teaching curriculum, defined the teacher-centred curriculum as the curriculum which emphasised the understanding of scientific facts and theories and the application of laboratory exercises as confirmation of the concepts presented in the teacher’s oral lecturing. Contrary to that, the basic characteristic of the student-centred science curriculum is the emphasis on the need to develop students’ higher cognitive abilities and their adequate relation to science. Such a curriculum emphasises the nature, structure and processes in science, and inte- grates laboratory activities into the teaching process mainly aiming at the development of the students’ scientific competence. The teacher-centred science teaching is charac- terised by experimentation with outcomes determined in advance. Students are given instructions beforehand in the form of recipes which serve as the verification of results and facts already familiar to students. Using deductive thinking, students apply known principles to confirm certain claims. On the other hand, in the student-centred form of science teaching the results of experiments are not familiar to the students beforehand. Students use inductive thinking and form valid principles based on their personal expe- rience, which is vastly different from the teacher-centred approach to experimentation. In their consideration of the basic features of the student-centred, research-based teach- ing, Kahn and O’Rourke (2004) concluded that it enabled flexibility in the development of different students’ skills and abilities necessary in dealing with the challenges posed by the modern world. The constructivist theory develops new points of view on both the nature of the learning process and curriculum theory and on the theoretical grounds of the teaching process. The basic principles of the constructivist paradigm implemented in the school practice and teaching have radically changed the teacher-centred school. Starting from 34 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) the analysis of the learning process, constructivism positions the student in the place of the subject of the educational process and sets its face against the empirical-reductionist approach which presents learning and teaching with a transmission model of infor- mation and content transfer and memorisation. Criticism of the transmission model is based on the constructivist principle that the knowledge acquired by applying such a model is often badly structured and poorly correlated to the formerly acquired knowl- edge. The sole process of its acquisition makes it suitable only for academic needs and valid only for test purposes, but not for life use (Richardson, 1997). Discussions about the efficiency of the teacher-centred lecturing and presentation- based approach and the student-centred teaching concepts are still present in the sci- entific literature. The primary argumentation of advocators of the teacher-centred ap- proach relates to the question of the time and materials distribution necessary for the organisation of teacher-centred and student-centred teaching. In this context teachers usually, due to the pressure to realise all the learning outcomes set by the curriculum in a given period during the school year, turn to teacher-centred forms of teaching and apply teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods (Mastropeiri et al., 2006). Mayer, as one of the most significant advocators of teacher-centred teaching, talked about the “constructivist delusion” (Mayer, 2004, p. 15). In fact, he thought that constructivist learning can be achieved by different approaches to teaching, including teacher-centred teaching, and not exclusively by students’ unguided research. Considering different em- pirical studies, Terhart (2001) also concluded that the transitional forms in between the purely lecture-based and purely discovery-based teaching led to the greatest successes due to the fact that the application of different methods also enabled the satisfaction of needs of an averagely higher number of students than the specific methodological forms which were advantageous only for a smaller number of students. He is, therefore, an advocator of a diverse, pluralistic teaching-methodical practice. The main difference between the teacher-centred and student-centred teaching lies in the fact that the teacher-centred approach puts the learning content in the centre of attention instead of the development of students’ competencies with a more frequent use of teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods, such as lecturing and presentation- based teaching, reading, writing, oral presentation or catechetical discussion. Students are directed toward answering with one right answer, while the educational process does not prepare them for lifelong learning, but only for the transition to a higher grade. Teacher-centred teaching has the tendency to create a closed system where students are given only the information which is currently available in the classroom or school. Un- like that approach, student-centred teaching puts an emphasis on the development of the ability to analyse information and solve problems. 2 Research methodology Research aim This research aimed to examine primary school class teachers’ preference for the use of student-centred and teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods, determine Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 35 their opinion about such strategies and methods, the frequency of their application in everyday science and social studies classes and in certain stages of the lesson, as well as the correlation between the mentioned variables. Research questions Based on the set research aim, the following research questions have been posed: □ Do teachers have a stronger preference for the application of teacher-centred or stu- dent-centred teaching strategies and methods in science and social studies classes? □ Do teachers apply teacher-centred or student-centred teaching strategies and meth- ods more frequently in science and social studies classes? □ Is there a statistically significant difference between teachers’ opinions about the employment of student-centred and teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods and the frequency of their use? □ Is there a correlation between teachers’ opinion about the employment of student- centred and teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods and the frequency of their use in science and social studies classes? □ In which stages of a lesson do teachers employ certain teaching strategies and meth- ods? Sample The research was conducted anonymously on a convenient sample of 301 female class teachers in 12 primary schools in the Republic of Croatia. Regarding their work experience, they were divided into four categories: up to 10 years of work experience (21.8 %), from 11 to 20 years of work experience (20.8 %), from 21 to 30 years of work experience (34.7 %), and 31 and more years of work experience (22.8 %). Regarding their professional qualification, teachers were divided into two categories: college qual- ification (37.6 %) and university qualification (62.4 %). Of all the teachers surveyed, 28.7 % of them were first-grade teachers, 27.7 % were second-grade teachers, 24.8 % were third-grade teachers and 17.8 % of them were fourth-grade teachers. One percent of them worked in a combined class. Instrument and procedures A special questionnaire was created for the purpose of this research. The question- naire consisted of four parts. The first part of the questionnaire was used to collect participants’ demographic data. The second part of the questionnaire consisted of a list of teaching strategies and methods which could have been divided into teacher-centred and student-centred. Using a 5-point Likert scale (1 – never, 2 – rarely (twice a month), 3 – occasionally (3–4 times a month), 4 – often (5–6 times a month), 5 – always), teach- ers estimated the frequency of their use in science and social studies teaching. The third part of the questionnaire examined the teachers’ tendency toward and opinion about 36 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) teacher-centred and student-centred teaching strategies and methods. This part of the questionnaire consisted of 22 statements, 11 of which described teacher-centred teach- ing strategies and methods positively, while the remaining 11 statements did the same for student-centred teaching strategies and methods. Teachers expressed their agree- ment with the statements on a five-point Likert scale (from 1 – I completely disagree to 5 – I completely agree). The fourth part of the questionnaire examined which teaching methods were most frequently used by teachers in certain stages of a science and so- cial studies lesson. The identified internal consistency and reliability of the used scales (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient) was at a satisfactory or high level (0.81–0.92) for all the scales used in the questionnaire. Data analysis The data were analysed by descriptive statistics procedures to determine the basic indicators for the interpretation of research results. The t-test was used to compare the arithmetic mean of continuous variables in two different groups. The χ2 test was used to statistically analyse the employment of certain methods in various stages of a science lesson, and the Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine the correlation among the said variables. 3 Research results To determine whether teachers more frequently employ teacher-centred or student- centred teaching strategies and methods in science and social study classes, the arith- metical means of participants’ answers and their appertaining standard deviations were calculated. Table 1 Frequency of teacher-centred (TC) teaching strategies and methods employed in science and social studies teaching Science and social studies teaching M SD Lecturing and presentation 3.53 0.88 TC teaching strategies Direct teaching 3.58 0.85 Programmed teaching 3.09 0.89 Reading method 4.11 0.92 Drawing method 4.28 0.69 TC teaching methods Writing method 4.31 0.72 Oral presentation of content 4.10 0.89 Catechetical conversation 4.05 0.89 Total 3.88 0.54 Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 37 The analysis of the obtained arithmetical means values for the participants’ answers (Table 1) determined that teachers employed teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods frequently (5–6 times a month) (M = 3.93; SD = 0.54), while student-centred ones were used only occasionally (3–4 times a month) (M = 3.27; SD = 0.54). Regard- ing the teacher-centred teaching strategies, teachers often use direct teaching (M = 3.58; SD = 0.85) and lecturing with presentation (M = 3.53; SD = 0.88), while they occa- sionally use programmed teaching (M = 3.09; SD = 0.89). The most frequently used methods are writing (M = 4.31; SD = 0.72) and drawing (M = 4.28; SD = 0.69). Teach- ers often use catechetical conversation (M = 4.05; SD = 0.89) directed toward specific answers. It does not offer students enough possibilities to think and reach conclusions, but stimulates the production of previously acquired knowledge. When it comes to student-centred teaching strategies (Table 2), teachers often use correlation and inte- gration teaching (M = 4.30; SD = 0.77), cooperative learning (M = 3.76; SD = 0.83) and discovery learning (M = 3.69; SD = 0.82), while they occasionally employ project- based (M = 3.24; SD = 0.94), research-based (M = 3.33; SD = 0.91) and problem-based learning (M = 3.39; SD = 0.92). The employment of these teaching strategies is made difficult by the strictly determined lecture time (45 minutes), the material conditions necessary for their realisation, and the insufficiently developed teachers’ competencies necessary for the realisation of such teaching. Table 2 Frequency of student-centred (SC) teaching strategies and methods employed in science and social studies teaching Science and social studies teaching M SD Project-based learning 3.24 0.94 Cooperative learning 3.76 0.83 SC teaching Problem-based learning 3.39 0.92 strategies Correlation-integration teaching 4.30 0.77 Learning by discovery 3.69 0.82 Inquiry-based learning 3.33 0.91 Brainstorming 3.28 0.86 Clusters 2.66 0.95 Conceptual KWL table 2.67 0.99 Rotating review 2.54 0.86 SC teaching Venn diagram 2.76 0.97 methods Performing experiments 3.10 0.99 Debate 3.45 1.06 INSERT method 2.95 1.01 Heuristic conversation 3.95 0.93 Simulation of real-life situations 3.34 0.92 Total 3.27 0.54 38 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Of the student-centred teaching methods, the least frequently used one is the tech- nique of the rotating review (M = 2.54; SD = 0.86) which is occasionally employed by teachers, and with a tendency to be used rarely. The possible reasons for the rare employment of this student-centred method are: not being familiar with the method and the psychophysical characteristics of 1st to 4th grade students. Namely, this method demands from students to have developed writing skills and the cooperative learning competency, but these still need to be worked on with students of this age. Furthermore, clusters are sometimes used (M = 2.66; SD = 0.95), as well as conceptual KWL tables (M = 2.67; SD = 0.99), Venn diagrams (M = 2.76; SD = 0.97) and the INSERT method (M = 2.95; SD = 1.01). Although these methods result in a number of positive learning outcomes, the reasons for their insufficient employment could be explained by the lack of knowledge of the aforementioned teaching methods or the insufficiently developed teachers’ competencies for their application. The t-test was done to determine the differences between the frequency of use of teacher-centred and student-centred teaching strategies and methods. A statistically sig- nificant difference (t = 11.52; p < 0.01) was determined in favour of teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods. The dominance of the teacher-centred paradigm un- fortunately indicates that the participants’ teaching is still oriented toward the teacher, not the students. Hismanoglu and Hismanoglu (2010) came to similar results. Their study showed that language teachers preferred employing teacher-centred classroom techniques, such as dictation, reading aloud, and dialogues to a great extent to teach pronunciation to their students. Moreover, Saido et al. (2015) found that the most popu- lar strategy for acquiring knowledge among 7th grade science teachers was the strategy which focused on memorising the basic concepts in science, while the strategies for applying knowledge that were least used by science teachers were problem solving and hands-on activities. Serbessa (2006) found that although the employment of innovative teaching and learning was emphasised in the Ethiopian education policy, the teacher- centred lecture methods, in which teachers talk and students listen, dominated most classrooms. The common obstacles and barriers to the employment of active learning in Ethiopian primary schools are the Ethiopian tradition of teaching and learning, a lack of institutional support and learning resources, the teachers’ lack of expertise, inappro- priate curricular materials, and students’ lesser preference for actively participating in learning due to a lack of prior experience. In analysing the value of the obtained arithmetical means of participants’ answers in the third part of the questionnaire, which determined the teachers’ inclination toward the employment of student-centred or teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods, it can be noticed that teachers usually agree with the given statements in favour of the employment of student-centred teaching strategies and methods in science and social studies teaching (M = 4.12; SD = 0.45). Teachers show the highest tendency toward correlation and integration teaching (M = 4.50; SD = 0.72) which is the most frequently used student-centred teaching strategy. Teachers expressed a strong positive attitude toward student-centred teaching strategies, such as inquiry-based teaching, discovery learning and project teaching (M > 4), although these were only occasionally employed (Table 3). Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 39 Table 3 Teachers’ preference for the employment of student-centred teaching strategies and methods in science and social studies classes Statements M SD Heuristic conversations enable students to have a better understanding of contents. 3.69 0.66 Problem-based teaching motivates students to be more active in the cognition of new teaching contents. 4.16 0.70 The employment of brainstorming in science and social studies classes enhances students’ creativity and self-confidence. 4.18 0.75 Correlation and integration teaching represents a more natural way of learning than teaching strictly divided into different school subjects. 4.50 0.72 Inquiry-based teaching ensures a deeper understanding of nature and the processes occurring in it, and stimulates students’ curiosity. 4.39 0.71 Discovery learning will enable students to observe and define problems more easily, and to develop the ability to solve them. 4.34 0.65 Cooperative learning contributes to the development of students’ social competencies. 4.29 0.71 Project teaching motivates students, involves them intensively into the active learning process, and contributes to a better 4.33 0.71 correlation of different concepts’ learning outcomes. Conceptual KWL (I know, I want to know, I have learnt) tables stimulate students’ curiosity and interest in learning about science. 3.58 0.80 Debates develop students critical thinking and have an important educational role. 4.16 0.74 In science teaching Venn diagrams are an excellent visual tool for the comparison of concepts and to separate similarities and differences. 3.74 0.89 Total 4.12 0.45 In the analysis of teachers’ preference for teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods it can be noticed that teachers mostly hesitate in expressing their preference for them (M = 3.24; SD = 0.34), except for the drawing method, which they usually prefer to employ in science and social studies classes (M = 4.03; SD = 0.75) (Table 4). The t-test was used to determine the differences between the teachers’ preference for the employment of teacher-centred or student-centred teaching strategies and meth- ods. A statistically significant difference was determined (t = 20.71; p < 0.01) in teach- ers’ attitudes in favour of student-centred teaching methods and strategies. Further anal- ysis determined a statistically significant difference between teachers’ preference for the employment of teacher-centred or student-centred teaching strategies and methods, and the frequency with which they are employed. Teachers use teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods more frequently (t = 13.12; p < 0.00), although their opinion about them is undetermined. It has also been determined that they have a higher opinion of student-centred teaching strate- gies and methods (t = 16.05; p < 0.00) although they use them less frequently in their 40 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) teaching practice. Sen and Sari (2018) came to similar results. Their study showed that while teachers may have student-centred beliefs, they may still adopt a teacher-cen- tred approach in their classroom practices. Kaymakamoğlu’s study (2018) showed that although the teachers expressed their positive opinions of constructivist learning and teaching, their perceived practice was teacher-centred. The subject-school hour system usually demotivates teachers from using student-centred teaching strategies and meth- ods, even though they are aware that teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods are not the best answer to students’ educational needs. Table 4 Teachers’ preference for the employment of teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods in science and social studies classes Preference for teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods M SD Using the oral presentation method, teachers can present contents more quickly and effectively. 3.19 0.86 Working with a course book will enable students to acquire the key concepts and form the most important cognisance better. 3.37 0.88 Students will be better at understanding the teaching topics if the teacher uses catechetic conversation during the cognition process. 3.43 0.80 Programmed teaching is the easiest way to achieve the teaching aims and the set educational outcomes. 3.68 0.66 Direct teaching enables the teacher to control and maintain students’ attention. 3.29 0.79 In the lecturing and presentation-based teaching, teachers facilitate the understanding of new contents because they 3.27 0.84 can systematise the key concepts and terms more easily. Preparation for inquiry-based teaching takes up too much of the teacher’s time. 2.59 0.99 Science and social studies concepts are not adequate for the realisation of project or inquiry-based teaching. 3.59 1.14 The drawing method helps students to master abstract terms and concepts of science and social studies. 4.03 0.75 Working without the teacher’s direct guidance is not a safe path to achieving the aim. 2.50 0.92 During cooperative learning it is more difficult for teachers to check the realisation of learning outcomes 2.73 0.90 and the level of students’ understanding. Total 3.24 0.34 To determine whether there is a correlation between the teachers’ preference for the employment of certain strategies and methods, and the frequency of their use, the appertaining correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation between teachers’ preference for the employment of teacher-centred or student-centred teaching strategies and methods and the frequency of their employment is significant (r = 0.44; p < 0.01), whereas the correlation between the preference for the employment of teacher-centred Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 41 teaching strategies and methods and the frequency of their employment is weak to mild (r = 0.27; p < 0.01). In line with these results, the teachers who showed a higher prefer- ence for one group of teaching strategies and methods used that group of strategies and methods more frequently in their teaching practice, as was expected. In the third part of the questionnaire, the χ2 test was used to statistically analyse the use of certain methods in different stages of a science and social studies lesson. The test has established that there is a statistically significant difference between the use of these two groups of teaching methods in the introductory part of the lesson and during the motivation and inclusion of students in the learning process (χ2 = 7.46; p < 0.05), when student-centred teaching methods are used more. Moreover, there is a statistically significant difference between the use of teacher-centred and student-centred teaching methods in the central part of the lesson when the basic learning outcomes set by the subject curriculum are realised (χ2 = 9.60; p < 0.05). During this stage of the lesson, teacher-centred teaching methods are used more frequently than student-centred ones. It has also been determined that during the stages of doing exercises and revision, which aim to implement the acquired knowledge and further develop students’ acquired com- petencies, there is no statistically significant difference in the frequency of employment of teacher-centred and student-centred teaching methods. However, when it comes to the last stage of the lesson, when the formative assessment of students’ achievement is conducted, a statistically significant more frequent use of teacher-centred assessment methods was determined in comparison to student-centred ones (χ2 = 13.64; p < 0.01). 4 Discussion The implementation of student-centred teaching strategies and methods into the everyday teaching practice depends on numerous elements which are under the teach- ers’ control. One of them are the beliefs teachers have about their application, i.e., their preference for the use of teacher-centred or student-centred teaching strategies and methods (Allen and Jackson, 2017). Teachers’ beliefs are a mighty indicator of the way they teach students, assess them, and implement the curriculum (Chang, 1997; Sun, 1991; Guo, 1970, as cited in Chan, 2000). Previous research has confirmed that the way a teacher teaches is strongly connected to his or her belief system (Clark and Peterson, 1986; Richardson, 1997; Tobin et al., 1994) and that they make decisions about their lessons based on a complex interpenetration of their beliefs and knowledge (Bryan and Abell, 1999). The aim of the research was to determine the class teachers’ preference for student- centred or teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods, and the frequency of their employment in science and social studies classes, as well as the correlation between these variables. Numerous studies explored the effects of student-centred teaching strat- egies and methods on the development of students’ competencies, and most of them have deduced the positive effects of such strategies and methods on the development of learners’ competencies (Veselinovska and Kirova, 2014; Letina, 2016). It is therefore extremely important to analyse and examine the representation of the employment of 42 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) student-centred teaching strategies and methods in the educational practice in order to determine their potential impact on the quality of the educational process. The school subject Science and social studies has been chosen for the research due to the interdisciplinarity of the subject, encompassing the synergy of natural (biology, chemistry, physics), social (sociology), humanistic (history, philosophy) and interdisci- plinary sciences (geography). In this case, interdisciplinarity enables the application of a wide range of student-centred teaching strategies and methods, such as inquiry-based learning, discovery learning, problem and project teaching, methodical games and co- operative learning, which include students in the active learning process. This research has determined that teachers prefer student-centred teaching strategies and methods in science and social studies teaching, and consider them effective in achieving the numer- ous learning outcomes set by the subject curriculum. They also consider them stimulat- ing for the development of students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes, but nevertheless employ them only occasionally in science and social studies classes. On the other hand, they prefer teacher-centred learning strategies and methods, especially in the central part of the lesson, when the realisation of the learning outcomes is most intensive, and during the assessment of students’ achievements. All that occurs in spite of previous research (Markuš and Čagran, 2017; Markuš and Hus, 2018; Maksimović et al., 2020; Jukić Matić et al., 2020) which showed that student-centred teaching methods, espe- cially in primary school science classes, contribute to a better understanding of teaching contents, the development of higher-order thinking skills and in general to the develop- ment of a number of student competencies necessary for lifelong learning. It is still not possible to fully claim that teachers show a positive preference for the use of student-centred teaching strategies and methods since they employ them only occasionally. Such results are quite disturbing seeing that the educational documents dealing with the principles of student-centred science and social science teaching pro- mote the employment of the strategies and methods of active learning (Ministry of Science and Education, 2019). Some prior research studies came to similar results, so it can be determined that the discrepancy between attitudes and practice is not so rare an occurrence among educational workers (Serbessa, 2006; Hismanoglu and Hismanoglu, 2010; Karanezi, 2014; Sen and Sari, 2018; Kaymakamoğlu, 2018). Although teachers’ attitudes have a strong impact on the way they teach, in this case it did not turn out to be a sufficient predictor for a more frequent use of student-centred teaching strategies and methods, in spite of the established statistically significant positive correlation between teachers’ beliefs and the frequency of their employment. In light of these results, it is necessary to conduct a more systematic analysis of the reasons for the existence of such a discrepancy, and determine the possible difficulties and challenges teachers face during the organisation of student-centred teaching. It is also necessary to analyse the reasons why teachers still employ teacher-centred teach- ing strategies and methods more frequently than the student-centred ones. We recom- mend taking appropriate steps in the educational policy to bring about a change in the present conditions. Mynbayeva, Sadvakassova and Ashalova (2018) concluded that the application of innovative teaching methods depended on the teacher’s personality, methodological competence and pedagogical skills. In this context, further steps could be directed toward the development of teachers’ competencies in the employment of teaching strategies and methods which put the student in the centre of the teaching pro- Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 43 cess. The Republic of Croatia has undergone a curricular reform which has resulted in new subject curricula enhancing the use of active learning methods and student-centred teaching, but it is doubtful whether the curricular and educational policy change has re- ally come to life in the teaching practice. This research has confirmed that teachers’ beliefs and their positive opinion about student-centred teaching are very important since there is a correlation between their opinion about a certain group of teaching strategies and methods and the frequency of their employment. Therefore, further promotion of the development of teachers’ posi- tive opinions as part of their professional development is necessary and includes the aforementioned development of professional competencies for the employment of ac- tive learning strategies. 