Zbornik 27. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2024 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 27th International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2024 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredniki / Editors Anka Slana Ozimič, Borut Trpin, Toma Strle, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 10. oktober 2024 / 10 October 2024 Ljubljana, Slovenia Uredniki: Anka Slana Ozimič Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Borut Trpin Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Toma Strle Center za kognitivno znanost, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Olga Markič Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Založnik: Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana Priprava zbornika: Mitja Lasič, Vesna Lasič, Lana Zemljak Oblikovanje naslovnice: Vesna Lasič Dostop do e-publikacije: http://library.ijs.si/Stacks/Proceedings/InformationSociety Ljubljana, oktober 2024 Informacijska družba ISSN 2630-371X Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID 214416387 ISBN 978-961-264-300-3 (PDF) PREDGOVOR MULTIKONFERENCI INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA 2024 Leto 2024 je hkrati udarno in tradicionalno. Že sedaj, še bolj pa v prihodnosti bosta računalništvo, informatika (RI) in umetna inteligenca (UI) igrali ključno vlogo pri oblikovanju napredne in trajnostne družbe. Smo na pragu nove dobe, v kateri generativna umetna inteligenca, kot je ChatGPT, in drugi inovativni pristopi utirajo pot k superinteligenci in singularnosti, ključnim elementom, ki bodo definirali razcvet človeške civilizacije. Naša konferenca je zato hkrati tradicionalna znanstvena, pa tudi povsem akademsko odprta za nove pogumne ideje, inkubator novih pogledov in idej. Letošnja konferenca ne le da analizira področja RI, temveč prinaša tudi osrednje razprave o perečih temah današnjega časa – ohranjanje okolja, demografski izzivi, zdravstvo in preobrazba družbenih struktur. Razvoj UI ponuja rešitve za skoraj vse izzive, s katerimi se soočamo, kar poudarja pomen sodelovanja med strokovnjaki, raziskovalci in odločevalci, da bi skupaj oblikovali strategije za prihodnost. Zavedamo se, da živimo v času velikih sprememb, kjer je ključno, da s poglobljenim znanjem in inovativnimi pristopi oblikujemo informacijsko družbo, ki bo varna, vključujoča in trajnostna. Letos smo ponosni, da smo v okviru multikonference združili dvanajst izjemnih konferenc, ki odražajo širino in globino informacijskih ved: CHATMED v zdravstvu, Demografske in družinske analize, Digitalna preobrazba zdravstvene nege, Digitalna vključenost v informacijski družbi – DIGIN 2024, Kognitivna znanost, Konferenca o zdravi dolgoživosti, Legende računalništva in informatike, Mednarodna konferenca o prenosu tehnologij, Miti in resnice o varovanju okolja, Odkrivanje znanja in podatkovna skladišča – SIKDD 2024, Slovenska konferenca o umetni inteligenci, Vzgoja in izobraževanje v RI. Poleg referatov bodo razprave na okroglih mizah in delavnicah omogočile poglobljeno izmenjavo mnenj, ki bo oblikovala prihodnjo informacijsko družbo. “Legende računalništva in informatike” predstavljajo slovenski “Hall of Fame” za odlične posameznike s tega področja, razširjeni referati, objavljeni v reviji Informatica z 48-letno tradicijo odličnosti, in sodelovanje s številnimi akademskimi institucijami in združenji, kot so ACM Slovenija, SLAIS in Inženirska akademija Slovenije, bodo še naprej spodbujali razvoj informacijske družbe. Skupaj bomo gradili temelje za prihodnost, ki bo oblikovana s tehnologijami, osredotočena na človeka in njegove potrebe. S podelitvijo nagrad, še posebej z nagrado Michie-Turing, se avtonomna RI stroka vsakoletno opredeli do najbolj izstopajočih dosežkov. Nagrado Michie-Turing za izjemen življenjski prispevek k razvoju in promociji informacijske družbe je prejel prof. dr. Borut Žalik. Priznanje za dosežek leta pripada prof. dr. Sašu Džeroskemu za izjemne raziskovalne dosežke. »Informacijsko limono« za najmanj primerno informacijsko tematiko je prejela nabava in razdeljevanjem osebnih računalnikov ministrstva, »informacijsko jagodo« kot najboljšo potezo pa so sprejeli organizatorji tekmovanja ACM Slovenija. Čestitke nagrajencem! Naša vizija je jasna: prepoznati, izkoristiti in oblikovati priložnosti, ki jih prinaša digitalna preobrazba, ter ustvariti informacijsko družbo, ki bo koristila vsem njenim članom. Vsem sodelujočim se zahvaljujemo za njihov prispevek k tej viziji in se veselimo prihodnjih dosežkov, ki jih bo oblikovala ta konferenca. Mojca Ciglarič, predsednica programskega odbora Matjaž Gams, predsednik organizacijskega odbora i PREFACE TO THE MULTICONFERENCE INFORMATION SOCIETY 2024 The year 2024 is both ground-breaking and traditional. Now, and even more so in the future, computer science, informatics (CS/I), and artificial intelligence (AI) will play a crucial role in shaping an advanced and sustainable society. We are on the brink of a new era where generative artificial intelligence, such as ChatGPT, and other innovative approaches are paving the way for superintelligence and singularity—key elements that will define the flourishing of human civilization. Our conference is therefore both a traditional scientific gathering and an academically open incubator for bold new ideas and perspectives. This year's conference analyzes key CS/I areas and brings forward central discussions on pressing contemporary issues—environmental preservation, demographic challenges, healthcare, and the transformation of social structures. AI development offers solutions to nearly all challenges we face, emphasizing the importance of collaboration between experts, researchers, and policymakers to shape future strategies collectively. We recognize that we live in times of significant change, where it is crucial to build an information society that is safe, inclusive, and sustainable, through deep knowledge and innovative approaches. This year, we are proud to have brought together twelve exceptional conferences within the multiconference framework, reflecting the breadth and depth of information sciences: • CHATMED in Healthcare • Demographic and Family Analyses • Digital Transformation of Healthcare Nursing • Digital Inclusion in the Information Society – DIGIN 2024 • Cognitive Science • Conference on Healthy Longevity • Legends of Computer Science and Informatics • International Conference on Technology Transfer • Myths and Facts on Environmental Protection • Data Mining and Data Warehouses – SIKDD 2024 • Slovenian Conference on Artificial Intelligence • Education and Training in CS/IS. In addition to papers, roundtable discussions and workshops will facilitate in-depth exchanges that will help shape the future information society. The “Legends of Computer Science and Informatics” represents Slovenia’s “Hall of Fame” for outstanding individuals in this field. At the same time, extended papers published in the Informatica journal, with over 48 years of excellence, and collaboration with numerous academic institutions and associations, such as ACM Slovenia, SLAIS, and the Slovenian Academy of Engineering, will continue to foster the development of the information society. Together, we will build the foundation for a future shaped by technology, yet focused on human needs. The autonomous CS/IS community annually recognizes the most outstanding achievements through the awards ceremony. The Michie-Turing Award for an exceptional lifetime contribution to the development and promotion of the information society was awarded to Prof. Dr. Borut Žalik. The Achievement of the Year Award goes to Prof. Dr. Sašo Džeroski. The "Information Lemon" for the least appropriate information topic was given to the ministry's procurement and distribution of personal computers. At the same time, the "Information Strawberry" for the best initiative was awarded to the organizers of the ACM Slovenia competition. Congratulations to all the award winners! Our vision is clear: to recognize, seize, and shape the opportunities brought by digital transformation and create an information society that benefits all its