62 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. Employees’ Entrepreneurial Work and Intention to Become Independent Entrepreneurs: A Comparison of India and Slovenia Sahana Swaroop CMR University, Kalyana Nagar, 560002 Bangalore, India sahanaswrp@gmail.com ARTICLE INFO Original Scientific Article Article History: Received November 2023 Revised November 2023 Accepted December 2023 JEL Classification: M0, M1, P5 Keywords: Entrepreneurial intentions Societal differences Dynamic capabilities India Slovenia UDK: 338.48:355.01(477) DOI: 10.2478/ngoe-2023-0024 Cite this article as: Swaroop, S. (2023). Employees’ Entrepreneurial Work and Intention to Become Independent Entrepreneurs: A Comparison of India and Slovenia. Naše gospodarstvo/Our Economy, 69(4), 62-72. DOI: 10.2478/ ngoe-2023-0024. ©2023 The Authors. Published by Sciendo on behalf of University of Maribor, Faculty of Economics and Business, Slovenia. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/4.0/). Abstract Employees' different levels of entrepreneurial work are likely to be asso- ciated with varying levels of knowledge and intentions in a country. This leads the current paper to argue how entrepreneurial work by employ- ees influences employees' approach to running their businesses in India and Slovenia. Random samples of employees in India and Slovenia were surveyed from 2012 to 2019 by Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. The current study emphasized the significant role of entrepreneurial work by employees in their potential to become independent entrepreneurs, albeit with differences between India and Slovenia. Our main theoretical contri- bution is bridging the gap between dynamic capability and entrepreneurial work by employees at the macro level in India and Slovenia. Additionally, the study provides practical suggestions for Indian policymakers and Slove- nian owners/managers. Introduction The possession of intellectual property often prompts employees to leave their jobs and pursue independent entrepreneurship (Hellmann, 2007). Previous studies have indicated the importance of recognizing employees with innovative ideas and encouraging their contributions to corporate en- trepreneurial actions (Padi et al., 2022). Competent employees are typically unlikely to leave their jobs for other employment opportunities; however, if they do quit, it is often to start their businesses (Chan et al., 2017). The intention to become an independent entrepreneur varies across societies, as social norms, rules, and values influence organizational behavior. The level of entrepreneurial employee activity is positively associated with knowl- edge investments and outputs in a country (Stam, 2013). This identification of the issue prompts us to explore how entrepreneurial work by employees influences their intention to run their businesses in dif- ferent societies. Certain employees possess greater abilities and capabilities in organizations, leading to different outcomes. Some competent employees advance within the organization based on their high commitment, produc- tivity, and increased knowledge, ultimately becoming potential leaders, * Corresponding author 63 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. catalyst for driving innovation and fostering economic progress (Al Issa, 2021; Hassan, 2021; Kuratko & Hodgetts, 2004). Given the current landscape of intensified global competition, heightened interdependence, rapid tech- nological advancements, and uncertain environments, organizations are increasingly compelled to adopt a more entrepreneurial mindset to thrive and flourish (Dess, Lumpkin, & McGee, 1999). Many experts argue that the survival and success of an organization hinge upon its ability to consistently engage in organizational renewal, innovation, and risk-taking, all of which necessitate iden- tifying and pursuing new opportunities (Miller, 1983). Within the realm of entrepreneurship, literature terms such as “corporate entrepreneurship” (which encompass- es a company’s collective efforts in innovation, renewal, and venturing) (Zahra & Covin 1995; Dess, Lumpkin, & McGee, 1999), “entrepreneurship” (referring to the stra- tegic choices of which business endeavors an organi- zation should undertake) (Miles & Snow, 1978), and “entrepreneurial intention” (representing the conscious mental state preceding the action of individuals or a group directed towards the goal of establishing a new business or idea) (Saúde et al., 2019) have gained wide- spread usage. However, the concept of “entrepreneurial intention” holds relevance for this particular study. Hellman (2007) examines an economic theory of when employees become entrepreneurs. The paper address- es when employees generate innovations and whether these innovations may be developed as ventures either internally or outside