Acta Linguistica Asiatica, 14(1), 2024. ISSN: 2232-3317, http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/ala/ DOI: 10.4312/ala.14.1.87-109 Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese L2 learners Trang PHAN Ca' Foscari University of Venice, Italy thihuyentrang.phan@unive.it Giang VU Vietnam National University Hanoi, Vietnam giangvt@ulis.vnu.edu.vn Abstract The study explored how Vietnamese learners of Japanese handle structural differences in wh-questions. Despite both being wh-in-situ languages, the divergent word order poses challenges for Vietnamese learners. The research involved 65 high school students with 2.5 to 13 years of Japanese learning. Survey results showed a positive correlation between Japanese proficiency and performance. Students were more accurate when Japanese wh-questions mirrored Vietnamese word order, especially in ‘why’ and ‘when’ questions. Difficulties arose when structures differed. Advanced learners could acquire L2 wh-questions with parametric values distinct from L1, but native-like interpretations in Japanese remained challenging. The study advocates for explicit classroom instruction on Japanese wh-question word order, particularly with scrambled sentences, to enhance accuracy and improve overall teaching effectiveness. Keywords: wh-movement, wh-in-situ, scrambling, Vietnamese, Japanese Povzetek Raziskava obravnava razumevanje in uporabo wh-vprašanj med vietnamskimi učenci japonščine. Kljub temu, da sta oba jezika jezika wh-in situ, se različen besedni red izkaže kot izziv za vietnamske učence. Raziskava vključuje 65 učencev, ki so se japonščino učili v razponu med dvema letoma in pol ter trinajstimi leti. Rezultati ankete kažejo pozitivno povezavo med znanjem japonščine in uspešnostjo. Učenci so bolj natančni, ko so japonska wh-vprašanja podobna vietnamskemu vrstnemu redu, še posebej pri vprašanjih 'zakaj' in 'kdaj'. Težave nastanejo pri različnih strukturah med jezikoma. Nekateri napredni učenci lahko obvladajo japonska wh-vprašanja, vendar doseči naravno tolmačenje ostaja izziv. Študija zagovarja učenje vrstnega reda japonskih wh- vprašanj, še posebej pri premešanih stavkih, za povečanje natančnosti in učinkovitosti poučevanja japonskega jezika. Ključne besede: premik wh-vprašalnice, wh-vprašalnice in situ, preurejanje, vietnamščina, japonščina 88 Trang PHAN, Giang VU 1 Objectives In Vietnam, the burgeoning diplomatic, economic, and cultural ties with Japan have sparked a growing interest in Japanese language acquisition. Nevertheless, language acquisition remains a challenging task. In light of this, the present study seeks to investigate the extent to which the syntactic typological differences between Vietnamese and Japanese impact Vietnamese students' acquisition of Japanese wh-question word order. Ultimately, the findings of this study may inform pedagogical strategies to improve the efficacy of teaching and learning Japanese for Vietnamese language learners. 2 Why Vietnamese learners of Japanese? The Japanese and Vietnamese languages were chosen for this study due to their interesting typological similarities and differences concerning question formation and word order. The first typological distinction which highlights the similarities between Japanese and Vietnamese is the one between wh-movement and wh-in-situ, which refers to whether a language employs the movement of interrogative words (such as ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘when’, etc.) to form a question. In wh-movement languages, they utilize a syntactic operation where the interrogative word moves to the beginning of the sentence, leaving behind a trace in its original position. In contrast, wh-in-situ languages keep the interrogative word in its original position and form the question without movement. In many languages such as English and German, wh-movement is employed to transform declarative sentences into wh-questions. Consider the example in English: (1) a. He went to the store. b. Where did he go? In English, crafting a wh-interrogative sentence requires both wh-movement and do-insertion. The wh-word, such as ‘where’ in (1b), is shifted to the beginning of the sentence, and a tense auxiliary verb is inserted before the subject, leading to a change in word order between the wh-interrogative and its declarative counterpart. Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 89 In contrast, wh-in-situ languages include Chinese and Korean (Huang, 1982; Cheng & Rooryck, 2000; Beck & Kim, 1997). Let’s take a look at an example in Mandarin Chinese: (2) a. Mandarin Chinese tā qù le shāngdiàn he go PERF store ‘He went to the store.’ b. Mandarin Chinese tā qù le nǎlǐ? he go PERF where ‘Where did he go to?’ In Mandarin Chinese, as demonstrated in example (2b), a notable distinction from English interrogative sentences emerges. Unlike English, where the interrogative word is relocated to the beginning of a sentence, the Mandarin Chinese interrogative word, nǎlǐ ‘where’ remains fixed within the sentence’s original position. Remarkably, this characteristic feature is accompanied by the absence of verb movement or inversion in Mandarin Chinese questions. The sentence's word order and structure remain unchanged when compared to the corresponding declarative sentence (2a). Mandarin Chinese exemplifies a wh-in-situ language by retaining the wh-word in its original position, showcasing its distinct approach to forming interrogative sentences compared to those languages that employ wh-movement and other syntactic transformations (Pesetsky, 1987). The distinction between wh-movement and wh-in-situ has been a topic of interest in typological and generative grammar studies. According to Dryer (1991), wh-in-situ is more common among the world’s languages. The reasons for this typological variation are still a subject of debate among linguists on whether these parameters are innately determined by the human mind or whether they are the result of functional pressures on the language system (Hawkins, 2004). As it will become clear in the following sections, both Japanese and Vietnamese are languages that have wh-in-situ (Saito, 1992; Tomioka, 2007; Tran, 2009; Tsai, 2009), meaning question words can appear in their base positions in a sentence. Studies in foreign language acquisition have consistently shown that learning is more accessible when the target language and the native language share typological similarities (Krashen, 1982; Ringbom, 2006). This is because the use of cross-linguistic similarities, known as transfer, 90 Trang PHAN, Giang VU plays a crucial role in language learning. Therefore, it is expected that the shared typological features between Vietnamese and Japanese could greatly improve Vietnamese learners’ understanding of Japanese. However, despite this apparent similarity, a pivotal typological contrast between Japanese and Vietnamese complicates the language learning process. This distinction lies in the contrast between head-final and head-initial languages. Japanese adopts a head-final structure (Subject-Object-Verb), where the usual sentence order places the subject, followed by the object, and concludes with the verb. Conversely, Vietnamese follows a head-initial pattern (Subject-Verb-Object), positioning the verb before the object. This fundamental disparity in word order poses a challenge for Vietnamese speakers attempting to construct wh-questions in Japanese accurately. To sum up, while both languages employ wh-in-situ structures, the difference in word order between Japanese and Vietnamese presents a significant obstacle for Vietnamese learners. This contrast is expected to create difficulties in mastering the formation of wh-questions in Japanese. Therefore, our study specifically focuses on the challenges of Vietnamese learners acquiring Japanese wh-interrogatives. While the past decade has seen a surge in research on Japanese as a Second/Foreign Language acquisition, there remains a significant gap in understanding how Vietnamese learners specifically grapple with the complexities of Japanese. Existing studies predominantly feature English and Chinese L1 learners of Japanese, leaving the experiences of Vietnamese learners in Japanese language acquisition largely unexplored, especially concerning word order acquisition (Lieberman et al., 2006; Umeda, 2008). In this context, the term ‘transfer’ (Ringbom, 2006) is particularly relevant, encompassing the impact of the learners’ L1 (Vietnamese) on their Japanese learning process. Positive transfer occurs when the influence of Vietnamese leads to accurate acquisition, whereas negative transfer results in errors or difficulties. To comprehensively understand these transfer patterns and their implications, our study emphasizes a thorough contrastive analysis, focusing specifically on the distinctions between Vietnamese (learners’ L1) and Japanese (the target language). By unraveling the complexities of linguistic transfer within this specific learner group, we aim to provide valuable insights into the challenges Vietnamese learners had to face when mastering Japanese wh-interrogatives, offering nuanced pedagogical suggestions for more effective language teaching strategies. Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 91 3 Wh-questions in Japanese and Vietnamese 3.1 The list and positions of wh-words This research primarily focuses on the position of question words in wh- questions and compares the two languages, Japanese and Vietnamese. In particular, the basic wh-words examined in the two languages are listed below. Table 1: List of wh-words investigated in Japanese and Vietnamese Language wh-words Japanese dare / nani/nan doko donoyouni naze itsu Vietnamese ai cái gì ở đâu như thế nào vì sao khi nào English who what where how why when Noam Chomsky emphasized the creative nature of language, stating that language is a process of free creation where the principles of generation are fixed, yet the way they are employed is diverse and unrestricted (Chomsky, 1970). This insight underscores the significance of comprehending the distinct principles and parameters inherent in various languages, including the formation of wh-questions in Japanese and Vietnamese. Understanding these linguistic nuances is essential for effective language learning and usage. Our study is based on the assumption that all languages in the world follow certain rules when constructing sentences. Although languages around the world may have diverse external manifestations, all sentences can be divided into three different domains when it comes to structure: CP (complementizer phrase), the domain of the pragmatics (usually located before the subject); IP (inflection phrase), the domain of functional elements (that are normally located between the subject and the predicate); and VP (verb phrase), the domain of lexical elements (located inside the predicate). Applying this assumption to our discussion, we take into consideration three positions of wh-words in a sentence: a) before the subject, b) between the subject and the verb, and c) after the verb, as illustrated in Figure 1 below. 92 Trang PHAN, Giang VU Figure 1: Three positions of wh-words in a sentence We will examine each of the wh-words from Table 1 in all three positions. In the following section, we provide a brief overview of the different positions of wh-words in Japanese and Vietnamese, which sets out the theoretical foundation for our survey. 3.2 The position of wh-words in Japanese The principal reservoir of Japanese language data utilized in this study comprises the works of Zhang and Hayashi (2000), Gunji (2011), and Minna no Nihongo Shokyuu 1 Honsatsu [Everyone's Japanese Elementary 1 Textbook] (1998). Let’s first have a look at the different positions of dare (‘who’) in a sentence. (3) dare (‘who’) a. Japanese dare ni anata wa au no desu ka who DAT you TOP meet ACC POL Q ‘Who are you meeting with?’ b. Japanese anata wa dare ni au no desu ka you TOP who DAT meet ACC POL Q ‘Who are you meeting with?’ Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 93 c. Japanese anata ga au no wa dare desu ka you NOM meet ACC TOP who POL Q ‘Who are you meeting with?’ In example (3a), dare appears at the beginning of the sentence, preceding the subject anata. In example (3b), it appears in the middle of the sentence after the subject anata and before the verb au. In example (3c), dare appears at the end of the sentence, after the object kare and the verb au. The examples emphasize that the use of dare (‘who’) as a question word can be used in all three different positions of a wh-word in a sentence. 1 A similar pattern is observed for other wh-words in Japanese. (4) nani/nan (‘what’) a. Japanese nani wo anata wa tabetai desu ka what DAT you TOP want to eat POL Q ‘What do you want to eat?’ b. Japanese anata wa nani wo tabetai desu ka you TOP what DAT want to eat POL Q ‘What do you want to eat?’ c. Japanese anata ga tabetai no wa nani desu ka you NOM want to eat ACC TOP what POL Q ‘What do you want to eat?’ 1 Several factors, including word order syntax, pragmatics, and prosody influence the formation of wh-questions (Kitagawa, 2005; Tomioka, 2007). However, this study focuses solely on word order syntax and prosody, excluding discourse level and pragmatics. The exploration of discourse-level aspects, particularly topicalization, is deferred to future research endeavors. 