members. We thank all participants for their contributions and look forward to this conference's future achievements. Mojca Ciglarič, Chair of the Program Committee Matjaž Gams, Chair of the Organizing Committee ii KONFERENČNI ODBORI CONFERENCE COMMITTEES International Programme Committee Organizing Committee Vladimir Bajic, South Africa Matjaž Gams, chair Heiner Benking, Germany Mitja Luštrek Se Woo Cheon, South Korea Lana Zemljak Howie Firth, UK Vesna Koricki Olga Fomichova, Russia Mitja Lasič Vladimir Fomichov, Russia Blaž Mahnič Vesna Hljuz Dobric, Croatia Alfred Inselberg, Israel Jay Liebowitz, USA Huan Liu, Singapore Henz Martin, Germany Marcin Paprzycki, USA Claude Sammut, Australia Jiri Wiedermann, Czech Republic Xindong Wu, USA Yiming Ye, USA Ning Zhong, USA Wray Buntine, Australia Bezalel Gavish, USA Gal A. Kaminka, Israel Mike Bain, Australia Michela Milano, Italy Derong Liu, Chicago, USA Toby Walsh, Australia Sergio Campos-Cordobes, Spain Shabnam Farahmand, Finland Sergio Crovella, Italy Programme Committee Mojca Ciglarič, chair Marjan Heričko Baldomir Zajc Bojan Orel Borka Jerman Blažič Džonova Blaž Zupan Franc Solina Gorazd Kandus Boris Žemva Viljan Mahnič Urban Kordeš Leon Žlajpah Cene Bavec Marjan Krisper Niko Zimic Tomaž Kalin Andrej Kuščer Rok Piltaver Jozsef Györkös Jadran Lenarčič Toma Strle Tadej Bajd Borut Likar Tine Kolenik Jaroslav Berce Janez Malačič Franci Pivec Mojca Bernik Olga Markič Uroš Rajkovič Marko Bohanec Dunja Mladenič Borut Batagelj Ivan Bratko Franc Novak Tomaž Ogrin Andrej Brodnik Vladislav Rajkovič Aleš Ude Dušan Caf Grega Repovš Bojan Blažica Saša Divjak Ivan Rozman Matjaž Kljun Tomaž Erjavec Niko Schlamberger Robert Blatnik Bogdan Filipič Stanko Strmčnik Erik Dovgan Andrej Gams Jurij Šilc Špela Stres Matjaž Gams Jurij Tasič Anton Gradišek Mitja Luštrek Denis Trček Marko Grobelnik Andrej Ule Nikola Guid Boštjan Vilfan iii iv KAZALO / TABLE OF CONTENTS Kognitivna znanost / Cognitive Science ....................................................................................................... 1 PREDGOVOR / FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................... 3 PROGRAMSKI ODBORI / PROGRAMME COMMITTEES ............................................................................... 5 The Ontological Shock: What Psychedelics can Teach us about the Nature of the Mind / Sirk Maruša ............... 7 Innovative Supporting Approaches: Integrating Bibliotherapy, Psychodrama and AI as a Therapeutic Conversational Tool / Mattová Veronika, Lazore Courtney ........................................................................... 12 Usability of Intelligent Assistive Technology Used by People With Dementia and Their Caregivers / Dečman Klara ................................................................................................................................................................. 16 Open Science and Goodhart's Law / Pisanski Tomaž, Batagelj Vladimir, Pisanski Jan ...................................... 20 The Consistency of the Research Field Data: A Case Study of Library and Information Science in Slovenia / Pisanski Jan ...................................................................................................................................................... 24 To Be or Not to Be… a Nahuatl Language Learning App. The Long-Term Survival or Discontinuation of Indigenous Language Learning Apps on the Example of Nahuatl / Fischer Evelyn ...................................... 27 Designing the Flow State Experience Using Modern Digital Technologies / Vidmar Eva.................................. 31 The Transparency of Nudging: Evaluating Its Impact on Personal Autonomy / Pajmon Sabina, Strle Toma ..... 35 Does the Use of Large Language Models in Scientific Research Bring Us Closer to the Point in Time When Machines Will Dominate Humans? / Mali Franc ............................................................................................ 39 Comparing Academic Performance Across Course Topics: A Pilot Study / Fink Laura, Cestnik Bojan ............ 44 Linking the Normative and the Descriptive: Bounded Epistemic Rationality / Tomat Nastja ............................. 50 Exploring Human Perception Using Virtual Reality / Zibrek Katja ..................................................................... 55 Vpliv generativne umetne inteligence na demokracijo / Košmrlj Lea, Bratko Ivan ............................................ 59 Razložljiva umetna inteligenca: kako naprej? / Farič Ana, Bratko Ivan .............................................................. 64 Exploring Cognitive Science under Analytical Idealism / Rodman Grega .......................................................... 69 Intelligent Revolution – a New Civilization and Cognitive Era / Gams Matjaž .................................................. 72 Cognitive Perspective on Production of Third Person Dative and Accusative Clitic Pronouns in Slovenian School-Aged Children / Brežnik Dornik Maruša ............................................................................................ 78 Ballot Butts: Nudging towards Pro Environmental Behaviour / Hartmans Anouk, Karnelutti Lucija, Žužek Leon, Strle Toma, Pajmon Sabina .................................................................................................................... 81 Problem Solving as a Key for Sustainable Future / Štibi Ivana, Gaurina Marija, Katavić Ivana, Stepanić Josip 85 Mind, the Gap, and Other Cracks / Poljšak Kus Maša, Kordeš Urban ................................................................. 89 Bridging the Challenges in Experience Sampling Research / Seme Barbi, Sirk Maruša, Kordeš Urban ............ 93 Indeks avtorjev / Author index ................................................................................................................... 97 v vi Zbornik 27. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2024 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 27th International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2024 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredniki / Editors Anka Slana Ozimič, Borut Trpin, Toma Strle, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 10. oktober 2024 / 10 October 2024 Ljubljana, Slovenia 1 2 PREDGOVOR Dobrodošli na konferenci Kognitivna znanost. Na letošnji konferenci bodo avtorice in avtorji raziskovali mnoge plati človeške kognicije in predstavili tako svoje empirične ugotovitve kot tudi teoretska raziskovanja. Poleg prispevkov s področja teme letošnje konference, “Preseganje vrzeli v raziskovanju in razumevanju uma”, bomo potovali skozi različna področja kognitivne znanosti - od psihologije in nevroznanosti do filozofije in umetne inteligence, ter ob tem spoznavali raznolike tematike vključujoč uporabo VR tehnologij pri raziskovanju kognicije, uporabo inteligentnih tehnologij pomoči pri demenci, uporabo dregljajev za spreminjanje vedenja, vpliv umetne inteligence na demokracijo, izzive vzorčenja izkustva in manj poznane vidike doživljanja kot so ozadnja občutja. Konferenca se bo zaključila z okroglo mizo, na kateri bomo razmišljali o izzivih, ki jih prinašajo vrzeli v raziskovanju in razumevanju v kognitivni znanosti: med drugim o združevanju prvo-in tretje-osebnih pristopov k raziskovanju človeškega uma, o povezovanju različnih nivojev opazovanja (na primer mikro-nivoja nevrološke aktivnosti z makro-nivojem vedenja in družbenih sistemov) ter o izzivih povezovanja različnih disciplinarnih pristopov. Upamo, da bo letošnja konferenca predstavljala prostor radovednega povezovanja in izmenjave kreativnih idej. Skupaj bomo premagovali disciplinarne in metodološke ovire, združili mlade in izkušene znanstvenike ter znanstvenice, ki si delijo strast do raziskovanja skrivnosti kognicije. Dobrodošli! Anka Slana Ozimič Borut Trpin Toma Strle Olga Markič 3 FOREWORD Welcome to the Cognitive Science Conference. At this year's conference, authors will explore the many facets of human cognition and present both their empirical findings and theoretical research. In addition to contributions on the topic of this year's conference, Bridging