the firm. He theorizes that employ- ees who own intellectual property (IP) generally leave to do a start-up. Similarly, Chan et al. (2017) suggest that the potential for intrapreneurship is not unique to only entrepreneurial employees. Instead, they suggest we may also find intra- preneurs among employees with strong leadership and professional motivations. Economic improvement, activity creation, innovation, and a nation’s competitiveness are normally attributed to the entrepreneurial activities pursued in those econ- omies. The entrepreneurship phenomenon has been widely researched, and plenty of factors had been iden- tified as principal drivers of entrepreneurship, together with national culture. Societal lifestyle and culture are thought to form a human being’s attitudes, intentions, and behaviours. And certain cultures are entrepreneur- ship-supportive, and others are not. For example, Al- Jubari et al. (2019) discovered the relationship between society, way of life, and entrepreneurship. Their findings managers, or successors. Conversely, some organizations fail to recognize the capabilities and abilities of their com- petent employees. Organizations sometimes identify their productive employees but neglect to support them or en- courage their contributions to corporate entrepreneurial actions (Padi et al., 2022). A previous study highlighted that a corporate entrepreneurship approach involves engaging in entrepreneurial activity to identify new op- portunities (Miles et al., 2003). Based on the studies by Klofsten et al. in 2021, a theoretical relationship exists between dynamic capabilities (Teece, 2023) and intra- preneurship (Covin & Slevin, 1991). However, certain societies with high rates of independent entrepreneur- ship exhibit low rates of intrapreneurship (Bosma et al., 2012). As Stam (2013) expressed, entrepreneurial work by employees is more prevalent than independent entrepre- neurial activity in economies with multiple wealth. This identification of the issue frames our comparative study, raising the question of whether entrepreneurial work by employees enhances the intention to become independ- ent entrepreneurs. We utilized a representative sample from the Global En- trepreneurship Monitor Adult Population Survey (GEM APS) conducted in India and Slovenia to address this research aim. Our key findings demonstrate that employ- ees engaged in entrepreneurial work in Slovenia have weaker intentions to become entrepreneurs compared to societies where entrepreneurial work by employees is less common. As Bosma et al. (2011) pointed out, cultures that promote job autonomy among employees shape entrepre- neurial employee activity positively. Our main theoretical contribution lies in examining the theoretical synergies between dynamic capability and entrepreneurial work by employees at the macro level in these two distinct societies. Based on practical implica- tions, we suggest policymakers in societies like India pay attention to employees with high potential capabilities, extensive knowledge, experience, and a strong commit- ment to becoming independent entrepreneurs. Converse- ly, owners/managers in societies such as Slovenia should prioritize the care and support of their competent employ- ees to enhance corporate entrepreneurial activities. The following sections will delve into theoretical devel- opment and hypotheses, describe the research design and results, and conclude with our findings and contributions. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Entrepreneurship has historically been recognized as a 64 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. suggest that cultural uniqueness and a society’s way of life are essential to entrepreneurial behaviors. They also advise that cultural differences have varying degrees of effect on entrepreneurs' aims and subsequent behaviours. Thus, a society shapes a person’s outlook toward an enterprise and provides the impetus for the person to be involved in any entrepreneurial activities. This is profound but seen across varying degrees in employees across societies. Hence, we see that employees belonging to certain societies have a propensity to indulge in entre- preneurial activities, while employees belonging to other societies do not seem to have as much. Several concepts of ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ have also explored how people (and employees) in certain societies, as opposed to others, develop the intentions to engage in entrepreneurial actions and thus exhibit a high sense of entrepreneurial intention. Organizations are a subset of the culture or societies they exist in. Hence, when soci- eties shape the organizations, they shape the employees who work in that organization, as well. Therefore, this research theorizes that societies precede human behavior