94 Trang PHAN, Giang VU (5) doko (‘where’) a. Japanese doko de watashi wa ryougae suru no desu ka where DAT I TOP money exchange ACC POL Q ‘Where do I exchange money?’ b. Japanese watashi wa doko de ryougae suru no desu ka I TOP where DAT money exchange ACC POL Q ‘Where do I exchange money?’ c. Japanese watashi ga ryougae suru no wa doko desu ka I NOM money exchange ACC TOP where POL Q ‘Where do I exchange money?’ (6) donoyouni (‘how’) a. Japanese donoyouni anata wa yasumi wo sugoshimasu ka how you TOP holiday DAT spend Q ‘How do you spend your holiday?’ b. Japanese anata wa donoyouni yasumi wo sugoshimasu ka you TOP how holiday DAT spend Q ‘How do you spend your holiday?’ c. Japanese anata wa yasumi wo donoyouni sugoshimasu ka you TOP holiday DAT how spend Q ‘How do you spend your holiday?’ (7) naze (‘why’) a. Japanese naze anata wa kare ni au no desu ka why you TOP him DAT meet ACC POL Q ‘Why are you meeting him?’ Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 95 b. Japanese anata wa naze kare ni au no desu ka you TOP why him DAT meet ACC POL Q ‘Why are you meeting him?’ c. Japanese anata ga kare ni au no wa naze desu ka you NOM him DAT meet ACC TOP why POL Q ‘Why are you meeting him?’ (8) itsu (‘when’) a. Japanese itsu anata wa Pekin ni tsuku no desu ka when you TOP Beijing DAT arrive ACC POL Q ‘When will you arrive in Beijing?’ b. Japanese anata wa itsu Pekin ni tsuku no desu ka you TOP when Beijing DAT arrive ACC POL Q ‘When will you arrive in Beijing?’ c. Japanese anata ga Pekin ni tsuku no wa itsu desu ka you NOM Beijing DAT arrive ACC TOP when POL Q ‘When will you arrive in Beijing?’ To summarize, there are two types of wh-words in a sentence, the former includes nani/nan (‘what’) or dare (‘who’), which function as arguments, whereas the latter type includes doko (‘where’), donoyouni (‘how’), naze (‘why’), or itsu (‘when’), which function as sentence adjuncts. It can be observed that in the above examples, regardless of their function within the sentence, all of these wh-words can appear in all three positions: before the subject, between the subject and the predicate, and after the verb. These examples illustrate that, unlike English where the word order of questions is typically fixed, Japanese allows for greater flexibility in the placement of wh-words, which in turn enables greater expressivity in sentence formation and helps convey nuances in meaning. As such, understanding the various positions in which wh-words can appear is an important aspect of learning and using the Japanese language effectively. 96 Trang PHAN, Giang VU 3.3 The position of wh-words in Vietnamese Initially, we shall examine the various syntactical positions of ai (‘who’) and cái gì (‘what’) in the Vietnamese language within a sentence. (9) ai (‘who’) a. ? Ai bạn sẽ gặp? Vietnamese what you will meet Intended: ‘Who will you meet with?’ b. *Bạn ai sẽ gặp? Vietnamese you who will meet Intended: ‘Who will you meet with?’ c. Bạn sẽ gặp ai? Vietnamese you will meet who ‘Who will you meet with?’ In wh-questions that function as objects, ai (‘who’) can naturally appear in the base position, following the verb. Placing it before the verb results in an ungrammatical sentence, and positioning it at the beginning of the sentence diminishes the sentence's grammaticality. In the latter context, ‘who’ can only be interpreted contrastively, such as in the sentence, ‘Who is it that you will meet with?’ Consequently, we labeled the sentence with a question mark. (10) cái gì (‘what’) a. ? Cái gì bạn muốn ăn? Vietnamese what you want eat Intended: ‘What do you want to eat?’ b. *Bạn cái gì muốn ăn? Vietnamese you what want eat Intended: ‘What do you want to eat?’ c. Bạn muốn ăn cái gì? Vietnamese you want eat what ‘What do you want to eat?’ Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 97 Similar to ai (‘who’), cái gì (‘what’) can be used in two positions of the sentence; and when it is fronted to the beginning of the sentence, it is interpreted contrastively, cf. ‘What is this that you want to eat?’. Hereinbelow is presented a comprehensive listing of the feasible placements of other wh-words in Vietnamese. (11) ở đâu (‘where’) a. ? Ở đâu tôi sẽ đổi tiền? Vietnamese where I will exchange money Intended: ‘Where will I exchange money?’ b. *Tôi sẽ ở đâu đổi tiền? Vietnamese I will where exchange money Intended: ‘Where will I exchange money?’ c. Tôi sẽ đổi tiền ở đâu? Vietnamese I will arrive Beijing where ‘Where will I exchange money?’ In the examples given, the interrogative word ở đâu (‘where’) appears most naturally in the sentence-final position only. Placing it in the sentence-initial position results in a decrease in grammaticality, and the mid-sentence position results in ungrammaticality. (12) như thế nào (‘how’) a. *Như thế nào bạn sẽ trải qua kì nghỉ? Vietnamese how you will experience through CLF vacation Intended: ‘How will you spend your vacation?’ b. *Bạn sẽ như thế nào trải qua kì nghỉ? Vietnamese you will how experience through CLF vacation Intended: ‘How will you spend your vacation?’ c. Bạn sẽ trải qua kì nghỉ như thế nào? Vietnamese you will experience through CLF vacation how Intended: ‘How will you spend your vacation?’ The wh-word như thế nào (‘how’) in the above examples only appears in one position, after the verb. 98 Trang PHAN, Giang VU (13) vì sao (‘why’) a. Vì sao bạn gặp anh ta? Vietnamese why you meet him ‘Why are you meeting with him?’ b. Bạn vì sao gặp anh ta? Vietnamese you why meet him ‘Why are you meeting with him?’ c. Bạn gặp anh ta vì sao? Vietnamese you meet him why ‘Why are you meeting with him?’ In the given examples, vì sao (‘why’) in principle can appear in all the three positions. (14) khi nào (‘when’) a. Khi nào bạn đến Bắc Kinh? Vietnamese when you arrive Beijing ‘When will you arrive in Beijing?’ b. Bạn khi nào đến Bắc Kinh? Vietnamese you when arrive Beijing ‘When will you arrive in Beijing?’ c. Bạn đến Bắc Kinh khi nào Vietnamese you arrive Beijing when ‘When did you arrive in Beijing?’ In these examples, the question word khi nào (‘when’) appears in all three positions. However, there is a difference in terms of the tense used in the sentences. Specifically, khi nào (‘when’) is interpreted in the future tense when it precedes the subject and the verb whereas it is interpreted in the past tense when it follows the verb. This has been noted by researchers as a feature of the Vietnamese language (Cao, 2004; Duffield, 2007; Tsai, 2009; Tran, 2009, Tran, 2021). That is, the placement of khi nào (‘when’) in Vietnamese appears to be exceptionally versatile; nevertheless, its positioning is, in fact, contingent upon the tense utilized within the given sentence. Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 99 That is, the inflexibility of the position of wh-words in Vietnamese is due to at least two factors, namely, the tense of the verb and the contrastiveness of information. Based on the data presented above, we can summarize the positions of question words in Japanese and Vietnamese in Table 2. Table 2: Position of wh-words in Japanese and Vietnamese2 why when where how what who Japanese before the subject v v v v v v between the subject and the verb v v v v v v after the verb v v v v v v Vietnamese before the subject v v ? * ? ? between the subject and the verb v v * * * * after the verb v v v v v v The empirical findings discussed in Section 3 imply that despite both Japanese and Vietnamese being characterized by a wh-in-situ structure, whereby question words are positioned in their base positions within a sentence, Japanese exhibits greater flexibility in the placement of wh-words than Vietnamese. Among the six investigated wh-words, ‘why’ and ‘when’ demonstrate the highest degree of commonality between Vietnamese and Japanese, while ‘where’, ‘how’, ‘what’, and ‘who’ display the most notable differences. The present study, therefore, aims to examine the level of proficiency among Vietnamese students in comprehending and utilizing the word order about Japanese interrogative sentences containing wh-words. 4 The survey 4.1 Participants The target population for the survey comprises 65 individuals learning Japanese at the Foreign Language Specialized School, an affiliate of the VNU University of Languages & International Studies, Vietnam National University 2 This study presents an initial exploration of wh-words in relation to the fundamental sentence components in Vietnamese and Japanese, focusing on subject arguments and verbs. Moving forward, it is essential to expand our analysis to include topics as well. We express gratitude to an anonymous reviewer for this valuable suggestion, which will be a significant aspect of our future investigations. 