5 Conclusion In spite of the relatively affirmative conception of student-centred teaching and learning strategies and methods, what can be noticed is a disbalance between teach- ers’ opinions and their practical employment in teaching. The teacher-centred teaching strategies and methods are still predominant, especially in the central part of the lesson, during the realisation of new learning outcomes. Such a finding is probably the result of a still dominant class-subject-school hour system and a routine teaching practice not inclined toward the introduction of innovations in the educational system. Although the research results show the teachers’ awareness of the importance and significance of conducting student-centred teaching, the frequency with which they employ it is still not at a satisfactory level. During science and social studies lessons, an active student can usually be noticed during the motivation stage when teachers employ student-cen- tred teaching methods more frequently. On the other hand, the stages of the realisation of new learning outcomes and assessment are usually still conducted by the teachers employing teacher-centred teaching methods. Thus, it is necessary to re-examine the reasons why the teacher-centred paradigm is still dominant. In light of these findings, it is important to remove the obstacles which prevent a more frequent employment of student-centred teaching strategies and to implement them in everyday teaching prac- tice in the first educational cycle. Dr. Alena Letina, Katija Kalinić Uporaba učnih strategij in metod pri poučevanju narave in družbe Skladno s kritično-konstruktivno didaktiko je razvoj avtonomije osebnosti temeljni cilj izobraževanja, zato naj bi bilo poučevanje in učenje interakcija, v kateri učenci ob podpori učiteljev samostojno pridobivajo nova znanja in s tem razvijajo svoje kompe- tence (Klafki, 1992). Takšen pogled na izobraževanje je sprožil precejšnjo kritiko tradi- cionalnega poučevanja, osredotočenega na učitelje, ter aktualizacijo aktivnega učenja 44 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) in poučevanja, osredotočenega na učence. Poskusi odpravljanja pomanjkljivosti pri poučevanju, osredotočenem na učitelja, demonstracijskem poučevanju in šoli pomnje- nja se kažejo v uporabi sodobnih strategij poučevanja, kot so raziskovalno, problemsko, projektno poučevanje in učenje z odkrivanjem, ter z njimi povezanih metod poučevanja. Takšne učne strategije v središče pozornosti postavljajo proces učenja, katerega osnov- ni cilj je razvoj učenčeve občutljivosti za vprašanja in probleme ter njegove sposobnosti divergentnega mišljenja, apliciranja pridobljenega znanja, pregledne uporabe znanja, samorecepcije in kritičnega mišljenja, vključno z intelektualnimi in čustvenimi izkušnja- mi učencev. Intelektualna izkušnja se nanaša na miselne dejavnosti, kot so opazovanje, zaznavanje, mišljenje, abstrakcija, posploševanje, analiza, sinteza, primerjava, medtem ko se čustvena izkušnja nanaša na dejavnost učenca in njegov odnos do dela. Učna strategija in metode, ki bodo to omogočale, s svojimi osnovnimi značilnostmi postajajo ena najpomembnejših determinant sodobnega pristopa k izobraževanju. Izvajanje sodobnih učnih strategij in metod v vsakdanji pedagoški praksi je odvisno od številnih elementov, ki so v pristojnosti učiteljev. Eden izmed njih so mnenja, ki jih imajo učitelji o njihovi uporabi, torej ali dajo preferenco uporabi nizu učnih strategij in metod, ki so usmerjene na učitelja, ali tistim, ki so usmerjene na učence (Chang, 1997; Sun, 1991; Guo, 1970, v: Chan, 2000). Dosedanje raziskave so potrdile, da je način po- učevanja močno povezan z učiteljevim prepletom prepričanj (Clark in Peterson, 1986; Richardson, 1996; Tobin, Tippins in Gallard, 1994) in da odločitve pri poučevanju te- meljijo na zapletenem prepletanju njihovih prepričanj in znanj (Bryan in Abell, 1999). Cilj raziskave je bil preučiti preference osnovnošolskih učiteljev pri uporabi učnih strategij in metod, namenjenih učencem in učiteljem, ugotoviti mnenje učiteljev o tovr- stnih strategijah in metodah ter pogostost njihove uporabe pri vsakodnevnem pouče- vanju narave in družbe ter v posameznih etapah pouka, prav tako pa tudi povezanost med zapisanimi spremenljivkami. Za namen raziskove smo izbrali poučevanje narave in družbe zaradi interdisciplinarnosti predmeta, ki vključuje sinergijo naravoslovja (bio- logija, kemija, fizika), družboslovja (sociologija), humanistike (zgodovina, filozofija) in interdisciplinarnih ved (geografija). Interdisciplinarnost v tem primeru omogoča upo- rabo širokega spektra učnih strategij in metod, kot so raziskovalno učenje, učenje z od- krivanjem, problemsko in projektno poučevanje, didaktične igre in sodelovalno učenje, ki učence vključuje v proces aktivnega učenja. Raziskava je bila izvedena na vzorcu 301 osnovnošolskega učitelja z območja Re- publike Hrvaške. Rezultati kažejo, da imajo učitelji pozitivno mnenje o uporabi strategij in metod poučevanja, namenjenih učencem, in vidijo njihove prednosti pri doseganju ustreznih učnih rezultatov v primerjavi s tradicionalnimi strategijami in metodami uče- nja in poučevanja, ki so namenjene učiteljem. S t-testom smo ugotavljali razlike med mnenji učiteljev o uporabi omenjenih skupin učnih strategij in metod pri pouku narave in družbe. Statistično značilna razlika (t = 20,71; p < 0,01) je bila pri mnenjih učiteljev zaznana v prid učnim metodam in strategijam, namenjenim učencem. Kljub temu učitelji v vsakdanji pedagoški praksi statistično značilno pogosteje uporabljajo na učitelja osredotočene strategije in metode poučevanja, predvsem pri uresničevanju učnih rezultatov, ki jih določa kurikulum v srednjem delu pouka, medtem ko je pogostost učnih metod, ki so namenjene učencem, pri pouku narave in družbe le občasna (t = 11,52, p < 0,01). Letina, PhD, Kalinić: Application of Teaching Strategies and Methods in Science and... 45 Poleg tega so nadaljnje analize pokazale, da obstaja statistično značilna razlika med preferencami učiteljev pri uporabi učnih strategij in metod, osredotočenih na učen- ca in učitelja, ter pogostostjo njihove uporabe, s čimer potrjujejo rezultate podobnih raziskav (Sen in Sari, 2018; Kaymakamoğlu, 2018). Učitelji pogosteje uporabljajo učne strategije in metode, osredotočene na učitelja (t = 13,12; p < 0,00), čeprav je njihovo mnenje o njih neopredeljeno. Ugotovljeno je bilo tudi, da imajo bolj pozitivno mnenje o strategijah in metodah poučevanja, osredotočenih na učenca (t = 16,05; p < 0,00), čeprav je manj verjetno, da jih bodo uporabljali v pedagoški praksi. Predmetni učni sistem učitelje pogosto demotivira pri uporabi strategij in metod poučevanja, osredoto- čenih na učenca, kot so raziskovalno učenje, učenje z odkrivanjem ali problemsko po- učevanje, čeprav se zavedajo, da takšne strategije in metode poučevanja niso najboljši odziv na potrebe sodobnega izobraževanja. Z raziskavo je potrjena pozitivna korelacija med mnenji učiteljev o uporabi dolo- čenih strategij in metod poučevanja ter pogostostjo njihove uporabe, kar kaže, kako pozitivno mnenje o uporabi učnih strategij in metod, namenjenih učencem, pozitivno vpliva na njihovo pogostost uporabe. V tretjem delu vprašalnika je bil za statistično analizo uporabe določenih metod v različnih fazah pouka narave in družbe uporabljen χ2 test. Ugotovljeno je bilo, da obstaja statistično značilna razlika med pogostostjo uporabe učnih metod, osredoto- čenih na učenca, in tistih metod, ki so namenjene učiteljem v uvodnem delu ure, pri motiviranju ter vključevanju učencev v učni proces (χ2 = 7,456; p < 0,05) in pri katerih se uporabljajo metode poučevanja, osredotočene na učence. Prav tako je statistično značilna razlika med uporabo teh skupin učnih metod pri učenju novih učnih vsebin v osrednjem delu pouka, pri katerem poteka uresničevanje temeljnih izobraževalnih učnih ciljev, podanih z učnim načrtom (χ2 = 9,601; p < 0,05). V tej fazi pouka se pogosteje uporabljajo učne metode, osredotočene na učitelja. Poleg tega je bilo ugotovljeno, da med fazami vaje in ponavljanja, katerih glavni cilj je implementacija pridobljenega znanja in nadaljnji razvoj pridobljenih kompetenc učencev, ni statistično značilne razlike v pogostosti uporabe teh oblik poučevanja, kar pomeni, da učitelji v tej etapi enako izbirajo učne metode, usmerjene na učenca, in tiste, ki so usmerjene na učitelja. Za sklepno fazo pouka, v kateri se izvaja formativno vrednotenje učenčevih dosežkov, pa je bila ugotovljena statistično značilna razlika, ki se kaže v pogostejši uporabi tradicionalnih metod evalvacije v primerjavi s sodobnimi. Zaključimo lahko, da imajo učitelji pozitivno mnenje o uporabi učnih strategij in metod, usmerjenih na učence, pri poučevanju narave in družbe, saj menijo, da so učinkovite pri doseganju številnih učnih rezultatov, določenih s predmetnim kurikulu- mom, ter spodbujanju razvoja znanja, spretnosti in sposobnosti učencev. Uporabljajo jih, čeprav dajejo prednost učnim strategijam in metodam, osredotočenim na učitelja, predvsem v samem osrednjem delu pouka, ko je realizacija učnih rezultatov najbolj intenzivna, in pri ocenjevanju učenčevih dosežkov. Čeprav so prejšnje raziskave (Mar- kuš in Čagran, 2017; Markuš in Hus, 2018; Maksimović idr., 2020; Jukić Matić idr., 2020) pokazale, da strategije poučevanja, kot so raziskovalno učenje, problemsko uče- nje, učenje z odkrivanjem, in z njimi povezane metode poučevanja prispevajo zlasti pri primarnem poučevanju naravoslovja k boljšemu razumevanju učnih vsebin in naravo- slovnih konceptov, višji ravni razmišljanja in na splošno k razvoju številnih učenčevih 46 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) kompetenc, potrebnih za vseživljenjsko učenje. Vendar je s to raziskavo potrjeno, da te učne strategije in metode še vedno niso dominantne pri pouku narave in družbe. Takšna ugotovitev je verjetno posledica še vedno prevladujočega razredno-pred- metnega učnega sistema, ki omejuje razpoložljivi čas poučevanja, in uveljavljenih pe- dagoških praks, ki ne omogočajo uvajanja novosti v izobraževalni sistem, ali premalo razvitih kompetenc učiteljev za uporabo tovrstnih učnih strategij in metod. Čeprav so rezultati raziskave pokazali zavedanje učiteljev o pomembnosti in pomenu poučeva- nja, osredotočenega na učenca, pogostost njegovega izvajanja še vedno ni zadovoljiva. Uporaba učnih strategij in metod, osredotočenih na učenca, prispeva k sodobnemu strukturiranemu poučevanju, v katerem je učenec aktiven udeleženec učnega procesa. Aktiven učenec se v izobraževalnem procesu uči iz lastnih izkušenj, v izvirni realnosti, razvija kritično mišljenje ter preizkuša socialne in komunikacijske veščine. Skozi pou- čevanje narave in družbe aktivnega učenca najlažje in najpogosteje opazimo ob moti- vaciji, v kateri uporabimo sodobne učne metode. Po drugi strani pa fazo učenja novih učnih vsebin in vrednotenja učitelji še vedno najpogosteje uresničujejo z uporabo tra- dicionalnih učnih metod, namenjenih učiteljem, kar žal podpira tradicionalno struktu- rirano poučevanje. Takšno poučevanje ne ustreza potrebam današnjega izobraževanja, ne omogoča ustreznega razvoja kompetenc učenca, potrebnih za vseživljenjsko učenje, in ga je treba spremeniti. Zato je potrebno ponovno preučiti razloge, zakaj kljub raz- viti zavesti o pomenu in učinkovitosti na učenca osredotočenih strategij poučevanja še vedno prevladuje tradicionalna paradigma učenja in poučevanja. Glede na ugotovitve je pomembno odstraniti ovire, ki ovirajo pogostejšo uporabo učnih strategij in metod, usmerjenih na učenca, in jih implementirati v vsakodnevno pedagoško prakso v prvem izobraževalnem obdobju. REFERENCES 1. Allen, R. N. and Jackson, A. (2017). Contemporary Teaching Strategies: Effectively Engaging Millennials Across the Curriculum. 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Metode učenja i poučavanja. Zagreb: Educa. Alena Letina, PhD (1977), Associate Professor at University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education. Naslov / Address: Borčec 10, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia Telefon / Telephone: (+385) 098 135 75 23 E-mail: alena.letina@ufzg.hr Katija Kalinić, MA (1992), Primary School Teacher at Primary School Pavlek Miškina, Zagreb. Naslov / Address: Sveti Duh 24, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia Telefon / Telephone: (+385) 098 135 75 23 E-mail: katija.kalini@gmail.com Tatjana Kozjek, PhD, Vanja Ida Erčulj, PhD Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School Teachers Prejeto 4. 10. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 4. 10. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37-057.87:331.442 UDC 37-057.87:331.442 KLJUČNE BESEDE: neprimerno ravnanje, učenec, KEYWORDS: mistreatment, student, elementary school, osnovna šola, srednja šola, socialni stresor high school, social stressor POVZETEK – Učitelji, ki so vsakodnevno v stiku ABSTRACT – Teachers who have day-to-day relations z učenci, so izpostavljeni neprimernemu ravnanju with students are exposed to mistreatment by students; učencev ‒ viru socialnega stresa, ki vpliva tudi na therefore, they are daily exposed to social stress, which njihovo počutje in razpoloženje. Namen raziskave je affects their moods. The purpose of the research was bil identificirati najbolj pomembne socialne stresorje, to identify the most perceived student-related so- povezane z ravnanjem učencev, ki prispevajo k soci- cial stressors (SSS) contributing to the social stress alnemu stresu učiteljev v osnovnih in srednjih šolah of school teachers in elementary and high schools. v Sloveniji, in proučiti povezanost med njimi in ču- Moreover, to explore their relationship to the positive stvenim doživljanjem učiteljev ‒ afektom. Za zbiranje and negative teachers’ affect. An online survey was podatkov je bila uporabljena spletna anketa. Rezul- employed for data collection by using publicly avail- tati kažejo, da sta najbolj zaznana socialna stresorja able addresses of elementary and high schools in Slo- “neprijetni učenci” in “nesorazmerna pričakovanja venia. The results show that the most often perceived učencev” tako v osnovnih kot srednjih šolah. Ugo- SSS are disliked students and disproportionate student tovljena je bila tudi statistično pomembna povezava expectations in both elementary and high schools; a med socialnimi stresorji in učiteljevim afektom. Rav- statistically significant relationship between SSS and natelji osnovnih in srednjih šol morajo več pozornosti teachers’ affect was found. The principals of elemen- nameniti kompetencam učiteljev za vodenje razreda tary and high schools should pay attention to maximiz- ter jim omogočiti izobraževanja na področju kogni- ing teachers’ competencies to improve their classroom tivnih strategij za spoprijemanje s stresorji med de- management and enable the teachers to learn about lom v razredu. cognitive strategies for moderating mood effects on judgements about social events. 1 Introduction Workers in human services are exposed to mistreatment by the people that they work for (e.g., citizens, clients, customers, patients, students, etc.), which harms workers and institutions. Mistreatment is a person’s deviant, disrespectful, dysfunctional or unethical behavior that disregards socially accepted standards, and can be viewed as a social hassle that these people cause to workers in the workplace (Dormann and Zapf, 2004; Skarlicki et al., 2008; Sliter et al., 2010; Grandey et al., 2012; Dudenhöffer and Dormann, 2013; Kozjek and Erčulj, 2021). Mistreatment is especially problematic for teachers who have day-to-day relations with students and are therefore daily exposed to social stress. This has been confirmed by Lasky (2005) and Lewis et al. (2005), who stated that teachers often feel vulnerable when cooperating with their students. Furthermore, Košir Lovšin Kozjek, PhD, Erčulj, PhD: Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School... 49 and Polak (2022, p. 80) stated that teachers usually experience anger when they are faced with students’ inappropriate behavior. According to Mérida-López et al. (2017), teachers’ stress presents the experience of unpleasant emotions caused by multifaceted aspects of the teaching occupation. Results of the research on the student-teacher relationship and the consequences of stressful teaching conditions show negative psychological outcomes referring to teachers (e.g., Betoret, 2009; Spilt et al., 2011; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2018; García-Carmona et al., 2019; Collie and Mansfield, 2022); low quality of education (e.g., Betoret, 2006; Abós et al., 2019); low job satisfaction (Landers et al., 2008; Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2017; Abós et al., 2019); low well-being, work engagement and efficiency (Brígido et al., 2013; Burić et al., 2019; Chen, 2019; Rusu and Colomeischi, 2020). Re- search on the stress-related factors of teachers in the workplace also shows differences between teachers of different ages, gender and experience (Lau et al., 2005; Eres, 2011). Furthermore, Capone et al. (2019), Sardessai-Nadkarni et al. (2021) and Wiggs et al. (2021) found that teachers’ stress negatively impacts school climate. In addition, Dolenc and Virag (2019, p. 73) found that a lower level of work stress, a higher self-efficacy and more frequent productive coping contribute significantly to the greater satisfaction of teachers. The gravity of the described consequences suggests that teachers’ stress should be addressed and properly measured. To measure social stressors caused by clients (in the school environment that would be students), Dormann and Zapf (2004) developed a “customer-related social stressors scale”, which can be adjusted to the school environ- ment. It addresses four main causes of social stress, namely: □ Disproportionate customer expectations (referring to a client’s behavior and atti- tudes which challenge acceptable service expectations from the service employees’ point of view); □ Verbally aggressive customers (criticizing and verbally attacking service employees); □ Disliked customers (referring to unpleasant, humorless, and hostile persons); □ Ambiguous customer expectations (it is unclear to the service employee what the person wants). To take appropriate action to help teachers cope with the social stress caused by students’ mistreatment, and contribute to the teachers’ life satisfaction, the school cli- mate and development, principals must pay special attention to recognizing the most perceived student-related social stressors (SSS), which was the first aim of our research. Therefore, the first hypothesis tested in the research was H1: There is a difference in experiencing the four SSS among elementary and high school teachers. In addition, the results of the study by Antoniou et al. (2006) showed that the most frequent occupational stressors of elementary and high school teachers refer to the problems that are difficult to deal with in the classroom, such as students’ disciplinary problems. Orejudo et al. (2020) also found differences between elementary and high school teachers concerning classroom context. They stated that teachers’ conflicts were associated with student misbehavior at high schools. Furthermore, the results of the research conducted by Chan et al. (2010), Kavita and Hassan (2018) and Kongcharoen et al. (2019) showed that high school teachers perceived more stress than elementary school teachers. According to Kongcharoen et al. (2019), the reason lies in the fact that the responsibilities of high school teachers have increased due to the highly competi- tive academic environment of high school students. Exploring the differences in factors contributing to the teachers’ stress in elementary and high schools is important as stress 50 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) influences different spectra of teachers’ work. The second aim of our research was to test whether the differences in perceived student-related social stressors exist between elementary school and high school teachers. The second hypothesis tested in the re- search, therefore, was H2: Elementary and high school teachers differ in their experi- ence of at least one of the measured student-related social stressors (SSS). According to Giles et al. (2014), social stress affects persons’ moods. Watson et al. (1988) distinguished between two moods, namely positive and negative affect. Sutton and Wheatley (2003) defined affect as the subjective experience of emotions, which is a distinct type of a private mental state. Such subjective experience could be negative – negative affect (NA) – or positive – positive affect (PA). Both, PA and NA, are related to people’s psychological well-being. In addition, Sanmartín et al. (2020) found that PA is related to social activity, that is, activity that involves communication and interaction with others, whereas NA is significantly related to the perceived stress. Furthermore, the results of the study by Rusu and Colomeischi (2020) showed that teachers with a higher ratio of PA to NA reported greater engagement and a higher level of individual well-be- ing. PA is positively related to teachers’ performance, their sense of self-efficiency, job satisfaction, teachers’ enthusiasm, student-centered approaches to teaching, and student focus (Burić et al., 2019; Chen, 2019), while NA is related to lower work engagement, lower levels of self-efficiency and performance, and prompts a downward spiral leading to burnout (Brígido et al., 2013; Lavy and Eshet, 2018; Burić et al., 2019; Chen, 2019). The results of the research by Hamama et al. (2013) showed that the solution to the link between stress and negative affect, and to the link between stress and positive af- fect and teachers’ life satisfaction is organizational support. Since little is known about the relationship between the two primary dimensions of a teacher’s mood – the PA and NA– and student-related social stressors (SSS), the decision was made to explore this relationship in the current study. Those were also the last two aims of our research. Therefore, the hypotheses H3 and H4 were tested. The hypothesis H3 goes as follows: Student-related social stressors (disproportionate student expectations, verbally ag- gressive students, disliked students, and ambiguous student expectations) are related to teachers’ PA. The hypothesis H4 states: Student-related social stressors (disproportion- ate student expectations, verbally aggressive students, disliked students, and ambiguous student expectations) are related to teachers’ NA. In the article, the results of the research on the most often perceived student-related social stressors contributing to teachers’ social stress and their relationship to the positive and negative teachers’ affect are compared with previous research findings. They add to the knowledge on the subject and lead to the possible provision of more satisfactory practical solutions on how to deal with student-related social stressors and avoid the neg- ative outcomes of stress on the teachers’ work efficiency, job satisfaction and well-being. 2 Methodology and methods The research was carried out from October 2019 until December 2019 among el- ementary and high school teachers in Slovenia. The link to the online questionnaire, with a request to forward it to all teachers, was sent twice to the official e-mail ad- Kozjek, PhD, Erčulj, PhD: Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School... 51 dresses of 768 elementary and 189 high schools available in the records of educational institutions and educational programs on the webpage of the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (2019). Researchers wanted to exclude potential student-related so- cial stressors (SSS) caused by students with mental disabilities as this could be a sepa- rate research subject and to provide a more homogenous sample; therefore, schools for students with mental disabilities were not included in the research. Researchers were not notified if the employees that read official e-mails indeed forwarded the link to all teachers and the survey was anonymous (not all teachers provided an answer as to which school they work at). Sample description Overall, 725 elementary and high school teachers were included in the sample. Not all teachers provided answers to all the questions. All responses per question were taken into account for the statistical analysis. According to the Statistical Office of the Re- public of Slovenia (2019), 21,805 elementary school teachers (2,726 males and 19,079 females) and 6,874 high school teachers (2,168 males and 4,706 females) were em- ployed in the formal Slovenian education system. The estimated response rate would be ~ 2.5 %. Despite the non-probability sampling method, the sample was representa- tive by gender (p = 0.07) and school level (p = 0.139). Table 1 Sample description Sample description f f % University or lower 678 94.0 Degree Master’s or higher 43 6.0 Up to 49 employees 175 24.2 No. of employees From 50 to 249 employees 502 69.4 250 and more employees 46 6.4 Male 104 14.5 Sex Female 615 85.5 Elementary school 528 73.6 School High school 189 26.4 Mean (SD) age 44.8 10 Mean (SD) length of employment in current school Mean (SD) (no. of years) 16.8 11.3 Mean (SD) length of employment – overall (no. of years) 19.7 11.2 52 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Measures The self-reported student-related social stressors (SSS) scale was adopted by Dor- mann and Zapf (2004). The scale measures: □ Disproportionate student’s expectations (referring to a student’s behavior and at- titudes which challenge acceptable expectations from the teachers’ point of view); □ Verbally aggressive students (criticizing and verbally attacking teachers); □ Disliked students (referring to unpleasant, humorless, and hostile students); □ Ambiguous student’s expectations (it is unclear to the teacher what the student wants). The items were translated from the English language into the respondents’ na- tive language (Slovene) using a standard back-translation process (see Brislin, 1980, pp. 389–444). All discrepancies were reviewed and the final translation of items was agreed upon. As Dormann and Zapf (2004) wanted to exclude potential SSS caused by students with mental disabilities, we likewise did not include schools for students with mental disabilities in the research. Since the research is more general, the results on the most pronounced student behavior contributing to teachers’ social stress were compa- rable to previous research. Overall, the SSS scale has 21 items, each measured on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 – completely disagree to 5 – completely agree. Disproportionate student expectations are measured by 8 items. The exemplary item is “Our students do not recognize when we are very busy”. Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.86. Students’ verbal aggression is measured by 5 items (α = 0.87). The exemplary item is “Students are always com- plaining about us”. The dimension of disliked students includes 4 items (α = 0.76). The exemplary item is “One has to work with hostile students”. The ambiguous student’s expectations scale has 4 items (α = 0.73). One of the items states that “Students’ wishes are often contradictory”. Teachers’ moods were measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), developed by Watson, Clark and Tellegen (Watson et al., 1988). The scale consists of several words that describe different feelings and emotions (interested, dis- tressed, excited, upset, strong, guilty, scared, hostile, enthusiastic, proud, irritable, alert, ashamed, inspired, nervous, determined, attentive, jittery, active, and afraid). These words can be measured on a five-point Likert scale (1 – very slightly or not at all, 2 – lit- tle, 3 – moderately, 4 – quite a bit, 5 – extremely) in the seven different time periods (at the present moment, today, during the past few days, during the past few weeks, during the past year, or on average (generally)). Ten items or adjectives measured each positive and negative affect. Examples of adjectives describing positive affect were “enthusi- astic”, “interested”, “determined”, while examples of those describing negative affect were “irritable”, “nervous”, “guilty”. Cronbach’s α was 0.78 for the positive affect scale and 0.88 for the negative affect scale. The standard translation and back-translation procedures were followed. Kozjek, PhD, Erčulj, PhD: Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School... 53 Statistical analysis Categorical variables were described by frequencies and percentages, and continu- ous variables by means and standard deviations. The average score in each dimension of the SSS and the PANAS scale was calculated and used in the analysis. An independ- ent samples t-test was used to compare elementary and high school teachers in SSS and positive and negative affect. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to compare the average scores in the four dimensions of the SSS scale to evaluate which SSS are most often perceived in elementary and high schools. A Sidak post-hoc test was used for paired comparisons. Two multiple linear regression models were built with each dimen- sion of SSS as independent variables; with gender, age, school size and school type as control variables, and with each of the two dimensions of the PANAS scale as the dependent variable. Results with p < 0.05 were treated as statistically significant. SPSS, version 28, was used for all statistical analyses. 3 Results As the same subjects answered the same questions relating to SSS, it was therefore expected that their answers would be correlated. For this purpose, repeated measure ANOVA was used to test whether there are differences in experienced SSS by elemen- tary and high school teachers. According to the results (Table 2), the first hypothesis, which states that “there is a difference in experiencing the four SSS among elementary and high school teachers”, is confirmed. Disliked students and disproportionate ex- pectations are the most often perceived SSS for elementary and high school teachers. Post-hoc pairwise comparisons, performed by the Sidak test, suggest that there is no statistically significant difference in the intensity of experiencing these two SSS in the elementary (p = 0.995) or high (p = 0.061) school teachers. At the same time, all other pairwise comparisons are statistically significant (p < 0.001 for all), suggesting that ver- bal aggression and ambiguous expectations are SSS that contribute to the social stress of elementary and high school teachers to a lower extent. To test the differences between elementary and high school teachers in their ex- perience of each SSS, the independent samples t-test was used. All SSS are more pro- nounced for elementary than for high school teachers. According to the results (Ta- ble 2), the second hypothesis, which states that “elementary and high school teachers differ in their experience of at least one of the measured student-related social stressors (SSS)”, is confirmed. 54 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Table 2 Student-related social stressors by school type (results of the independent samples t-test and repeated measures ANOVA) Elementary school High school p M (SD) M (SD) Ambiguous student expectations 3.02 (0.63) 2.78 (0.66) < 0.001 Disliked student 3.86 (0.71) 3.65 (0.80) < 0.001 Student’s verbal aggression 2.44 (0.8) 2.15 (0.74) < 0.001 Disproportionate student expectations 3.88 (0.58) 3.49 (0.69) < 0.001 p < 0.001 < 0.001 The relationship between student-related social stressors (SSS) and the positive (PA) and negative (NA) affect of teachers was investigated. The results of the multiple linear regression analysis (Table 3) show that ambiguous student expectations, disliked students and their verbal aggression are negatively related to the PA of teachers when controlling for gender, age, school size and type. On the other hand, ambiguous and disproportionate expectations and verbal aggression of students are positively related to the NA of teachers when controlling for other variables in the regression model. Teach- ers experiencing SSS tend to have a lower PA and a higher NA. From the control vari- ables, men have statistically significantly lower PA than women, and elementary school teachers have more pronounced NA than high school teachers. Table 3 Relationship between students’ behavior and teachers’ affect (the result of multiple linear regression) DV: Positive affect DV: Negative affect Std. B p Std. B p Ambiguous student expectations –0.18 < 0.001 0.17 < 0.001 Disliked student 0.13 0.001 0.03 0.362 Student’s verbal aggression –0.17 < 0.001 0.27 < 0.001 Disproportionate student expectations 0.08 0.103 0.09 0.044 Male gender –0.13 < 0.001 –0.03 0.33 School size up to 49 vs. > 249 employees –0.08 0.255 0.04 0.573 School size 50–249 vs. > 249 employees –0.1 0.161 0.03 0.594 Elementary teacher vs. high school teacher 0.07 0.069 0.09 0.008 R2 0.09 0.26 Kozjek, PhD, Erčulj, PhD: Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School... 55 According to the results of the research, the third hypothesis “student-related social stressors (disproportionate student expectations, verbally aggressive students, disliked students, and ambiguous student expectations) are related to teachers’ PA”, and the fourth hypothesis “student-related social stressors (disproportionate student expecta- tions, verbally aggressive students, disliked students, and ambiguous student expecta- tions) are related to teachers’ NA” are both confirmed. 4 Discussion Previous research (e.g., Antoniou et al., 2006; Chan et al., 2010; Kavita and Has- san, 2018; Kongcharoen et al., 2019; Orejudo et al., 2020) showed that elementary and high school teachers’ perceived stress is related to the problems that are difficult to deal with in the classroom. To take appropriate action to help teachers cope with the social stress caused by students’ mistreatment, and contribute to teachers’ life satisfaction, the school’s climate and development, principals must pay special attention to recognizing the most often perceived student-related social stressors (SSS). The purposes of the present research were to identify the most often perceived SSS contributing to the social stress of school teachers in Slovenian elementary and high schools; to compare the SSS between elementary and high school teachers in Slovenia, and identify the relationship between SSS and teachers’ negative and positive affect. The results of the research show that the most often perceived SSS refers to unpleas- ant, humorless and hostile students (or the so-called disliked students), and their challeng- ing behavior and attitudes (or the so-called disproportionate student expectations). These results confirm the results by Antoniou et al. (2006), who also found that elementary and high school teachers are stressed by students’ disciplinary problems. Surprisingly, and contrary to the results of Chan et al. (2010), Kavita and Hassan (2018) and Kongcharoen et al. (2019), all SSS are expressed more in elementary than in high schools, which could also be due to cultural or organizational differences of the country or schools where the research was conducted. The results of the two previously mentioned social stressors that are connected to students who criticize and verbally attack teachers (or the so-called verbally aggressive students) and to students for whom teachers do not know what they want (or the so-called ambiguous student expectations) might indicate a possible prob- lem; namely, inappropriate parent involvement in the learning-teaching process or, as Oostdam and Hooge (2013) put it, parents are becoming increasingly better informed, more critical and more strongly positioned towards schools, which could negatively af- fect the mistreatment of teachers by students. In addition, the results have also confirmed the findings of Klemenčič Rozman and Poljšak Škraban (2020, p. 93) that the school- family partnership should focus on the agreement of all participants with the aim of the child’s well-being in the school system. Furthermore, the results also confirm the findings of Krek and Klopčič (2019, p. 134) about the need for additional professional education regarding the authoritative behaviors of teachers. Previous research (e.g., Burić et al., 2019; Chen, 2019) found that teachers’ PA is positively related to student-centered approaches to teaching and student focus, and that teachers’ NA is related to lower work engagement, lower levels of self-efficiency 56 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) and performance, and prompts a downward spiral leading to burnout (e.g., Brígido et al., 2013; Lavy and Eshet, 2018; Burić et al., 2019; Chen, 2019). The purpose of the research was also to identify the relationship between SSS and teachers’ NA and PA. The results show that teachers experiencing SSS tend to have a lower PA and higher NA. The results confirm the findings of Spilt et al. (2011) that teachers internalize in- terpersonal experiences with students into mental models, which provide an interpreta- tive framework to understand the social behavior of others and guide behavioral and effective responses in their interactions with others. Namely, if teachers want to ap- propriately react to students’ mistreatment and manage classroom problems, if they want to motivate students and achieve teaching goals, teachers need to understand their moods. The results also confirm the findings of Vekić-Kljaić and Lučić (2021, p. 55) that changed forms of professional development are necessary due to the new knowl- edge about students’ needs. Implications for practice and research The results of the research show that the most often perceived SSS refer to disliked students and their disproportionate expectations. Furthermore, all SSS are expressed more in elementary schools. According to Hamama et al., 2013, organizational support is the solution to the link between stress and negative affect, and to the link between stress and positive affect and teachers’ life satisfaction. Therefore, the principals of el- ementary and high schools should pay attention to students’ mistreatment and maximize teachers’ competencies to improve their classroom management. In addition, the results show that teachers experiencing SSS tend to have a lower PA and higher NA; therefore, the principals should enable teachers to participate in workshops on emotion-regulation strategies and cognitive strategies that mediate mood effects on judgements about social events, and to improve their own and the students’ social-emotional competence. In addition to the above-mentioned practical implications, the findings of the cur- rent study make several important contributions to the existing literature. The research contributes to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and the social-rela- tionship theory, the teacher education literature, the classroom management literature and the literature on the vulnerability of teachers in the student-teacher relationship, because this vulnerability was surveyed independently and the results clearly show that teachers are exposed to mistreatment by students. Limitations The current study has some limitations that should be acknowledged. One is a pos- sible self-selection bias. As non-probability sampling was used, the teachers included in the research might differ from those who decided not to participate in the study. Nev- ertheless, the sample is representative regarding gender and type of school. Moreover, our findings are corroborated by the similar findings of other researchers in this area. One of the drawbacks of the research was that the researchers were not notified if the employees who read the official e-mails indeed forwarded the link to all teachers; Kozjek, PhD, Erčulj, PhD: Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School... 