in organizations, particularly when it comes to employees exhibiting entrepreneurial inten- tions or willingness to engage in entrepreneurial work. Employees’ entrepreneurial work in different societies Bosma et al. (2012) presented the results of the first large- scale international comparative study of entrepreneurial employee activity (intrapreneurship). They suggested that intrapreneurship is more widespread in high-income than low-income countries. Bosma et al. (2012) indicated that at the individual level, intrapreneurs are much more likely to have the intention to start a new independent business than other employees. Similarly, Stam (2013) presented the outcomes of the first large-scale international study of entrepreneurial employee activities. Stam (2013) suggested that en- trepreneurial employee activity is more prevalent in multiple advanced capitalist economies than independ- ent entrepreneurial activity. Dheer (2016) also suggests that the cultural context of nations moderates the effect of entrepreneurial ori- entation among employees and entrepreneurial activi- ties in an organization. Consistent with this argument, it investigates the role of various cultural variables defined by Hofstede (1980), such as individualism-col- lectivism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance, in moderating the effect of political freedom, corrup- tion, and education on entrepreneurial activity across nations. Their results support the theorized arguments and suggest that national cultures positively moderate the effect of political freedom, negatively moderate the effect of corruption, and positively moderate the effect of education, on the rate of entrepreneurial activity across nations. Hence, we posit that different societies and cultures shape employees' entrepreneurial inten- tions and work. A specific interest of this study is the comparative inves- tigation between two societies, India and Slovenia. The cross-cultural comparison tool by the Culture factor study (2020) based on the Hofstede et al. (1980) model posits huge differences between India and Slovenia in terms of their overall culture. According to Ding (2014), context and decision-making are strongly related. Cultural and economic contexts will also play an important role in en- trepreneurial intention, leading to an impact on funding influenced by individual characteristics, such as skills, or by national policies in different societies, whether tra- ditional or more progressive (Samsami, 2023). According to Inglehart's 2018 study, India finds itself in a position where survival and traditional values are prominent, highlighting the significance of religion, parent-child ties, deference to authority, and family traditions. Conversely, Slovenia reflects secular-rational and self-ex- pression values, with a reduced emphasis on religion, tra- ditional family values, and a high preference for increased participation in economic and political decision-making. While India scores 24 and Slovenia scores 81 on the in- dividualism score, Indians score higher in motivation and achievement toward success than their Slovenian counterparts (India is at 56 compared to Slovenia at 19). However, Slovenia's uncertainty avoidance (88 score) is higher than India (Score 40). Research findings demonstrate variations in innovative capabilities, processes, and outcomes across different nations, highlighting cultural distinctions (Foster, 1962; Herbig & Dunphy, 1998; Herbig & Jacobs, 1998). However, it is equally crucial to comprehend the innovative behav- iors of individuals within their unique cultural contexts (Pandey et al., 1996). Prior studies have indicated a con- nection between cultural values and entrepreneurship (Begley & Tan, 2001; Leung & White, 2004). Based on this theoretical background, we feel that so- cieties and cultures shape the propensity to undertake entrepreneurial work, and hence, we hypothesize the following: 65 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. H1: Societal differences positively impact employees’ will- ingness to engage in entrepreneurial work. In the above hypothesis, we argue that societal differenc- es positively shape employee entrepreneurial work. Next, we find that society and culture significantly affect entrepreneurship. Societies that are more open to new thoughts and inspire risk-taking are likelier to inspire entrepreneurs and innovators. Similarly, within a given society, distinct subcultures might also have various types of entrepreneurial activity. As an example, in the US, we have seen how the Silicon Valley society has an excessive impact on innovation and idea generation that has pri- marily helped startups. Similarly, values and ideals play a position in shaping what sorts of companies are started out and the way they're run. In collectivist