100 Trang PHAN, Giang VU Hanoi. The participants are distributed across different grades, with 19 students from grade 10, 11 students from grade 11, and 35 students from grade 12. The duration of Japanese language instruction for the surveyed students ranges from 2.5 to 13 years, with 11 individuals among the cohort having lived in Japan. The Japanese language curriculum employed in the school features the following textbooks: Japanese for grade 10, Japanese for grade 11, and Japanese for grade 12, all of which are published by the Vietnam National Education Publishing House. Regarding Japanese language competence, the students have been categorized according to their proficiency level as per the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT), with three students classified as N5, twenty-five as N4, twenty-two as N3, thirteen as N2, and two as N1, as illustrated in Figure 2. Figure 2: Participants by Japanese language proficiency In our study, N4 and N5 represent advanced proficiency levels, N3 indicates intermediate proficiency, and N2 and N1 are considered beginner levels. 4.2 The stimuli The survey methodology entails an online test with a duration of 20-30 minutes comprising 18 stimuli questions (6 wh-words, each in 3 positions) in the multiple-choice format, requiring responses indicating correctness or incorrectness by selecting either the affirmative or negative symbol (i.e., or ✕). It should be emphasized that communication or collaboration with other participants during the test is strictly prohibited. 3 25 22 13 2 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1 Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 101 4.3 Predictions The primary objective is to investigate potential correlations between differences in the student's native language (L1) and the target language (L2), their proficiency levels, and the percentage of the related word order errors in L2 comprehension attributed to L1 transfer. The analysis of the collected data is expected to reveal the following outcomes: (i) Word Order Similarity: Students are likely to provide accurate responses when the word order of Japanese wh-questions aligns with that of Vietnamese. In other words, when the word order structures in both languages are similar, students are anticipated to demonstrate higher accuracy in their responses. (ii) Proficiency Levels: We anticipate that students with higher levels of proficiency in Japanese, especially those classified as intermediate or advanced, will exhibit greater accuracy when answering survey questions compared to their counterparts with lower proficiency levels. This expectation aligns with the notion that proficiency levels often impact the ability to grasp complex grammatical structures. By investigating these aspects, this research aims to provide insights into the relationship between L1-L2 differences, proficiency levels, and the acquisition of specific grammatical structures, particularly in the context of Japanese wh-questions. 4.4 Results The findings of the survey on Japanese wh-words proficiency among Vietnamese students are as follows. The column chart in Figure 3 below provides a visual representation of the accuracy rate of Vietnamese students' responses with respect to their Japanese language proficiency. 102 Trang PHAN, Giang VU Figure 3: Accuracy rate of students by their Japanese language proficiency As depicted in Figure 3, students exhibiting advanced Japanese language proficiency demonstrate the highest level of accuracy, followed by individuals at intermediate proficiency levels and, lastly, those at lower levels of proficiency. Students who display better command of the Japanese language are more likely to provide correct responses, thereby aligning with the earlier predictions formulated based on the survey outcomes. The evident pattern displayed in Figure 3 implies a direct correlation between proficiency and accuracy. These results corroborate our initial hypotheses, highlighting that students possessing a higher level of Japanese language proficiency tend to offer more precise responses. While these conclusions offer a fundamental understanding of proficiency and accuracy, further research is essential to unveil the intricate nuances and potential non- linear patterns in language acquisition processes. Furthermore, the study showed that certain advanced learners could grasp L2 wh-constructions with different parametric values from their native language. Nevertheless, attaining native-like interpretations of wh-phrases in Japanese posed ongoing challenges, underscoring the complexity of language acquisition in this context. Now let’s see how Vietnamese students respond to different types of wh- words. To this end, the subsequent chart provides a detailed account of the accuracy rate of their responses about different categories of wh-words in Japanese. 