57 therefore, some control over the research quality was lost due to providing anonymity to the respondents. Hopefully, the provided anonymity lessened the need of the respondents to provide socially desirable responses. The research findings would benefit from ad- ditional qualitative research, which would provide more in-depth insight into the topic. 5 Conclusions The results of the research show that the most often perceived student-related social stressors refer to disliked students and their disproportionate expectations. The results also show that all student-related social stressors are expressed more in elementary schools. A practical implication of the research is the proposal for the principals of elementary and high schools to constantly analyze student-related social stressors and teachers’ affect due to students’ mistreatment. Because teachers experiencing student- related social stressors tend to have lower positive and higher negative affect, school principals should enable the teachers to learn about cognitive strategies for moderat- ing mood effects on judgements about social events. The research contributes to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and the social-relationship theory, the teacher education literature, the classroom management literature and the literature on the vulnerability of teachers in the student-teacher relationship. Dr. Tatjana Kozjek, dr. Vanja Ida Erčulj Analiza z učenci povezanih socialnih stresorjev med učitelji Neprimerno ravnanje učencev je za učitelje, ki so vsakodnevno v stiku z učenci, problematično. Učitelji so zato vsakodnevno izpostavljeni socialnemu stresu, kar kažejo tudi predhodne raziskave (npr. Antoniou idr., 2006; Chan idr., 2010; Kavita in Hassan, 2018; Kongcharoen idr., 2019; Orejudo idr., 2020), in sicer so pokazale, da je zaznava- nje stresa osnovnošolskih in srednješolskih učiteljev povezano s težavami, s katerimi se je v razredu težko soočiti. Že Lasky (2005) ter Lewis idr. (2005) so ugotovili, da se uči- telji pri delu z učenci pogosto počutijo ranljive. Košir Lovšin in Polak (2022) sta v svoji raziskavi ugotovila celo, da so učitelji, ko so bili soočeni z neprimernim vedenjem učen- cev, običajno doživljali jezo. S tem se strinjajo tudi Mérida-López idr. (2017), ki trdijo, da doživljanje neprijetnih čustev, ki jih povzročajo različni vidiki učiteljskega poklica, učiteljem povzroča stres. Rezultati raziskav, povezanih z odnosom med učenci in učitelji ter posledicami stresnih pogojev poučevanja, so pokazali negativne psihološke posle- dice, s katerimi se soočajo učitelji (npr. Betoret, 2009; Spilled idr., 2011; Skaalvik in Skaalvik, 2018; García-Carmona idr., 2019; Collie in Mansfield, 2022), nižjo kakovost poučevanja (npr. Betoret, 2006; Abós idr., 2019), nizko zadovoljstvo pri delu (Landers idr., 2008; Skaalvik in Skaalvik, 2017; Abós idr., 2019), slabo počutje, nizko delovno vnemo in nizko učinkovitost pri delu (Brígido idr., 2013; Burić idr., 2019; Chen, 2019; Rusu in Colomeischi, 2020). Raziskave dejavnikov, povezanih s stresom pri učiteljih, so 58 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) pokazale tudi, da obstajajo razlike med učitelji glede na starost, spol in delovne izkušje (Lau idr., 2005; Eres, 2011). Poleg tega so Capone idr. (2019), Sardessai - Nadkarni idr. (2021) ter Wiggs idr. (2021) ugotovili, da stres, ki ga doživljajo učitelji, negativno vpliva na klimo v šolah. Nadalje sta Dolenc in Virag (2019) v svoji raziskavi ugotovila, da k večjemu zadovoljstvu učiteljev na delovnem mestu pomembno vplivajo nižja sto- pnja stresa, večja samoučinkovitost ter pogostejše produktivno soočanje s situacijami pri delu v razredu. Resnost zgoraj opisanih posledic pa nakazuje na dejstvo, da je treba stres pri učiteljih ustrezno obravnavati ter meriti. Da bi sprejeli ustrezne ukrepe kot pomoč učiteljem pri soočanju s socialnim stresom, ki ga povzroča neprimerno ravnanje učencev, in prispevali k zadovoljstvu učiteljev, pozitivnemu vzdušju v šolah ter ustre- znemu razvoju učiteljev, morajo ravnatelji posvetiti posebno pozornost prepoznavanju najbolj zaznanih, z učenci povezanih socialnih stresorjev. Namen predstavljene raziskave je bil identificirati najbolj pomembne, z učenci pove- zane socialne stresorje učiteljev v slovenskih osnovnih in srednjih šolah. Za merjenje je bila uporabljena lestvica socialnih stresorjev, ki sta jo v svoji raziskavi uporabila Dor- mann in Zapf (2004), in sicer so bile uporabljene naslednje skupine dejavnikov, pove- zane z neprimernim vedenjem učencev: nesorazmerna pričakovanja učencev (nanašajo se na vedenje in stališča učencev, ki niso sprejemljiva z vidika pričakovanj učiteljev), verbalno agresivni učenci (učenci, ki kritizirajo in verbalno “napadajo” učitelje), nepri- jazni učenci (dejavniki se nanašajo na učence, ki so neprijetni, brez humorja in sovražni) ter nejasna pričakovanja učencev (in sicer ko učiteljem ni jasno, kaj učenci želijo). Nadalje je raziskava proučila tudi povezanost med z učenci povezanimi socialnimi stresorji ter čustvenim doživljanjem učiteljev – afektom. Po mnenju Gilesa idr. (2014) socialni stres namreč vpliva na razpoloženje ljudi. Watson idr. (1988) ločijo dve obliki afekta, in sicer pozitivni in negativni afekt. Sutton in Wheatley (2003) sta afekt oprede- lila kot posebno vrsto subjektivnega čustvenega doživljanja, ki je lahko negativno – ne- gativni afekt ali pozitivno – pozitivni afekt. Poleg tega so Sanmartín idr. (2020) ugoto- vili, da je pozitivni afekt povezan s socialno aktivnostjo, to je z dejavnostjo, ki vključuje komunikacijo in interakcijo z drugimi, medtem ko je negativni afekt pomembno povezan z zaznanim stresom. Rezultati raziskave avtorjev Rusu in Colomeischi (2020) so poka- zali tudi, da so imeli učitelji z višjim pozitivnim afektom večjo delovno vnemo. Pozitivni afekt je pozitivno povezan tudi z uspešnostjo učiteljev, njihovim občutkom samoučinko- vitosti, zadovoljstvom pri delu, njihovim navdušenjem za delo, z na študente osredoto- čenimi pristopi k poučevanju ter z osredotočenostjo na študente (Burić idr., 2019; Chen, 2019), medtem ko je negativni afekt povezan z nižjo zavzetostjo pri delu, nižjo ravnijo samoučinkovitosti in uspešnosti ter vodi v izgorelost učiteljev (Brígido idr., 2013; Lavy in Eshet, 2018; Burić idr., 2019; Chen, 2019). Rezultati raziskave Hamama idr. (2013) so pokazali, da je za reševanje težav na področju povezanosti stresa, pozitivnega in ne- gativnega afekta ter zadovoljstva učiteljev pomembna podpora šole, torej ravnateljev. Ker je bilo do sedaj malo znanega o povezanosti med pozitivnim in negativnim afektom učiteljev ter z učenci povezanimi socialnimi stresorji, je bila sprejeta odločitev, da se ta povezanost prouči v okviru raziskave. Raziskava je potekala od oktobra do decembra 2019 med učitelji osnovnih in sre- dnjih šol v Sloveniji. Povezava do spletnega vprašalnika, s prošnjo za posredovanje vsem učiteljem, je bila dvakrat poslana na uradne elektronske naslove 768 osnovnih in 189 srednjih šol, dostopnih v evidencah vzgojno-izobraževalnih zavodov in izobraževal- Kozjek, PhD, Erčulj, PhD: Analysis of Student-Related Social Stressors among School... 59 nih programov na spletni strani Ministrstva za izobraževanje, znanost in šport (2019). Skupno je bilo v vzorec vključenih 725 osnovnošolskih in srednješolskih učiteljev. Vsi učitelji niso odgovorili na vsa vprašanja, zato se število odgovorov po vprašanjih razli- kuje. Ocenjena stopnja odgovorov je bila 2,5-odstotna. Kljub metodi neverjetnostnega vzorčenja je bil vzorec reprezentativen glede na spol (p = 0,07) in vrsto šole (p = 0,139). Za merjenje socialnih stresorjev je bil uporabljen za šolsko okolje prilagojen vprašalnik avtorjev Dorman in Zapf (2004), za merjenje afekta pa vprašalnik PANAS. Opisne spremenljivke smo opisali s frekvencami in odstotnimi deleži, številske pa z aritmetično sredino in standardnim odklonom. Razliko v doživljanju posameznega socialnega stresorja med srednješolskimi in osnovnošolskimi učitelji smo proučili s t- -testom za neodvisne vzorce, razliko v izraženosti socialnih stresorjev, ločeno za osnov- ne in srednje šole, pa z ANOVO. Povezanost med socialnimi stresorji in pozitivnim in negativnim afektom ob kontroli glede na spol in starost učiteljev ter velikost šole je bila proučena z večkratno linearno regresijo. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da sta najbolj zaznana z učenci povezana socialna stre- sorja neprijetni (tudi sovražni) učenci ter nesorazmerna pričakovanja učencev. Re- zultati potrjujejo ugotovitve Antonioua idr. (2006), ki trdijo, da so osnovnošolski in srednješolski učitelji pod stresom predvsem zaradi disciplinskih težav z učenci. Pre- senetljivo in v nasprotju z rezultati Chana idr. (2010), Kavita in Hassana (2018) ter Kongcharoena idr. (2019) so vsi z učenci povezani socialni stresorji bolj izraženi pri učiteljih v osnovnih kot v srednjih šolah, kar je lahko tudi posledica kulturnih ali or- ganizacijskih razlik v državi ali šolah, kjer je bila raziskava izvedena. Poleg dveh prej omenjenih z učenci povezanih socialnih stresorjev se učitelji v osnovnih šolah bolj po- gosto kot učitelji v srednjih šolah soočajo tudi s socialnima stresorjema, ki sta povezana z verbalno agresivnostjo učencev in z učenci, ki imajo nejasna pričakovanja. Ti rezultati lahko kažejo tudi na možno težavo, ki je povezana z neustreznim vključevanjem staršev v proces učenja in poučevanja oziroma, kot sta navedla Oostdam in Hooge (2013), postajajo starši vse bolje obveščeni, bolj kritični in skušajo močneje vplivati na delo v šolah, kar prav tako lahko negativno vpliva na neprimerno ravnanje učencev v odnosu do učiteljev. Poleg tega so rezultati potrdili tudi ugotovitve raziskave, ki sta jo izvedli Klemenčič Rozmanova in Poljšak Škrabanova (2020), in sicer da mora biti partnerstvo med šolo in družino osredotočeno na dogovor vseh udeležencev v šolskem sistemu z namenom, da se zagotovi dobrobit učencev. Rezultati izvedene raziskave potrjujejo tudi ugotovitve Kreka in Klopčičeve (2019) o nujnosti dodatnega strokovnega izobraževanja o avtoritativnem vedenju učiteljev. Predhodne raziskave (npr. Burić idr., 2019; Chen, 2019) so pokazale, da je pozitivni afekt pozitivno povezan s pristopi k poučevanju, z osredotočenostjo na učence ter da je negativni afekt učiteljev povezan z manjšo delovno vnemo, nižjo stopnjo samopomoči, učinkovitosti in uspešnosti ter vodi v izgorelost učiteljev (npr. Brígido idr., 2013; Lavy in Eshet, 2018; Burić idr., 2019; Chen, 2019). Glede na navedene ugotovitve tujih av- torjev je bil namen raziskave proučiti tudi povezanost med z učenci povezanimi social- nimi stresorji ter negativnim in pozitivnim čustvenim doživljanjem učiteljev. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da učitelji, ki so izpostavljeni z učenci povezanim socialnim stresor- jem, običajno doživljajo manj pozitivnih in več negativnih čustev. Rezultati potrjujejo ugotovitve Spilleda idr. (2011), ki trdijo, da učitelji ponotranjijo medosebne izkušnje z učenci v miselne modele, ki zagotavljajo interpretativni okvir za razumevanje socialne- 60 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) ga vedenja ter na ta način usmerjajo vedenjske odzive v interakcijah z drugimi. In sicer, če želijo učitelji ustrezno reagirati na neprimerno ravnanje učencev, če želijo obvlado- vati težave v razredu, če želijo motivirati učence in doseči učne cilje, morajo razumeti svoja čustva in se nanje ustrezno odzvati. Kot trdijo Hamama idr. (2013), je podpora šole pomembna pri zmanjševanju vpliva stresa na negativno čustveno doživljanje učiteljev ter posledično veča njihovo zadovolj- stvo z delom. Zato bi morali biti ravnatelji osnovnih in srednjih šol pozorni na neprimer- no ravnanje učencev v odnosu do učiteljev in poskrbeti za večjo kompetentnost učiteljev na področju vodenja razreda. 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Tatjana Kozjek, PhD (1980), Assistant Professor at University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Public Administration, Department of Organization and Informatics, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Naslov / Address: Levstikova ulica 6, 4000 Kranj, Slovenia Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 01 580 55 00 E-mail: tatjana.kozjek@fu.uni-lj.si Vanja Ida Erčulj, PhD (1979), Assistant Professor at University of Maribor, Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, Maribor, Slovenia. Naslov / Address: Novo Polje cesta I / 55 C, 1260 Ljubljana–Polje, Slovenia Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 01 300 83 25 E-mail: vanja.erculj@fvv.uni-mb.si Ingrid Emmerová, PhD, Tomáš Jablonský, PhD, Mojca Blažič, PhD Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards Teachers Prejeto 15. 5. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 15. 5. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific article UDK 364.632:37.064.2(437.6) UDC 364.632:37.064.2(437.6) KLJUČNE BESEDE: agresivno vedenje učencev do KEYWORDS: aggressive behaviour of pupils towards učiteljev, kibernetska agresija učencev do učiteljev, teachers, cyberaggression of pupils towards teachers, raziskovanje agresivnega vedenja učencev do učite- research of aggressive behaviour of pupils towards ljev, preventiva v šolah teachers, prevention in schools POVZETEK – Agresivno vedenje do učiteljev je za- ABSTRACT – Aggressive behaviour towards teachers skrbljujoče, saj ima lahko različne oblike, vključno is a concerning issue that can take many forms, includ- s fizičnim nasiljem, verbalno zlorabo, grožnjami in ing physical violence, verbal abuse, threats, and bul- ustrahovanjem. Tovrstno vedenje ima lahko resne po- lying. This type of behaviour can have serious conse- sledice tako za učitelja kot za vpletene učence, zato je quences for both the teacher and the students involved, pomembno, da ga v šolskem okolju obravnavamo hi- and it is important to address it in the school environ- tro in učinkovito. Ta pregledna študija se osredotoča ment promptly and effectively. This overview study is na agresivno vedenje učencev do učiteljev na Slova- focused on the aggressive behaviour of pupils towards škem. Analizira aktualne znanstvene študije, izvede- teachers in the Slovak Republic. It analyses the current ne od leta 2010 dalje. Rezultati raziskav kažejo, da scientific studies implemented since 2010. The results je agresivno vedenje do učiteljev na Slovaškem zelo of the studies show that aggressive behaviour towards razširjeno. Na podlagi analize so oblikovani nekateri teachers is widespread in Slovakia. Based on the anal- zaključki in predlogi za pedagoško prakso. ysis, some conclusions and suggestions for pedagogi- cal practice are formulated. 1 Introduction Aggressive behaviour is definitely a complex and multicausal socio-pathological phenomenon. The increase in aggressive behaviour and its occurrence among ever- younger pupils is becoming a substantial problem of today (Bellová, 2021; Emmerová, 2014; Hollá and Kurincová, 2013; Kirves and Sajaniemi, 2012; Saracho, 2017). It is manifested in various forms, including physical violence, verbal abuse, threats, and bul- lying. Aggression is a continuous process that can intensify – from disobeying the rules, through verbal and non-verbal threats, damaging property, up to causing physical harm to others (Daly and Sterba, 2011). Aggressive behaviour towards teachers in the form of cyberbullying is a growing problem in the digital age, where anonymous and instant communication through social media and other online platforms has made it easier for students to harass and intimidate their teachers, as many authors have pointed out (De Wett, 2020; Espelage et al., 2013; Garrett, 2014; Kauppi and Pörhölä, 2012; Kopecký and Szotkowski, 2017; Lokmic et al., 2013). 64 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) This type of bullying can take many forms, including spreading false rumours, shar- ing embarrassing photos or videos, sending threatening or abusive messages, or creat- ing fake profiles or websites to mock or humiliate the teacher. It is worth pointing out that traditional bullying and cyberbullying are common occurrences around the world, and many studies confirm the co-occurrence and overlap of these two types of bullying and victimisation. The specifics of cyberbullying include an increased potential for a large audience; an increased potential for anonymous bullying; lower levels of direct feedback from the victim; a changed power ratio; decreased time and space limits; low- er levels of supervision; easier avoidance of penalties due to a lack of control (Pšunder and Kozmus, 2020). Pupils try to record teachers in some compromising situation and they post this recording on the Internet. Sometimes pupils intentionally provoke the teacher and post his/her reaction on the web. The impact of cyberbullying on teachers can be severe, including emotional dis- tress, damage to their professional reputation and, in extreme cases, loss of employ- ment. It has a deep effect on their mental and physical wellbeing; it can lead to depres- sion, frustration, resignation, or even suicide. Therefore, effective prevention and ap- propriate intervention are imperative. Identifying the motives associated with bullying is essential to implement intervention and prevention in public primary schools. According to Hollá (2012), the typical forms of cyberattacks against teachers con- nected with the Internet include: □ Creating offensive groups on social media that contain sexually obscene comments and insults, comments on their professional competence; □ Writing a message under the teacher’s name; □ Removing something a teacher posted on the Internet; □ Recording and reporting on school situations on the Internet; □ Inappropriate, insulting, slanderous discussion groups about a teacher. We can add other forms (Kopecký and Szotkowski, 2016a): □ Cyberbaiting (provoking a teacher and recording his/her reaction on a mobile phone and then publishing it on the Internet); □ Sharing degrading materials that involve a teacher (photos or videos from the school environment and outside the school environment) and their subsequent commenting; □ Creating fake and degrading teacher’s websites; □ Creating fake and degrading teacher’s profiles; □ Threatening and intimidating a teacher; □ Extorting a teacher; □ Hacking into a teacher’s online account and the subsequent theft of his/her identity. Technology is a part of young people’s everyday lives, but its unsuitable and un- critical use can mean many disadvantages, hazards and traps. The use of technology cannot be banned among young people, but we can adequately prepare them for its use by familiarizing them with the drawbacks and risks (Cvek and Pšunder, 2019). Hollá (2012) mentions the reasons which lead pupils to attack teachers (in connection with cyberattacks): insufficient teachers’ authority; the low social status of teachers; insufficiently occupied pupils, which leads to boredom that they try to eliminate by ex- perimenting with mobile phones; revenge for a bad mark, a reprimand, etc.; insufficient Emmerová, PhD, Jablonský, PhD, Blažič, PhD: Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards... 65 skills in working with new electronic media – with Internet or computer applications; the burnout syndrome of teachers arising from a long-term work overload. According to Klimešová and Tůmová (2011), pupils molest or even bully teachers for fun; to feel power over them, or even out of a desire to be in the centre of attention; to entertain their surroundings and to be praised for their behaviour; to have a dominant position and control over the situation; to behave cruelly – an effort to hurt others for the excitement from their suffering; to reciprocate pain – either as an effort to hurt some authority on the basis of previous oppression (e.g., from parents), or as a direct form of revenge for an injustice or some wrong committed by the teacher; to explore the limits and test the teacher – pupils test how daring they are and how the teacher will react; for fun – espe- cially in an effort to get rid of boredom during classes. As several authors have pointed out (Pečjak and Pirc, 2014; Lepičnik Vodopivec and Teršek, 2021), the prevailing and at the same time the most diverse group in (peer) bullying is the group of bystanders or observers, since any student – including a bully or a victim – can be one of them. This group holds a significant potential to decrease the level of bullying. Bystanders can have different roles – they can be reinforcements for the bully, the bully’s assistants, outsiders (ignoring bullying) or defenders of the victim. However, the school culture and the entire school management should send a clear message against bullying and violence – it is not acceptable, not even when its goal is reciprocation (Pšunder and Kozmus, 2020). It is important for schools to have clear policies in place to address cyberbullying and educate students and teachers about the consequences of this type of behaviour. This may involve providing education and re- sources to students on appropriate online behaviour, promoting a positive and respectful school culture, and working to address any underlying power imbalances that may be contributing to the bullying. Overall, aggressive behaviour against teachers is a serious issue that should be ad- dressed with a comprehensive and proactive approach, and which deserves special at- tention in the empirical research of this phenomenon. 2 Methods In this overview study we present the results of studies of aggressive behaviour to- wards teachers in Slovakia since 2010. The results of the studies were published in the Slovak or English language in indexed journals and in Slovak journals that are not in- dexed in any database. We did not take into consideration the studies undertaken within qualification theses, only the studies published in scientific journals. The research question was: “What is the incidence of aggressive behaviour of pu- pils towards teachers in the Slovak Republic?” Our first step was to perform a search in foreign databases and in Slovak journals. We decided on the time period from January 2010 to March 2022. For the study we have selected works that present the results of studies of aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers. The second methodological step was to analyse the texts that met the selected criteria. 66 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) 3 Results Within the selected time period, i.e., since 2010, several studies of aggressive be- haviour of pupils towards teachers were undertaken in Slovakia. Their overview is pre- sented in Table 1. Table 1 Studies of Aggressive Behaviour towards Teachers in Slovakia Name of the research implementer Year of implementation Research sample Kariková Soňa 2010 Kindergarten, elementary school and high school teachers Emmerová Ingrid 2010 / 2011 Elementary and high school teachers Bieliková Marcela et al. 2011 Elementary and high school students Teachers of the second grade of Niklová Miriam – Šajgalová Michaela 2016 elementary schools and employees of centres of pedagogical–psycho- logical counselling and prevention Emmerová Ingrid – Kohútová Jana 2017 Elementary and high school teachers Kariková (2010) presents the results of the study that was implemented in 2010 among kindergarten, elementary school (primary and lower-secondary level) and high school teachers. The research dealt with a wider topic: the motivation of teachers when choosing their occupation; the pros and cons of their profession; and, last but not least, their opinion on the status of the teaching profession. Regarding our study, we will fo- cus only on selected aspects. The results unequivocally point to significant changes that are connected with the increase in the negative aspects in the teaching profession. These concern the increase in problem behaviour of pupils in all school types and grades, but also the communication with parents. These two aspects definitely reflect the changes in society as such, especially in terms of the increase in various socio-pathological phe- nomena and consequently the increase in the problem behaviour of children and pupils. They may be connected with the overall attitude of the public towards education and also with the status of the teaching profession. In the 2010/2011 school year, several studies were implemented using the question- naire method in the Central Slovakia region, namely in the following districts: Banská Bystrica, Krupina, Lučenec, Martin, Tornaľa, Zvolen and Žilina (Emmerová, 2011). The research sample consisted of 196 elementary school (primary and lower-secondary level) teachers and 155 high school teachers, or 351 respondents in total. The goal was to research the issue of aggressive behaviour of parents and pupils towards teachers. We wanted to find out how they encountered such behaviour in their practice. In total, 237 teachers encountered aggressive behaviour towards themselves, which makes 67.52 %. Our empirical findings show that the most widespread form of aggres- sive behaviour of pupils towards teachers are insults during classes, which was reported Emmerová, PhD, Jablonský, PhD, Blažič, PhD: Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards... 67 by 37.04 % of the teachers. The second most widespread form is threatening, which was reported by 23.08 % of the respondents. The third place belongs to insults from parents or other relatives – this option was selected by 22.79 % of the respondents. An alarming fact is that only 32.48 % of elementary and high school teachers have not encountered any form of aggressive behaviour towards themselves during their ped- agogical practice, which is less than one third of the respondents. Just as interesting are the results of the research by Bieliková et al. (2011), which focused on pupils’ respect of authority: pupils respect the authority of teachers oc- casionally (64.1 %); they often show respect to teachers only in 15.7 % of cases; and 20.2 % of pupils do not respect the authority of their teachers at all – this means that each fifth pupil does not behave respectfully towards his/her teachers. The goal of the research, in connection with dealing with the issue of violence of elementary and high school pupils, was to map the situation regarding the aggressive behaviour of young people aged from 13 to 18, and the manifestations of intolerance and extremism in the school environment, within the family and in a group of friends. The Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information undertakes surveys among pupils that are focused on the occurrence of aggressive behaviour or bullying, but they do not examine the ag- gressive behaviour towards teachers. The situation in schools is also illustrated by the “Report on the State of Education in Slovakia and the Systemic Steps to Support Its Further Development” from Septem- ber 2013, which states: □ A serious problem encountered in education is threatening the safety of pupils, and of the pedagogical and non-pedagogical staff of schools (bullying, attacks on teach- ers by pupils or their legal representatives). □ Schools do not have the tools to improve security, meaning the physical and mental security of pupils and school staff. Niklová and Šajgalová (2016) implemented a survey among teachers of the second grade of elementary schools in the Banská Bystrica and Žilina districts in Slovakia, but also among professionals working in centres of pedagogical–psychological counselling and prevention. In their research, they paid special attention to identifying the forms of aggressive behaviour, the gender differences and the causes of these severe behavioural disorders of pupils. Gender differences connected with the occurrence of aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers were more in favour of boys. The causes of ag- gressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers mainly include inappropriate upbring- ing in the family and the insufficient authority established by teachers. They further discovered that teachers with longer pedagogical practice report a lower occurrence of aggressive behaviour of pupils towards them – in the survey it was marked by 1.29 % of the teachers with 21–25 years of pedagogical practice, while 25 % of the teachers with 6–10 years of pedagogical practice reported that they have encountered aggression from pupils. They found out that 25 % of respondents (teachers) experienced manifestations of pupils’ aggressive behaviour towards them. These were the teachers with 6–10 years of pedagogical practice. The lowest occurrence of aggressive behaviour of pupils to- wards teachers was reported by 1.29 % of the teachers with 21–25 years of pedagogical practice. Aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers has not been encountered by 68 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) 20.26 % of the respondents, which is a negative finding from the pedagogical point of view. Aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers has most often been exhibited by male pupils, boys from city elementary schools. Participation of male and female pupils in aggressive behaviour towards teachers was 60.29 %. Niklová and Šajgalová (2016) found out that only 20.26 % of the teachers have not encountered aggression aimed at themselves. Aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers occurred almost daily, according to the teachers’ responses, with the exception of direct physical attacks on the teacher (direct physical aggression). Frequent physical aggression of pupils towards teachers was reported by 6 respondents. Another research of aggressive behaviour of pupils and parents towards teachers was implemented by Emmerová and Kohútová (2017). In their research, they focused on the following variables among teachers – age and length of pedagogical practice in relation to aggressive forms of behaviour that pupils manifest towards them. They used a ques- tionnaire of their own design, which consisted of scale questions (a 5-point scale – from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”) and open questions on the following topics: perception of aggression; occurrence of forms of aggression; reasons for aggressive behaviour of pupils; discipline and authority of teachers. Two hundred and sixty-eight (268) teachers participated in the research and were selected based on availability. The pilot research tool was implemented in 2015, when the authors conducted the survey on the issue. In 2016 they made corrections to the questionnaire on the basis of the previ- ous research. The research sample consisted of 148 elementary school teachers, 75 high or vocational school teachers and 45 teachers from four-year grammar schools. The research results show that 85.4 % of the teachers have encountered aggressive behaviour. The most frequent manifestations were intentional disrupting, ignoring and provocation. The teachers either ignore these manifestations, as if they did not notice them, or they deal with them in a disciplinary procedure. In any case, it takes time and it invokes conflicts between teachers and pupils, often also with the pupils’ parents. As the coefficients are relatively low, it would be desirable to confirm the statistical correlation on bigger research samples outside the Banská Bystrica district. The research has confirmed a statistically significant relationship between the forms of aggression (non-compliance with instructions, intentional disturbance, and using ironic remarks) and the teachers’ age and length of pedagogical practice. Regarding the given topic, there are also some stimulating results of research that has been implemented in the Czech Republic since 2010. Their school system is rela- tively similar to ours, as well as the socio-cultural historical tradition. In the research that was implemented in the Czech Republic in the second grade of elementary schools between 2010 and 2013 (Csémy et al., 2014), 52 % of teachers claimed that they did not encounter rough verbal aggression from pupils towards them; 28 % encountered it once or twice per year; a more frequent occurrence was confirmed by 19.2 % of the respond- ents. Teachers were the objects of pupils’ aggression in 4.4 % of cases in the final year, 1.4 % of them repeatedly. In 2016, a survey on the cyberbullying of teachers by pupils was implemented in the Czech Republic among elementary and high school teachers (Kopecký and Szotkowski, 2016b). According to the results of this research, 21.73 % of teachers (1,118 out of 5,136) were in the past victims of some form of cyberbullying. Among the most frequent forms Emmerová, PhD, Jablonský, PhD, Blažič, PhD: Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards... 69 of cyberbullying attacks on teachers were verbal attacks using mobile phones or the In- ternet; molestation by calling and quickly hanging up (e.g., in the evening); threatening or intimidation using Internet or mobile phone services; distribution of humiliating, mock- ing or embarrassing photos; hacking their electronic accounts (e-mail, social network ac- counts, etc.). Regarding the length of cyberbullying attacks on teachers, they discovered that short-term attacks prevailed, lasting less than one week or from one to two weeks. The presented data point out the current problem of the occurrence of aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers. Aggressive behaviour of pupils towards teachers is a serious phenomenon which has a growing occurrence. 