societies, cor- porations can be much more likely to be family-owned and operated, with a focus on continuity and balance. In individualist societies, there can be more emphasis on innovation, entrepreneurship, and risk-taking. Risk tolerance is another vital thing in determining the extent of entrepreneurial orientation in a society. People willing to take danger are more likely to start their groups. This is because starting a commercial enterprise is itself an unstable proposition. Risk-averse societies may have much less entrepreneurial interest, as human beings are less likely to leap into self-employment. Lastly, sup- portive institutions also play a vital position in fostering entrepreneurship. Such institutions may include project capital firms, incubators, and accelerators that offer en- trepreneurs funding, sources, and mentorship. Our focus of the study is to compare the entrepreneurial employees of two societies, namely India and Slovenia, and how the differences between these two societies impact the entrepreneurial orientation and intentions of the employees. Our second hypothesis is founded on the findings by Bosma et al. (2012), who suggested that internal employee-led entrepreneurship, also known as intrapreneurship, is more prevalent in high-income coun- tries than low-income countries. The authors argue that, at the organizational level, intrapreneurs exhibit higher job growth expectations for their new business activi- ties compared to independent young businesses. At the individual level, intrapreneurs are also more inclined to have the intention to start a new independent business compared to other employees. However, the authors also highlight a negative correla- tion between intrapreneurship and early-stage entre- preneurial activity at the country level. This contrasting outcome can be explained by the divergent effects of per capita income on intrapreneurship (positive effect) and early-stage entrepreneurial activity (negative effect). Several underlying mechanisms contribute to this phe- nomenon, including larger firms, higher education, and the opportunity costs associated with independent en- trepreneurship. Thus, the authors argue that societal differences significantly influence people's inclination to become entrepreneurs. Based on this, we hypothesize: H2: Societal differences positively impact the intention to become an independent entrepreneur. The fundamental question that has long intrigued both theorists and practitioners is "Where do entrepreneurs come from?" One significant source of entrepreneur- ship is found within the ranks of established company employees. This is evident in industries such as semi- conductors, where a remarkable genealogy exists, with employees leaving their parent companies to launch the next wave of entrants. Bhide (1994) discovered that in a sample of fast-growing private companies, "71% of all founders had replicated or modified an idea encountered through previous employment." Similarly, Cooper (1985) reported that 70% of founders pursued opportunities closely linked to their prior work experiences across various industries. In addition, Chan et al. (2017) argue that the potential for intrapreneurship extends beyond entrepreneurial em- ployees alone. Intrapreneurs are also among employees driven by strong leadership and professional motivations. Furthermore, Bosma et al. (2012) defined intrapreneur- ship as the development of new business activities by employees within their organization, including the estab- lishment of new outlets or subsidiaries and the launch of new products or product-market combinations. The study also explored the relationship between independent en- trepreneurship and intrapreneurship at both individual and national levels, revealing that intrapreneurs are sig- nificantly more likely than other employees to have the intention to start a new independent business. Lastly, Hellman (2003) suggests that entrepreneurs often derive their ideas from working as employees in established firms. However, employees with innovative ideas can also become intrapreneurs or managers of cor- porate spin-offs. This paper highlights the influence of company policies towards employees on innovation and entrepreneurship. So, past employment and previous en- trepreneurial work experiences may lead to employees’ intentions to become entrepreneurs themselves. Hence, we hypothesize: 66 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. H3: An employee’s entrepreneurial work enhances and promotes the intention to become an entrepreneur positively. Lastly, our understanding of why employees have in- tentions to become entrepreneurs across countries is limited. More importantly, scholars know little about why economic activities are more successful in one country than another. Counterintuitive evidence is growing