the Gaps in Research and Understanding the Mind, we will explore a diverse range of fields of cognitive science – from psychology and neuroscience to philosophy and artificial intelligence – while also learning about various topics, including the use of VR technologies in research, the use of intelligent assistive technologies for dementia, the use of nudges to change behavior, the impact of artificial intelligence on democracy, the challenges of sampling experience, and explore the less known aspects of experience, such as background feelings. The conference will conclude with a roundtable discussion, where we will reflect on the challenges posed by gaps in research and understanding of mind in cognitive science: among others, we will think about the integration of first- and third-person approaches to studying the human mind, the relation and possible links between different levels of observation (for example, the micro-level of neurological activity and the macro-level of behavior and social systems), and the challenges of connecting different disciplinary approaches. We hope that this year's conference will be a space for networking and sharing insightful ideas. Together we will overcome disciplinary and methodological barriers, bringing together young and experienced scientists who share a passion for exploring the mysteries of cognition. Welcome! Anka Slana Ozimič Borut Trpin Toma Strle Olga Markič 4 PROGRAMSKI ODBOR / PROGRAMME COMMITTEE Anka Slana Ozimič Borut Trpin Toma Strle Olga Markič 5 6 The Ontological Shock: What Psychedelics can Teach us about the Nature of the Mind Maruša Sirk Centre for Cognitive Science University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia marusasirk@gmail.com ABSTRACT labeled as “spiritual emergencies” [10]. These include transpersonal experiences, out-of-body experiences, The following article provides a brief overview of the hallucinations of religious nature etc. [10]. significance and potential challenges of profound psychedelic In this paper, we will tackle the problem of the “ontological experiences that prompt individuals to question the nature of shock” that can arise due to psychedelic experiences, how reality, often referred to as "ontological shocks." These individuals cope with them and what implications they have on experiences are believed to induce changes in the structure of our understanding of the mind. consciousness, leading to subsequent shifts in worldviews, behaviors, relationships, and mental health. While they can result in long-lasting positive changes, they are not always pleasant. 2 ONTOLOGICAL SHOCK FOLLOWING Due to the complex alterations these experiences produce, they offer a unique opportunity to explore gaps in our understanding THE USE OF PSYCHEDELICS of the human mind and the nature of the reality it perceives, As interest in researching psychedelics for their potential enacts, or constructs. The article aims to raise awareness of these therapeutic effects increases, there is a growing need to issues by shedding light on various aspects of the discourse understand the mechanisms that enable these changes to occur. surrounding this topic. Changes in metaphysical beliefs are thought to be one of the driving mechanisms of change that enable the transformational KEYWORDS process to occur [8]. However, changes in metaphysical beliefs psychedelics, ontological shock, mind, consciousness don’t come easily, as they normally induce the so-called ontological shock about the nature and reality of existence [8]. This means that people start to question the nature of (their) 1 INTRODUCTION reality and subsequently come to adopt an altered belief system, Psychedelics are psychoactive substances that can lead to altered commonly constituting beliefs such as animism, life after death, states of consciousness, experienced as a change in perception the existence of alternative realities etc. [7]. and cognitive processes. Classic psychedelics, such as On one hand, psychedelic experiences are often reported to psilocybin, mescaline, LSD and DMT, primarily act through the be among the most meaningful and significant experiences, stimulation of the serotonin 5HT-2A receptor. Due to somewhat leading to positive long-term changes [11]. On the other hand, similar psychological effects, substances such as MDMA and many individuals report prolonged difficulties after a profound ketamine are also sometimes considered as psychedelics even psychedelic experience, struggling with ontological challenges though they target different neurological structures [1]. as they question their own reality and existence [8]. This presents In recent years, there has been a growing interest in research ethical challenges in both formal and informal practices for on the potential use of psychedelic substances for mental health integrating psychedelic experiences, while also raising broader treatment. There are many studies that support this claim [e. g. 2, questions about the nature of reality itself. 3, 4], but there is also evidence that psychedelics can lead to longer lasting adverse effects [e. g. 1, 5]. 2.1 Coping with the ontological shock Some of the challenges that may emerge after a psychedelic experience stem from profound shifts in one's worldview [6], Psychedelic experiences that possess mystical qualities— metaphysical beliefs [7], and an overall ontological shock [8], in characterized by feelings of ineffability, significance, and the which the individual begins to re-evaluate the nature of their perceived “trueness” of the experience—are more likely to result reality. Commonly, people also experience a shift in their in an ontological shock and lead to a transformed belief system spiritual orientation [9], due to experiences that have been [12]. These experiences can offer profound insights into the "oneness" of reality and foster a sense of "ontological comfort," bringing a greater sense of purpose and meaning to life. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or However, they can also present challenges, as individuals may classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and struggle to integrate these insights into their everyday lives. This the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this raises the question of how best to support people in making sense work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia of these new ontological truth claims [12]. © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). Challenging psychedelic experiences can lead to various https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.1 ontological difficulties, such as questioning one's identity, 7 grieving the loss of a past self, experiencing persistent encounters for new sensory information [20]. This process can lead to the with (spiritual) entities, psychotic episodes, spiritual grandiosity, dissolution of previously rigid mental models and established feelings of meaninglessness and emptiness, isolation and despair worldviews. The resulting experience of an ontological shock [8], derealization, delusional beliefs, and experiences of may represent a direct encounter with the fundamental possession [9]. These prolonged challenges can impact uncertainty of reality [8]. This concept, referred to as individuals in different ways, resulting in difficulties with "groundlessness," attempts to explain how individuals everyday interactions, attentional problems, disruptions at work continuously construct a world of meaning that is inherently [8], challenges in managing emotions, and perceptual difficulties without a fixed foundation and perpetually in flux [21]. [9]. It is important to note that psychedelics can also reinforce Research on the adverse effects of psychedelics [e.g. 13, 14, existing beliefs, potentially enhancing established worldviews, 15, 16] and the challenges that arise following the so-called mental models, and expectations [22]. To address this ontological shocks these experiences can induce [e.g. 1, 8, 9] complexity, the "Altered Beliefs Under Psychedelics" (ALBUS) highlights the importance of developing therapeutic practices model proposes