4 Discussion, recommendations and conclusions for school practice The studies in the school environment that have been implemented in the Slovak Republic since 2010 have proved the occurrence of aggressive behaviour of pupils (as well as of their parents and legal representatives) towards teachers. The given issue was either researched independently (Emmerová, 2011; Niklová and Šajgalová, 2016; Em- merová and Kohútová, 2017) or as a part of a wider study (Kariková, 2010; Bieliková et al., 2011). The main focus was placed on the research sample of elementary (prima- ry and lower-secondary level) and high school teachers, or occasionally of vocational school staff. Occasionally, the issue was researched from the point of view of pupils. The prevailing research method was a questionnaire with self-formulated questions, not a standardized questionnaire. Some attention was also paid to cyberbullying directed at teachers. Differences were observed when evaluating the occurrence of aggressive behaviour towards teachers from the point of view of time – in the last school year, in the last calendar year, or during the teachers’ career. Since 2017, no similarly focused research has been implemented in the Slovak Re- public, which can be assessed as negative. The school fulfils several functions – it is the dominant educative and socializing factor, and plays an irreplaceable role in prevention. The pandemic situation caused many negative impacts on various areas of human lives, including the school system. The problems and obstacles that affected pupils and school staff have been pointed out by several authors, e.g., Svobodová et al. (2021) or Majerčáková Abertová and Gajdošová (2021). They mainly concern the negative impact of distance learning on pupils’ socialization and their relationships in classroom collectives, and an increase in feelings of helplessness and stress. Prevention staff at schools, i.e., implementers of prevention, play an important role. Prevention can be implemented by pedagogical and specialist school staff. School man- agement and implementers of preventive activities must adequately react to the current trends and challenges in this area, plan preventive activities, and effectively cooperate with specialists outside the school environment (e.g., employees of counselling facili- ties, police officers – preventionists, doctors and other specialists). The importance of functional school management has been pointed out by Veteška and Kursch (2018); it is also important in prevention. 70 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) The reasons for aggressive behaviour towards teachers may be found on the part of teachers and pupils. On the teacher’s part, it may be inappropriate communication with pupils, a wrong teaching style, insufficient preparation for lessons, an unjust evaluation of pupils, and little energy. Therefore, an effective teacher’s self-reflexion is necessary. The importance of self-reflexion has been pointed out by Petlák (2021), while the find- ings of Bogdan Zupančič and Krajnčan (2019) show us the importance of improving the professional attitude in pedagogical relationships, where self-evaluation, and the ability and competences for establishing and maintaining quality and controlled professional relationships with all stakeholders in the primary school environment are particularly important. On the part of pupils, it may be frustration; boredom; efforts to draw attention to themselves; the pupil’s personality and his/her personal traits; or the influence of the fam- ily environment. There are many causes of aggressive behaviour of pupils, most often it is a combination of several factors. Unresolved conflicts are often in the background of such behaviour. In school it is important to focus on improving the social skills of pupils and on problem solving. Conflicts are a natural part of human lives and are also present in the school environment (among pupils, among pupils and teachers, among teachers and pupils’ parents, among the school staff). Conflicts may also have positive sides, e.g., they clarify attitudes, increase commitment, and may even improve performance. If conflicts are dealt with, they may lead to constructive changes. It is necessary to teach pupils how to resolve conflicts correctly and, most importantly, non-aggressively. School plays one of the most important roles in the socialization of pupils. Within socialization, it is important to support cooperation, develop pupils’ social skills, support effective problem and conflict solving, and develop social communication, empathy and assertive behaviour. A wide application of cooperation among pupils is a significant preventive factor for bullying and for other forms of inappropriate behaviour of pupils. Within the educational process and the educative influence on pupils, it is necessary to interconnect the cognitive, affective and conative components of pupils’ personalities, i.e., to connect preventive activities to “knowledge – attitudes – social skills”. Accord- ing to Jablonský (2004), it is possible, through the development of cooperative skills, to achieve a natural suppression of aggressive behaviour. Strategies and methods of co- operative learning lead to the development of emphatic behaviour; to sensitivity; to un- derstanding; to the development of friendly relationships; to overcoming interpersonal barriers. We can agree with Zastková (2020), according to whom cooperative learning and teaching provides an opportunity for pupils to acknowledge their coexistence with others; to take their own stand; to push through their reasoned opinion; to learn to take responsibility for their efforts; to be able to cooperate with others on fulfilling objectives. Cooperative peer interactions are the basic mechanisms in the social and moral develop- ment of pupils. In groups pupils have an opportunity to coordinate their activity with others and to discuss their disagreements. Through all this they get an opportunity to develop their understanding of other people, and their responsibility for themselves and for the efforts of others. According to Jablonský (2017), interpersonal skills, such as the ability to communicate and to work in a team, are becoming more and more important. Education for prosociality may be regarded as a tool of non-specific prevention. Prosociality means doing something for others even if we do not directly benefit from it. Prosocial behaviour is internally divided into altruistic, helping and cooperative Emmerová, PhD, Jablonský, PhD, Blažič, PhD: Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards... 71 behaviour. In everyday life and for pupils, cooperative behaviour represents the most widespread type of prosocial behaviour. Cooperative behaviour is beneficial to all par- ticipants. The advantages of prosocial behaviour have been pointed out by Gejdoš and Kováčik (2000). Prosociality resonates the most in the cross-sectional theme of personal and social development, which provides teachers with the opportunity to influence the personal development of pupils, but it also reflects the social challenges and dynamic changes in society. It has a meta-subject character and it overlaps with the education as a whole. Its main objective is to develop the personality of pupils, especially in the area of at- titudes and values. Through it, we develop not only the cognitive aspects of pupils, but also their personal and social competences. It enables pupils to think about themselves, about their current life, their relationships with people and their future direction. It leads them to assert their own rights and to respect the opinions, needs and rights of others. It instructs them on how to protect their health and to resist risks. When properly applied, it contributes significantly to a positive social climate, and to good relationships among pupils and among pupils and teachers. Regarding the significance of this issue, it is necessary to undertake more studies of aggressive behaviour towards teachers – from the point of view of teachers, but also of pupils and vocational school staff. There is also a lack of research aimed at dealing with this problem. It is usually a subcategory of the research and is not adequately treated on the empirical level. Dr. Ingrid Emmerová, dr. Tomáš Jablonský, dr. Mojca Blažič Agresivno vedenje učencev do učiteljev Porast agresivnega vedenja postaja velik problem današnjega časa. Agresivno ve- denje se kaže v različnih oblikah, kot so fizično nasilje, verbalna zloraba in ustrahovanje med učenci, v obliki medvrstniškega nasilja, v današnji šolski praksi pa ni redkost tudi nasilje, ki ga izvajajo učenci nad učitelji. Med drugim v današnji digitalni dobi postaja vse večji problem agresivno vedenje do učiteljev v obliki spletnega ustrahovanja, kjer anonimnost in takojšnja komunikacija preko družbenih omrežij in spletnih platform učen- cem olajšata nadlegovanje in ustrahovanje, na kar opozarjajo številni avtorji. Ta vrsta ustrahovanja ima lahko različne oblike, vključno s širjenjem lažnih govoric, deljenjem neprijetnih fotografij ali videoposnetkov, pošiljanjem grozilnih ali žaljivih sporočil ali ustvarjanjem lažnih profilov ali spletnih mest za zasmehovanje ali poniževanje učitelja. Velja poudariti, da sta tradicionalno ustrahovanje in spletno ustrahovanje pogosta pojava, ki sta prisotna povsod po svetu. Številne študije potrjujejo sočasno pojavljanje in prekrivanje teh dveh vrst ustrahovanja in viktimizacije. Posebnosti spletnega ustra- hovanja so večja možnost za širše občinstvo, povečana možnost za anonimno ustra- hovanje, manj možnosti neposredne povratne informacije žrtve, spremenjeno razmerje moči, manj časovnih in prostorskih omejitev ter nižja stopnja nadzora, lažje izogibanje kaznim. Učenci poskušajo posneti učitelje v kompromitirajoči situaciji in ta posnetek objaviti na spletu. Včasih učenci namerno izzivajo učitelja in njegovo reakcijo objavijo. 72 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Učenci nadlegujejo ali celo ustrahujejo učitelje zaradi zabave, občutka moči nad njimi ali iz želje, da bi bili v središču pozornosti, da bi zabavali okolico in bili od nje pohvaljeni za svoje vedenje, da bi imeli dominanten položaj in nadzor nad situacijo, da bi se vedli kruto (prizadevanje, da bi druge ranili zaradi vznemirjenja ob njihovem trpljenju), da bi bolečino vračali nazaj – bodisi kot prizadevanje, da bi ranili neko avto- riteto na podlagi prejšnjega zatiranja (npr. pri starših), ali kot neposredno maščevanje za krivico, lahko gre za raziskovanje meja in preizkušanje učitelja – učenci preizkušajo, koliko si lahko upajo in kako se bo učitelj odzval, pogosto je razlog zabava oz. zlasti prizadevanje učencev, da bi se znebili dolgčasa med poukom. Omenimo še prevladujočo in hkrati najbolj raznoliko skupino pri obravnavanju različnih oblik nasilja, to je sku- pina opazovalcev nasilja, ki se pojavljajo kot aktivni ali pasivni spodbujevalci drugih nasilnežev ali kot branilci žrtev. Vpliv spletnega ustrahovanja na učitelje je lahko hud, povzroči lahko čustveno sti- sko, škodi njihovemu poklicnemu ugledu in v skrajnih primerih privede do izgube za- poslitve. Globoko vpliva na njihovo psihično in fizično počutje, vodi lahko v depresijo, frustracije, resignacijo ali celo do samomora. Zato sta učinkovita preventiva in ustre- zena reakcija nujni. Prepoznavanje motivov, povezanih z ustrahovanjem, je bistvenega pomena za izvajanje intervencije in preventive v šolah. Šolsko življenje in celotno šolsko delovanje bi moralo poslati jasno sporočilo proti ustrahovanju in nasilju – ni spreje- mljivo, niti takrat, ko je njun namen povračilen. Pomembno je, da imajo šole jasno politiko za obravnavanje spletnega ustrahovanja ter programe izobraževanja učencev in učiteljev o ustreznem vedenju na spletu ter posledicah tovrstnega vedenja, da spod- bujajo pozitivno in spoštljivo šolsko kulturo ter delujejo v smeri reševanja morebitnih osnovnih neravnovesij moči, ki lahko prispevajo k ustrahovanju. Na splošno je agresivno vedenje do učiteljev resen problem, ki zahteva celovit in proaktiven pristop k obravnavi ter smo mu namenili posebno pozornost pri empiričnem raziskovanju tega pojava. Ta pregledna študija se osredotoča na analizo znanstvenih prispevkov, ki obravnavajo tematiko agresivnega vedenja učencev do učiteljev na Slo- vaškem od leta 2010 dalje, ter išče odgovore na zastavljeno raziskovalno vprašanje, ki se glasi: “V kolikšni meri se pojavlja agresivno vedenje učencev do učiteljev v Slovaški republiki?” Podrobneje je analiziranih 5 znanstvenih raziskav. Tako raziskava Karikové (2010) izpostavi spremembe v družbi v obliki povečanja različnih socialnopatoloških pojavov in posledično povečanja problematičnega vedenja otrok in učencev, kar se odraža tudi v spreminjanju odnosa javnosti do izobraževanja in statusa učiteljskega poklica. Raz- iskava Emmerové (2011), ki vključuje raziskovalni vzorec 351 anketiranih učiteljev v osnovnih in srednjih šolah, razkrije najbolj razširjene oblike agresivnega vedenja učen- cev do učiteljev, kot so žalitve med poukom (37,04 %), grožnje (23,08 %), žalitve s strani staršev ali drugih sorodnikov (22,79 %). Manj kot tretjina vprašanih je navedla, da se v svoji pedagoški praksi niso srečali z nobeno obliko agresivnega vedenja do njih. Podobni so tudi rezultati raziskave Bielikove idr. (2011), ki se je osredotočila na spoštovanje avtoritete s strani učencev, in razkrivajo, da učenci spoštujejo avtoriteto učiteljev občasno (64,1 %), pogosto izkazujejo spoštovanje učiteljem le v 15,7 % prime- rov, 20,2 % učencev pa avtoritete učiteljev sploh ne spoštuje – to pomeni, da se vsak peti učenec do svojega učitelja ne vede spoštljivo. Emmerová, PhD, Jablonský, PhD, Blažič, PhD: Aggressive Behaviour of Pupils towards... 73 Tudi Niklová in Šajgalová (2016), ki sta v svoji raziskavi posebno pozornost na- menili ugotavljanju oblik agresivnega vedenja, razlikam med spoloma in vzrokom za te hude vedenjske motnje učencev, ugotavljata, da se le 20,26 % učiteljev ni srečalo z agresijo, usmerjeno proti njim samim. Med vzroki za agresivno vedenje učencev do učiteljev sta izpostavili predvsem neustrezno vzgojo v družini in nezadostno avtoriteto učiteljev. Ugotovili sta tudi, da učitelji z daljšo pedagoško prakso poročajo o manjšem pojavu agresivnega vedenja učencev do njih. Emmerová in Kohútová (2017) sta se v svoji raziskavi osredotočili na spremenljiv- ke pri učiteljih, kot sta starost in dolžina pedagoške prakse v povezavi z agresivnimi oblikami vedenja, ki jih učenci kažejo do njih. Rezultati njune raziskave kažejo, da se je 85,4 % učiteljev srečalo z agresivnim vedenjem. Najpogostejše oblike so bile namerno motenje, ignoriranje in izzivanje. Učitelji te oblike bodisi ignorirajo bodisi jih obrav- navajo v disciplinskem postopku. Raziskava je potrdila statistično značilno povezanost med oblikami agresije (neupoštevanje navodil, namerno motenje in uporaba ironičnih pripomb) in starostjo učiteljev ter dolžino pedagoške prakse. Od leta 2017 v Slovaški republiki ni bila izvedena nobena raziskava, ki bi ji bila podobna, kar je že samo po sebi močno negativno dejstvo. Na podlagi analize so oblikovani nekateri zaključki in predlogi za pedagoško pra- kso. Vzrokov za agresivno vedenje učencev je veliko, najpogosteje gre za kombinacijo več dejavnikov. Razlogi za agresivno vedenje do učiteljev so lahko na strani učiteljev in tudi učencev. Vzroki za agresivno vedenje na strani učitelja so lahko neustrezna ko- munikacija z učenci, napačen vzgojni slog, nezadostna priprava na pouk, nepravič- no ocenjevanje učencev, malo energije. Zato je samorefleksija učitelja za učinkovito delovanje neizogibna. Na strani učencev so lahko frustracija, dolgčas, prizadevanje, da bi opozorili nase, osebnost učenca, vpliv družinskega okolja. V ozadju takšnega vedenja so pogosto nerešeni konflikti. V šoli se je treba osredotočiti na izboljšanje so- cialnih spretnosti učencev in na reševanje problemov. Šola ima eno najpomembnejših vlog pri socializaciji učencev. V okviru socializacije je pomembno podpirati sodelova- nje, razvijati socialne spretnosti učencev, podpirati učinkovito reševanje problemov in konfliktov, razvijati socialno komunikacijo, empatijo in asertivno vedenje. Spodbujanje sodelovanja med učenci v širšem okolju je pomemben preventivni dejavnik zmanjševa- nja ustrahovanja in drugih oblik neprimernega vedenja učencev. Sodelovalno učenje in poučevanje učencem daje priložnost, da sprejmejo sožitje z drugimi, zavzemajo la- stna stališča, uveljavijo svoje argumentirano mnenje, se naučijo prevzeti odgovornost za svoja prizadevanja in znajo sodelovati z drugimi pri doseganju ciljev. Sodelovalno vedenje, kot najbolj razširjena oblika vzgoje za prosocialnost, s katerim ne razvija- mo samo spoznavnih vidikov, ampak tudi njihove osebnostne in socialne kompetence, učencem omogoča, da razmišljajo o sebi, svojem trenutnem življenju, odnosih z ljudmi in svoji prihodnji usmeritvi. Vodi jih k uveljavljanju svojih pravic in tudi k spoštovanju mnenj, potreb in pravic drugih. Uči jih, kako zaščititi svoje zdravje in se upreti tvega- njem. Pomembno prispeva k pozitivni družbeni klimi, dobrim odnosom med učenci ter med učenci in učitelji. 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Naslov / Address: Hrabovská cesta 1 A, 034 01 Ružomberok, Slovakia Telefon / Telephone: (+421) 044 432 68 42 E-mail: tomas.jablonsky@ku.sk Mojca Blažič, PhD (1981), Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Health sciences, University of Novo mesto, Slovenia. Naslov / Address: Na Loko 2, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 07 393 00 25 E-mail: mojca.blazic@uni-nm.si Danijela Jelisavac Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo Prejeto 30. 11. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 30. 11. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 373.3-051:331.442 UDC 373.3-051:331.442 KLJUČNE BESEDE: učitelji, izgorelost, zadovoljstvo KEYWORDS: teachers, burnout, job satisfaction, pri- z delom, osnovna šola, epidemija mary school, epidemic POVZETEK – V pričujočem besedilu obravnavamo ABSTRACT – In the paper, we discuss the topic of tematiko izgorelosti in zadovoljstva učiteljev z delom v teacher burnout and job satisfaction in Slovenian slovenskih osnovnih šolah. Opravili smo kvantitativno primary schools. We conducted a quantitative survey raziskavo v času epidemije covida-19, v kateri sta bila during the COVID-19 epidemic in which two Slovene- uporabljena v slovenščino prevedena in standardizira- translated and standardised questionnaires were used, na vprašalnika: Vprašalnik o izgorelosti na delovnem namely the Maslach Burnout Inventory and the Job mestu in Vprašalnik o zadovoljstvu pri delu. Ugota- Satisfaction Questionnaire. We determined the burnout vljali smo stopnjo izgorelosti učiteljev. Izmed treh di- level of teachers. Regarding three dimensions of burn- menzij izgorelosti so učitelji izkazali najvišjo stopnjo out, teachers highlighted the highest burnout rate in izgorelosti na dimenziji čustvene izčrpanosti. Regre- the emotional exhaustion dimension. The results of the sijski model je v naši raziskavi pokazal, da dimenziji research confirm that teachers experience different lev- izgorelosti (čustvena izčrpanost in osebna izpolnitev) els of burnout according to their length of service, and vplivata na zadovoljstvo učiteljev z njihovim delom. illustrate differences according to their field of work. Izsledki naše raziskave nudijo vpogled v učiteljevo do- At the same time, the results of our research show that življanje izgorelosti in zadovoljstva z delom ter lahko teachers in Slovenia are the most satisfied with their re- služijo kot smernice šolam in vodstvom pri oblikovanju lationships with colleagues, and the least satisfied with strategij preprečevanja in spremljanja izgorelosti ter their salary. The results of our research provide insight zadovoljstva učiteljev pri delu, načrtovanju in organi- into teachers’ experiences of burnout and job satisfac- zaciji dela zaposlenih. tion. They can serve as guidelines for schools and man- agement in developing strategies to prevent and moni- tor burnout and teacher satisfaction with their job, and in planning and organising the work of employees. 1 Uvod Veliko raziskav dokazuje, da je opravljanje učiteljskega poklica izjemno stresno delo (Kyriacou in Sutcliffe, 1978, v Slivar, 2008; Travers in Cooper, 1996). Učitelji do- življajo višje stopnje stresa in izgorevanja v primerjavi z drugimi poklici, zato naj bi bili med najbolj ogroženimi (Mojsa-Kaja, 2015; Slivar, 2009). Zaposleni v šolstvu poročajo o visoko prisotnem stresu na pedagoških delovnih mestih in o ogroženosti učiteljev, da doživijo izgorelost (Rutar, 2019; Pšeničny, 2008). Učitelji se namreč mesečno spopada- jo z znaki izgorelosti (Šimonka, 2016). Z razglašeno epidemijo covida-19 je spomladi 2020 izobraževanje čez noč začelo potekati na daljavo. Vsi udeleženci pedagoškega procesa so se znašli v novi situaciji Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 77 z novimi izzivi, saj so se s tovrstnim načinom poučevanja srečali prvič (Kustec idr., 2020). Učitelji so bili primorani prilagoditi se hitro in za nedoločen čas. Ob koncu šol- skega leta 2019/2020 so v raziskavah zaznali, da je stopnja stresa pri učiteljih višja od zmožnosti spoprijemanja z njim. Ravno tako se je izkazalo, da so učitelji v času epide- mije bili na poti k izgorelosti (Babb idr., 2020). Soočeni so bili z zahtevo, da je potrebno zagotoviti učinkovit in kakovosten pouk, ki bo enakovreden tradicionalnemu pouku v šoli. Učitelj se je zato moral najprej tehnološko pripraviti. Pri tem je moral upoštevati več faktorjev, tudi sposobnosti staršev za pomoč svojim otrokom pri pouku na daljavo (UNESCO COVID-19 Education Response, 2020). Izgorelost Izgorelost je reakcija na kronični poklicni stres, za katero so značilni čustvena izčr- panost, cinizem in zmanjšana delovna učinkovitost (Gonzalez-Roma idr., 2006). Gre za kronično stanje izčrpanosti zaradi dolgotrajnega delovanja medosebnega stresa v pokli- cih dela z ljudmi (Schwarzer, 2008). Izgorelost kot stanje duševne in fizične izčrpanosti povzročijo prekomerni dolgotrajni stresni dejavniki. Je končna stopnja stresnih odzivov in pritiskov (Lorger, 2009). Izgorelost lahko razdelimo na tri dimenzije. Dimenzija, ki so jo avtorji najtemeljite- je raziskali in je hkrati najbolj razvidna, je čustvena izčrpanost. Pšeničny (2006) pravi, da se izčrpanost v poklicih pomoči kaže v odnosu do ljudi v obliki zmanjšane zavze- tosti pri delu in manjše odzivnosti na probleme ljudi (Plemelj Mohorič, 2016). Zajema tudi pomanjkanje duševne energije (Maslach in Leiter, 2008). Ne zajema pa odnosa do dela – izčrpanost ni le izkušnja, ampak izzove čustveni in kognitivni odmik od dela, je nezmožnost odzivanja na potrebe osebe, vključevanja v odnose ipd. Sledi depersonalizacija, kar pomeni poskus omenjenega odmika zaposlenega od klienta/stranke, saj je delo bolj obvladljivo, kadar stranke razumemo kot anonimne objekte (Maslach idr., 2001). Tretja dimenzija je zmanjšanje osebne učinkovitosti – občutka, da smo kompetentni in da dosegamo uspehe pri delu z ljudmi (Maslach in Jackson, 1981). Gre za obču- tek upada pristojnosti in produktivnosti ter znižan občutek učinkovitosti, ki predstavlja komponento samoevalvacije izgorelosti (Maslach, 1998). Izgorelost lahko privede do duševne stiske v obliki anksioznosti, depresije, nezadovoljstva, sovražnosti ali strahu (Maslach in Jackson, 1981). Učitelji pri svojem delu doživljajo visoko stopnjo izčrpanosti in stresa (Beltman idr., 2011). Ugotovitve kažejo, da učitelji doživljajo predvsem negativni stres, ki se kaže kot napetost, spremljajo pa ga neprijetna čustva (Slivar, 2009). Steinhardt idr. (2011) ugotavljajo, da je kronični delovni stres najbolj povezan z višjimi stopnjami čustvene izčrpanosti, sledita pa depersonalizacija in zmanjšan osebni uspeh. Yilmaz idr. (2015) so preučevali stopnjo izgorelosti med učitelji. Stopnja izgorelosti učiteljev je bila nizka, razen pri dimenziji čustvene izčrpanosti. Visoka stopnja izgorelosti privede do negativnega odnosa do poklica, kar povzroči slabo izvedbo oziroma (ne)uspešnost. Takšne negativne naravnanosti lahko povzročijo težave v družbenih odnosih. Rezultati raziskave iz leta 2009, ko je Sindikat vzgoje, 78 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) izobraževanja, znanosti in kulture s pomočjo B. Slivarja opravil raziskavo med strokov- nimi delavci v slovenskih vrtcih in šolah, so pokazali, da kar 60 % vseh udeležencev doživlja nizko, 30 % zmerno in 10 % visoko izgorelost. Podobne rezultate so pokazale raziskave, razvidne iz tabele 1. Tabela 1 Izgorelost pri učiteljih v Sloveniji Avtor(-ji) raziskave in vzorec Rezultati raziskav Depolli Steiner (2010); 63 % učiteljev z znaki nizke izgorelosti učitelji, N = 242 (nizek EXH, DEP, visok PA) 61 % učiteljev z znaki nizke izgorelosti Grof (2009); (nizek EXH in DEP, visok PA); učitelji; N = 448 EXH (M = 20.80; SD = 10.10), DEP (M = 5.80; SD = 4.45), PA (M = 33.43, SD = 5.94) 63 % vzorca kaže znake nizke izgorelosti Demšar in Zabukovec (2009); (nizek EXH, DEP, visok PA); učitelji; N = 228 EXH (M = 47.4; SD = 20.61), DEP (M = 11.2; SD = 9.75), PA (M = 69.5, SD = 12.72) Gazvoda in Zorc-Maver (2007); večina vzorca z znaki nizke do srednje izgorelosti učitelji; N = 130 (nizek EXH, DEP, visok PA) Opombe: EXH – stopnja čustvene izčrpanosti, DEP – stopnja depersonalizacije, PA – sto- pnja osebne izpolnitve (Sedlar, Novak in Šprah, 2012). Visoka stopnja izgorelosti se izkazuje z visoko stopnjo čustvene izčrpanosti in deper- sonalizacije ter nizko stopnjo osebne izpolnitve. Srednja stopnja izgorelosti se izkazuje s srednjimi vrednostmi vseh treh dimenzij. Nizka stopnja izgorelosti se izkazuje z niz- ko stopnjo čustvene izgorelosti in depersonalizacije ter visoko stopnjo osebne izpolnitve (Maslach in Jackson, 1981). Posameznik lahko izkazuje vsaj enega izmed znakov izgo- relosti z bodisi visoko stopnjo čustvene izčrpanosti bodisi visoko stopnjo depersonaliza- cije (Schaufeli idr., 2001). Posameznik pa je izgorel, kadar kaže visoko stopnjo čustvene izčrpanosti ali depersonalizacije ali nizko stopnjo osebne izpolnitve (Dyrbye idr., 2009). Rezultati raziskave, ki jo je opravila avtorica Depolli Steiner (2016, str. 92), so potrdili obstoj povezave med delovnimi stresorji in vsemi tremi dimenzijami izgorelo- sti pri osnovnošolskih učiteljih. Rezultati raziskave avtorjev Heidari in Gorjian (2017) so pokazali, da obstaja pomembna razlika med učitelji glede na dimenzijo izgorelosti. Učitelji z visoko stopnjo izgorelosti so čustveno bolj izčrpani, manj empatični in bolj občutijo pomanjkanje osebne izpolnitve. Zadovoljstvo z delom Gradišek in Habe (2020, str. 179) pravita, da “raziskave kažejo, da je zadovoljstvo zaposlenih eden izmed pomembnih napovednikov uspešnosti organizacij”. V Slove- Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 79 niji 90 % učiteljev in 96 % ravnateljev poroča, da so v splošnem zadovoljni s svojim delom – tudi povprečje držav OECD je 90 % za učitelje in 95 % za ravnatelje (OECD, 2020). Omenjene podatke so podkrepile tudi raziskave, ki so pokazale, da so bili slo- venski vzgojitelji, učitelji razrednega pouka ter mobilni specialni in rehabilitacijski pe- dagogi v povprečju s svojim delom oziroma delovnim mestom zadovoljni (Santl, 2020; Nagode, 2016; Veber, 2016; Šuc, 2016; Modrej in Cugmas, 2015; Červ, 2012). Najvišje so ocenili zadovoljstvo s samim delom, odnose s sodelavci ter možnost napredovanja in izobraževanja. Avtorica Csipö (2017) je odkrila, da na zadovoljstvo pri delu najbolj vplivajo odno- si s sodelavci in odnosi z vodstvom, najmanj pa osebni dohodek. “Delo v pozitivni pe- dagoški klimi prispeva k visokim izobraževalnim rezultatom in splošnemu zadovoljstvu vseh udeležencev v pedagoškem procesu. Za ustvarjanje ustrezne in pozitivne pedago- ške klime obstaja pomemben predpogoj, kot so pozitivni medsebojni odnosi v šolah v vseh segmentih, kjer poteka izobraževalni proces, in med vsemi udeleženci procesa poučevanja in učenja.” (Opić idr., 2018, str. 75). Kapun, Kešina in Čagran (2009) so v raziskavi ugotovili, da so učitelji z več delovnimi izkušnjami bolj zadovoljni z delom kot drugi kolegi, kar je skladno s poročilom TALIS iz leta 2008. V svoji raziskavi je avtorica Canjuga (2020) tudi ugotovila, da so učitelji razrednega pouka bolj zadovoljni z delom kot učitelji predmetnega pouka. Odnos med izgorelostjo in zadovoljstvom pri delu Raziskovanje izgorelosti in zadovoljstva pri delu nakazuje medsebojno negativno povezanost, koeficienti korelacije se gibljejo med –0,40 in –0,52 (Maslach idr., 2001). To predpostavko podpirajo tudi izsledki raziskave, ki jo je opravila Rutarjeva (2019). Večina raziskovalcev meni, da je nezadovoljstvo pri delu posledica izgorelosti (Cher- niss, 1980). Wolpin, Burke in Greenglass (1991) so proučevali recipročnost med zado- voljstvom pri delu in izgorelostjo učiteljev ter ugotovili, da se nezadovoljstvo učitelja z delom povečuje sorazmerno s povečanjem virov stresa in izgorelosti. “Na zadovoljstvo pri delu pedagoških delavcev ima največji vpliv doživljanje poklicnega stresa,” ugota- vljata Dolenc in Virag (2019, str. 80). Regent (2013) v svoji raziskavi pa ugotavlja, da je večja obremenjenost z delom povezana z večjo stopnjo emocionalne izčrpanosti in depersonalizacije učiteljev ter da je večje zadovoljstvo z delom povezano z nižjo sto- pnjo emocionalne izčrpanosti in depersonalizacije. Glede na skupino učiteljev se pojavljajo razlike v vzorcih stresorjev, povezanih z zadovoljstvom z delom (Slivar, 2008). Na izgorelost učiteljev vplivajo medsebojno povezani individualni in organizacijski dejavniki, kot so spol, delovna doba, zadovolj- stvo na delovnem mestu ter samo delovno mesto (Starc, 2011). Izgorevanje bolj ogroža mlajše učitelje z manj delovnimi izkušnjami (Teles idr., 2020; Čobanović, 2020). Re- gent (2013) dodaja, da so mlajši učitelji, ki so bolj obremenjeni z možnostmi profesio- nalnega razvoja, tudi bolj čustveno izčrpani. 80 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) 2 Metodologija Namen oziroma cilj raziskave je preveriti izgorelost, zadovoljstvo pri delu ter po- vezanost izgorelosti in zadovoljstva pri delu slovenskih učiteljev v novih okoliščinah, v katerih so se znašli v času epidemije covida-19. Postavili smo si sledeče hipoteze: □ H1: Stopnja izgorelosti učiteljev se negativno povezuje s stopnjo zadovoljstva pri delu. □ H2: Izgorelost učiteljev na posamezni dimenziji se statistično pomembno razlikuje glede na področje dela in delovno dobo. □ H3: Med učitelji obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike v doživljanju zadovoljstva z delom glede na področje dela in delovno dobo. V vzorec je bilo zajetih 300 učiteljev, zaposlenih v slovenskih osnovnih šolah. Zajetih je 10 oseb moškega spola (3,3 %), 288 oseb ženskega spola (96 %), 2 (0,7 %) anketiranca pa se nista opredelila po spolu. Povprečna starost udeležencev je 40 let, povprečno število let delovne dobe pa 15 let. Podatke smo zbrali s pomočjo anonimnega spletnega vprašalnika, sestavljenega iz dveh standardiziranih vprašalnikov, opisanih v nadaljevanju, ki smo ga posredovali pre- ko družbenih omrežij v marcu in aprilu 2021. Pred pričetkom izpolnjevanja vprašalnika so bili udeleženci seznanjeni z nameni in cilji raziskave ter načinom zagotavljanja ano- nimnosti. Z izpolnjevanjem vprašalnika so podali soglasje k sodelovanju v raziskavi. Vprašalnik o izgorelosti na delovnem mestu (Maslach in Jackson, 1979, v Lamo- vec, 1994) je različica Maslachovega vprašalnika o izgorelosti in vključuje 22 trdi- tev. Posameznik za posamezno trditev oceni pogostost pojavljanja znakov na lestvici od 1 do 7. Gre za Likertovo 7-stopenjsko lestvico, kjer 1 pomeni “nikoli”, 7 pa “vsak dan”. Če stanja, ki ga opisuje posamezna trditev, anketiranec ni izkusil, označi 0. Točk- ovanje se izvede tako, da se sešteje pridobljene točke na vsaki podlestvici. Višje število točk na dimenziji čustvene izčrpanosti in depersonalizacije predstavlja večjo čustveno izčrpanost. Nižje število točk na dimenziji osebne izpolnitve pomeni višjo prisotnost iz- gorelosti. Veliko analiz, opravljenih v različnih državah, je potrdilo trifaktorsko analizo vprašalnika. Cronbach α v naši raziskavi znaša 0,76 za celoten vprašalnik, na dimenziji čustvene izgorelosti/izčrpanosti je α = 0,94; na dimenziji depersonalizacije je α = 0,71 in na dimenziji osebnostne izpolnitve je α = 0,82. Pallant (2001) navaja, da so vrednosti Cronbach α nad 0,6 sprejemljive. Tabela 2 Norme za uvrstitev v posamezno kategorijo izgorelosti po Maslachu in Jacksonu Stopnja izgorelosti Čustvena izčrpanost Depersonalizacija Osebna izpolnitev Nizka 16 ali manj 6 ali manj 39 ali več Srednja 17–26 7–12 32–38 Visoka 27 ali več 13 ali več 31 ali manj Vir: Maslach, Jackson in Leiter, 1996. Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 81 Rezultati, pridobljeni za posamezno dimenzijo, se obravnavajo ločeno in jih ni pri- poročljivo združevati v enotno, skupno oceno, zato se za vsakega učitelja izračunajo tri ocene (Maslach, Jackson in Leiter, 1996). Vprašalnik o zadovoljstvu pri delu (Croxson, 2005, v Modic, 2011) vključuje 11 postavk, ki prikazujejo dejavnike zadovoljstva pri delu. Vprašalnik meri na Likerto- vi lestvici stopnjo zadovoljstva z delom, kjer 1 pomeni “popolnoma nezadovoljen/-a”, 5 pa “popolnoma zadovoljen/-a”. Vprašalnik je bil uporabljen v slovenski raziskavi o stresu in zadovoljstvu zaposlenih na področju zaposlitvene rehabilitacije (Belec idr., 2010). Koeficient notranje zanesljivosti Cronbach α je v naši raziskavi znašal 0,89. 