and has shown direct and indirect relationships between entre- preneurial orientation and performance across countries. Interestingly, most of the inconsistent findings occurred in places outside the United States with varied cultures and economies. This discrepancy means that the underlying culture may mask the effects of entrepreneurial orienta- tion in some cultures while making it visible in others. In other words, national culture and societies may influence the impact of entrepreneurial orientation on employment. Indeed, the primary purpose of this study has been to in- vestigate whether an association exists between entrepre- neurial work by employees and their intention to become independent entrepreneur and if societal or cultural differ- ences positively shape such a relationship. While Bosma et al. (2012) acknowledge a negative cor- relation between intrapreneurship and early-stage en- trepreneurial activity at the macro level, they attribute these contrasting outcomes to the diverging effects of per capita income. Specifically, they note a positive effect of per capita income on intrapreneurship and a negative impact on early-stage entrepreneurial activity. Further- more, their research reveals that the prevalence of in- trapreneurship is approximately twice as high in high-in- come countries compared to low-income countries. But combining the theory that we have illustrated in the previous sections, we feel that there is an inter- play between societal differences and the interactions between employees’ past entrepreneurial work and employees’ intentions to become independent entrepre- neurs. Hence, in our last hypothesis, we hypothesize: H4: The association between employee entrepreneurial work and intention to become an independent entrepreneur is positively shaped by societal differences. Conceptual Framework and Hypothesized Propositions Based on the review of literature, the GEM report, and our data analysis between two countries, namely India and Slovenia, we propose a research model. The model in Figure 1.1 below illustrates that entrepreneurial work by employees influences the employees’ intentions to become independent entrepreneurs. In addition, the model proposed that a moderating variable - societal dif- ferences - had significant effects on the entrepreneurial work by employees, employees’ intentions to become in- dependent entrepreneur, and the resultant relationships. From the framework, we made the propositions about employee intentions to become independent entrepre- neurs and how they may vary across societies such as India and Slovenia. Research design Our research sites represent a sample of employees in India and Slovenia. We have collected and tabulated the available data from The Global Entrepreneurship Moni- tor's (GEM) Adult Population Survey. As part of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, the GEM survey gathered data from 17,680 employees in India and Slovenia between 2012 to 2019. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2019) Figure 1 The conceptual framework Society: India and Slovenia Entrepreneurial work by employee Intention to become independent entrepreneur H1 H4 H3 H2 Source: Author 67 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. website, www.gemconsortium.org, publicly shares its data a few years after collection. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) is an international research consortium composed primarily of national teams of researchers from various countries. GEM conducts two annual surveys, in- cluding the Adult Population Survey (APS) in the partici- pating countries (refer to Hill et al., 2023). Measurement Entrepreneurial work (Independent Variable) To measure entrepreneurial work, the GEM survey col- lected responses regarding whether the employee has been active as an intrapreneur in the past three years, coded as (1) intrapreneur or (0) not intrapreneur. Intention to become an independent entrepreneur (De- pendent Variable) The intention to become an independent entrepreneur was measured by asking: Are you, alone or with others, expecting to start a new business, including any self-employment, within the next three years? Yes (1) No (0) The GEM survey enables us to control several attributes of the employee: • Gender of employee, where female is coded 0, and male is coded 1. • Age of employee, which is counted in years. • Education of the entrepreneurial employee, counted as years to the highest completed degree. T echniques for analyzing the data The employees' backgrounds were described using fre- quencies and means (with standard deviations), and cor- relations among the variables of interest were examined using Tables 1 and 2. Logistic regression was used to test the effects on entrepreneurial work and the intention to become an entrepreneur, as shown