that the effects of psychedelics on prior beliefs and guidance rooted in empathic resonance and the concept of depend on factors such as the dose consumed and the individual's psychedelic apprenticeship [6]. While there are many existing pre-existing state of mind [22]. This model aims to explain how therapeutic and shamanic frameworks aimed at making sense of psychedelics can both diminish and strengthen prior beliefs, psychedelic experiences [6], it is crucial to recognize that these bridging gaps between different proposed mechanisms of how experiences often lead to heightened suggestibility [17], which psychedelics influence reality and well-being [22]. must be considered when helping individuals navigate their Additionally, other models offer explanations for the shifting worldviews. People have reported various strategies that mechanisms of action of psychedelics. The "Cortical-Subcortical helped them cope with extended difficulties, such as meditation, Communication Theory" (CSCT) suggests that psychedelics embodied contemplation, self-education through reading and reduce thalamo-cortical filtering of internal and external stimuli, journaling, and physical exercise. In terms of support from others, allowing new, unfiltered sensory information to emerge [23]. individuals expressed a need to feel seen, heard, understood, The "Cortical-Claustrum Communication" (CCC) model posits believed, and to have their experiences accepted and validated [1, that psychedelics decouple cortical areas from the claustrum, 8]. This suggests a responsibility for practitioners working with leading to reduced cognitive control [24]. Furthermore, and guiding people through psychedelic experiences to help them psychedelics are thought to open a critical period for social find meaning in their experiences without imposing any specific learning, potentially fostering new social behaviors and reducing ontological truth claims [12]. tendencies toward isolation [25]. Extensive research on challenging psychedelic experiences, These various theories attempt to explain how psychedelics including work by Stanislav Grof’s clinical team, has identified can facilitate the creation of new cognitive models of the world common existential challenges that individuals often face and reality. However, the field of psychedelic research continues following these experiences, primarily centered around fears of to grapple with understanding the precise mechanisms of these dying, going insane, or losing control [18]. According to Grof's substances, with ongoing testing of competing theories and team, psychedelic experiences can activate deep existential hypotheses. For a comprehensive evaluation of these theories, concerns that only subside once the individual has successfully see [26]. processed them. It is suggested that people may encounter a sense There is also an ongoing debate about the role of subjective of the groundlessness of being [18], which can be understood as experiences in the transformative effects of psychedelics. Some an underlying "principle" of cognition. This brings us to the next researchers take on a reductionist approach, focusing solely on point of this paper: the implications these experiences might have the brain mechanisms involved [27, 28]. This is problematic, as for the scientific understanding of the mind. it opens the question of how to understand the profound ontological shocks and the integration of the psychedelic experience in everyday lives of individuals. It is also problematic, 3 POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS ON as evidence suggests that psychedelic experiences with rich UNDERSTANDING THE MIND subjective effects, such as mystical-type experiences, can lead to the most significant transformations [29, 30]. If transformative 3.1 Understanding psychedelic experiences effects were purely mechanistic, without considering subjective The underlying mechanisms that facilitate changes after the experiences, it becomes challenging to explain the struggles and use of psychedelics have yet to be fully understood. However, positive changes individuals report in their daily lives after using several hypotheses have been proposed to explain how these psychedelics. cognitive shifts might occur. One prominent hypothesis is based Subjective experiences cannot be easily dismissed [31, 32, 33, on the framework of predictive processing [19]. This framework 34], and they are crucial for understanding how people’s conceptualizes the mind as a "prediction machine" that ontological reality gets altered. Investigating these subjective continuously balances information by integrating prior aspects could help address some of the unresolved questions knowledge about the world with incoming sensory data from the about the mind. Studying the invariants and stable states of the environment [19]. "changing mind" following psychedelic use may bring us closer Within this framework, the "Relaxed Beliefs Under to unlocking the nature of the mind. This research could have Psychedelics" (REBUS) model suggests that psychedelics implications for not only understanding and treating mental increase the brain's level of entropy—or uncertainty—while health issues but also for exploring concepts like consciousness reducing reliance on prior beliefs, thereby allowing more room [22, 36, 37] and the self [22, 33, 35, 38]. Additionally, it could 8 impact the reductionist debate [32], consciousness theories, and changes in their subjective experience in their daily life, does this discussions about the "easy" and "hard" problems of mean that the new state is an unusual or extended form of consciousness [22, 36, 37]. consciousness? In other words, does this imply that the individual is now living in a perpetually altered state of 3.2 Possible contribution to understanding the consciousness? mind There is a prevalent view that the subjective experiences In previous sections, we provided a short overview of what induced by psychedelics reveal aspects of the mind that need to psychedelics are and sketched some possible implications they be integrated into everyday life [43]. This perspective suggests can have in the everyday lives of people, as well as our broader that psychedelics should be considered mind-revealing rather impact they may have on our understanding of the mind. In the than merely mind-altering substances [44]. This leads us back to last section we want to finish with diving a bit deeper into some fundamental questions about the nature of consciousness itself. possible implications that ontological shocks can have on Is consciousness merely a byproduct of neuronal activity, understanding the mind. something external waiting to be experienced, is it embodied, Let us stop for a moment on how we understand the concept enacted, or something else entirely? What we do know at this of the “mind”. This is an important question as the theories of point is that psychedelics can induce alterations in our psychedelic mechanisms all have their own postulates, the consciousness, affecting our awareness of ourselves and the prevalent implicit view being that the mind is a product of world around us. neuronal activity (which applies for previously presented While it may be ambitious to claim that psychedelic theories – the REBUS [20], CSCT [23] and CCT model [24]). experiences will fully bridge the epistemic gap between first-This is a reductionist view of the mind that equals the mind with person experiences and their third-person correlates, or help us the brain [39]. Another possible view is that the mind is an understand the nature of consciousness itself – the problem we information-processing system that manipulates and transforms commonly refer to as the hard problem of consciousness [45, information, which is a computational view [40]. In the previous 36]–, they can still provide valuable insights into both these years, another understanding on the mind has slowly been issues [35, 36]. The most profound psychedelic experiences, evolving in cognitive science – that the mind is embodied, which often lead to significant changes in consciousness, self- embedded, extended