3 Rezultati raziskave Podatki so bili obdelani v programu IBM SPSS Statistics 26. Merski instrumenti so že preverjeni in uveljavljeni, zato umerjanje ni bilo potrebno. Zanesljivost lestvic je preverjena s koeficientom notranje zanesljivosti (Cronbach α). Normalna porazdelitev vseh spremenljivk je preverjena s Kolmogorov-Smirnovim in Shapiro-Wilkovim preiz- kusom. Vrednosti spremenljivk niso normalno porazdeljene, saj je p < 0,05. Razlike v zaznavanju dimenzij izgorelosti in zadovoljstva pri delu med posameznimi skupinami učiteljev, zaposlenih v OŠ, so izračunane s Kruskal-Wallis testom. Za izračun korelacij med posameznimi spremenljivkami je uporabljen Spearmanov koeficient korelacije, saj spremenljivke, kot je že bilo omenjeno, niso normalno porazdeljene. Za prikaz srednjih vrednosti (aritmetične sredine (M), mediane (Me)) je uporabljena deskriptivna stati- stika. Linearna in multipla linearna regresija je uporabljena za napovedne zveze med posameznimi spremenljivkami. Najprej smo preverjali medsebojno povezanost dimenzij izgorelosti (čustvena iz- črpanost, depersonalizacija in osebna izpolnitev) z zadovoljstvom učiteljev pri delu. Med vsemi spremenljivkami obstaja povezanost, kar potrjuje predstavljena teoretična izhodišča o medsebojni povezanosti raziskovanih pojavov na delovnemu mestu. Zado- voljstvo pri delu pozitivno korelira z osebno izpolnitvijo (ρ = 0,42, p < 0,001), med- tem ko s čustveno izčrpanostjo (ρ = –0,57, p < 0,001) in depersonalizacijo (ρ = – 0,38, p < 0,001) obstaja negativna povezanost. Izgorelost učiteljev Zanimala nas je izgorelost učiteljev na posamezni dimenziji (dimenziji čustve- ne izčrpanosti, depersonalizacije in osebne izpolnitve). Čustveno so najbolj izčrpana vodstva osnovnih šol (M = 53,50), sledijo jim svetovalni delavci (M = 43,50), pred- metni učitelji (M = 41,48), učitelji podaljšanega bivanja (M = 36,87), učitelji dodatne strokovne pomoči (M = 34,86) in razredni učitelji (M = 34,85). Najvišjo stopnjo de- personalizacije občutijo vodstva šol (M = 23,00), sledijo učitelji podaljšanega bivanja (M = 13,61), predmetni učitelji (M = 12,96), svetovalni delavci (M = 10,75), razredni učitelji (M = 10,58) in učitelji dodatne strokovne pomoči (M = 8,97). Najvišjo stopnjo osebne izpolnitve pa občutijo učitelji dodatne strokovne pomoči (M = 47,97) in razre- 82 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) dni učitelji (M = 47,82), sledijo svetovalni delavci (M = 46,25), učitelji podaljšanega bivanja (M = 45,30), vodstvo šol (M = 45,00) in predmetni učitelji (M = 44,86). Nato smo učitelje razvrstili po stopnjah izgorelosti (nizka, srednja ali visoka) glede na norme. Rezultati naše raziskave so pokazali, da so učitelji v povprečju dosegali visoko sto- pnjo čustvene izčrpanosti (M = 37,23; SD = 14,05), srednjo stopnjo depersonalizacije (M = 11,42; SD = 5,44) in nizko stopnjo osebne izpolnitve (M = 46,72; SD = 7,54). V tabeli 3 so prikazane stopnje izgorelosti učiteljev po posameznih dimenzijah in glede na področje dela. Tabela 3 Stopnja izgorelosti na posamezni dimenziji pri vseh učiteljih in glede na področje dela Delo, ki ga Čustvena izčrpanost Depersonalizacija Osebna izpolnitev opravlja Stopnja N % N % N % nizka 4 4,40 8 8,90 71 78,90 Predmetni učitelj srednja 6 6,70 42 46,70 14 15,60 visoka 80 88,90 40 44,40 5 5,60 nizka 12 8,20 37 25,30 133 91,10 Razredni učitelj srednja 32 21,90 66 45,20 13 8,90 visoka 102 69,90 43 29,50 0 0,00 Učitelj nizka 1 2,90 11 31,40 34 97,10 dodatne strokovne srednja 11 31,40 18 51,40 1 2,90 pomoči visoka 23 65,70 6 17,10 0 0,00 Učitelj nizka 3 13,00 5 21,70 17 73,90 podaljšanega srednja 4 17,40 5 21,70 5 21,70 bivanja visoka 16 69,60 13 56,50 1 4,30 nizka 0 0,00 0 0,00 4 100,00 Svetovalni delavec srednja 0 0,00 3 75,00 0 0,00 visoka 4 100,00 1 25,00 0 0,00 nizka 0 0,00 0 0,00 2 100,00 Vodstvo srednja 0 0,00 0 0,00 0 0,00 visoka 2 100,00 2 100,00 0 0,00 nizka 20 6,70 61 20,30 261 87,00 VSsi srednja 53 17,70 134 44,70 33 11,00 visoka 227 75,70 105 35,00 6 2,00 Glede na področje dela najvišji odstotek visoke stopnje čustvene izčrpanosti izraža- jo vodstva in svetovalni delavci (100 %), sledijo predmetni učitelji (88,90 %). Visoka Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 83 stopnja izgorelosti na dimenziji depersonalizacije se prav tako kaže pri vodstvu šol (100 %), sledijo učitelji podaljšanega bivanja (56,50 %). Na dimenziji osebne izpolnitve najvišji odstotek visoke stopnje izgorelosti izražajo predmetni učitelji (5,60 %). Tabela 4 Izračun statistično pomembnih razlik na dimenzijah izgorelosti pri zaposlenih učiteljih v OŠ glede na področje dela s Kruskal-Wallis testom Dimenzije izgorelosti Delo, ki ga opravlja N Povprečni rang χ2 p predmetni učitelj 90 169,82 razredni učitelj 146 141,81 učitelj dodatne Čustvena strokovne pomoči 35 137,96 izčrpanost 14,415 0,013 učitelj podaljšanega bivanja 23 139,63 svetovalni delavec 4 187,00 vodstvo 2 187,00 predmetni učitelj 90 172,94 razredni učitelj 146 138,99 učitelj dodatne Depersonalizacija strokovne pomoči 35 118,34 20,682 0,001 učitelj podaljšanega bivanja 23 174,85 svetovalni delavec 4 158,38 vodstvo 2 248,00 predmetni učitelj 90 163,12 razredni učitelj 146 144,09 učitelj dodatne Osebna strokovne pomoči 35 135,20 izpolnitev 15,519 0,008 učitelj podaljšanega bivanja 23 170,20 svetovalni delavec 4 131,00 vodstvo 2 131,00 Hipotezo, ki je predvidevala, da se izgorelost učiteljev na posamezni dimenziji statistično pomembno razlikuje glede na področje dela, lahko potrdimo. Na dimenziji osebne izpolnitve, čustvene izčrpanosti in depersonalizacije so statistično pomembne razlike v stopnjah izgorelosti učiteljev glede na področje dela (p < 0,05). Učitelji občutijo najvišjo izgorelost na dimenziji čustvene izčrpanosti (M = 39,52) in depersonalizacije (M = 12,45) v delovni dobi 5–10 let, medtem ko najvišjo izgore- lost na dimenziji osebne izpolnitve občutijo zaposleni z delovno dobo med 31 in 40 let (M = 47,94). Rezultati naše raziskave kažejo, da imajo učitelji z manj kot 5 leti izkušenj najnižjo stopnjo čustvene izčrpanosti (M = 37,12), kot so to ugotovili Teles idr. (2020). 84 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Tabela 5 Izračun statistično značilnih razlik na dimenzijah izgorelosti pri zaposlenih učiteljih v OŠ glede na delovno dobo s Kruskal-Wallis testom Dimenzije izgorelosti Delovna doba N Povprečni rang χ2 p manj kot 5 let 93 149,30 5–10 let 33 164,68 Čustvena 11–20 let 85 155,64 izčrpanost 4,451 0,486 21–30 let 56 143,09 31–40 let 32 137,55 več kot 40 let 1 187,00 manj kot 5 let 93 157,17 5–10 let 33 163,09 11–20 let 85 143,00 Depersonalizacija 2,569 0,766 21–30 let 56 144,67 31–40 let 32 148,94 več kot 40 let 1 128,50 manj kot 5 let 93 153,76 5–10 let 33 153,27 Osebna 11–20 let 85 143,34 izpolnitev 2,594 0,762 21–30 let 56 152,70 31–40 let 32 153,97 več kot 40 let 1 131,00 Hipoteze, ki je predvidevala, da se izgorelost učiteljev na posamezni dimenziji statistično pomembno razlikuje glede na delovno dobo, ne moremo potrditi (p > 0,05). Za naš vzorec lahko ugotovimo, da izgorevanje bolj ogroža učitelje s krajšo delovno dobo kot učitelje z daljšo, kar je odkrila tudi Čobanovićeva (2020). Natančneje, najbolj čustveno izčrpani so učitelji s 5- do 10-letnimi delovnimi izkušnjami (PR = 164,68), kar je z raziskavo ugotovil Regent (2013). Zadovoljstvo učiteljev pri delu Učitelji v naši raziskavi na celotni lestvici izražajo srednjo stopnjo (M = 3,69) za- dovoljstva pri delu. Opisne statistike ocene zadovoljstva pri delu v naši raziskavi pred- stavlja tabela 6. Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 85 Tabela 6 Opisna statistika zadovoljstva pri delu Zadovoljstvo pri delu M SD Komunikacija in način pretoka informacij v vaši šoli. 3,43 1,18 Vaš odnos s sodelavci. 4,01 0,87 Delo, ki ga opravljate. 4,17 0,85 Stopnja motiviranosti pri delu. 3,91 0,90 Način, kako se običajno rešujejo konflikti v vaši šoli. 3,26 1,17 Delo in vrsta nalog, ki jih morate izvajati. 3,80 0,99 Obseg dela (preveč ali premalo). 3,36 1,14 Način organiziranosti vaše šole. 3,52 1,17 Višina plače glede na vaše izkušnje, usposobljenost in izobrazbo. 3,26 1,21 Fleksibilnost/svoboda, ki jo imate pri delu. 3,96 1,02 Vaše delovno okolje. 3,90 0,99 Učitelji so najmanj zadovoljni z načinom reševanja konfliktov v delovni orga- nizaciji (M = 3,26) in z višino plače (M = 3,26). Bolj so zadovoljni z obsegom dela (M = 3,36) in komunikacijo v šoli (M = 3,43). Sledijo še organiziranost ustanove (M = 3,52), vrsta delovnih nalog (M = 3,80), stopnja motiviranosti, delovno okol- je (M = 3,90) in fleksibilnost pri delu (M = 3,96). Najbolj zadovoljni so z odnosom s sodelavci (M = 4,01) in delom, ki ga opravljajo (M = 4,17). Tabela 7 Izračun statistično pomembnih razlik zadovoljstva pri delu s Kruskal-Wallis testom glede na področje dela pri vseh udeležencih Delo, ki ga opravljate N Povprečni rang χ2 p predmetni učitelj 90 140,31 razredni učitelj 146 155,97 učitelj dodatne Zadovoljstvo strokovne pomoči 35 167,30 pri delu učitelj podaljšanega bivanja 23 136,20 4,650 0,460 svetovalni delavec 4 143,63 vodstvo 2 93,75 Skupaj 300 86 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) “Velikokrat se zgodi, da sodelavci niso najbolj sodelovalno naravnani, zato je treba imeti še toliko več spretnosti za pristop do nedostopnih posameznikov in podporo s stra- ni vodstva. Pojmovanje učiteljskega poklica se je spremenilo. Učitelji ne veljajo več za pasivne udeležence vzgojno-izobraževalnega procesa, ki jih je bilo za strokovni razvoj treba motivirati od zunaj, sedaj že sami razmišljajo o lastnem ravnanju, motivirajo pa jih predvsem notranji procesi, npr. želja in potreba po vseživljenjskem izobraževanju.” (Juriševič in Strniša, 2018, str. 124). Hipoteze, ki je predvidevala, da se zadovoljstvo pri delu učiteljev statistično pomembno razlikuje glede na področje dela, ne moremo potrditi (p > 0,05). Tabela 8 Izračun statistično značilnih razlik zadovoljstva pri delu s Kruskal-Wallis testom glede na delovno dobo pri vseh udeležencih Delovna doba N Povprečni rang χ2 p manj kot 5 let 93 159,80 5–10 let 33 149,15 11–20 let 85 144,35 Zadovoljstvo pri delu 21–30 let 56 133,28 6,530 0,258 31–40 let 32 173,39 več kot 40 let 1 84,50 Skupaj 300 Hipoteze, ki je predvidevala, da se zadovoljstvo pri delu učiteljev statistično pomembno razlikuje glede na delovno dobo, ne moremo potrditi (p > 0,05). Najnižje zadovoljstvo pri delu izkazujejo učitelji z delovno dobo med 21 in 30 let (PR = 133,28), najvišje pa učitelji z najdaljšo delovno dobo (PR = 173,39) – izjema je učiteljica z več kot 40 leti delovne dobe (PR = 84,50). Odnos med izgorelostjo in zadovoljstvom pri delu Za ugotavljanje povezanosti izgorelosti in zadovoljstva pri delu smo uporabili lin- earno regresijsko analizo. Preverili smo tudi pogoje regresijskega modela. Tabela 9 Povzetek regresijskega modela 1 Model R R-kvadrat Prilagojeni Standardna R napaka p Durbin ² Watson test 1 0,633a 0,400 0,394 6,15356 0,00 1,83 Napovedniki: Osebna izpolnitev, čustvena izčrpanost, depersonalizacija Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 87 Vrednost R-kvadrat pove, da je 40 % variance neodvisne spremenljivke zadovoljst- va z delom pojasnjene z odvisnimi spremenljivkami. Ostali del variance zadovoljstva z delom pojasnjujejo druge spremenljivke, ki niso proučevane v naši raziskavi. Model kaže statistično pomembnost, ker je p < 0,05. Tabela 10 Prikaz regresijskih koeficientov napovednikov zadovoljstva pri delu Model β₀ Standardna Parcialni napaka koeficient β t-preizkus p konstanta 41,715 3,412 12,228 0,000 čustvena izčrpanost –0,251 0,031 –0,445 –8,179 0,000 1 depersonalizacija –0,151 0,079 –0,104 –1,907 0,057 osebna izpolnitev 0,212 0,056 0,203 3,791 0,000 Opombe: Odvisna spremenljivka: zadovoljstvo pri delu; β0 – regresijska konstanta, ß – parcialni regresijski koeficient Statistična analiza prikazuje, da spremenljivki čustvena izčrpanost in osebna iz- polnitev napovedujeta zadovoljstvo z delom (p < 0,05). Vrednosti čustvene izčrpanosti statistično pomembno negativno vplivajo na zadovoljstvo z delom (negativna vrednost β-koeficienta). Depersonalizacija ne vpliva na zadovoljstvo z delom, saj p-vrednost ni statistično pomembna (p = 0,057). Hipotezo, da se stopnja izgorelosti negativno pove- zuje s stopnjo zadovoljstva pri delu, lahko potrdimo le na dimenziji čustvene izčrpano- sti in osebne izpolnitve. 4 Razprava in sklep Raziskave, narejene na področju izgorelosti in stresa, so pokazale, da je stres pri delu neodvisen napovednik vseh treh komponent izgorelosti učiteljev. Rezultate naše raziskave smo želeli primerjati z drugimi raziskavami o izgorelosti učiteljev v Sloveniji, kjer je bil uporabljen enak merski instrumentarij. V naši raziskavi so učitelji izkazovali visoko stopnjo čustvene izčrpanosti, srednjo stopnjo depersonalizacije in nizko stopnjo osebe izpolnitve, kar se ujema z rezultati raz- iskave, ki so jo opravili Steinhardt idr. (2011). V naši raziskavi doživlja 23,3 % učiteljev visoko izgorelost. Hkrati pa 82,7 % učiteljev v našem vzorcu kaže vsaj enega izmed znakov izgorelosti, tj. visoko stopnjo čustvene izčrpanosti ali depersonalizacije ali nizko stopnjo osebne izpolnitve (Schaufeli, 2001; Dyrbye idr., 2009). Izsledki naše raziskave kažejo, da se med skupinami učiteljev pojavljajo razlike v doživljanju stresa in izgore- losti, kar se sklada z rezultati raziskave, ki jo je opravil Slivar (2008). Ravno tako naši izsledki kažejo, da je eden izmed povezanih dejavnikov izgorelosti tudi učiteljevo delov- no mesto, kar se ujema z rezultati raziskave, ki je bila opravljena leta 2011 (Starc, 2011). 88 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Učitelji v našem vzorcu so v povprečju zadovoljni s svojim delom (M = 3,69). Velik vpliv splošnega zadovoljstva z delom so pripisali dobrim odnosom s sodelavci (M = 4,01) ter delovnemu mestu (M = 4,17), najmanj zadovoljni so z osebnim dohod- kom, kar se ujema z izsledki drugih raziskav (Šuc, 2016; Nagode, 2016; Csipö, 2017; Červ, 2012 in TALIS, 2008). V naši raziskavi najvišje zadovoljstvo z delom ocenjuje- jo učitelji dodatne strokovne pomoči (PR = 167,30), sledijo učitelji razrednega pouka (M = 155,97), najnižje zadovoljstvo pri delu pa izkazujejo vodstva šol (PR = 93,75), kar potrjujejo tudi izsledkih drugih raziskav (OECD, 2020; Canjuga, 2020; Santl, 2020; Modrej in Cugmas, 2015; Veber, 2016). Hkrati največje zadovoljstvo pri delu kažejo učitelji z več kot 20 leti izkušenj in učitelji z več delovnimi izkušnjami, kar se ujema z rezultati drugih raziskav (TALIS, 2008; Kapun, Kešina in Čagran, 2009). Naša raziskava je pokazala, da višja kot je stopnja izgorelosti učiteljev na področju čustvene izčrpanosti, nižja je njihova stopnja zadovoljstva pri delu, kot so to odkrili Wolpin, Burke in Greenglass (1991), Regent (2013) in Rutar (2019). Naša raziskava je omejena z velikostjo vzorca in izborom zgolj kvantitativnega pristopa. V prihodnje bi veljalo razmisliti o večjem vzorcu in triangulacijskem pristopu, kjer bi z izvedbo intervjujev in fokusnih skupin prišli do bolj poglobljenih podatkov. Vzrokov za pojav izgorevanja učiteljev v vzgojno-izobraževalnih ustanovah je ve- liko, zato bi v bodoče lahko raziskali omenjene vzroke in dejavnike, ki vplivajo na iz- gorelost učiteljev. Ravnateljem šol predlagamo spremljanje pojavnosti izgorelosti med zaposlenimi in načrtovanje strategij preprečevanja, prepoznavanja in spoprijemanja. Rezultati naše raziskave nudijo vpogled v učiteljeva doživljanja stopnje izgorelosti v času epidemije covida-19 in šolanja na daljavo. Zaskrbljujoče je dejstvo, da je velik del našega vzorca kazal znake izgorelosti, zato so lahko rezultati v pomoč šolam pri načrtovanju preventivnih strategij, oblikovanju kriznih načrtov in izboljšanju organi- zacije dela. Prvi korak k izboljšanju trenutnega stanja na ravni šole je zmanjšanje dejavnikov stresa. Šole bi lahko najprej preverile, kateri so tisti stresorji, ki imajo na zaposlene največji vpliv. Na podlagi teh informacij bi se oblikoval načrt odpravljanja omenjenih stresorjev. Zaposlenim bi lahko nudili dodatna izobraževanja o spoprijemanju s stresom in skr- bi za lastno zdravje. Na ta način bi se lahko zaposleni priučili strategij, ki so se izkazale za uspešne pri spoprijemanju s stresom, ter hkrati pridobili znanja o tem, kako bi lahko sami poskrbeli za lastno psihofizično blagostanje ter preprečili izgorelost. Pomembno je tudi delovanje v smeri izboljšanja delovne klime in s tem tudi zado- voljstva z delom zaposlenih. Velik vpliv na klimo znotraj šol imajo ravno ravnatelji ozi- roma vodstva šol, ki bi lahko pri svojih zaposlenih preverili, s katerimi vidiki delovne klime so zaposleni zadovoljni in katere vidike bi bilo potrebno izboljšati. Na podlagi tega bi skupaj z zaposlenimi oblikovali individualni načrt. Stopnja zadovoljstva zaposlenih bi se lahko povišala tudi na lokalni ravni, v ko- likor bi občine šolam pomagale z ureditvijo in zagotavljanjem potrebnih prostorov za izvajanje pedagoškega procesa. Na državni ravni bi država oziroma ministrstvo lahko pripomoglo s primerno ureditvijo delovnih obveznosti in pogoji napredovanja pedago- ških delavcev. Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 89 Učitelji so bili v vlogi izvajalcev šolanja na daljavo zaradi novih okoliščin poučeva- nja še dodatno izpostavljeni stresu, kar bi lahko z organiziranimi sistemi podpore (tako na ravni šole kot lokalni in državni ravni) preprečili ali vsaj omilili posledice. Zmanjševanja stresa bi se bilo potrebno lotiti ravno tako na ravni širše politike, saj delovni stres zajema vse stopnje šolskega sistema (posameznika, organizacijo in širšo politiko). Ustanove, zadolžene in odgovorne za spreminjanje šolskega sistema, bi morale biti pozorne na pobude oziroma težave, na katere posamezniki oziroma šole opozarjajo. Raziskave, kot je naša, lahko služijo kot podlaga za podajanje pobude takim ustanovam. Danijela Jelisavac Teacher Burnout and Job Satisfaction during the Epidemic The teaching profession is one of the most threatening professions, as teachers expe- rience a higher level of stress and burnout compared to other professions (Mojsa-Kaja, 2015). In addition to normal everyday stressful situations, Slovenian teachers were also faced with and exposed to one of the more stressful periods, e.g., the period of distance learning during the declared COVID-19 epidemic, which might have further strengthened the teachers’ path to burnout. The COVID-19 pandemic has changed schooling and learning. Teachers were for- ced to adapt quickly and indefinitely. At the end of the 2019–20 school year, research showed that teachers had become more effective in managing students’ online behavi- our and at the same time perceived a greater sense of achievement in learning-related goals. Simultaneously, the teachers found that the level of stress was higher than their ability to cope with it. It was also determined that teachers had been on their way to burnout during the epidemic (Babb et al., 2020). Burnout can be divided into three dimensions. The dimension that was most tho- roughly investigated by authors, and which is also the most evident, is emotional ex- haustion. Pšeničny (2006) says that exhaustion is a required element of burnout which manifests itself in the helping professions in the form of a reduced work commitment and lower responsiveness to people’s problems (Plemelj Mohorič, 2016). It also inclu- des a lack of mental energy (Maslach and Leiter, 2008). It is a necessary (but insuffi- cient) criterion closely related to stress. However, it does not include attitude towards work – exhaustion is not only an experience, it also provokes an emotional and cogni- tive withdrawal from work, the inability to respond to client’s needs, a lack of involve- ment in relationships, etc. The results of a survey from 2009, conducted among professional workers in Slo- venian kindergartens and schools by the Education, Science and Culture Trade Union of Slovenia (ESTUS or SVIZ Slovenije), with the help of Slivar, showed that as many as 60 % of all participants experienced low burnout, 30 % moderate burnout and 10 % high burnout. Šimonka (2016) discovered that teachers struggled with signs of burnout almost every month. 90 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) TALIS (Teaching and Learning International Survey) defines job satisfaction as the feeling of professional fulfilment and satisfaction that teachers feel at work. Job satisfaction can be positively related to teachers’ attitudes towards their work tasks and their performance. In Slovenia, 90 % of teachers and 96 % of headteachers report that they are generally satisfied with their work (the average of OECD countries is 90 % and 95 %, respectively) (OECD, 2020). Research into burnout and job satisfaction indicates a mutual negative relation- ship; correlation coefficients range between -0.40 and -0.52 (Maslach et al., 2001), which means the higher the person’s level of burnout, the lower the level of job satis- faction. This assumption is also supported by the results of a survey conducted by Rutar (2019). In his research, Slivar (2008) found that there are differences in the patterns of stressors related to job satisfaction depending on the group of teachers. In her research, Starc (2011) also found that teacher burnout is influenced by interconnected individual and organisational factors, such as gender, length of service, job satisfaction and the workplace itself. The purpose or objective of this research is to investigate burnout, job satisfaction and the relationship between burnout and job satisfaction of Slovenian teachers under the new circumstances in which they found themselves during the COVID-19 epidemic. We set ourselves the following objective and hypotheses: □ Objective: To determine the degree of burnout and job satisfaction of teachers in primary schools. □ H1: The degree of teacher burnout is negatively correlated with the assessment of job satisfaction. □ H2: Teacher burnout in individual dimensions differs statistically significantly de- pending on the field of work and length of service. □ H3: Among teachers, there are statistically significant differences in the experience of job satisfaction according to the field of work and length of service. The sample consisted of 300 teachers employed in Slovenian primary schools. The sample includes 10 men (3.3 %), 288 women (96 %) and 2 gender-unspecified indivi- duals (0.7 %). The average age of participants is 40 years, and the average length of service is 15 years. The data was collected using an anonymous online questionnaire consisting of two standardised questionnaires (described below) and sent via social networks in March and April 2021. Before filling in the questionnaire, the participants were informed about the purpose and objective of this research, as well as the means to ensure anonymity. By filling in the questionnaire, they gave their consent to participating in the research. The data were processed in the IBM SPSS Statistics 26 programme. The measuring instruments had already been verified and published, so measurement was not necessa- ry. The reliability of the scale has been checked with the internal reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α). The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and Jackson, 1979, as cited in Lamovec, 1994) includes 22 statements. For each statement, the individual assesses the frequen- cy of occurrence of the signs on a scale from 1 to 7. It is a 7-point Likert scale where “1” means “never” and “7” means “every day”. The Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (Croxson, 2005, as cited in Modic, 2011) includes 11 items that show factors of job Danijela Jelisavac: Izgorelost učiteljev in njihovo zadovoljstvo z delom med epidemijo 91 satisfaction. The questionnaire measures the level of job satisfaction (how much the individual is satisfied or dissatisfied with their job) on a Likert scale where “1” means “completely dissatisfied” and “5” means “completely satisfied”. We wanted to compare the results of our research with other research on teacher burnout in Slovenia, where the same measuring instruments were used (Sedlar et al., 2012). The results of our research show that there are differences between groups of tea- chers in experiencing stress and consequently burnout, which is in line with the results of the research conducted by Slivar (2008). Likewise, our findings show that one of the related factors of burnout is also the teacher’s workplace, which corresponds with the results of the research by Starc (2011). On average, the teachers in our sample are satisfied with their work (M = 3.69): they attributed a large influence on their overall job satisfaction to good relations with colleagues (M = 4.01) and to the workplace (M = 4.17). They are the least satisfied with their personal income which corresponds with the findings of other studies (Šuc, 2016; Nagode, 2016; Csipö, 2017; Červ, 2012; TALIS, 2008). In our research, the highest level of job satisfaction has been assessed by special education teachers (PR = 167.30), followed by primary school teachers (M = 155.97), while the lowest job satisfaction has been demonstrated by headteachers (PR = 93.75), which has also been confirmed by the results of other research (OECD, 2020; Canju- ga, 2020; Santl, 2020; Modrej and Cugmas, 2015; Veber, 2016). At the same time, the highest job satisfaction has been demonstrated by teachers with more than 20 years of experience, whereas teachers with more work experience are more satisfied with their work than their colleagues, which corresponds with the results of other studies (TALIS, 2008; Kapun et al., 2009). Our research showed that a teacher’s job dissatisfaction increases in proportion to the increase in sources of stress and experienced burnout – the higher the level of bur- nout in the dimension of emotional exhaustion, the lower the level of job satisfaction, as found by Wolpin, Burke and Greenglass (1991), Regent (2013) and Rutar (2019). Our research is limited by its sample size and the choice of a purely quantitati- ve approach. In the future, a larger sample and a triangulation approach should be considered where more in-depth data would be obtained by conducting interviews and including focus groups. There are many causes of teacher burnout in educational institutions, so in the future we could investigate the mentioned causes and factors that influence teacher bur- nout. We suggest that headteachers monitor the occurrence of burnout among employe- es and plan strategies for prevention, recognition and coping. The results of our research provide insight into teachers’ experiences of burnout during the COVID-19 epidemic and distance learning. The fact that a large part of our sample showed signs of burnout is worrying, so the results can help schools in planning prevention strategies, crisis plans and improving the organisation of work. The first step toward improving the current situation at the school level is to reduce the stress factors. Schools could start by checking which stressors the employees con- 92 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) sider to be the most stressful. Based on this information, a plan could be drawn up to eliminate the mentioned stressors and thereby prevent employee burnout. Employees could be offered additional training on coping with stress and taking care of their own health. In this way, employees could learn the strategies that have proved to be effective in coping with stress and at the same time acquire knowledge on how to take care of their own psychophysical well-being and prevent burnout. It is also important to act toward improving the working climate and consequently employee job satisfaction. Headteachers or school management have a great influence on the climate inside schools, as they could check with their employees which aspects of the working climate they are satisfied with, and which aspects should be improved. Based on this, we could create an individualised plan together with the employees. This would simultaneously increase the level of employee satisfaction. We could also increase the level of employee satisfaction at the local level, to the extent that municipalities would help schools by organising and providing the neces- sary spaces for the implementation of the pedagogical process. At the national level, the state or the ministry could contribute to a higher level of employee satisfaction with appropriate regulation of work obligations and conditions for the promotion of teaching staff to a higher title. At the national level, we must not forget the support system which Bregar et al. (2020) point out and which is also one of the regular features of distance education. Teachers in the role of distance education providers were additionally exposed to stress due to the new circumstances of teaching, which could be prevented or at least mitiga- ted in the future with organised support systems (at the school level, as well as at the local and state level). Stress reduction should also be tackled at the wider policy level as work stress covers all levels of the school system (individual, organisational and wider policy). Institutions in charge of and responsible for changing the school system should pay attention to initiatives or problems pointed out by individuals or schools. Research like ours can serve as a basis for taking initiatives in such institutions. LITERATURA 1. Babb, J., Sokal, L. in Trudel, L. (2020). Canadian Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Change, Efficacy, and Burnout During the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1(100016), 1–8. Dostopno na: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100016 (pridobljeno 15. 5. 2022). 2. Belec, S., Čučnik, T., Pastirk, S. idr. (2010). Stres pri delu, zadovoljstvo z delom, izgorelost in strategije spoprijemanja s stresom delavcev na področju zaposlitvene rehabilitacije. Razvojni center za zaposlitveno rehabilitacijo. 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Naslov / Address: Šmarska cesta 4 E, 6000 Koper, Slovenija Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 040 860 743 E-mail: danijela.jelisavac@gmail.com Monika Mithans, PhD, Živa Lipovec, MA, Sabina Ograjšek Teachers’ Work with Children with Special Needs in Kindergarten Prejeto 3. 11. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 3. 11. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 376-053.4 UDC 376-053.4 KLJUČNE BESEDE: otroci s posebnimi potrebami, KEYWORDS: children with special needs, early child- vzgojitelj in pomočnik vzgojitelja, naloge, usposoblje- hood education teacher, tasks, competence, kindergar- nost, vrtec ten POVZETEK – Predšolsko obdobje je za otrokov ra- ABSTRACT – The preschool period is a susceptible zvoj še posebej občutljivo obdobje in zato je nujno, stage of children’s development, and it is essential that da je za svoj optimalen razvoj v tem obdobju deležen children receive the necessary support for their optimal vseh potrebnih spodbud. Še posebej to velja za otroke development during this period. This is especially im- s posebnimi potrebami. V našem prispevku predsta- portant for children with special educational needs. The vljamo pomen vzgojitelja in pomočnika vzgojitelja pri present study highlights the importance of early child- zagotavljanju optimalnih pogojev za razvoj otrok s hood education teachers and teacher assistants to pro- posebnimi potrebami. Izvedli smo raziskavo, v kateri vide optimal conditions for the development of children je sodelovalo 148 vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgoji- with special educational needs. Our research includes teljev, ki so poročali o svojem opravljanju splošnih 148 early childhood education teachers and teacher as- nalog pri delu z otroki s posebnimi potrebami. Re- sistants, who completed a questionnaire about the gen- zultati pričajo o tem, da strokovni delavci sicer opra- eral tasks they perform when working with children with vljajo različne naloge, povezane z otroki s posebnimi special educational needs. The results show that while potrebami, pri tem tudi sodelujejo s svetovalno služ- teachers perform various tasks intended for children bo, starši in zunanjimi sodelavci, a se za delo z otroki with special educational needs and cooperate with the s posebnimi potrebami ne počutijo kompetentne. Med kindergarten counselling service, parents and other pro- vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev prihaja do razlik, fessionals, they do not feel competent to work with chil- ki govorijo v prid vzgojiteljev. dren with special educational needs. Additionally, the results indicate that there are differences between early childhood education teachers and teacher assistants, as the results are more favourable for the former. 1 Introduction The number of children with special educational needs (children with SEN) is in- creasing (Resolution on the National Health Care Plan 2016-2025, 2016). The definition of children with SEN in the Slovenian Placement of Children with Special Needs Act (2011) includes nine groups of children with SEN as follows: children with intellectual disabilities, blind children or children with visual impairments, deaf children and chil- dren with hearing impairments, children with speech and language problems, children with physical disabilities, children with long-term illnesses, children with deficits in individual learning areas, children with autism, and children with emotional and behav- ioural disorders. Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 97 A similar definition of developmental disabilities of children with SEN is also formed by the Kindergartens Act (2005). In contrast, the purpose of the Act Regulat- ing the Integrated Early Treatment of Preschool Children with Special Needs (2017) is to implement a definition of children with SEN in the Slovenian legal order, which would be descriptive, more inclusive and would not be focused on the division into individual developmental disorders. It is precisely this definition that often determines who and to what extent will be entitled to early treatment services (Murgel, 2019). Furthermore, scientific findings from various disciplines dictate that children with SEN must be provided with early detection, appropriate diagnosis and inclusion in education programmes as early as possible (Čas et al., 2003). The fundamental document that enables the SEN children’s inclusion in the educa- tional process is the individual educational plan (IEP). The IEP is an individualized plan of educational and counselling work. Additionally, it is a unique plan for supporting the child and is placed at the top of contemporary concepts of didactics (Težak, 2006). Literature offers various aspects and definitions of the IEP (Al-Shammari and Hornby, 2020; Daniels et al., 2003; Jurišić, 2008; Kiswarday, 2018; Koßmann, 2022; Räty et al., 2019; Vučak, 2010), however, all the definitions suggest that the IEP represents the key document for implementing the inclusion and placement decisions for children with SEN (Kiswarday, 2018; Placement of Children with Special Needs Act, 2011). The White Paper on Education (2011) defines the IEP as a plan for the educational, developmental and rehabilitative work of an individual child. It is the basic guideline to be followed by teachers and parents in order to meet the child’s basic needs. The IEP is adjusted to meet the needs of an individual child and is thus as important for the child as the Kindergarten Curriculum (1999). For preschool children with SEN, the IEP primar- ily aims to define adjustments related to cognitive development and social competence. Furthermore, the IEP is an overview of children’s strengths, needs, interests and expectations related to their learning and performance that differ from the requirements of the programme in which they participate. The IEP ensures continuity in the fields of diagnostics, planning, implementing, and evaluating the child’s development, learning and work (Končar, 2003). According to Vučak (2010), the IEP should be clear, achiev- able, measurable and focused on the child’s development and progress. However, it should also allow room for adjustments and, most importantly, it should be designed for each child individually. The IEP is prepared and monitored by a group of experts, who will be involved in its implementation. Additionally, both parents and children with SEN should be actively involved in the preparation and monitoring of the IEP, wherein the children’s level of in- volvement depends on their age and maturity (Placement of Children with Special Needs Act, 2011). It is important that the ECE teacher and ECE teacher assistant actively work with the parents of a child with SEN (Alzahrani, 2020; Sheppard and Moran, 2022), as it is the parents who know the child’s strengths as well as weaknesses and can therefore make a decisive contribution to improving the IEP. It is also important to work together with the kindergarten counselling service and external professionals who can help the ECE teacher and ECE teacher assistant to understand the children, and inform them about their special educational needs which may not be observed in their daily practice. 98 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Furthermore, it is precisely the group of experts that provides the support network needed for the children’s holistic and optimal development (Težak, 2006). In early childhood, the ECE teacher and the ECE teacher assistant are also members of the ex- pert group. When performing the IEP tasks, the ECE teacher and ECE teacher assistant should cooperate, which requires a certain kind of knowledge, experience and personal engagement. In cooperation with other experts, ECE teachers and ECE teacher assis- tants adjust the programme to the specific educational needs of each child, implement individual parts of the IEP, and continuously monitor the progress of the child with SEN. Additionally, they coordinate the work in the department and the needs of the individual child. By responding to individual children and situations, they must create a safe atmosphere in the classroom that enables optimal development for all children. One of their tasks is also to create a suitable climate for the acceptance of the child with SEN into the group, which can be achieved by setting their own example. As members of the expert group, they actively participate in the exchange of information about the child, identify problems, and suggest possible solutions (Čas et al., 2003). Since children are constantly developing, they need constant and close monitoring by the expert group, which should identify and highlight the child’s essential needs that are dictated by their deficits and disorders. The experts should also pay attention to their abilities, interests and strengths. Child support should be planned flexibly, as when the child acquires certain necessary strategies and skills, the amount of support to the child decreases, thus enabling the development of independence (Kiswarday, 2018). The IEP is therefore not merely a document that needs to be prepared and evaluated, but a pro- cess that is constantly changing (Končar, 2003). The White Paper on Education (2011) highlights that regardless of the legal provisions, there are no guidelines or instructions on how kindergartens should prepare the IEP, what it should consist of, or how they should implement the legal provisions. The above-mentioned drawbacks are partially responsible for why professionals, both in school and in kindergarten, are often faced with the challenge of how to design an IEP that will be useful and will, with the appropriate adjustments, enable optimal development for the child (Težak, 2006). Consequently, pedagogical practice is often faced with issues regarding the implementation of appropriate adjustments for children with SEN both in school and in kindergarten, which ultimately result in an inadequate implementation of the IEP itself (Rovšek, 2009; Schmidt and Čagran, 2014; Schmidt and Vrhovnik, 2015; Topolovec and Schmidt, 2015). According to Bratož (2004), ECE teachers often refuse to accept a child with SEN into their group due to a lack of information and knowledge about such children, which certainly also applies to the ECE teacher assistants. Moreover, their concerns often in- clude inadequate training, incompetence or not receiving sufficient support from man- agement and other professionals. They also fear the mental strain, the increased work- load, and the possible deprivation of other children. The study aimed to investigate the ECE teachers’ performance of general tasks when working with children with SEN, their knowledge about the corresponding leg- islation, their cooperation with others involved in the SEN children’s education, and whether they consider themselves competent to work with children with SEN. Addi- tionally, we were interested to find whether there are differences between ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants. Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 99 2 Methodology Research sample The research was conducted with a convenience sample of 148 ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants, who were employed in Slovenian public kindergartens during the school year 2020/2021. The differences in the sample include gender, age, working experiences, professional title and position of employment. Our research focused pri- marily on the differences in the position of employment, which are presented in more detail in Table 1. More ECE teachers (63.5 %) than ECE teacher assistants (36.5 %) participated in the research. Table 1 The structure of the ECE teacher and ECE teacher assistant research sample Position of employment f f % ECE teacher 94 63.5 ECE teacher assistant 54 36.5 Total 148 100.0 Since the condition of random sampling was not met, the findings cannot be gener- alized to the entire Slovenian population of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants. Data collection and analysis procedure The data for the research were obtained with the help of an online questionnaire. ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants completed the questionnaire in March 2021. The link to the questionnaire was sent via e-mail to kindergartens in Slovenia. E-mail addresses were obtained from the kindergarten websites. The obtained data were processed and analysed with the SPSS programme. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to process the data. First, we used de- scriptive statistical methods for data processing. Before further processing, the Kol- mogorov-Smirnov test was performed, which showed that the variables deviate from the normal distribution, as a statistically significant difference of p < 0.05 was detected everywhere. Consequently, we performed the nonparametric Mann-Whitney and the Chi-squared tests to compare two independent samples. Measuring instrument The research is based on a questionnaire that was designed specifically for this sur- vey. The questionnaire consists of close-ended questions and includes questions about the general tasks of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants while working with chil- 100 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) dren with SEN, their cooperation with other professionals involved in teaching children with SEN, and their qualifications to work with children with SEN. ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants answered the questions on a scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. One question could be answered with yes and no answers. 3 Results Knowledge of general tasks when working with children with SEN Table 2 ECE teachers’ and ECE teacher assistants’ responses to statements about performing general tasks and following legal requirements when working with children with SEN Level of agreement Performing general tasks when strongly neither working with children with SEN N M disagree disagree agree nor agree strongly disagree agree % % % % % I monitor the SEN children’s progress and development 148 4.34 2.0 2.7 7.4 35.1 52.7 I participate in the preparation of the IEP for children with SEN 148 4.30 4.7 3.4 6.8 27.7 57.4 I participate in the preparation of evaluation reports for 148 4.15 5.4 4.1 8.1 34.5 48.0 children with SEN I am familiar with the placement process for children with SEN 148 3.97 1.4 8.1 13.5 46.6 30.4 I plan adjustments for the child with SEN on a daily basis 148 3.64 4.7 11.5 19.6 43.2 20.9 I am familiar with the content of the Act Regulating the Integrated Early Treatment 148 3.46 8.1 14.2 17.6 43.9 16.2 of Preschool Children with Special Needs I am familiar with the content of the Placement of Children 148 3.42 10.1 12.2 18.2 44.6 14.9 with Special Needs Act We find that the majority of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants perform gen- eral tasks, such as monitoring the progress and development of the children with SEN, participating in the preparation of the IEP and evaluation reports, and planning adjust- ments. Furthermore, the majority are familiar with the placement process for children with SEN and the content of both the Act Regulating the Integrated Early Treatment Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 101 of Preschool Children with Special Needs and the Placement of Children with Special Needs Act. Table 3 Result of the Mann-Whitney test of differences in performing general tasks when working with children with SEN according to the position of employment Performing general tasks when Position of Mann-Whitney test working with children with SEN employment N R U p I monitor the SEN children’s ECE teacher 94 86.53 progress and development 1407.50 < 0.001 ECE teacher assistant 54 53.56 I participate in the preparation of ECE teacher 94 85.56 the IEP for children with SEN 1498.50 < 0.001 ECE teacher assistant 54 55.25 I participate in the preparation ECE teacher 94 88.99 of evaluation reports for 1175.50 < 0.001 children with SEN ECE teacher assistant 54 49.27 I am familiar with the placement ECE teacher 94 84.43 process for children with SEN 1604.50 < 0.001 ECE teacher assistant 54 57.21 I plan adjustments for the child ECE teacher 94 83.44 with SEN on a daily basis 1697.50 < 0.001 ECE teacher assistant 54 58.94 I am familiar with the content of ECE teacher 94 85.16 the Act Regulating the Integrated Early Treatment of Preschool 1536.00 < 0.001 Children with Special Needs ECE teacher assistant 54 55.94 I am familiar with the content ECE teacher 94 85.11 of the Placement of Children 1540.50 < 0.001 with Special Needs Act ECE teacher assistant 54 56.03 The Mann-Whitney test shows statistically significant differences between ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants when it comes to performing and being familiar with the general tasks and legal requirements. We find that all differences indicate more favourable results for ECE teachers. In contrast to ECE teacher assistants, ECE teach- ers had a higher rate of agreement with the following statements: “I regularly monitor the SEN children’s progress and development”, “I participate in the preparation of the IEP for children with SEN”, “I participate in the preparation of evaluation reports for children with SEN”, “I am familiar with the placement process for children with SEN”, “I plan adjustments for the child with SEN on a daily basis”, “I am familiar with the content of the Act Regulating the Integrated Early Treatment of Preschool Children with Special Needs”, and “I am familiar with the content of the Placement of Children with Special Needs Act”. 102 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Cooperation with parents and other professionals involved with the child with SEN Table 4 ECE teachers’ and ECE teacher assistants’ responses to statements relating to cooperation with parents and other professionals involved with the child with SEN Level of agreement Cooperation N M strongly neither disagree disagree agree nor agree strongly disagree agree % % % % % I cooperate with the SEN children’s parents. 148 4.09 0.7 5.4 14.9 42.6 36.5 When working with chil- dren with SEN, I coope- rate with the kindergarten 148 4.05 4.7 4.1 11.5 41.2 38.5 counselling service. When working with chil- dren with SEN, I cooperate with other professionals, such as speech and langua- 148 3.97 3.4 8.1 9.5 46.6 32.4 ge therapists, SEN teachers and inclusion pedagogues. The majority of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants reported that they coop- erate with the SEN children’s parents, the kindergarten counselling service and other professionals, while a minority of respondents claimed that they do not seek help from others when working with children with SEN. Table 5 Results of the Mann-Whitney test of differences in ECE teachers’ and ECE teacher assistants’ self-evaluation of their cooperation with others involved in working with children with SEN Mann-Whitney test Cooperation Position of employment N R U p I cooperate with the SEN ECE teacher 94 76.59 children’s parents. 2341.50 0.402 ECE teacher assistant 54 70.86 When working with children ECE teacher 94 83.95 with SEN, I cooperate with the 1649.50 < 0.001 kindergarten counselling service. ECE teacher assistant 54 58.05 When working with children with SEN, I cooperate with other ECE teacher 94 81.39 professionals, such as speech and 1890.00 0.005 language therapists, SEN tea- chers and inclusion pedagogues. ECE teacher assistant 54 62.50 Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 103 The Mann-Whitney test shows statistically significant differences among ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants when it comes to cooperation with the counselling service and other professionals when working with children with SEN. As the results of our research suggest, cooperation with the counselling service and external profes- sionals is more typical for ECE teachers than for ECE teacher assistants. No statistically significant differences were found between ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants regarding cooperation with parents. Qualifications for working with children with SEN Table 6 ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants’ responses to statements about being qualified for working with children with SEN I am qualified for working with children with SEN f f % Yes 31 20.9 No 117 79.1 Total 148 100.0 The majority of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants claim not to be qualified for working with children with SEN. Approximately one in five ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants from our research consider themselves qualified for working with children with SEN. Table 7 Result of the Chi-square test of respondents’ opinions about their qualifications for working with children with SEN according to the position of employment Position of employment I am qualified for working with children with SEN ECE teacher ECE teacher assistant % % Yes 27.7 9.3 No 72.3 90.7 Total 100.0 100.0 χ² = 7.013, p = 0.008 We find that there are statistically significant differences between ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants regarding their opinions on being qualified for working with children with SEN. Over a quarter of ECE teachers claim to be qualified for working 104 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) with children with SEN, while the majority do not. Similarly, nearly all ECE teacher assistants do not feel qualified for working with children with SEN. 4 Discussion and conclusion “The educational process in kindergarten is carried out because of and for the child” (Hmelak and Baša, 2022, p. 3). Children develop their wholesome personalities by be- ing involved in the educational process, which must be accessible to every child, re- gardless of their abilities (Novljan, 2004). Children with SEN are a particularly vulner- able group of children who need an adapted environment and specialized professional help for their optimal development (Perovšek and Kiswarday, 2022). Early childhood is a particularly sensitive period for children. Kindergartens play an important role during that period as they provide a crucial contribution to eliminat- ing the educational gaps in the children. The basic conditions for the optimal develop- ment of all children are, first and foremost, the appropriate treatment of children with SEN and the inclusive orientation of the kindergarten (Globačnik, 2012). As defined by Juriševič and Hasanbegović (2006), ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants are important actors in shaping children’s personal and social development, and contribute significantly to meeting these conditions. As indicated above, the most important actors in ensuring optimal conditions for the development of children with SEN in kindergartens are ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants. They are constantly confronted with new tasks, since working with different groups of children with SEN requires specific approaches that arise from the needs of each child. The inclusion of children with special needs has a positive effect on the personality development of all children (Karačić et al., 2022). However, Ker- mauner and Plazar (2019) suggest that the inclusion of children with SEN represents a great challenge for both the ECE teachers and the ECE teacher assistants, since they are the actors who must provide meaningful and high-quality educational opportunities for all children. Due to the aforementioned importance of kindergarten professionals, the results of our research are gratifying, as they testify to the fact that more than half of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants perform general tasks, such as monitoring the SEN children’s progress and development; participating in the preparation of the IEP and evaluation reports; planning adjustments; being familiar with the placement process for children with SEN and the legal requirements related to working with children with SEN. However, it is alarming that just under a quarter of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants are not familiar with the contents of the Act Regulating the Integrated Early Treatment of Preschool Children with Special Needs and that just as many are not fa- miliar with the contents of the Placement of Children with Special Needs Act. The two mentioned acts represent the foundations for the successful inclusion of children with SEN in kindergarten. Furthermore, we find that among ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants there are statistically significant differences in performing general tasks and being familiar with legal requirements for working with children with SEN. The results are more favour- able for ECE teachers than ECE teacher assistants and indicate that this area of work Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 105 is still lacking in teamwork. At this point, it should be emphasized that teamwork, and the skills it requires, must be learnt and that ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants should not only gain additional skills in working with children with SEN but should also participate in a variety of continuous specialized education programmes and/or acquire the necessary knowledge at different stages of their education. The differences between ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants can be attributed to different levels of workload and responsibility. Similarly, Lepičnik Vodopivec (2006) claims that the reasons for different levels of workload between teachers are due to the fact that ECE teachers still carry the responsibility for the work in the department. She further sug- gests that the difference in assigning work to teachers is still influenced by the past understanding of the roles of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants, as the ECE teacher’s roles were associated with educational work and the ECE teacher assistant’s roles with care and protection. According to Cigale (2014), their roles should be more equal, which, additionally, improves teamwork. However, the author also emphasizes that assigning an equal amount of work and responsibilities to ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants is further hindered due to the differences in the pay gap between them. As regards cooperation, we find that the majority of ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants cooperate with the children’s parents, the kindergarten’s counselling service and external professionals, which indicates that teamwork is present when working with children with SEN. It is essential for the optimal development of the child with SEN that ECE teachers and ECE teacher assistants cooperate with other individuals involved in the children’s learning. Similarly, Logar (2010) argues that when working with children with SEN, teamwork is essential and the team members should be equal, regardless of their education and the work they perform. While Vučak (2010) agrees, she also emphasizes that the members of the expert group should work together when formulating guidelines for a comprehensive treatment of the child. According to her, ECE teachers’ and ECE teacher assistants’ roles are primarily to work directly with the child, adjust the programme to the specific needs of the child, implement the IEP, and continuously monitor the children’s progress. Turning now to ECE teachers’ and ECE teacher assistants’ qualifications for work- ing with children with SEN, the results of our research indicate that while they perform various tasks related to working with children with SEN, they do not feel competent in performing these tasks. The majority of both ECE teachers and ECE teacher assis- tants reported that they do not consider themselves competent to work with children with SEN. As several studies indicate, feeling incompetent can lead to occupational stress, which negatively affects the productivity, health, fluctuation and well-being of employees (Slivar, 2009). Clipa and Boghean (2015) conclude that the best measure to prevent stress among ECE teachers is to increase the qualified workforce numbers with adequate working conditions and salaries. In addition, Devjak et al. (2020) emphasize that the better the professional staff in the kindergarten is trained, the higher the quality of services that the kindergarten can offer. We believe that the kindergarten management should provide its employees with appropriate working conditions and support them by providing additional training for dealing with stress. Modern guidelines for education highlight the importance of inclusion and claim that it is a fundamental value and challenge, and that all further development in the field of educational sciences must be aimed at meeting this challenge (Kiswarday and 106 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Štemberger, 2017; Petrova Trifonova, 2022). Both ECE teachers and ECE teacher as- sistants play an important role in facilitating an inclusive environment and thereby ena- bling optimal conditions for the development of all children. Therefore, both profiles must cooperate and receive continuous training for working with children with SEN. Dr. Monika Mithans, Živa Lipovec, Sabina Ograjšek Vzgojiteljevo delo z otroki s posebnimi potrebami Število otrok s posebnimi potrebami (v nadaljevanju OPP) se povečuje (Resolucija o nacionalnem planu zdravstvenega varstva 2016–2025, 2016), pri čemer so OPP v Zakonu o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (2011, čl. 2) opredeljeni kot “otroci z motnjami v duševnem razvoju, slepi in slabovidni otroci oziroma otroci z okvaro vi- dne funkcije, gluhi in naglušni otroci, otroci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami, gibalno ovirani otroci, dolgotrajno bolni otroci, otroci s primanjkljaji na posameznih področjih učenja, otroci z avtističnimi motnjami ter otroci s čustvenimi in vedenjskimi motnja- mi, ki potrebujejo prilagojeno izvajanje programov vzgoje in izobraževanja z dodatno strokovno pomočjo ali prilagojene programe vzgoje in izobraževanja oziroma posebne programe vzgoje in izobraževanja”. Podobno opredelitev po razvojnih motnjah OPP najdemo tudi v Zakonu o vrtcih (2005). V nasprotju s tem je namen Zakona o celostni zgodnji obravnavi predšolskih otrok s posebnimi potrebami (2017) v slovenskem pravnem redu uveljaviti opredelitev OPP, ki bi bila opisna in s tem bolj vključujoča in ne bi temeljila na delitvi na posamezne razvojne motnje. Kajti prav način opredelitve pogosto določa, kdo in v kolikšnem obse- gu bo upravičen do storitev zgodnje obravnave (Murgelj, 2019). Znanstvena spoznanja različnih strok namreč narekujejo, da je OPP potrebno zagotoviti “zgodnje odkrivanje, ustrezno diagnostiko in čim zgodnejšo vključitev v programe vzgoje in izobraževanja” (Čas idr., 2003, str. 4). Temeljni dokument, na katerem temelji vključevanje OPP v vzgojno-izobraževalni proces, je individualizirani program (v nadaljevanju IP), ki predstavlja načrt indivi- dualizacije vzgojno-izobraževalnega ter svetovalnega dela. Predstavlja unikaten načrt pomoči otroku (Težak, 2006). V literaturi zasledimo različne vidike, opredelitve in defi- nicije IP (Al-Shammari in Hornby, 2020; Daniels idr., 2003; Jurišić, 2008; Kiswarday, 2018; Koßmann, 2022; Räty idr., 2019; Vučak, 2010), iz katerih izhaja, da IP predsta- vlja ključni dokument za uresničevanje odločbe o usmeritvi OPP (Kiswarday, 2018; Zakon o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami, 2011). Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraževanju (2011, str. 294) IP opredeljuje kot “načrt vzgojno-izobraževalnega in razvojno-rehabilitacijskega dela posameznega otroka”. Vzgojiteljem in staršem predstavlja osnovno vodilo pri zadovoljevanju otrokovih po- sebnih potreb. Prilagojen je potrebam posameznega učenca in je zato za otroka prav tako pomemben kot Kurikulum za vrtce (1999). Za predšolske OPP je cilj IP predvsem v opredelitvi prilagoditev, ki so izražene v ciljih na področju razvoja kognitivnih procesov in socialne kompetentnosti. Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 107 Za pripravo in spremljanje IP je odgovorna strokovna skupina. Sestavljena je iz strokovnih delavcev, ki bodo vključeni v izvajanje vzgojno-izobraževalnega programa. Pri pripravi in spremljanju izvajanja IP morajo aktivno sodelovati tudi starši ter ob upoštevanju otrokove starosti in zrelosti tudi OPP (Zakon o usmerjanju otrok s poseb- nimi potrebami, 2011). Strokovna skupina torej predstavlja podporno mrežo za otrokov celosten in optimalen razvoj (Težak, 2006). Med pomembne stebre zgodnje obravnave OPP nedvomno sodi predšolska vzgoja, katere glavna akterja sta prav vzgojitelj in pomočnik vzgojitelja. Oba, v tandemu, sode- lujeta pri večini nalog, povezanih z OPP, kar od njiju zahteva določena znanja, osebno angažiranost in izkušnje. V sodelovanju z ostalimi strokovnimi delavci prilagajata pro- gram dela specifičnim potrebam posameznega otroka, realizirata posamezne dele IP ter kontinuirano spremljata napredek OPP. Poleg tega je njuna naloga v tem, da med seboj uskladita delo v oddelku in potrebe posameznega otroka. S svojim odzivanjem na otroka in situacije morata v oddelku ustvarjati varno ozračje, ki bo vsem otrokom omogočilo optimalen razvoj. Med njune naloge sodi tudi ustvarjanje primerne klime za sprejetje OPP v skupino, kar lahko najlaže dosežeta z lastnim zgledom. Kot člana strokovnega tima aktivno sodelujeta pri izmenjavi informacij o otroku, opozarjata na težave in pre- dlagata možne rešitve (Čas et al., 2003). Strokovni delavci se v praksi pogosto soočajo z izzivom, kako oblikovati IP, ki bo uporaben in bo otroku z ustreznimi prilagoditvami omogočal optimalen razvoj (Težak, 2006). V pedagoški praksi (v šolah in prav tako v vrtcih) se posledično pogosto poja- vljajo težave pri izvajanju ustreznih prilagoditev za učence s posebnimi potrebami ter težave z neustreznim izvajanjem IP (Rovšek, 2009; Schmidt in Čagran, 2014; Schmidt in Vrhovnik, 2015; Topolovec in Schmidt, 2015). Kot opozarja Bratož (2004), vzgojitelji (kar zagotovo velja tudi za pomočnike vzgojiteljev) zaradi pomanjkanja informacij in znanj o OPP pogosto zavračajo možnost, da bi otroka vključili v skupino. Pogosto se počutijo premalo usposobljene, nekompetentne ali pa niso deležni zadostne podpore s strani vodstva in drugih strokovnih delavcev. Strah jih je psihične obremenitve, večje količine dela, morebitne prikrajšanosti drugih otrok. Kljub temu so najpomembnejši akterji pri zagotavljanju optimalnih pogojev za ra- zvoj OPP v vrtcih prav vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev, ki se pri delu z OPP sreču- jejo z vedno novimi nalogami, saj delo z različnimi skupinami OPP zahteva specifične pristope, ki izhajajo iz potreb vsakega posameznega otroka. Izhajajoč iz zapisanega smo v naši raziskavi želeli dobiti vpogled v vzgojiteljevo opravljanje splošnih nalog pri delu z OPP in njihovo poznavanje zakonodaje, sodelovanje z drugimi ter vpogled v njihovo mnenje o usposobljenosti za delo z OPP. Pri tem so nas zanimale razlike med vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev. Naša raziskava je temeljila na neslučajnostnem priložnostnem vzorcu 148 vzgojite- ljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev, ki so bili v šolskem letu 2020/2021 zaposleni v sloven- skih javnih vrtcih. V raziskavi je sodelovalo več vzgojiteljev (63,5 %) kot pomočnikov vzgojiteljev (36,5 %). Podatke za raziskavo smo pridobili s pomočjo anketnega vprašal- nika. Vprašalnik je vključeval vprašanja o splošnih nalogah vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev na področju dela z OPP, o njihovem sodelovanju z različnimi akterji pri delu z OPP in o usposobljenosti vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev za delo z OPP. Vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev so odgovore podajali na lestvici od sploh ne drži do popolnoma drži. Pri enem vprašanju so izbirali med odgovoroma da in ne. Vzgojitelji in 108 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) pomočniki vzgojiteljev so anketni vprašalnik reševali v mesecu marcu 2021. Vprašalnik je bil pripravljen v elektronski obliki. Pridobljene podatke smo obdelali in analizirali s programom SPSS. Obdelava po- datkov je potekala na ravni deskriptivne in inferenčne statistike. Pri obdelavi podatkov smo najprej uporabili opisne statistične metode. Pred nadaljnjo obdelavo smo opravili Kolmogorov-Smirnov preizkus, ki je pokazal, da spremenljivke odstopajo od normalne porazdelitve, saj se je povsod pokazala statistično značilna razlika (p < 0,050), zato smo za primerjavo dveh neodvisnih vzorcev uporabili neparametrični Mann-Whitneyev preizkus in Hi-kvadrat preizkus. Rezultati raziskave kažejo, da večina vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev opra- vlja splošne naloge, kot so spremljanje napredka in razvoja OPP, sodelovanje pri pri- pravi IP in pri pripravi evalvacijskih poročil, načrtovanje prilagoditev ter poznavanje postopka usmerjanja OPP, vsebine Zakona o celostni zgodnji obravnavi OPP in vsebine Zakona o usmerjanju OPP. A pri tem je potrebno izpostaviti slabo četrtino vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev, ki ne pozna vsebine Zakona o celostni zgodnji obravnavi predšolskih otrok s posebnimi potrebami, in prav toliko tistih, ki ne poznajo vsebine Zakona o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami. Omenjena zakona namreč predsta- vljata osnovo za uspešno vključevanje OPP v vrtec. Nadalje ugotavljamo, da med vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev obstajajo stati- stično značilne razlike v opravljanju in poznavanju splošnih nalog pri delu z OPP in s tem področjem povezane zakonodaje. Vse razlike govorijo v prid vzgojiteljem in kažejo na dejstvo, da je na tem področju dela še vedno premalo timskega sodelovanja med vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev. Razlike med vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev lahko pripišemo različni delovni obremenitvi in stopnji odgovornosti. Tudi avtorica Le- pičnik Vodopivec (2006) vzroke za različno delitev dela med člani pripisuje dejstvu, da je vzgojitelj še vedno tisti, ki odgovarja za delo v oddelku. Na delitev dela po njenem še vedno vpliva tudi preteklo razumevanje vloge vzgojitelja in pomočnika vzgojitelja, saj se je vzgojitelja povezovalo z vzgojnim delom, pomočnika vzgojitelja pa z nego in varovanjem. Njuni vlogi naj bi bili po prepričanju Cigaletove (2014) danes veliko bolj enakopravni. Ugotavljamo, da je večina vzgojiteljev in pomočnikov vzgojiteljev poročala, da pri delu z OPP sodelujejo s starši, svetovalno službo vrtca in tudi z zunanjimi sodelavci. Za optimalni razvoj OPP je namreč nujno, da se vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev poslužujejo tovrstnih sodelovanj. V nadaljevanju rezultati naše raziskave kažejo, da čeprav vzgojitelji in pomočniki vzgojiteljev opravljajo različne naloge, vezane na delo z OPP, se pri opravljanju teh nalog ne počutijo kompetentne. Tako je večina vzgojiteljev kot tudi večina pomočnikov vzgojiteljev poročala, da se ne dojemajo kompetentne za delo z OPP. Sodobne smernice vzgoje in izobraževanja izpostavljajo inkluzijo kot “temeljno vrednoto in izziv, v uresničevanje katerega mora biti usmerjen ves nadaljnji razvoj na področju edukacijskih ved” (Kiswarday in Štemberger, 2017, str. 3). Za uresničeva- nje inkluzivnega okolja in s tem omogočanje optimalnih pogojev za razvoj prav vsem otrokom sta pomembna tako vzgojitelj kot pomočnik vzgojitelja. Zato je nujno, da oba profila medsebojno sodelujeta in se za delo z OPP tudi nenehno dodatno izobražujeta. Mithans, PhD, Lipovec, MA, Ograjšek: Teachers’ Work with Children with Special... 