54 62 88,9 0 20 40 60 80 100 Beginner Intermediate Advanced Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 103 Figure 4: Accuracy rate of students with respect to different wh-words in Japanese Figure 4 presents a compelling demonstration that the accuracy of responses to the Japanese wh-words ‘why’ and ‘when’ is notably high, amounting to approximately 70% of the surveyed population. This high accuracy can be attributed to the substantial shared characteristics between Vietnamese and Japanese in the context of these specific wh-words. Among the six wh-words investigated, ‘why’ and ‘when’ exhibit the most pronounced similarities between the two languages, as shown in the previous section. Notably, this observation raises intriguing questions for future research. It prompts an exploration into whether there exists a deeper theoretical basis explaining the exceptional accuracy of why-questions. Previous literature highlights ‘why’ as a distinctive element (Lin, 1992; Tsai, 1999; Ko, 2005), underscoring the need for further investigation into the theoretical underpinnings contributing to the heightened accuracy in this particular category. In the next step, we consider how Vietnamese students respond to different positions of wh-words. 57,4 56,3 52,6 54,3 70,8 69,9 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 who what where how why when 104 Trang PHAN, Giang VU Figure 5: Accuracy rates of students according to different positions of Japanese wh-words Based on the data presented in Figure 5, it is evident that the most accurate responses to questions containing wh-words are found when these words are positioned between the subject and the verb (or mid-sentence position) with an accuracy rate of 82.6%. The accuracy rate drops to 31% when the wh-word is placed before the subject. Conversely, the accuracy rate increases when the wh-word is positioned after the verb. The rationale behind the superior accuracy rate of wh-words in the mid-sentence position can be attributed to the subject-object-verb (SOV) word order, which is typical in the Japanese language. Hence, the question word is most likely to appear in the middle of the sentence. This knowledge is commonly documented in Japanese language textbooks that Vietnamese students currently use in the curriculum. For instance, the beginner's level textbook Mina no Nihongo 1 includes questions that feature question words in the mid-sentence position. (15) a. (Unit 2) Japanese Sore wa nan desu ka DEM TOP what POL Q ‘What is that?’ a. (Unit 2) Japanese Meishi desu business card POL ‘It’s a business card.’ 31 82,6 67 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Above the subject Between the subject and the verb Below the verb Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 105 b. (Unit 3) Japanese Toire wa doko desu ka Toilet TOP where POL Q ‘Where is the toilet?’ b. (Unit 2) Japanese asoko desu there POL ‘It's over there.’ The accuracy rate of questions placed at the beginning of a sentence is notably lower, primarily due to the subject-object-verb (SOV) basic sentence order that is prevalent in the Japanese language. The structure with questions at the beginning (also known as ‘scrambling’) using the OSV formula is not extensively addressed in Japanese language textbooks for foreign learners, making it challenging for students to comprehend the intricacies of scrambled sentences and their function within the language. Jorden (1962) emphasizes the importance of studying and understanding scrambled sentences in her book Japanese: The Spoken Language, highlighting that it is a crucial aspect of the contemporary Japanese language, particularly in spoken language where it is commonly used for emphasis. See also Saito (1985, 1992), Miyagawa (2003). However, this crucial aspect of the language is often overlooked in language instruction, leading to difficulties for learners. Research conducted by scholars such as Mazuka et al. (2002) and Tamaoka et al. (2005, 2014) has revealed that even native Japanese children encounter challenges in understanding this type of sentence. Therefore, it is understandable why foreign learners of Japanese tend to make mistakes regarding this type of sentence. Therefore, both teachers and students need to acknowledge the significance of scrambled sentences in Japanese and allocate sufficient time and effort to studying and mastering their use. By doing so, learners can develop a comprehensive understanding of the language and achieve a higher level of proficiency in communicating in Japanese. 