and enacted, which we call the 4E cognition. perception, and belief systems, may offer particularly important This view understands the mind as a complex interplay between insights. the brain, body and the surrounding environment [41]. The challenge of understanding the mind mirrors the debate 4 CONCLUSION in psychedelic research about the significance of subjective experiences. The core issue is whether the relevance of a The aim of this article was to present the concept of ontological psychedelic experience depends solely on inducing specific brain shock following the use of psychedelics and possible states or requires a deeper subjective experience to impact a implications on the scientific understanding of the mind. We person's everyday life. Evidence increasingly supports the idea provided an overview of what is already known about this topic, that both "set" (the interplay of personality, preparation, to point out where we should be cautious and what is still expectation, and intention) and "setting" (the physical, social, unknown or vaguely known, as well as to illustrate how diving and cultural environment) play crucial roles during a psychedelic deeper into this topic could help us scientifically advance our experience [42]. This observation could indicate the relevance of current understanding of the mind. the 4E cognition framework, which views the mind as a dynamic It is important to conclude this paper with a call for caution. interplay between brain, body, and environment. Moreover, the As we tried to point out, psychedelic experiences and its 4E cognition theory might explain why set and setting are subsequent changes in everyday experience can inform us about important, and why some psychedelic states and doses lead to the nature of our mind and help us gain broader understanding profound changes while others do not. By exploring this intricate about topics related to consciousness, self, mental health etc. But interplay, the 4E framework may shed light on why certain the experiences that could most inform us about these topics and individuals experience ontological shocks under specific can lead to most profound long-term changes, have its challenges conditions. If, however, these experiences are inexplicable and downsides, which should not be disregarded. That is why the through existing frameworks, they could highlight gaps in our integration process, as well as the importance of set and setting, current understanding of the mind and reveal how alternative should always be considered when dealing with these substances. states of consciousness can disrupt the established interaction But before we have a consensus on what the mind is and how it between mind, body, and environment. constructs our reality, a lot of damage can be done, especially if Psychedelic experiences are often described as "altered states we want to use psychedelic substances to help people get through of consciousness," suggesting that by examining what changes their mental health problems, as is the case in psychedelic during these experiences, we can gain insights into what research in the past years. constitutes the "normal," "usual," or "everyday" state of consciousness. 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Anderson, 2003. Embodied Cognition: A field guide. Artificial Intelligence, 149, 91–130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0004- 3702(03)00054-7 11 Innovative Supporting Approaches: Integrating Bibliotherapy, Psychodrama and AI as a Therapeutic Conversational Tool Veronika MattovᆠFirstName Surname Department Courtney Lazore Department of Mongolian, Name Independent Researcher Korean and Vietnamese Studies Institution/University Name National Coalition of Faculty of Arts City State Country Independent Scholars Masaryk University email@email.com United States Czech Republic courtneylazore@ncis.org veronika.mattova@mail.muni.cz Abstract is built under external pressure to achieve inner balance. However, emotional turmoil can be particularly challenging, How can individuals deal with personal trauma or internal which is why we need to explore a multimodal approach that struggles more effectively? This is the main question of every could be a revolutionary step in interdisciplinary mental health existential crisis, closely linked with humankind's survival support. strategy. Finding new, innovative ways for practitioners to Bibliotherapy, psychodrama, and AI might initially seem leverage therapeutic techniques and modern artificial unrelated, but there is a way to incorporate all of them within a intelligence (AI) technology is crucial to providing precision new therapeutic framework. mental health support to more individuals. While looking at possible approaches, it becomes more and more important to synthesize complex ways practitioners can provide 2 Methodology multidimensional help. This paper investigates the possibility of a new holistic treatment that integrates bibliotherapy This paper uses a conceptual methodology to explore the 's storytelling, Magic Shop as a psychodrama method, and AI integration of mental health techniques and artificial intelligence conversation tools – chatbots to ensure that individuals receive to theorize a holistic, accessible and personalized mental health encompassing supportive therapy and feel less isolated. The care option. Based on the researchers' backgrounds and holistic method is applied to Korean pop music as a case study, engagement with existing literature, bibliotherapy, psychodrama because K-pop content has experimented with these techniques and artificial intelligence were chosen for further analysis. The and fandoms often have strong parasocial interactions. researchers reviewed literature from databases including APA Combining these techniques creates a holistic, accessible, and PsycInfo, Google Scholar, IEEEXplore, ProQuest, PubMed, personalized mental health care option that enhances the Scopus, Web of Science and EBSCO. Only papers written in cognitive, emotional and practical well-being of individuals in English and published after 2000 were considered, except for one need of support. foundational work ( Purpose and strategy behind the magic shop). To build the theory, the researchers identified the Keywords prominent features of each topic (Table 1): bibliotherapy's storytelling, psychodrama's experiential model, and AI's real-Bibliography, storytelling, psychodrama, Magic Shop, AI, time access, which will each be explored in subsequent sections. chatbots, K-pop For an exploratory case study application, the researchers relied on new concepts (described in 6.1-6.3) provided through the Korean pop music industry (concretely group BTS), initially 1 Introduction produced as music-related products, but nowadays perceived The psychological aspect of overcoming personal issues and through a therapeutic lens, with the primary aim of merging the facing the harshness of reality is demanding for everyone. separate therapies together, creating a more influential impact. Internal cognitive mechanisms lead us to believe that individual struggles require individual approaches. This adaptation for hiding internal fights and presenting balance to the outside world †Alumna of Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, MEi:CogSci | Middle European interdisciplinary master's programme in Cognitive Science. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must Table 1: Selection & Clarification for Chosen Approaches be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.2 12 3 Bibliotherapy it can be a double-edged sword linked to maintaining one's own physiological and psychological well-being. Storytelling has long been a powerful means of exploring and understanding human emotions, and this concept underpins bibliotherapy, a therapeutic approach that uses literature to 5 AI used in Therapeutic Spaces support mental health and personal growth. By engaging with carefully chosen texts, individuals can reflect on their own AI chatbots are increasingly being used to enhance mental health experiences, gain new insights, and find comfort and empathy care by offering real-time interactions that meet cognitive and through the narratives. Bibliotherapy leverages the emotional emotional needs. These digital tools are part of a broader shift in and cognitive impact of stories to address psychological communication, driven by the "computers-are-social-actors" challenges, offering a complementary and accessible method for paradigm, where AI significantly impacts how people engage fostering emotional healing and resilience [1]. with services [10]. Some research suggests that fictional narratives may be more In therapy, AI complements traditional methods by providing effective for use in bibliotherapy, causing readers to empathize personalized interventions, making mental health support more more with the characters and leading to better self-understanding accessible. Virtual environments facilitated by AI can create new and self-improvement [2]. opportunities for personal fulfilment and emotional connection Moreover, neuroscience reveals that storytelling influences [11]. brain chemistry, enhancing empathy and trust through the release Moreover, there is an overlap, because recent research by of oxytocin and vasopressin [3]. This approach effectively McAllister et al. explores the potential for chatbots to enhance enhances emotional experiences and trust, aiding in personal bibliotherapy by supporting facilitators in mental health sessions. development and resilience [4]. The study seeks to address gaps in existing literature by investigating how chatbots can be utilized to assist in the preparation and delivery of bibliotherapy [12]. 4 Psychodrama and its Traits in Magic Shop In addition, in response to the high potential of technology, interviews with bibliotherapy facilitators have been conducted, There are many ways to grasp the concept of Magic Shop. The followed by thematic analysis, to identify suitable tasks for the first is understanding it as an in-depth training program with chatbot, aiding facilitators rather than directly evaluating the transformational practice, which will be discussed later in impact on participants of bibliotherapy. chapter 6.2 K-POP in Magic Shop. This integration represents a major step towards a more On the other hand, there is a possibility to apprehend it comprehensive and accessible mental health framework. through the concept of psychodrama, which will be our primary interest, within this paper. Magic Shop is a practice used in psychodrama and group therapy in which participants create a 6 K-POP as Multidimensional Tool space where they can "buy" something they already want, such as confidence or peace, from what they already have internally, Although Korean pop, generally known as K-pop, seems to only such as anxiety or anger. In other words, this activity helps overlap with music therapy, due to its main impact field, K-pop individuals explore their deepest passions, and the sacrifices may also serve as a useful case application for bibliotherapy, the needed to achieve them, while encouraging self-reflection and Magic Shop technique , and AI tools . personal growth, with a possibility to solve conflicts in a safe, Some K-pop groups participate in transmedia story worlds symbolic environment [5]. and lyrical concepts that go far beyond "unrequited love” themes, The term magic can be seen in society as something that touching the human psyche more deeply. Additionally, merging carries supernatural power . Magic Shop is not an exception. Thus, this with technology platforms like "Weverse" or "Bubble for it has a lot of forms and names: Magic Shop is our deep JYPnation ", not to mention fabricated interactions through apps understanding of heart and brain in harmony. We often compare like "Replika", "Mydol", etc., fans have never felt closer and ourselves to others and hope we could be better than we are. more bonded to their idols, who are revered with boundless Specific traits like social ability, patience and cleverness are support and understanding. examples that require time and practice. But it seems that Magic Shop is the key [6]. This method as a psychodramatic strategy 6.1 K-POP in Bibliotherapy can offer help to anybody through the use of fantasy [7]. In general , psychodrama is an experiential form of therapy, Many K-pop groups rely on some form of storytelling, but some allowing those in treatment to explore issues through action take it a step further. In particular, K-pop group BTS's "BTS methods (dramatic actions) [8]. This described approach, linked Universe" (BU), functions as a multidimensional tool for with psychodrama, was developed by Jacob Levy Moreno as a emotional and psychological engagement. In bibliotherapy, psychotherapeutic technique useful in working with patients BTS's books, The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: The Notes, during individual and group psychotherapy. This method offers provide a unique narrative that facilitates self-reflection and significant changes through role-playing and dramatization, emotional exploration. These notes, embedded within the group's resulting in many benefits, such as insight, abreaction, Love Yourself albums, as well as two books published by BTS's acceptance of internal impulses, confrontation with the feelings label, offer fans a form of therapeutic engagement by inviting of other people and training of alternative behaviors [9]. Whether them to interpret and relate to the fictional world, which can we are talking about the first or second definition of Magic Shop, mirror personal experiences and foster emotional processing [13]. This can be particularly striking when we take into account individual emotional overload with a long-term inability to 13 restart one's own coping mechanism to underlie qualitative one's prosperity and healing cognitive processes, functioning in everyday life. interdisciplinary cognitive science offers an opportunity to Preliminary research has suggested that the stories embedded merge concepts together that might bring new ways to deepen in K-pop can have a positive impact on fans' ability to cope with our knowledge. challenges and heal. One survey found that 97% of fans Combining different approaches, such as AI chatbots using ( n=2342) agreed that BTS's music and lyrics were effective in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) with minimal this way. Additionally, 84% agreed the storylines in BTS's bibliotherapy interventions, is slowly but steadily indicating that concepts were effective, and 75% agreed the BU storyline was the chatbots are more effective in reducing symptoms of effective [14]. depression and anxiety [21], which is the primary desired effect. These numbers suggest valid proof of audience engagement Moreover, fanship, an individual's bond to their idols, plays a techniques in fiction, described by Donald Maass as presenting crucial role in enhancing happiness, self-esteem, and social novelty, challenge, or aesthetic appeal to readers, which leads to connectedness, which pushes forward the application of social better identification with the story, while figuring out solutions identity theory in the realm of K-pop fans and expands the for the main characterś actions, reflecting in an individual's psychological understanding of fandom and its extended healing scheme [15]. therapeutic possibilities [22]. 6.2 K-POP in Magic Shop 8 Findings There is no doubt that science plays a crucial role in our Combining bibliotherapy, the Magic Shop psychotherapeutic understanding of human beings, yet some phenomena, such as method and AI tools can offer a comprehensive mental health compassion, altruism and empathy, remain enigmatic. These treatment model. Bibliotherapy provides cognitive and concepts form the foundation of James Doty's work, particularly emotional benefits through literature and storytelling, the Magic in his book Into the Magic Shop: A Neurosurgeon's True Story Shop method engages clients in creative and transformative of the Life-Changing Magic of Mindfulness and Compassion, experiences, and AI tools ensure continuous support and which inspired not only this paper but also the lyrics of the K-accessibility (as shown in Figure 1). pop group BTS's song "Magic Shop". The song, much like Doty's book, is perceived to have a healing effect on many individuals, resonating deeply within a therapeutic framework. Doty is not only a renowned author but also a researcher who founded the Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education (CCARE) at Stanford University, which supports his desire to analyze the interaction between the mind and body in relation to the concept of Magic Shop [16]. 