in Table 3. Results The paper first describes the employees' background, followed by their intention to become entrepreneurs, and then tests the hypotheses regarding the effects of entrepreneurial work and the intention to become an entrepreneur. Table 1 Frequencies and means (standard deviations) of employee characteristics Description India Slovenia Sample of adults Dichotomy as 0 India, and 1 Slovenia 8665 9015 Intention to become an independent entrepreneur Percentage of adults 18.5% 11.2% Entrepreneurial work Percentage of employees 2.5% 27.5% Gender: Men Percentage of men 76.7% 47.1% Age of employees Years of age. Mean (sd) 35.9 (11.1) 42.6 (10.4) Education of employees Years of education. Mean (sd) 11.4 (4.6) 13.2(3.9) Source: Author Table 2 Correlations among 8665 employees in India and 9015 employees in Slovenia Country Intention E. work Male Age Education Country (India 0; Slovenia 1) 0 -0.10*** 0.34*** -0.30*** 0.29*** 0.20*** Intention to become entrepreneur -0.10*** 0 0.06*** 0.07*** -0.14*** 0.00 Entrepreneurial work 0.34*** 0.06*** 0 -0.03*** 0.07*** 0.18*** Gender: Male -0.30*** 0.07*** -0.03*** 0 -0.09*** -0.11*** Age 0.29*** -0.14*** 0.07*** -0.09*** 0 -0.08*** Education 0.20*** 0.003 0.18*** -0.11*** -0.08*** 0 Source: Author 68 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. Background of the employees The background of the representative sample of employ- ees is described in Table 1. The correlation among the employees is further presented in Table 2. The substantive question is whether entrepreneurial work by employees enhances the intention to become in- dependent entrepreneurs. The logistic regression results in Table 3 show the effects. Hypothesis 1 suggests that societal differences shape entrepreneurial work by employees. The positive effect indicates that societal differences shape entrepreneuri- al work by employees. This is supported by the finding that employee entrepreneurial work is more prevalent in Slovenia than India. Hypothesis 2 suggests societal differences shape the intention to become an independent entrepreneur. The positive effect indicates that societal differences posi- tively influence the intention to become an independent entrepreneur. This is supported by the finding that the intention to become an entrepreneur is higher in Slovenia compared to India. Hypothesis 3 suggests that entrepreneurial work by employees leads to a higher intention to become an independent entrepreneur. The positive effect indicates that entrepreneurial work enhances and promotes the intention to become an entrepreneur. This hypothesis is supported. Hypothesis 4 suggests that the association between entrepreneurial work by employees and the intention to become an independent entrepreneur is shaped by societal differences. The negative effect indicates that the relationship between entrepreneurial work and intention is weaker in Slovenia compared to India. This supports Hypothesis 4. Discussion Based on our research question, does entrepreneurial work by employees enhance the intention to become independent entrepreneurs, the outcomes illustrate that entrepreneurial work by employees shapes the intention to become independent entrepreneurs pos- itively, albeit differently in different societies. Bosma and colleagues in 2011 expressed that involvement in entrepreneurial employee activity and leading role in entrepreneurial employee activity before 2011 in Pakistan and Bangladesh is less than in the Slovak Republic (Bosma et al., 2011, 43). This is in line with our study that pointed out entrepreneurial work by em- ployees in Slovenia is more than entrepreneurial work by employees in India. In a society like Slovenia, where entrepreneurial work by employees is strong, the inten- tion to become an independent entrepreneur is lower compared to a society like India where entrepreneurial work by employees is weaker. Our comparison study can be applied to various societies, considering the similarities or differences in contextu- al characteristics. Considering the dimensions of the World Value Survey, which encompass religion, politics, economy, and social life, we observe similarities between India and countries like Egypt and Iran. In contrast, Slove- nia's secular-modern values align closely with Germany's (Samsami, 2023). Thus, each society's values are reflected through individuals rather than determined solely by ge- ographical locations (Inglehart & Welzel, 2010). Table 3 Entrepreneurial work and intention to become an entrepreneur - affected by society and entrepreneurial work Entrepreneurial work Intention to become entrepreneur Society (India 0; Slovenia 1) 2.78***H1 -0.607*** H2 -0.448*** Entrepreneurial work - 0.918*** H3 2.007*** Society * Entrepreneurial work - - -1.348*** H4 Gender: Male 0.548*** 0.269*** 0.289*** Age -0.006** -0.032*** -0.032*** Education 0.112*** -0.002 -0.003 Constant -5.273*** -0.596*** -.641*** N employees 17,680 17,680 17,680 Logistic regression; Dichotomous variables are 0 and 1 dummies; † p<0.10, * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001 69 NAŠE GOSPODARSTVO / OUR ECONOMY 69 (4) 2023 Swaroop, S. Our study makes a significant theoretical contribution by exploring the relationship between dynamic capabilities and entrepreneurial work by employees at the macro level. Our comparative analysis shows that the dynamic capabili- ties among productive employees with good experience and knowledge will lead them to run their own business rather than replace their work with another firm. This is particular - ly evident in Slovenia, where entrepreneurial work among productive and knowledgeable employees is strong. The practical implications of our findings differ for pol- icymakers and owners/managers in India and Slovenia. In India, where entrepreneurial work by employees is weaker, policymakers should focus on harnessing the high potential capabilities of employees. Productive Indian employees with extensive knowledge, experience, and a strong commitment are likely to run successful business- es and become independent entrepreneurs. Independent entrepreneurs with a better understanding of improving corporate entrepreneurial activities can contribute to de- veloping competent future employees. On the other hand, in Slovenia, where entrepreneurial work by employees is strong, and the intention to become an independent entrepreneur is lower, owners/managers should prioritize the development of their competent em- ployees to enhance corporate entrepreneurial activities. Our study has a limitation in that it only compares India and Slovenia. In the future, these studies and their findings should be expanded to include a broader range of societies, such as traditional versus modern-secular societies. This will allow for a more comprehensive eval- uation of the association between entrepreneurial work by employees and the intention to become independent entrepreneurs, taking into account different values and entrepreneurial mindsets in diverse societies. Addition- ally, we would like to explore the moderating role of the entrepreneurial ecosystem in this relationship. Significance and future directions The theoretical background that drives employee entrepreneurial intentions applies not only to firm behaviour, but also to the process of nurturing and de- veloping an entrepreneurial ecosystem at the societal level of countries. It does not only matter if entrepre- neurial intentions by employees is purely a function of society instead, the fundamental questions this paper has put forward is to ask whether and how a blend of cultural foundations, cultural factors, and a socie- ty’s entrepreneurial orientations combine to either encourage or not encourage a strong entrepreneurial orientation on behalf of employees. This paper sets the stage for the researchers, policymakers, owners, and managers in countries like India and Slovenia in searching for answers to questions such as: (1) Is the entrepreneurial work by employees shaped by societal differences.? (2) Is the intention to become an inde- pendent entrepreneur shaped by societal differenc- es.?; (3) Does the entrepreneurial work by employees lead to a higher intention to become an independent entrepreneur?; And (4) What are the moderating roles of societal differences on the impact of entrepreneur- ial work by employees on employees’ intentions to become independent entrepreneurs? Without answer- ing such important questions, it is difficult for policy- makers, owners, and stakeholders to understand why and how employees embrace this culture of entrepre- neurialism and how societal ecosystems help them do it. Empirical research along this line would give us a more comprehensive picture, and this paper has aimed at precisely doing that. Using a rich, exhaustive, and comprehensive dataset such as the GEM report, this paper hopes to add value to the ongoing debate on fostering employee entrepreneurship. 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V raziskavi Global Entrepreneurship Monitor so bili med letoma 2012 in 2019 zajeti naključni vzorci zaposlenih v Indiji in Sloveniji. Pričujoča študija je poudarila pomembno vlogo podjetniškega dela zaposlenih pri njihovem potencialu, da postanejo samostojni podjetniki, čeprav z razlikami med Indijo in Slovenijo. Naš glavni teoretični prispevek je zapolnitev vrzeli med dinamično zmožnostjo in podjetniškim delom zaposlenih na makroravni v Indiji in Sloveniji. Poleg tega študija vsebuje praktične predloge za indijske oblikovalce politik in slovenske lastnike/menedžerje. Ključne besede: podjetništvo, podjetniške namere, družbene razlike, dinamične zmožnosti, GEM, Indija, Slovenija