5 Conclusion The proficient utilization of interrogative words constitutes a vital aspect of the Japanese grammatical system. The current research endeavor scrutinizes the proficiency of Vietnamese students in employing Japanese wh-words within question sentences. Although both Japanese and Vietnamese are considered 106 Trang PHAN, Giang VU wh-in-situ languages, the syntactical differences between these languages create a significant hurdle for Vietnamese students when attempting to grasp the proper order of wh-words in Japanese questions. The study recruited 65 high school students who have studied Japanese for varying durations (ranging from 2.5 years to 13 years) at the Foreign Language Specialized School, which is affiliated with the VNU University of Languages & International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi. The findings of this study corroborate the underlying hypotheses. Firstly, students with higher levels of Japanese proficiency (i.e., intermediate or advanced levels) demonstrated a better ability to answer survey questions in comparison to those at lower proficiency levels. Secondly, students displayed a greater aptitude for accurately responding to Japanese wh-questions that share a similar word order with Vietnamese, especially ‘why’ and ‘when’ questions. The research showed that learners could acquire L2 wh-constructions with different parametric values from their L1, as demonstrated by some advanced learners. However, achieving target-like interpretations of wh-phrases in Japanese proved challenging. Effective instruction on the specific word order of Japanese wh-questions plays a pivotal role in enhancing students’ accuracy rates. However, the existing introductory Japanese language curriculum primarily focuses on providing basic information about the meaning and usage of interrogative words, neglecting to take into account their syntactic role within a sentence or the specific sentence structures in which they are utilized. Therefore, teachers must convey this information clearly and comprehensively. Even for novice learners of Japanese, introducing fundamental concepts related to question words would be beneficial. Moving beyond the basics, intermediate or advanced-level students stand to benefit significantly from learning scrambled sentences. This approach facilitates a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the usage of Japanese wh-words and their appropriate placement within sentences. It is essential to create opportunities for the development of both explicit and implicit knowledge. However, it is crucial not to assume that explicit knowledge will automatically translate into implicit knowledge. Learning a language is a gradual process that requires time. While instruction is valuable for drawing learners’ attention to grammatical forms, the key to developing implicit knowledge lies in consistent exposure to meaningful input and regular practice. Therefore, it is vital to provide opportunities for learners to Wh-questions in Japanese: Challenges for Vietnamese … 107 repeatedly use target grammatical forms in meaningful communicative contexts, fostering a gradual and comprehensive language acquisition process. Abbreviations ACC accusative CLF classifier DAT dative DEM demonstrative NOM nominative PERF perfect POL politeness Q question TOP topic Contributions Authorship credit for this paper is as follows: Trang Phan authored Chapters 1 and 2, Sections 3.1 and 3.3, as well as Chapter 5. Giang Vu authored Section 3.2 and Chapter 4. References Beck, S., & Kim, S-S. (1997). On Wh- and Operator Scope in Korean. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 6, 339–384. Cao, X. H. (2004). 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