6.3 K-POP in AI Chatbots In the K-pop world, AI enhances fan interactions by fostering parasocial relationships (PSI), a term that goes back to its roots in 1956 when it was defined as the illusion of a face-to-face friendship between audience members, along with the main Figure 1: Infographic of Innovative Supporting Approaches factor of a one-sided relationship [17] with idols (Korean singers within K-pop industry). Chatbots like "ChatGPT", "Replica" or Note. Created with Canva.com "Mydol" offer more personalized conversations, deepening the emotional connection fans feel with their favorite stars [18]. This a. Holistic Care: The union offers a multidisciplinary can be particularly comforting for those dealing with anxiety or approach to mental health, addressing cognitive, low self-esteem. emotional, and practical needs. By considering the AI-driven PSI offers new avenues for addressing anxiety, whole individual, this approach promotes holistic providing a controlled environment for emotional exploration. healing and improves overall well-being. While there are risks of maladaptive obsessions, the positive impact on psychological well-being is significant when managed b. Accessibility: AI tools streamline mental health carefully [19]. As AI continues to evolve, its role in supporting services and provide immediate support, covering a mental health in niche areas like K-pop will likely grow, offering gap to traditional treatments. This ensures that more innovative solutions to common challenges [20]. individuals can access the help they need, regardless of location or financial barriers. 7 Relevance for Cognitive Science & Cognitive Behavioral Therapy c. Personalized Experience: Integrated approaches Understanding how the human brain reacts to situations, making enable tailored interventions that can be adapted to individuals feel distressed has been already covered. Now, it is individual needs and preferences. This personal more than important to look for strategies to fight against it, apart involvement improves the effectiveness of treatment, from medicaments. Recognizing an individual's need to support leading to the best results and a more satisfying treatment experience. 14 [7] E. Koile, "The Magic Shop: The therapist masquerades as a shopkeeper," Voices: The Art and Science of Psychotherapy, Spring 2011. [Online]. 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University for his support during the process of writing this paper. References [1] M. C. Pino and M. Mazza, “The Use of ‘Literary Fiction’ to Promote Mentalizing Ability,” PLoS One, vol. 11, no. 8, 2016. Available: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160254. [2] K. Oatley, Such Stuff as Dreams: The Psychology of Fiction. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2011. [3] E. R. Kandel, The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain: From Vienna 1900 to the Present. Random House, 2012. [4] M. E. Langeberg, "Bibliotherapy: A Systematic Research Review with Social-Emotional Learning Applications," Illinois Reading Council Journal, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 32-45, Fall 2023. DOI: 10.33600/IRCJ.51.4.2023.32. [5] A. C. Barbour, "Purpose and strategy behind the magic shop," Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama, & Sociometry, vol. 45, pp. 91-101, 1992. [Online]. Available: https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152183218. [6] R. Rautiainen, "Using the Magic Shop in a work counselling group," Centre for Playback Theatre, 2002. [Online]. Available: https://www.playbacktheatre.org/playbacktheatre/wp- content/uploads/2010/04/Rautiainen_Magic-Shop.pdf. [Accessed: Aug. 19, 2024]. 15 Usability of intelligent assistive technology used by people with dementia and their caregivers Klara Dečman Cognitive Science, Occupational Therapy University of Ljubljana & University of Vienna Slovenia kd1023@student.uni-lj.si, decmanklara@gmail.com Abstract One of the most common diseases in old age, dementia is recognized as one of the most costly and burdensome health Intelligent assistive technology with context-aware computing conditions [2]. Statistics suggest that the growing global and artificial intelligence can be applied to assist a person with population of older adults diagnosed with dementia reached dementia and their caregivers with activities of daily living. This 44.4 million worldwide in 2013, with projections indicating an paper samples such technologies with a focus on current increase up to 135.5 million by 2050. Concern over the limited knowledge and practice concerning usability. We used a scoping availability of family and professional caregivers for this rapidly study to address the objectives of the research. Our findings growing population is intensifying (ibid.). As the population indicate that despite the importance of technology customization ages, the number of potential caregivers decreases, and those to individuals’ needs and capabilities it is not commonly available often lack the key skills to provide the necessary level addressed in the literature. Furthermore, while researchers are of care [5]. Furthermore, as family caregivers become more aware of the concepts and aims of evaluating the usability of involved while struggling to balance other familial and social technology, they seem to face difficulties in assessing them. roles and responsibilities, they often experience negative consequences on their health, such as burden, anxiety, Keywords depression, isolation, and sleep deprivation [6]. Technological Activities of daily living, cognitive assistance, dementia, innovation, including advances in communications, robotics, and evaluation of usability, family caregivers, human-centered sensors, are perceived as promising to tackle these design, scoping survey, user experience challenges [5]. Specifically, assistive technology (AT) refers to a broad range of devices and systems designed to maintain or enhance an individual’s functioning related to cognition, 1 Introduction communication, hearing, mobility, self-care and thereby Dementia is a neurocognitive disorder, typically chronic and promoting their health, well-being, inclusion, and progressive, characterized by impairments in cognitive functions participation [7]. AT is not designed to perform tasks on behalf such as memory, attention, orientation, and language [1, 2] to the of the user, but are specifically designed to monitor the activities extent that a person with dementia (PwD) is not able to of cognitively impaired users and provide appropriate assistance, independently complete activities of daily living (ADLs) [3]. thereby enhancing the likelihood of achieving desired behavioral Personal (pADLs) refer to basic physical needs such as dressing, outcomes [8]. A specific category of AT, cognitive orthotics [9] toileting, bathing, and eating, while instrumental (iADLs) are or cognitive assistive technology [10] is designed to assist with essential for living independently in the community, such as cognitive tasks. For instance, AT is employed to remind PwD to preparing food, taking medication, and doing laundry [4]. The take medication or that their family member is visiting them next ICD-11 [1] identifies three degrees of severity of any type of day [9, 10]. PwDs and their caregivers routinely use low-tech dementia. In the mild stage, a PwD may live independently but aids, such as medication pill organizers, schedules, and notes. requires supervision and/or support with iADLs, such as locating They are being offered high-tech aids, such as intelligent everyday objects, and handling finances. In