109 REFERENCES 1. Al-Shammari, Z. and Hornby, G. (2020). Special Education Teachers’ Knowledge and Experi- ence of IEPs in the Education of Students With Special Educational Needs. International Jour- nal of Disability, Development and Education, 67(2), 167–181. Available at: https://doi.org/10. 1080/1034912X.2019.1620182 (retrieved 17. 6. 2022). 2. Alzahrani, S. S. (2020). Investigation of Teachers’ Perspective About Early Intervention Ser- vices. Journal of Supercomputing, 76(5), 3440–3461. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11227-018-2607-z (retrieved 17. 6. 2022). 3. Bratož, M. (2004). 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Naslov / Address: Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 02 229 36 44 E-mail: monika.mithans1@um.si Živa Lipovec, MA (1995), Professor of Inclusive Pedagogy, Ivan Glinšek Kindergarten in Maribor. Naslov / Address: Gledališka ulica 6, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 02 234 74 32 E-mail: ziva.lipovec@vrtec-ivanaglinska.si Sabina Ograjšek (1995), Assistant of Pedagogy at Faculty of Education, University of Maribor. Naslov / Address: Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia Telefon / Telephone: (+386) 02 229 36 46 E-mail: sabina.ograjsek@um.si Kaja Lenič Vzgojni stili staršev Prejeto 18. 12. 2022 / Sprejeto 31. 3. 2023 Received 18. 12. 2022 / Accepted 31. 3. 2023 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37.018:173.5 UDC 37.018:173.5 KLJUČNE BESEDE: vzgoja, vzgojni stili, starši, otrok, KEYWORDS: raising children, parenting styles, par- osnovna šola ents, child, primary school POVZETEK – Članek govori o vzgojnih stilih staršev. ABSTRACT – Raising children depends on the par- Primarno vlogo pri vzgoji imajo starši. Vzgoja staršev enting style. There are three main styles of parenting: je odvisna od vzgojnega stila: permisivnega, avtoritar- permissive, authoritarian and authoritative. We tried nega ali avtoritativnega. Ugotavljali smo, kakšen je to find out which parenting style parents choose for vzgojni stil staršev, ki imajo otroka v tretjem razredu their children in Year 3 of primary school. The results osnovne šole. Rezultati raziskave, v kateri je sodelova- of the research, in which 968 parents participated, are lo 968 staršev, so zaskrbljujoči. V Sloveniji imamo več alarming. In Slovenia, 52 per cent of parents use the kot 52,4 % staršev, ki uporabljajo permisivni vzgojni permissive parenting style. Even though the authorita- stil. Najmanj staršev se poslužuje avtoritativnega tive style is highlighted in many studies as the most ap- vzgojnega stila, čeprav je v številnih raziskavah po- propriate, the least parents use it. Some parents use the udarjen kot najbolj primeren. Avtoritarni vzgojni stil authoritarian parenting style as well. Parents stress je srednje zastopan. Starši poudarjajo številne proble- many problems which they face in bringing up their me, s katerimi se srečujejo pri vzgoji otrok, po drugi children, while on the other hand almost a third of par- strani pa skoraj tretjina staršev ne bi nič spremenila ents would not change their parenting style. We believe pri svoji vzgoji. Menimo, da odgovor lahko iščemo v the reason lies in the fast pace of life, as parents do not hitrem tempu življenja, saj starši nimajo časa za svoje spend enough time with their children. They use their otroke, zato svojo fizično odsotnost opravičujejo s tem, physical absence as an excuse for letting their children da otroku vse dovolijo. Lahko smo celo pikri in rečemo, do whatever they want. We may even be sarcastic and da otroka ne postavljajo na prvo mesto. Zmanjka jim say that their child is not their top priority. They lack časa, da bi otroku postavili meje, določili jasna pravi- the time to set limits and implement clear rules. They la, se med seboj pogovarjali in otroke naučili prevze- also do not have time to talk and to teach their children manja odgovornosti za svoja dejanja. to take responsibility for their actions. 1 Uvod Vsak starš zase meni, da svojega otroka vzgaja najbolje. Realnost pa je lahko do- stikrat drugačna od našega mnenja, zato je čas, da se v hitrem tempu življenja ustavimo in pogledamo vase ter premislimo, kako vzgajamo. Bitje, ki ga imamo najraje na svetu (naš otrok), mora biti vredno najboljše vzgoje, da mu za življenje damo najboljšo popo- tnico. Kako vzgajamo, pa je odvisno od našega vzgojnega stila. Vzgojni stil lahko preprosto opredelimo kot odnos med vzgojiteljem in vzgajan- cem. Če temu odnosu pripišemo tudi določen namen, je namen vzgojnega stila, da pre- ko odnosa vzgoji posameznika z določenimi osebnostnimi lastnostmi (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009). Darling in Steinberg opredeljujeta vzgojni stil kot čustveno ozračje, v katerem otrok odrašča. Vzgojni stil je opredeljen kot značilnost staršev, ki s primerno socializacijo, Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 113 z zgledom in vzgojnimi tehnikami oblikujejo osebnost otroka (Darling in Steinberg, 1993). Eden izmed bolje raziskanih pristopov, kako starši vplivajo na otrokov razvoj, je koncept vzgojnih stilov. Različni avtorji zagovarjajo različne koncepte. M. Bergant loči tri vzgojne stile: represivni vzgojni slog, permisivni vzgojni slog, “laissez-faire” ali vsedopuščajoča vzgoja (Bergant, 1970). Cencič vzgojne stile opredeli kot celo skupnost odnosov, vlog, vezi in načinov ko- municiranja med člani neke socialne skupine. Zagovarja stališče, da ločimo štiri osnov- ne vzgojne stile ali sloge: demokratični, represivni, permisivni in anarhični slog (Cen- cič, 1986). Avtorici Peček Čuk in Lesar sta nadgradili koncept avtoritete Bergantove in vzgoj- ne stile razdelila na: represivni ali avtokratski ali avtoritarni vzgojni stil, interakcijski ali demokratični ali avtoritativni vzgojni stil in permisivni ali “laissez-faire” ali dopuščajo- či vzgojni stil (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009). Koncepti, ki so jih ustvarili slovenski avtorji (Bergant, 1994; Cencič, 1986; Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009), so primerni za razumevanje vzgojnih stilov in odražajo določen razvoj. Koncepti so podobni ugotovitvam nekaterih tujih avtorjev iz 70-ih in 80-ih let prejšnjega stoletja ter kasneje (Baumrind, 1967; Maccoby in Martin, 1983). Represivna vzgoja je tista vzgojna usmerjenost, ki poudarja in uporablja negativna vzgojna sredstva, prepovedi in omejitve, otroka utesnjuje, svari, nadzoruje in kaznuje ter skuša s strogostjo in pritiskom odpraviti njegove napake. Njen cilj je poslušen, vdan in neustvarjalen posameznik (Bergant, 1994). Represivni ali avtoritarni vzgojni stil je značilen za patriarhalni tip družinske vzgoje in za vse tiste vzgojne koncepte, ki teme- ljijo na predpostavki, da je osnovna naloga vzgoje prenesti na otroka moralna pravila, norme, vrednote in načine vedenja, ki so uveljavljeni v družbi (Stojanović Đorđević, 2015). Pravila so trdna, tradicionalna, včasih večna in predvsem uveljavljena kot nor- me, o katerih se ne razpravlja. Komunikacija je enosmerna (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009). Ameriška sociologinja Lareau je raziskovala, kako socialni razred družine vpliva na vzgojni stil staršev, in ugotovila, da delavski in revni razred vzgaja na način doseganja naravne rasti. Starši dajejo otrokom direktive, ni nobenega pogajanja, otroci nimajo veliko vsakodnevnih aktivnosti, igrajo se sami. V raziskavi je ugotovila, da družbeni razred in vzgojni stil staršev pomembno vplivata na delovne in izobrazbene rezultate otrok (Lareau, 2003). Različni avtorji (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009; Kroflič, 1997b) se pri represivnem, avtokratskem ali avtoritarnem načinu strinjajo, da gre za položaj in moč, poudarja se hierarhija odnosov. Avtoriteta daje moč, ki jo imajo starši nad otrokom, ker so v poziciji nad njim. Odnosi so hladni in vzvišeni. Dovoljeno je kaznovanje. Opažamo pa, da se pojavljajo tudi razlike med posameznimi avtorji. Medtem ko Bergant (Bergant, 1994) meni, da je cilj avtoritarne vzgoje poslušen in vdan posame- znik, ima Žorž (Žorž, 2010) drugačno mnenje. Po njegovem je rezultat avtoritarne vzgoje anksiozen, prestrašen, depresiven in nesamozavesten posameznik. Ideje, na katerih se je v sodobnosti razvilo permisivno vzgajanje, je prvi nakazal Jean Jacques Rousseau. Permisivna vzgoja označuje tisto vzgojno usmerjenost, v kate- ri prevladujejo pozitivni vzgojni ukrepi, ljubezen, skrb za razvoj otrokovih pozitivnih 114 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) sposobnosti, upoštevanje socialnih potreb in samobitnosti. Cilj je srečna, samoinicia- tivna, kritična in ustvarjalna osebnost (Bergant, 1994). Permisivni vzgojni stil, kot ga poimenuje Bergant (1994), Cencič (Cencič, 1986) vidi kot demokratični vzgojni stil, permisivni vzgojni stil pa enači z vsedopuščajočo vzgojo. Permisivni stil vključuje nekaj zahtev za otroka, značilna je pretirana nežnost in popustljivost. Starši se posvetujejo z otrokom o odločitvah in mu pojasnjujejo družin- ska pravila. Otrok si sam izbira aktivnosti in nima nadzora. V skupnem gospodinjstvu ima malo zadolžitev. Pomembno je zadovoljevanje otrokovih potreb. Gre za prijazno in popustljivo vzgojo (Baumrind, 1966). Permisivni vzgojni stil je za otroka najmanj vsiljiv. Temelji na prepričanju, da je najbolje, da se otrokovega razvoja ne omejuje, da je otrok sam sposoben spreminjati svoje vedenje, da je prisila nad otrokom krnitev njegovih ustvarjalnih potencialov in in- dividualnosti, da je kazen napad na otrokovo avtonomijo in da pravila ogrožajo njegov vsestranski razvoj. Otrok nikoli ne sme opaziti, da je popolnoma nadzorovan (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009). Avtorji (Cenčič, 1986; Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009; Bergant, 1994; Kroflič, 1997b; Žorž, 2010) so kritični do permisivnega vzgojnega stila, saj se strinjajo, da ne prinaša želenih vzgojnih rezultatov in da taka vzgoja povzroči, da postane posameznik egocen- tričen in nesamostojen. Strinjamo se s Krofličem (Kroflič, 1997b), ki pravi, da takšna vzgoja ni primerna, ker otroci potrebujejo pravila. Pravila jim dajejo občutek varnosti. Predstavljajo okvir, ki se ga znotraj oddelka držijo vsi, ki so vključeni v skupino. Avtoritativni vzgojni stil se je pojavil kot nova oblika vzgoje, ki poskuša odpraviti slabosti permisivne in avtoritarne vzgoje. Temelje zasledimo pri Kantu, ki je trdil, da otrok ni moralno bitje, ampak to postane šele z vzgojo. Discipliniranje otroka in ka- znovanje sta nujna. Kazen je lahko izrečena otroku, ki se je sposoben ravnati po pravi- lih, a otroka ne sme poniževati, krepiti mora njegov občutek odgovornosti, pravičnosti in reda (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009). Glede kaznovanja podobno razmišlja tudi Hauck (Hauck, 1988). Avtoritativna vzgoja je prijazna, nepopustljiva, kjer se starši odkrito pogovarjajo z otrokom o njegovem nesprejemljivem vedenju in ga za to tudi kaznujejo. Baumrind pravi, da je ta avtoritativni vzgojni stil usmerjen v jasne zahteve in ob tem ponuja visoko stopnjo podpore. Starši morajo pri svojih zahtevah vztrajati in želje otroka postaviti ob rob, četudi to izzove upor otroka. Ta vzgojni stil prinaša razvoj spo- sobnosti otroka, pozitivno samopodobo in optimalne kompetence pri socialno odgovor- nem vedenju, strategijah vedenja in strategijah premagovanja težav (Baumrind, 2008). Pri spodbujanju otroka je bila podobnega mnenja tudi ameriška sociologinja La- reau, ki je raziskovala, kako socialni razred družine vpliva na vzgojni stil staršev. Prvi pogoj je skupno usklajeno vzgajanje. Starši srednjega razreda so imeli aktivno vlogo pri spodbujanju aktivnosti svojih otrok. Veliko je pogajanja in razprav. Zelo so aktivni v življenju svojih otrok. Nadzorujejo uspeh svojih otrok. Otroci imajo veliko dodatnih aktivnosti. Za te starše je značilen vzgojni stil usklajenega vzgajanja (Lareau, 2003). Avtorji (Peček Čuk in Lesar, 2009; Cenčič, 1986; Jurič, 2009) se strinjajo, da je avtoritativni vzgojni stil najprimernejši za vzgojo otrok, saj vzgoji odgovornega, avto- nomnega in samostojnega posameznika, kar je glavni cilj vzgoje. Tega z avtoritarnim in permisivnim vzgojnim stilom ne moremo doseči. Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 115 Avtorici Krivec in Popovič (2020, str. 110) sta v raziskavi ugotavljali, kako so vzgojni stili staršev povezani s pozornostjo otrok. Najboljše rezultate pri vzdrževanju pozornosti so dosegli otroci, ki so vzgojeni na izrazito avtoritativni način. Rezultate lahko razlagamo z razumevanjem avtoritativne vzgoje, ki temelji na vzpodbudi, obe- nem pa tudi postavljanju meja in vključevanju odraslega v otrokovo dejavnost (Ručigaj, 2012, str. 26). 2 Metodologija Problem in cilj raziskave V procesu teoretičnega raziskovanja je bilo ugotovljeno, da je v Sloveniji malo raziskav, ki ugotavljajo vzgojni stil staršev ob koncu prve triade osnovne šole. Zato smo želeli raziskati, katere vzgojne stile uporabljajo starši, in ugotoviti, ali je vzgojni stil staršev različen glede na različne demografske značilnosti. Raziskovalni vprašanji □ Ali je med starši učencev tretjega razreda osnovne šole prevladujoč permisivni vzgojni stil pred avtoritativnim in avtoritarnim vzgojnim stilom? □ Ali med starši z različnimi demografskimi značilnostmi in njihovim vzgojnim sti- lom obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike? Hipotezi V kvantitativni raziskavi smo si zastavili naslednji hipotezi: □ H1: Med starši učencev tretjega razreda osnovne šole prevladuje permisivni vzgojni stil pred avtoritativnim in avtoritarnim vzgojnim stilom. □ H2: Med starši z različnimi demografskimi značilnostmi in njihovim vzgojnim sti- lom obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike. Opis vzorca staršev V raziskavi je sodelovalo 968 staršev, ki so izpolnili anketni vprašalnik. Med anke- tiranimi starši prevladujejo ženske (84 %). Ugotavljamo, da je največje število anketiranih staršev v starosti okrog 40 let. Opa- zimo lahko tudi, da so v povprečju anketiranci stari skoraj 39 let (SD = 4,88). Glede na izobrazbeno strukturo staršev ugotavljamo, da ima najvišji odstotek star- šev zaključeno srednješolsko izobraževanje (41,9 %), sledijo jim starši z zaključeno drugo bolonjsko stopnjo ali univerzitetno izobrazbo (21,2 %), nato starši s prvo bolonj- sko stopnjo ali visoko šolo (16,1 %) ter višjo šolo (14,0 %). 116 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Opis raziskovalnega instrumenta V okviru kvantitativne raziskave je bil uporabljen anketni vprašalnik za starše, se- stavljen iz dveh delov: □ vprašalnik o vzgoji, prilagojen po Buri (1991) – 2 vprašanji zaprtega tipa in 3 vprašanja odprtega tipa (za potrebe raziskave smo izvedli racionalno evalvacijo in prevod vprašalnika); □ splošni podatki – spol, starost, dosežena stopnja izobrazbe. Postopek zbiranja podatkov Za preverjanje anketnega vprašalnika za starše smo naredili test razumljivosti na manjšem vzorcu staršev v občini Log - Dragomer (10 staršev). Kvantitativna raziskava je potekala po celi Sloveniji. Vsem 455 osnovnim šolam v Sloveniji smo poslali elek- tronsko sporočilo, v katerem smo predstavili raziskavo in jih povabili k sodelovanju. Odzvalo se je 62 osnovnih šol. Na te šole smo učiteljem poslali anketni vprašalnik za starše preko navadne pošte. Nato so nam učitelji po pošti v 10–14 dneh vrnili anketne vprašalnike staršev. Postopek obdelave podatkov V empiričnem delu naloge smo pridobljene podatke uredili in izvedli statistično analizo s pomočjo računalniških programov Microsoft Office Excel in SPSS 21.0. Naj- prej smo s pomočjo osnovne opisne statistike prikazali strukturo vzorca staršev. Pri tem smo uporabili strukturne diagrame. Za preverjanje zastavljenih hipotez smo uporabili različne statistične pristope. Pred samo uporabo le-teh smo s pomočjo konfirmatorne faktorske analize preverili latentno strukturo indikatorjev, s katerimi smo merili vzgojne stile staršev po zgledu vprašalnika merjenja starševske avtoritete Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri, 1991). V skladu s teoretičnimi osnovami uporabljenega vprašalnika merjenja starševske avtoritete (Buri, 1991) naj bi trditve, s katerimi smo med starši posredno izmerili vzgoj- ne stile, tvorile 3 različne vzgojne stile, in sicer permisivni, avtoritativni ter avtoritarni vzgojni stil. Glede na to smo pred izvedbo konfirmatorne faktorske analize tudi vnaprej določili, da želimo iz podatkov izločiti 3 faktorje. Nato smo končno faktorsko rešitev umestili v kontekst merjenja vzgojnih stilov ter jih tudi vsebinsko pripisali posameznemu vzgojnemu stilu. Nazadnje pa smo za posa- mezen faktor preverili tudi njegovo zanesljivost, pri čemer smo uporabili Cronbachov koeficient α. Ko smo potrdili zanesljivost dobljenih faktorjev, smo izračunali latentne spremen- ljivke, ki predstavljajo posamezni vzgojni stil staršev. V ta namen smo izračunali pov- prečje trditev oziroma vrednosti spremenljivk, ki so glede na faktorsko rešitev pripadle istemu faktorju. Tako smo podatkom staršev dodali po tri spremenljivke, pri čemer je vsaka posamezna spremenljivka podala povprečno vrednost, ki jo starš dosega v okviru posameznega vzgojnega stila. Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 117 Po potrditvi zanesljivosti latentne strukture smo nato ustrezne trditve, s katerimi smo med starši posredno izmerili vzgojne stile, uporabili tudi v okviru hierarhičnega združevanja v skupine. Glede na teoretične osnove uporabljenih vprašalnikov merjenja starševske avtoritete (Buri, 1991) smo pri tem tudi vnaprej določili, da želimo enote združiti v tri skupine. V primeru vzorca staršev je najbolj pregledne in nedvoumne rezultate podala Wardova metoda, katere postopek združevanja smo prikazali tudi s pomočjo drevesa združevanja, imenovanega tudi dendrogram (Hair, 2014, str. 440). Po končanem postopku smo preverili tudi opisno statistiko (povprečne vrednosti in stan- dardne odklone) posameznih trditev v posameznih skupinah. Pri tem smo preverili, v kateri skupini je povprečna vrednost pri posamezni trditvi merjenja vzgojnega stila najvišja. Na osnovi trditev, ki so dosegale najvišjo povprečno vrednost v isti skupini, pa smo skupino tudi poimenovali. Tako so, na primer, starši, ki so najvišje povprečne vre- dnosti dosegali pri spremenljivkah, ki posredno merijo permisivni vzgojni stil, uvrščeni v skupino, za katero je značilno posluževanje permisivnega vzgojnega stila. Tako izračunane latentne spremenljivke kot tudi generirane skupine vzgojnih stilov staršev smo nato uporabili za preverjanje zastavljenih hipotez. V vseh primerih smo domneve preverili pri 95-odstotni gotovosti, kar pomeni, da smo statistično značilen oziroma pomemben rezultat določili na osnovi stopnje tveganja (p-vrednost, p), katere vrednost je bila manjša od 0,05. Pri analizi podatkov smo za primerjavo povprečij, ki jih starši dosegajo pri posame- znem vzgojnem stilu, uporabili enosmerno analizo variance za odvisne vzorce oziroma ANOVA metodo za ponovljene meritve. Metodo uporabljamo v primerih, ko želimo med seboj primerjati povprečja v treh ali več skupinah enot, pri čemer so enote v vsaki skupini enake. Pri ugotavljanju statistično značilnih razlik pri uporabi vzgojnih stilov staršev glede na njihove demografske značilnosti smo uporabili: □ t-test za dva neodvisna vzorca, kadar smo med seboj primerjali povprečja v dveh skupinah staršev in □ enosmerno ANOVO za več neodvisnih vzorcev, kadar smo med seboj primerjali povprečja v več skupinah staršev. 3 Rezultati in interpretacija Anketirancem smo navedli trditve, ki se nanašajo na oceno njihovega vzgojnega stila. Do posamezne trditve so se anketiranci opredelili s pomočjo 5-stopenjske lestvice, pri čemer je ocena 1 pomenila, da se s trditvijo nikakor ne strinjajo, ocena 5 pa, da se s trditvijo zelo strinjajo. Na sliki 1 prikazujemo povprečne vrednosti trditev, ki se nanašajo na vzgojni stil staršev in so urejene v padajočem vrstnem redu. Tako se s trditvijo, ki je na grafikonu prikazana najvišje, anketirani starši v povprečju strinjajo v največji meri, s trditvijo, ki je na grafikonu prikazana kot zadnja, pa se anketirani starši v povprečju strinjajo v najmanjši meri. 118 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Slika 1 Prikaz trditev, ki se nanašajo na vzgojne stile staršev KO SO V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA STARŠI SPREJEMALI DRUŽINSKE 1,84 ODLOČITVE, SO VEČINOMA STORILI TO, KAR SO HOTELI OTROCI. MOJI STARŠI V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA SEBE NISO VIDELI KOT 1,92 ODGOVORNE ZA USMERJANJE IN VODENJE MOJEGA VEDENJA. V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA STARŠI NISO USMERJALI VEDENJA, 2,15 DEJAVNOSTI IN ŽELJA OTROK V DRUŽINI. MOJI STARŠI SO MENILI, DA BI MORALI PAMETNI STARŠI SVOJE OTROKE 2,15 ZGODAJ NAUČITI LE, KDO JE GLAVNI V DRUŽINI. MOJIM STARŠEM SE JE VEDNO ZDELO, DA MORAJO PUSTITI OTROKOM, DA SE 2,19 SVOBODNO ODLOČAJO IN DELAJO, KAR HOČEJO, TUDI ČE SE TO NE SKLADA… V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA SE STARŠEM NI ZDELO POTREBNO, DA SE 2,21 DRŽIM PRAVIL IN PREDPISOV VEDENJA LE ZATO, KER JIH JE VZPOSTAVIL… MOJIM STARŠEM SE JE VEDNO ZDELO, DA BI MORALI UPORABLJATI VEČ SILE, 2,22 DA BI OTROKE PRIPRAVILI DO PRIMERNEGA VEDENJA. KO SEM ODRAŠČAL, SO MI STARŠI PUSTILI, DA SE SAM ODLOČIM GLEDE 2,44 VEČINE STVARI, NE DA BI ME PRI TEM USMERJALI. MOJI STARŠI MENIJO, DA BI VEČINA DRUŽBENIH PROBLEMOV IZGINILA, ČE 2,51 STARŠI NE BI OMEJEVALI AKTIVNOSTI, ODLOČITEV IN ŽELJA SVOJIH OTROK V … V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA SO STARŠI MENILI, DA BI MORALI V 2,52 UREJENEM DOMU OTROCI DOSEČI SVOJE ENAKO POGOSTO KOT STARŠI. KO SO BILA V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA PRAVILA V DRUŽINI ENKRAT 2,91 VZPOSTAVLJENA, SO JIH STARŠI RAZLAGALI IN Z OTROKI O NJIH … MOJI STARŠI SO MENILI, DA NAM KORISTI, ČE NAS PRISILIJO, DA SPREJMEMO 2,99 TISTO, KAR JE PO MNENJU STARŠEV PRAV. V ČASU ODRAŠČANJA MI STARŠI NISO DOPUSTILI DVOMA V KATEROKOLI 3,05 NJIHOVO ODLOČITEV. V ČASU ODRAŠČANJA SEM VEDEL, KAJ STARŠI OD MENE PRIČAKUJEJO V 3,21 DRUŽINI IN VZTRAJALI SO, DA SE TEM PRIČAKOVANJEM PODREDIM… KO SEM ODRAŠČAL IN SO STARŠI SPREJELI ODLOČITEV, KI ME JE PRIZADELA, 3,35 SO SE BILI O ODLOČITVI PRIPRAVLJENI Z MANO POGOVORITI IN PRIZNATI… V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA SO STARŠI USMERJALI DEJAVNOSTI IN 3,36 ODLOČITVE OTROK V DRUŽINI Z RAZLKAGANJEM IN DISCIPLINIRANJEM. V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA SO STARŠI UPOŠTEVALI MNENJA OTROK PRI 3,43 SPREJEMANJU DRUŽINSKIH ODLOČITEV, VENDAR SE NE BI ODLOČILI ZA … V ČASU ODRAŠČANJA SO MI STARŠI DALI JASNE USMERITVE GLEDE VEDENJA 3,5 IN DEJAVNOSTI, VENDAR SO BILI TUDI RAZUMEVAJOČI, KO SE Z NJIMI… V ČASU ODRAŠČANJA SO MI STARŠI POGOSTO POVEDALI, KAJ NATANČNO 3,51 HOČEJO OD MENE IN KAKO NAJ TO STORIM. KO SMO V MOJI DRUŽINI OTROCI ODRAŠČALI, SO NAS STARŠI VES ČAS 3,61 USMERJALI NA RAZMEN IN OBJEKTIVEN NAČIN TER TAKO DAJALI NAVODILA. V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠANJA SO MI STARŠI DALI VEDETI, KAKO NAJ SE 3,65 VEDEM, IN ME KAZNOVALI, ČE SE TEGA NISEM DRŽAL. V ČASU ODRAŠČANJA SEM VEDEL, KAJ STARŠI OD MENE PRIČAKUJEJO, 3,68 VENDAR SEM SE POČUTIL TUDI SVOBODNEGA V TEM, DA SE LAHKO O TEH … KADARKOLI SO MI STARŠI V ČASU MOJEGA ODRAŠČANJA KAJ NAROČILI, SO 3,69 PRIČAKOVALI, DA BOM TO STORIL PRI PRIČI IN BREZ KAKRŠNIHKOLI… STARŠI SO MED ODRAŠČANJEM USMERJALI MOJE VEDENJE IN DEJAVNOSTI 3,75 TER PRIČAKOVALI, DA BOM SLEDIL NJIHOVIM USMERITVAM, VENDAR PA SO… 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 Starše smo povprašali tudi o vzgojnih problemih, ki jih največkrat rešujejo v svoji družini. Pri tem so imeli starši možnost napisati tri različne vzgojne probleme. Ugotovi- li smo, da se med najpogosteje omenjenimi vzgojnimi problemi pojavlja neposlušnost otrok. Med starši, ki so odgovorili na dano vprašanje, jih je skoraj 27 % ta problem iz- Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 119 postavilo kot prvega, dobrih 11 % kot drugega in skoraj 10 % kot tretjega. Med najpogo- stejšimi vzgojnimi problemi se pojavljajo tudi trma, neprimerno vedenje, neupoštevanje pravil in dogovorov, uporaba tehnologije, slabe učne navade, težave s pospravljanjem, neubogljivost, prepir med sorojenci ter pregovarjanje. Starše smo tudi vprašali, kaj bi spremenili pri sebi glede vzgoje v njihovi družini. Opazimo lahko, da največ staršev meni, da pri sebi glede vzgoje ne bi spremenili niče- sar (28,6 %). Bi si pa starši želeli biti pri vzgoji tudi bolj dosledni (9,6 %), potrpežljivi (9,0 %) in vztrajni (7,5 %). Sledijo tisti, ki bi želeli biti bolj nepopustljivi (6,3 %) in ki si želijo z otroki in družino preživeti več časa (6,0 %), biti bolj umirjeni (5,7 %), odločni (3,9 %) in strogi (3,4 %). Poleg vprašanj o spremembah, ki si jih starši želijo pri svoji vzgoji, smo jim zasta- vili tudi vprašanja o tem, kaj bi še posebej pohvalili pri svoji vzgoji. Opazimo lahko, da je največ staršev (13,6 %) glede svoje vzgoje izpostavilo predvsem dejstvo, da se v družini z otroki veliko pogovarjajo. Več kot 10 % staršev meni, da pri svoji vzgoji ne morejo pohvaliti ničesar. Dobrih 6 % staršev kot dobro značilnost izpostavlja spoštova- nje, tako otrok do staršev kot tudi staršev do otrok, 4,4 % staršev pa poudarja doslednost pri vzgoji in opravljanju obveznosti. Dobra 2 % staršev sta pohvalila poslušanje, bodisi njihovo poslušanje svojih otrok bodisi obratno. Raziskovali smo strukturo staršev glede na pripadnost skupini posameznega vzgoj- nega stila. Glede na prikazane povprečne vrednosti in pripadajoče standardne odklone se izkaže, da prvo skupino sestavljajo starši, ki se pri vzgoji poslužujejo permisivnega stila, drugo skupino starši, za katere je značilen avtoritativni vzgojni stil, tretjo skupino pa starši, ki se poslužujejo avtoritarnega vzgojnega stila. Opazimo lahko, da je za več kot polovico staršev (52,4 %) značilen permisivni vzgojni stil, sledi avtoritarni vzgojni stil z 28,6 %, v najmanjši meri pa je med starši zastopan avtoritativni vzgojni stil z 19,0 %. Med starši smo še preverili, koliko časa dnevno njihovi otroci preživijo pred tele- vizorjem. Največji delež staršev (44 %) poroča, da njihovi otroci v povprečju preživijo pred televizijo 1 uro na dan. Za dobro četrtino staršev velja, da njihovi otroci dnevno pred televizorjem preživijo 30 minut, otroci dobrih 20 % staršev pa na dan gledajo te- levizijo tudi 2 uri. Preverjanje hipotez □ H1: Med starši učencev tretjega razreda devetletne osnovne šole prevladuje permi- sivni vzgojni stil pred avtoritativnim in avtoritarnim vzgojnim stilom. Razlike v vzgojnih stilih staršev smo prav tako preverili s pomočjo enosmerne ANOVA metode za ponovljene meritve. Pri tem smo med seboj primerjali povprečja za vsak posamezni vzgojni stil. Glede na prikazan rezultat enosmerne ANOVA metode za ponovljene meritve ugo- tavljamo, da razlike med povprečnimi vrednostmi, ki jih starši dosegajo pri posame- znem vzgojnem stilu, obstajajo in so statistično značilne (F = 923,989; p < 0,05). V skladu s tem v tabeli 1 prikazujemo rezultate Bonferronijevega post-hoc testa, ki pred- stavlja parne primerjave povprečij med opazovanimi vzgojnimi stili staršev. 120 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Tabela 1 Bonferronijev post-hoc test parnih primerjav povprečnih vrednosti vzgojnih stilov staršev Vzgojni stil Vzgojni stil Razlika PV Standardna napaka p avtoritativni –1,226* 0,026 0,000 Permisivni avtoritarni –0,836* 0,028 0,000 permisivni 1,226* 0,026 0,000 Avtoritativni avtoritarni 0,390* 0,034 0,000 permisivni 0,836* 0,028 0,000 Avtoritarni avtoritativni –0,390* 0,034 0,000 Parne primerjave povprečij, ki jih starši dosegajo pri posameznem vzgojnem stilu, kažejo, da je tudi med starši v večji meri prisoten avtoritativni vzgojni stil (PV = 3,45; SD = 0,671) v primerjavi s permisivnim in avtoritarnim vzgojnim stilom. Povprečna vrednost, ki jo starši dosegajo na avtoritativnem vzgojnem stilu, je statistično značilno višja od povprečnih vrednosti, ki jih starši dosegajo pri preostalih dveh vzgojnih stilih (p < 0,05). Tudi v povprečnih vrednostih, ki jih starši dosegajo v primeru permisiv- nega in avtoritarnega vzgojnega stila, obstajajo statistično značilne razlike, pri čemer ugotavljamo, da je v primerjavi s permisivnim vzgojnim stilom za starše nekoliko bolj značilen avtoritarni vzgojni stil. Prvo hipotezo pa smo preverili tudi s pomočjo primerjave deležev staršev, ki smo jih s pomočjo hierarhičnega združevanja razvrstili v skupine glede na prevladujoč vzgojni stil. Rezultate prikazuje tabela 2. Tabela 2 Primerjava deležev staršev glede na vzgojni stil Vzgojni stil n Delež χ2 p Permisivni 506 0,524 Avtoritativni 183 0,190 171,894* 0,000 Avtoritarni 276 0,286 Glede na prikazan rezultat hi-kvadrat (χ2) testa deležev ugotavljamo, da razlike med deleži staršev glede na vzgojni stil obstajajo in so statistično značilne (χ2 = 171,894; p < 0,05). V skladu s tem v tabeli 3 prikazujemo tudi parne primerjave deležev staršev glede na njihov vzgojni stil. Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 121 Tabela 3 Parne primerjave deležev staršev glede na vzgojni stil Vzgojni stil Vzgojni stil Razlika deležev χ2 p avtoritativni 0,335* 151,421 0,000 Permisivni avtoritarni 0,238* 67,647 0,000 permisivni –0,335* 151,421 0,000 Avtoritativni avtoritarni -0,096* 18,843 0,000 permisivni –0,238* 67,647 0,000 Avtoritarni avtoritativni 0,096* 18,843 0,000 Parne primerjave deležev staršev, ki se poslužujejo posameznega vzgojnega stila, kažejo, da je delež staršev, ki se poslužujejo permisivnega vzgojnega stila, statistično značilno večji tako od deleža staršev, ki se poslužujejo avtoritativnega vzgojnega sti- la (χ2 = 151,421; p < 0,05), kot tudi od deleža staršev, ki se poslužujejo avtoritarnega vzgojnega stila (χ2 = 67,647; p < 0,05). Tudi delež staršev, ki se poslužujejo avtoritar- nega vzgojnega stila, je statistično značilno večji od deleža staršev, ki se poslužujejo avtoritativnega vzgojnega stila (χ2 = 18,843; p < 0,05). V skladu s tem lahko prvo hipotezo, da med starši učencev tretjega razreda de- vetletne osnovne šole prevladuje permisivni vzgojni stil pred avtoritativnim in avto- ritarnim vzgojnim stilom, potrdimo. Čeprav s primerjavo povprečij tega nismo uspeli pokazati, kar pripisujemo dejstvu, da starši pri trditvah, ki merijo permisivni vzgojni stil, dosegajo relativno nizke povprečne vrednosti, pa primerjava deležev kaže, da med starši statistično značilno prevladuje permisivni vzgojni stil. Tabela 4 prikazuje struktu- ro staršev, za katere je značilen permisivni vzgojni stil, po izobrazbi. Tabela 4 Starši, za katere je značilen permisivni vzgojni stil Stopnja izobrazbe Frekvenca f Odstotek % Srednja šola ali manj 214 51,0 Višja šola 57 13,6 Prva bolonjska stopnja ali visoka šola 67 16,0 Druga bolonjska stopnja ali univerzitetna šola 65 15,5 Znanstveni magisterij ali doktorat 17 4,0 Skupaj 420 100,0 122 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) □ H2: Med starši z različnimi demografskimi značilnostmi in njihovim vzgojnim stilom obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike. Pri proučevanju razlik v vzgojnih stilih staršev glede na njihove demografske zna- čilnosti smo preverili razlike glede na spol, starost in izobrazbo. Razlike v vzgojnih stilih staršev glede na spol smo preverili s pomočjo t-testa za dva neodvisna vzorca. Pri tem smo za vsak posamezni vzgojni stil med seboj primerjali pov- prečja med moškimi in ženskami. Glede na vrednosti Levenovega F-testa (F = 0,445; p > 0,05 za permisivni vzgojni stil; F = 0,574; p > 0,05 za avtoritarni vzgojni stil) smo potrdili predpostavko o homogenosti varianc v primerjanih skupinah, zato smo za ta dva primera razlike med moškimi in ženskami preverili s pomočjo klasičnega t-testa. V primeru avtoritativnega vzgojnega stila (F = 4,949; p < 0,05) pa predpostavke o homo- genosti varianc nismo potrdili, zato smo razlike med moškimi in ženskami preverili s pomočjo Welchovega t-testa. Rezultate prikazuje tabela 5. Tabela 5 Primerjava povprečnih vrednosti vzgojnih stilov med starši glede na spol Vzgojni stil Spol n PV SD t p ženski 811 2,21 0,522 Permisivni A –1,619 0,106 moški 154 2,29 0,487 ženski 811 3,44 0,681 Avtoritativni B –1,152 0,250 moški 153 3,50 0,599 ženski 809 3,05 0,663 Avtoritarni C –0,911 0,362 moški 154 3,10 0,639 Opombe: A Levenov F-test = 0,445; p = 0,505; B Levenov F-test = 4,949; p = 0,026; C Levenov F-test = 0,574; p = 0,449 Ugotovili smo, da sicer med moškimi in ženskami obstajajo manjše razlike v pov- prečnih vrednostih posameznih vzgojnih stilov, vendar pa te razlike niso statistično zna- čilne. V skladu z ugotovitvijo ne moremo trditi, da obstajajo statistično značilne razlike v vzgojnih stilih staršev glede na njihov spol. Nadalje smo za proučitev razlik v vzgojnih stilih staršev glede na njihovo starost preverili povezanost spremenljivke starost s koncepti vzgojnih stilov, ki smo jih obliko- vali s pomočjo faktorske analize. Povezanost smo proučili s pomočjo vrednosti Pearso- novih korelacijskih koeficientov, katerih vrednosti in pripadajoče statistične značilnosti prikazuje tabela 6. Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 123 Tabela 6 Povezanost med starostjo in vzgojnimi stili staršev (Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient) Vzgojni stil Permisivni Avtoritativni Avtoritarni Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient –0,023 –0,088* –0,010 Starost p 0,478 0,006 0,767 n 966 965 964 Rezultati kažejo, da je starost statistično značilno povezana z avtoritativnim vzgoj- nim stilom staršev, pri čemer gre za negativno in precej šibko povezanost (r = –0,088; p < 0,05). Glede na to ugotavljamo, da je za mlajše starše v večji meri značilen avtori- tativni vzgojni stil. Nazadnje smo preverili tudi razlike v vzgojnih stilih staršev glede na njihovo izo- brazbo. Najprej smo preverili povezanost spremenljivke izobrazba s koncepti vzgojnih stilov, ki smo jih oblikovali s pomočjo faktorske analize. Pri tem smo najprej reko- dirali vrednosti spremenljivke izobrazba, saj je med starši le manjše število tistih z osnovnošolsko izobrazbo, zato smo jih priključili staršem s srednješolsko izobrazbo ter kategorijo preimenovali v “srednja šola ali manj”. Tako smo izračunali Spearmanove korelacijske koeficiente, katerih vrednosti in pripadajoče statistične značilnosti prika- zuje tabela 7. Tabela 7 Povezanost med izobrazbo in vzgojnimi stili staršev (Spearmanov korelacijski koeficient) Vzgojni stil Permisivni Avtoritativni Avtoritarni Spearmanov korelacijski koeficient –0,254* –0,095* –0,143* Izobrazba p 0,000 0,008 0,000 n 966 965 964 Naša ugotovitev je, da je izobrazba staršev statistično značilno povezana z vsemi vzgojnimi stili. Čeprav so v vseh primerih korelacije relativno šibke in negativne, ugo- tavljamo, da je z izobrazbo najmočneje povezan permisivni vzgojni stil (r = –0,254; p < 0,05), sledi avtoritarni vzgojni stil (r = –0,143; p < 0,05), najšibkeje pa je z izo- brazbo negativno povezan avtoritativni vzgojni stil (r = –0,095; p < 0,05). Glede na to ugotavljamo, da so vsi vzgojni stili v večji meri značilni za starše z nižjo stopnjo iz- obrazbe, pri čemer izstopa permisivni vzgojni stil. To pomeni, da je za starše z nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe v primerjavi s starši z višjo stopnjo izobrazbe permisivni vzgojni stil bolj značilen. Razlike v vzgojnih stilih staršev glede na njihovo izobrazbo smo nato preverili tudi s pomočjo metode ANOVA. Pri tem smo za vsak posamezni vzgojni stil med seboj pri- 124 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) merjali povprečja v različnih izobrazbenih skupinah. Glede na vrednosti Levenovega F-testa (F = 1,921; p > 0,05 za permisivni vzgojni stil, F = 0,219; p > 0,05 za avtorita- tivni vzgojni stil, F = 0,743; p > 0,05 za avtoritarni vzgojni stil) smo v vseh primerih potrdili tudi predpostavko o homogenosti varianc v primerjanih skupinah, zato smo nadalje izračunali F-statistike klasične ANOVA. Rezultate prikazuje tabela 8. Tabela 8 Primerjava povprečnih vrednosti vzgojnih stilov med izobrazbenimi skupinami staršev Vzgojni stil Izobrazba n PV SD F p srednja šola ali manj 429 2,35 0,537 višja šola 135 2,24 0,498 Permisivni A prva bolonjska stopnja ali visoka šola 156 2,13 0,444 16,557* 0,000 druga bolonjska stopnja ali univerzitetna šola 205 2,04 0,488 znanstveni magisterij ali doktorat 41 2,09 0,389 srednja šola ali manj 429 3,52 0,661 višja šola 135 3,41 0,674 Avtoritativni B prva bolonjska stopnja ali visoka šola 156 3,39 0,655 2,744* 0,027 druga bolonjska stopnja ali univerzitetna šola 205 3,36 0,681 znanstveni magisterij ali doktorat 40 3,47 0,723 srednja šola ali manj 428 3,16 0,644 višja šola 135 3,06 0,657 Avtoritarni C prva bolonjska stopnja ali visoka šola 155 2,98 0,646 5,283* 0,000 druga bolonjska stopnja ali univerzitetna šola 205 2,93 0,678 znanstveni magisterij ali doktorat 41 2,97 0,662 Opombe: A Levenov F-test = 1,921; df1 = 4; df2 = 961; p = 0,105; B Levenov F-test = 0,219; df1 = 4; df2 = 960; p = 0,928; C Levenov F-test = 0,743; df1 = 4; df2 = 959; p = 0,563 Glede na prikazan rezultat metode ANOVA ugotavljamo, da med izobrazbenimi skupinami obstajajo statistično razlike v povprečnih vrednostih vseh vzgojnih stilov staršev. V skladu s tem smo izvedli še Tukeyev HSD post-hoc test, ki je predstavljal parne primerjave povprečij, ki jih starši v različnih izobrazbenih skupinah dosegajo pri spremenljivkah permisivni, avtoritativni in avtoritarni vzgojni stil. Rezultati kažejo, da v primeru tako permisivnega kot tudi avtoritarnega vzgojnega stila obstaja statistično značilna razlika med starši z zaključeno srednjo šolo ali manj in višjo šolo ter starši z zaključeno prvo bolonjsko stopnjo ali visoko šolo, drugo bolonjsko stopnjo ali univer- zitetno šolo in znanstvenim magisterijem ali doktoratom. Starši z višjo izobrazbo pri spremenljivkah permisivni vzgojni stil in avtoritarni vzgojni stil zavzemajo statistično značilno nižje povprečne vrednosti, zaradi česar lahko trdimo, da je za starše z višjo stopnjo izobrazbe v manjši meri značilno, da uporabljajo permisivni in/ali avtoritarni Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 125 vzgojni stil (v primerjavi s starši z nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe). V primeru avtoritativnega vzgojnega stila pa je mogoče opaziti statistično značilno razliko le med starši s srednjo šolo ali manj ter starši z zaključeno drugo bolonjsko stopnjo ali univerzitetno šolo. V tem primeru velja, da je za starše s srednjo šolo ali manj bolj značilen avtoritativni vzgojni stil, če jih primerjamo s starši z zaključeno drugo bolonjsko stopnjo ali univer- zitetno šolo. V skladu s predstavljenimi rezultati in ugotovitvami lahko drugo hipotezo, da med starši z različnimi demografskimi značilnostmi in njihovim vzgojnim stilom obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike, potrdimo le delno. 4 Sklep Raziskava je izvirna v tem, da prva v Sloveniji vključuje obsežno analizo vzgojnih stilov staršev. Rezultati raziskave prispevajo k oblikovanju smernic za starše. Prišli smo do zanimivih, morda presenetljivih, a tudi zaskrbljujočih rezultatov. Iz- postavili bomo nekatere. 30 % staršev ne bi nič spremenilo pri svoji vzgoji. Med starši učencev prevladuje permisivni vzgojni stil. V Sloveniji imamo tako 52,4 % staršev, ki se poslužujejo per- misivnega vzgojnega stila, 19 % staršev ima avtoritativni vzgojni stil, 28,6 % staršev pa avtoritarni vzgojni stil. Čeprav naj bi avtoritativni vzgojni stil predstavljal najbolj primerno obliko vzgoje po priporočilih stroke (Cencič 1986; Peček Čuk in Lesar 2009; Hauck, 1988; Baumrind, 2008; Ručigaj, 2012; Jurič, 2009), je med našimi anketiranimi starši najmanj zastopan. Ob razmišljanju, zakaj je temu tako, lahko pridemo do spoznanja, da v Sloveniji vzga- jamo otroke tako, da skočimo iz ene skrajnosti v drugo (permisivno ali avtoritarno). V raziskavi se je pokazalo, da ima več kot polovica staršev permisivni vzgojni stil. Osnovna ideja permisivne vzgoje je, da otrok “dela, kar hoče” (Bergant, 1994). Vedno se zadovolji otrokove “potrebe” (Cencič, 1986), zato mu pač ni treba nekaj delati, če ne želi. Starši ne postavljajo zahtev (Hauck, 1988), zato lahko otrok določi, da ne bo pospravil sobe ali naredil druge določene naloge. Otrok potrebuje pravila (Kroflič, 1997a), zato mu moramo na primer določiti, da bere vsak dan na glas nekaj minut ali da zloži perilo. Na vprašanje, kaj bi spremenili pri vzgoji otrok, je 28,6 % (241) staršev odgovorilo, da nič. Lahko pa ta rezultat razumemo tudi tako, da je skoraj tretjina staršev prepriča- nih v to, kar delajo, saj staršem ne moremo določiti, kako naj vzgajajo lastnega otroka. Vzrok je lahko v permisivno vzgojenih posameznikih, ki jim je vse dovoljeno, od njih se nič ne zahteva in imajo vedno prav (Hauck, 1988). Kako narediti preskok v glavi, se obrniti vase in na stvari pogledati iz drugega zornega kota, je drugo vprašanje. V raziskavi smo starše vprašali, kateri so trije najpogostejši vzgojni problemi, ki jih rešujejo v družini. Izpostavljamo tiste probleme, ki so najbolj izstopali. Najpogostejši vzgojni problemi so neposlušnost, trma, neprimerno vedenje, neupoštevanje pravil in dogovorov, učne navade in uporaba tehnologije. Z vztrajnostjo in doslednostjo lahko hitro dosežemo, da se neprimerno vedenje zmanjša. Otrokom je nujno postaviti meje. 126 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Posledično se bo tudi trma zmanjšala, saj bo otrok videl, da starši vztrajajo in ne bo dosegel svojega. Ker so starši poudarili, da imajo problem pri uporabi tehnologije, nas je zanimalo, koliko časa otrokom dovolijo dostopati do različnih vsebin ali igric. 28,5 % staršev dovoli otroku preživeti čas pred televizijo do 30 minut na dan. 65,8 % staršev dovoli otroku preživeti čas pred televizijo od 1 do 2 ur na dan. 5,6 % staršev pa dovoli otroku preživeti čas pred televizijo tri ure ali več na dan. Namesto da bi starši otrokom posta- vljali visoka pričakovanja glede njihovega dela za šolo in jih jasno omejevali pri tem, koliko časa preživijo pred različnimi ekrani, iz otrok ustvarjajo odvisnike, zasvojene s spletom. V bodoče bi bilo dobro, da bi raziskave k temu podatku o preživetem času pred televizijo dodale še podatke o času, ki ga preživijo s pametnimi telefoni in pred drugimi podobnimi napravami. Neka druga raziskava (Kovačič idr., 2018, str. 32) je dokazala, da starši v prvi in drugi triadi osnovne šole zelo različno izpostavljajo otroke zaslonom in medijem. Otro- ci od 1. do 6. razreda so največ izpostavljeni televiziji, saj jo uporabljajo za gledanje TV-programa in video vsebin ter igranje iger. Iz raziskave, izvedene na nacionalnem vzorcu staršev, lahko sklepamo, da so slovenski osnovnošolski otroci prvih dveh triad zelo izpostavljeni tako medijem kot zaslonom. Za primerjavo: otroci v povprečju berejo knjige v tiskani obliki 29 minut, kar je skoraj petkrat manj časa, kot ga preživijo pred zaslonom. Kar 93,7 % staršev priznava, da njihovi otroci prekoračijo z njihove strani priporočeno dnevno omejitev. Še bolj zaskrbljujoče je dejstvo, da zgornja tretjina otrok bistveno odstopa in uporablja zaslone tri ure in pol dnevno. Starši večinoma dovolijo uporabo medijev brez prisotnosti odraslega za svoje otroke bolj pogosto v prvi triadi kot v drugi triadi. Po njihovem mnenju sicer precej omejujejo vsebine, vendar omejitve izginjajo z višjo starostjo otrok. Ugotovili smo, da je starost statistično značilno povezana z avtoritativnim vzgoj- nim stilom staršev, kar pomeni, da je za mlajše starše v večji meri značilen avtoritativni vzgojni stil. Ugotovili smo tudi, da med starejšimi in mlajšimi starši obstajajo statistično zna- čilne razlike v povprečnih vrednostih permisivnega in avtoritativnega vzgojnega stila. V obeh primerih velja, da sta za starše, ki pripadajo skupini starejših in so v povprečju stari skoraj 41 let, manj značilna permisivni in/ali avtoritativni vzgojni stil v primerjavi s starši, ki pripadajo skupini mlajših in so v povprečju stari dobrih 32 let. Ta podatek nas je presenetil, saj smo pričakovali, da bodo mlajši starši naravnani bolj permisivno. Statistično značilne razlike so se med starši glede na izobrazbo pokazale v nasle- dnjih primerih. Za starše z nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe je v primerjavi s starši z višjo stopnjo izobrazbe permisivni vzgojni stil bolj značilen. Za starše z višjo stopnjo izobrazbe je v manjši meri značilno, da uporabljajo permisivni in/ali avtoritarni vzgojni stil (v primer- javi s starši z nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe). Za starše s srednjo šolo ali manj je bolj značilen avtoritativni vzgojni stil, če jih primerjamo s starši z zaključeno drugo bolonjsko sto- pnjo ali univerzitetno izobrazbo. Še enkrat izpostavimo vzgojno področje, kjer so starši v večini naravnani permisiv- no. Starši se ne zavedajo, da otrokom predstavljajo zgled. Pojavlja se nam vprašanje, zakaj vzgajajo permisivno, če je po mnenju strokovnjakov avtoritativni vzgojni stil naj- Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 127 bolj primeren. Eden od možnih odgovorov je, da starši pač vzgajajo, kot njim ustreza, saj je to njihova izvorna pravica. Velikokrat prenesejo vzgojne navade iz svojega odraščanja. Tega ne moremo in nimamo pravice spreminjati, lahko pa na to poskusimo vplivati. Pedagoški strokovnja- ki in šola kot izobraževalna ustanova lahko vplivajo na starše posredno. Izpostavimo lahko sodelovanje, ki sta ga preučevala v raziskavi Berčnik in Devjak (2018, str. 75). Po mnenju staršev je sodelovanje med starši in šolo pri pomembnih elementih vzgoje pomembno. Kot najpomembnejše so anketirani starši ocenili sodelovanje pri določanju odgovornosti otrok in staršev, sledi sodelovanje pri določanju vrednot šole, načrtovanje sodelovanja s starši in načrtovanje dela s “težavnimi” otroki, nato sodelovanje pri po- stavljanju pravil hišnega reda, načrtovanju dela z učenci s posebnimi potrebami in pri načrtovanju sodelovanja s širšo skupnostjo. Elementi vzgojne zasnove so v šoli del različnih dokumentov, med drugim vzgoj- nega načrta, letnega delovnega načrta, hišnega reda in publikacije. V raziskavi, ki sta jo opravila Berčnik in Devjak (2017, str. 76), so anketirane starše vprašali, ali menijo, da bi morali starši sodelovati pri oblikovanju dokumentov šole. Zanimivo – le dobra polo- vica anketiranih staršev (53,2 %) meni, da bi starši morali sodelovati. Med odgovori, ki so podpirali sodelovanje, je bilo največ takšnih, ki so zapisali, da bi morali sodelovati pri oblikovanju letnega delovnega načrta in vzgojnega načrta, nekaj pa jih je zapisalo tudi, da naj bi sodelovali s podajanjem predlogov, idej, pripomb. Med odgovori, ki ne podpirajo sodelovanja, pa so prevladovali odgovori, da gre pri oblikovanju dokumentov šole za strokovno avtonomijo šole in strokovnih delavcev, zaposlenih v njej. Izsledki kažejo, da skoraj polovica anketiranih staršev na oblikovanje dokumen- tov šole gleda kot na nekaj, kar spada v strokovno avtonomijo in odgovornost šole ter strokovnih delavcev v njej, zanemarjajo pa pomemben vidik sooblikovanja, ki omo- goča postavljanje skupnih ciljev in deljenje odgovornosti – za uspeh učenca v šoli je pomembno, da se strokovni delavci in starši zavedajo svoje vloge pri razvoju in uspehu. Jasno je, da imajo strokovni delavci v šoli strokovno avtonomijo, ki pa v povezavi s so- delovanjem staršev po našem mnenju pomeni tudi, da znajo vključiti predloge staršev, kadar so smiselni, in jih strokovno argumentirano “izključiti”, kadar niso. Raziskavo bomo nadaljevali tako, da bomo vzgojne stile staršev primerjali z do- sežki njihovih otrok pri bralni pismenosti. Naredili bomo tudi analizo vzgojnih stilov učiteljev. Spremembe v družinskih vzgojnih vzorcih, ki zajemajo od izginjajočega av- toritarnega preko avtoritativnega do permisivnega vzgojnega stila, povzročijo razlike v vedenju otrok in zastavljajo šolam nov edukacijski izziv, ki vključuje tudi avtoriteto učitelja. To sta raziskovala Krek in Klopčič (2019, str. 135), ki sta ugotovila, da tudi pri učiteljih obstajajo trije osnovni vzgojni stili: permisivni, avtoritarni in avtoritativni. Zanimal nas bo vpliv učiteljevega vzgojnega stila na bralne dosežke otrok. Nato pa nas bo zanimalo, ali vzgojni stili staršev in učiteljev vzajemno vplivajo na bralno pismenost učencev konec tretjega razreda osnovne šole. 128 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) Kaja Lenič Parenting Styles Each parent thinks that they are the best at raising their child. However, reality often differs from our opinion, so we should take the time in this fast-paced life to check how we аrе raising our child. The ones we love most in the world (our children) must be worthy of the best upbringing to receive the best foundations for life. The goal of upbringing and education is to bring children to the point where they will be able to fulfil their obligations independently, when they become emotionally, socially and eco- nomically independent. So, we have to ask ourselves whether we are achieving this goal with our actions, with our way of acting and educating. Parents must set an example. Children can see how their parents behave and what opinions they have about others. Parents can be too permissive with their children on the one hand, and too demanding on the other. We may be too demanding when it comes to competitive achievements: doing well in school, winning the soccer tournament, performing in the ballet, and so on. However, we may not be demanding enough in the daily practical skills and inter- personal relations: children need to clean up after themselves, help their grandparents, be respectful of others and have a proper approach to adults when they want to ask them something. As a society, we are too focused on children (Sedmak, 2019). Parents state that they want to protect their children from the daily pressures of school. An ideal school should enable the learning of happiness in a friendly environment. Families make many demands on schools, but it is necessary to ask how the parents perceive their educational responsibility (Blais et al., 2011). It is our parenting style that determines how we raise our children. We distinguish authoritarian, permissive and authoritative parenting styles. Authors (Peček Čuk and Lesar, 2009; Cenčič, 1986; Jurič, 2009) agree that an authoritative parenting style is the most suitable for raising children, as it results in a responsible, autonomous and independent individual, which is the main goal of education. It cannot be achieved with the authoritarian and permissive parenting style. In their research, Krivec and Popovič (2020, p. 110) found how parents’ parenting styles and children’s attention are related. The best results in maintaining attention were achieved in children who were brought up in a distinctly authoritative style. We researched which parenting style prevails among parents in Slovenia and the dif- ferences between parenting styles according to demographic characteristics. 968 parents took part in the research and filled out a questionnaire. The quantitative research was conducted throughout Slovenia. The permissive parenting style prevails among students’ parents. In Slovenia 52.4 % of parents use the permissive parenting style, 19 % of parents the authoritative parenting style, and 28.6 % of parents the authoritarian parenting style. Although the authoritative parenting style is supposed to represent the most suitable form of education according to professional recommendations (Cencič 1986; Peček Čuk and Lesar 2009; Hauck 1988; Baumrind 2008; Ručigaj 2012; Jurič 2009), it is the least rep- resented among the surveyed parents. When thinking about why this is so, we can realize that in Slovenia we raise children by jumping from one extreme to the other (permissive or authoritarian). The research showed that more than half of the parents have the permis- Kaja Lenič: Vzgojni stili staršev 129 sive parenting style. The basic idea of permissive education is that the child “does what he or she wants” (Bergant, 1994). It always satisfies the child’s “needs” (Cencič, 1986), so the child does not have to do something if he or she does not want to. Parents do not make demands (Hauck, 1988), so a child may decide not to clean the room or do another speci- fied task. A child needs rules (Kroflič, 1997a), so the parents must, for example, tell the child to read aloud for a few minutes every day or to fold the laundry. We found that age is statistically significantly related to the parents’ authoritative parenting style, which means that younger parents are characterized by an authoritative parenting style to a greater extent. We also found that there are statistically significant differences between older and younger parents in the average values of permissive and authoritative parenting styles. In both cases, parents who belong to the older group and are on average almost 41 years old are less characterized by the permissive and/or authoritative parenting style compared to parents who belong to the younger group and are on average just over 32 years old. The data surprised us, as we expected younger parents to be more permissive. Statistically significant differences between parents and their education were shown in the following cases: for parents with a lower level of education, compared to parents with a higher level of education, the permissive parenting style is more typical. Parents with a higher level of education are less likely to use the permissive and/or authoritarian parenting style (com- pared to parents with a lower level of education). Parents with a high school education or lower are more characterized by the authoritative parenting style when compared to parents with a second-cycle Bologna degree or university education. To the question of what they would change in the way they raise their children, 28.6 % (241 parents) answered “nothing”. However, this result can also be interpreted as the fact that almost a third of parents are confident in what they are doing since we cannot tell parents how to raise their children. The cause may be in permissively raised individuals who were allowed to do anything, nothing was demanded of them, and they were always right (Hauck, 1988). How to change one’s mind, reflect on oneself and look at things from a different perspective, was another question. In the survey, we asked parents what the three most common educational problems that they tackle in the family are. The educational problems mentioned most often were disobedience, stubbornness, inappropriate behaviour, failure to follow rules and agreements, study habits, and use of technology. With persistence and consistency, inappropriate behaviour can be quickly reduced. It is essential to set boundaries for children. As a result, stubbornness will also decrease, as the child will see that the parents insist and will not give up and give them what they want. Since the parents emphasized that they have a problem with technology use, we were interested in how much time they allow their children to spend on different digital content or games. 28.5 % of parents allow their children to spend up to 30 min- utes a day in front of the television. 65.8 % of parents allow their children to spend 1 to 2 hours a day in front of the television. 5.6 % of parents allow their children to spend three hours or more a day in front of the television. Instead of parents setting high expectations for their children regarding their work for school and limiting how much time they spend in front of various screens, they are creating children addicted to the Internet. In future research, data on the time spent in front of smartphones and other similar devices should be added to the data on the time spent in front of the television. Another study (Kovačič et al., 2018, p. 32) proved that parents in the first and second triennium of primary school expose children to screens and media very differently. The children 130 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2023) from Year 1 to Year 6 are most exposed to television, as they use it to watch TV pro- grammes and video content, as well as to play games. From the research conducted on a national sample of parents, it can be concluded that Slovenian primary school children of the first two triennia are highly exposed to both media and screens. For comparison, children read printed books for 29 minutes on average, which is almost five times less than what they spend in front of a screen. As many as 93.7 % of parents admit that their children exceed their recommended daily limit. Even more alarming is the fact that the top third of children deviate significantly and use screens for three and a half hours a day. Parents generally allow their children to use media without the presence of an adult more often in the first triennium than in the second triennium. In their opinion, they limit the content quite a bit, but the restrictions disappear as the children get older. Once again, let us highlight the field of education, where the majority of parents are permissive. Parents do not realize that they are setting an example for their children. The question arises, why do parents use the permissive style in educating their children if, according to experts, the authoritative parenting style is the most suitable? One pos- sible answer is that parents simply bring up their children as they see fit, considering it to be their parental right. Parents often pass on the educational habits acquired during their childhood. We cannot and have no right to change it, but at least we can try to influence it. We, as peda- gogical experts and the school as an educational institution, can influence parents indi- rectly. We can highlight the cooperation between parents and schools that was studied in the research (Berčnik and Devjak, 2018, p. 75). According to parents, cooperation between parents and the school is necessary concerning the important elements of edu- cation. The parents who participated in the survey rated cooperation in determining the responsibilities of children and parents as the most important, followed by cooperation in determining school values, planning cooperation with parents, and planning work with “problem” children, then cooperation in setting the house rules, planning work with pupils with special needs, and planning cooperation with the wider community. The research will be continued by comparing parenting styles with the children’s reading literacy achievements. Teachers’ teaching styles will also be analysed. Chang- es in family upbringing patterns, ranging from the disappearing authoritarian style through the authoritative style up to the permissive parenting style, are changing chil- dren’s behaviour and posing new educational challenges to schools, including the teacher’s authority. This topic was researched by authors (Krek and Klopčič, 2019, p. 135), who found that there are three basic teaching styles among teachers: permis- sive, authoritarian and authoritative. We are going to conduct research regarding the influence of the teacher’s teaching style on children’s reading achievements, as well as whether the educational styles of parents and teachers mutually influence the reading literacy of pupils at the end of Year 3 of primary school. LITERATURA 1. Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior. Child Deve- lopment, 37(4), 887–907. 2. Baumrind, D. (1967). Child Care Practices Anteceding Three Patterns of Preschool Behavior. 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Avtorje prosimo, da pri pripravi znanstvenih in strokovnih In the preparation of scientific paper, please observe the follow- člankov upoštevajo naslednja navodila: ing instructions: 1.  Članke  v  tiskani  obliki  z  vašimi  podatki  in  povzetkom  v  1. Papers in printed form with your details and the abstract in skladu z navodili pošljete na naslov: Uredništvo revije Di- accordance with the instructions should be sent to the Edi- dactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, Na Loko 2, p.p. 124, torial Board of Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, 8000 Novo mesto,  Slovenija.  Članke  sprejemamo  tudi  po  Na Loko 2, p.p. 124, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia. We also elektronski pošti na elektronski naslov uredništva. Prejetega accept papers sent to our email address. The material re- gradiva ne vračamo. ceived will not be returned. 2.  Članek  s  povzetkom  priložite  na  ustreznem  podatkovnem  2. The paper and the abstract should be submitted on the rel- mediju. Ime datoteke članka naj bo priimek avtorja ali naslov  evant data media. The file name should include the surname  članka  –  kar  naj  bo  jasno  označeno  tudi  na  poslanem po- of the author or the title of the paper – which should also be datkovnem mediju. Članek naj bo napisan z urejevalnikom  clearly marked on the data media. The paper should be writ- besedil Microsoft Word. V primeru, da nam članek posre- ten with Microsoft Word text editor. If the paper is sent only dujete  izključno v elektronski obliki, nam poslani material  in electronic form (not in printed form as well), is should posredujete tudi v PDF obliki. also be sent in PDF format. 3.  Znanstveni članki lahko obsegajo do 30.000 znakov. 3.  Scientific papers may include up to 30,000 characters. 4.  Vsak članek naj  ima na posebnem  listu naslovno stran, ki  4. Each paper should have a cover page on a separate sheet, con- vsebuje ime in priimek avtorja, leto rojstva, domači naslov,  taining the author’s name and surname, year of birth, home telefonsko številko, naslov članka, akademski  in strokovni  address, telephone number, title, academic and professional naslov, naslov ustanove, kjer je zaposlen in elektronski na- title, the address of the institution where the author works slov. V primeru,  da  je  avtorjev  več,  se  napišejo  zahtevani  and the email address. If there are several authors, the form podatki za vsakega avtorja posebej. Vodilni avtor mora biti should include the required information for each author sepa- med avtorji napisan na prvem mestu. rately. The primary author must be written in the first place. 5.  Znanstveni in strokovni članki morajo imeti povzetek v slo- 5.  Scientific  and professional  papers  should  have  an  abstract  venskem (od 1.000 do 1.200 znakov s presledki) in v angle- in Slovene (from 1,000 up to 1,200 characters with spaces) škem jeziku. Povzetek in ključne besede naj bodo napisani  and English. The abstract and key words should be written at na začetku članka. Priložiti je treba tudi razširjeni povzetek  the beginning of the paper. There should also be an extended (10.000 znakov s presledki) v angleškem jeziku. abstract (10,000 characters with spaces) in English. 6.  Tabele in slike naj bodo v besedilu smiselno vključene. Slike  6.  Tables and figures should be included in the text in a mean- naj bodo priložene tudi kot samostojne datoteke v ustreznem  ingful way. Figures should also be attached as stand-alone slikovnem zapisu (jpg, jpeg) v ločljivosti vsaj 600 pik na pa- files in an appropriate image format (jpg, jpeg) with resolu- lec, oziroma vektorskem zapisu (eps, pdf). Slikovno gradivo, tion of at least 600 pixels per inch, or vector format (eps, pdf). ki ne zadošča minimalnim zahtevam, bo v končni tehnični  Images that do not meet the minimum requirements shall be pripravi zaradi neustreznosti izpuščeno. omitted in the final technical preparation of the Journal. 7.  Pri citiranju, povzemanju in navajanju literature priporoča- 7. When quoting, summarizing and citing literature, we recom- mo upoštevanje standarda APA (American Psychological mend following the APA (American Psychological Associa- Association) in sicer na naslednji način: tion) standard as follows: □ Za knjige: priimek in ime avtorja, leto izdaje, naslov, □ For books: the author’s surname and name, year of pub- kraj, založba. Primer: Novak, H. (2020). Projektno učno  lication, title, place, publisher. For example: Novak, H. delo. Ljubljana: DZS. (2020). Projektno učno delo. Ljubljana: DZS. □ Za članke v revijah: priimek in ime avtorja, leto objave,  □ For articles in journals: the author’s surname and name, naslov revije, letnik, številka, strani. Primer: Strmčnik, F.  year of publication, title of the journal, volume, num- in Kramar, M. (2017). Reševanje problemov kot posebna ber,  pages.  For  example:  Strmčnik,  F.  and Kramar, M.  učna metoda. Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja,  (2017). Reševanje problemov kot posebna učna metoda.  12(5), 3. Pedagoška obzorja, 12(5), 3. □ Za članke v zbornikih: priimek  in  ime avtorja,  leto ob- □ For articles in journals: the author’s surname and name, jave, naslov članka, podatki o knjigi ali zborniku, strani.  year of publication, title, information about the book or Primer: Razdevšek Pučko, C. (2013). Usposabljanje uči- the  journal,  pages.  For  example:  Razdevšek  Pučko,  C.  teljev za uvajanje novosti. V: Tancer, M. (ur.). Stoletnica (2013). Usposabljanje  učiteljev  za  uvajanje  novosti. V:  rojstva Gustava Šiliha. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta, Tancer, M. (Ed.). Stoletnica rojstva Gustava Šiliha. Mari- 234–247. bor: Pedagoška fakulteta, 234–247. 8.  Vključevanje reference v tekst: Če gre za točno navedbo,  8. The inclusion of references in the text: If it is an exact ref- napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto izdaje in stran erence, the surname, the year of publication and the page (Kroflič, 2017, str. 15). Če pa gre za splošno navedbo, stran  should be written in brackets (Kroflič, 2017, p. 15). If it is a  izpustimo (Kroflič, 2017). general reference, the page is omitted (Kroflič, 2017). 9.  V primeru spletnih referenc je obvezno navajanje točne sple- 9. In the case of online references, the exact website must be tne strani skupaj z imenom dokumenta ter datumom povze- cited, together with the name of the document and the date ma informacije. Primer: Brcar, P. (2020). Kako poskrbeti za on which the information was summarised. For example: zdravje šolarjev. Inštitut za varovanje zdravja RS. Dostopno Brcar, P. (2020). How to take care of schoolchildren’s health. na: http://www.sigov.si/ivz/vsebine/zdravje.pdf (pridobljeno Institute for Health Protection of RS. Available at: http://www. 25. 11. 2021). sigov.si/ivz/vsebine/zdravje.pdf (retrieved 25. 11. 2021). Za vsa dodatna pojasnila ter informacije glede priprave in ob- For any further clarification and information regarding the prep- jave člankov, za katere menite, da niso zajeta v navodilih, se  aration and publication of papers that are not included in these obrnite na glavnega in odgovornega urednika na elektronski instructions, please contact the Editor-in-chief on email address naslov chief.editor@didactica-slovenica.si. Za splošnejše in- chief.editor@didactica-slovenica.si. For any information and formacije  ter  tehnično  pomoč pri  pripravi  članka  pa  se  lah- technical assistance in preparing the paper, please contact the ko obrnete na uredništvo oziroma na naš elektronski naslov Editorial board or submit your questions to the email address info@pedagoska-obzorja.si. editorial.office@didactica-slovenica.si.