the moderate stage, assistive technology (IAT) that employs artificial intelligence to PwDs require support to function outside their home assess whether and when an appropriate reminder or procedural environment. They can accomplish only simple household tasks guidance is necessary for task completion [11, 12]. Additionally, and experience difficulties with completing pADLs. In the severe IAT should be contextually aware: able to examine its stage, memory impairment becomes profound, though it varies environment, react to changes within it, and thus provide help by etiology. PwDs are fully dependent on others for pADLs and when needed [11]. they often experience total disorientation in time and place. Human factors and ergonomics are scientific disciplines focused on studying the interactions between humans and other components of socio-technical systems [13]. The aim of Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed designing such products and systems is to minimize human error for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full and enhance human efficiency. One attempt at managing human citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). factors analysis and human errors is through the development and Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia deployment of measurement standards such as the Human © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). Readiness Levels (HRL) scale (ibid.). HRL complements and https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.3 16 supplements the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale, which platforms (APA PsycInfo, Google Scholar, IEEEXplore, captures the maturity of technology before and after its ProQuest, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, as well as the integration into a developing system [13, 14]: HRL emphasizes digital library facilities of the Universities of Vienna and the readiness to develop technology for effective and safe human Ljubljana) with hand searches of electronic journals and use, and it should capture human-related features of technology literature identified through literature readings. For this survey, development [14]. Similarly to TRL, HRL scale is divided to we included original articles, conference proceedings, and PhD nine stages: basic research and development of principles, thesis; written in English; and published “within the last decade” concepts, and the application of human characteristics, (i.e., since 2013). To be covered, IATs further had to meet the performance, and behavior, along with guidelines incorporating following inclusion criteria: direct applicability to dementia care, human-centered requirements to enhance human performance focus on assisting with ADLs, PwD, and/or family caregiver as and human-technology interactions (HRL 1…3); development a user. We excluded IATs developed for the support of other (if and assessment of user interface design concepts and prototype related) disabilities, such as traumatic brain injuries; that could simulations in laboratory and real-world environments only be used by professional caregivers. (HRL 4…6); full-scale testing, verification, and deployment in an operational environment with representative users and system hardware and software (HRL 7… 8); and the final stage, where 3 Findings the system is actively used in the operational environment with We illustrate our findings for each research question using the systematic monitoring of human-system performance technologies: COACH [10, 11] and AWash [19] (targeted ADL: (HRL 9) [14]. HRL is closely linked to user-centered design, a handwashing); DRESS [20] (getting dressed); ToiletHelp [21], framework for the design and development of new products or (using a water toilet); and Smart Toothbrush [22] (brushing the assessment and evaluation of existing products that explicitly teeth). The pADLs supported by these IATs must be performed considers potential users’ needs, wishes, and subjectively regularly to maintain the person’s independence, health, and perceived limitations of the IAT [5, 9, 12]. overall well-being. As dementia progresses, PwD becomes Some key definitions from the ISO standard on increasingly dependent on others to complete ADLs, affecting ergonomics of human-system interaction [15] read: “3.13 their family caregiver and society (cf. section 1). usability: extent to which a system, product or service can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with 3.1 Human Readiness Levels effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context We assigned aggregated HRL scores according to the groups of use. … 3.3 effectiveness: accuracy and completeness with introduced in section 1, with most of the surveyed technologies which users achieve specified goals. … 3.4 efficiency: resources ranking at HRL 7…8: COACH, AWash, and ToiletHelp. This used in relation to the results achieved. Typical resources include likely results from our choice of targeted content, as we aimed to time, human effort, costs, and materials.” Further important focus on IATs close to HRL 9. We mapped DRESS and Smart aspects of usability include user satisfaction, the “extent to which Toothbrush to the HRL range 4…6, as the first is about the user's responses resulting from use meet the user’s needs and developing and evaluating a prototype in preparation for in-home expectations; how accessible a product, system, service, or trials with PwDs, while for the second only preliminary environment is to individuals with diverse needs, characteristics, laboratory testing was conducted with healthy individuals. and capabilities is another element of usability”. As examples of differences in terminology, see e.g. [16], where utility refers to 3.2 Different stages of Dementia whether the design provides features that users need and The IATs selected for this article are intended to provide targeted usefulness covers how pleasant and easy to use technology is assistance for different stages of dementia. ToiletHelp is aimed (usability) and whether it does what users need (utility). to be used by PwD in the mild stage of dementia, COACH in moderate to severe stage, DRESS and Smart Toothbrush in 2 Methodology severe stage, while for AWash we have not found any explicitly targeted stage of dementia. We found no evidence of This short survey covers only some of the findings of my ongoing technologies taking into account individual differences and more comprehensive review of topical IATs [17]. For this needs of PwDs and their caregiver, consequently, we were not survey, the following research questions to explicate the able to find such technology that would be able to adapt coverage of usability will be addressed: according to the actual severity of dementia as disease progresses (cf. section 3.3). Such customization is needed as cognitive 1. What is the maturity of IAT for human use (= its HRL)? functions progressively deteriorate, with fluctuations in rating 2. (How) do the developers take the progression of the disease occurring throughout the day or as the system would be used over into account? periods ranging from weeks to months or even years [20, 21]. 3. How exactly is technology being assistive? 4. How is the usefulness and usability of the technology 3.3 Notions of Assistance evaluated (if at all)? Assistance involves interacting, with prompting being an Our scoping study maps key concepts, main sources, and interaction strategy that has become widely popular also in the types of evidence available for the domain targeted. For context of IATs. Within our target domain, we found audio methodological transparency, we followed the PRISMA-ScS prompts to be most common as they are part of COACH, AWash, checklist [18]. Our search combines electronic database DRESS, and Smart Toothbrush. Such assistance should guide 17 PwD through the sequential steps of the activity by pre-recorded of IAT largely depends on its utility and its unobtrusiveness, voice commands. Visual prompts include videos of steps of which can encourage more consistent use. activities (COACH); pictures of correct clothing items (DRESS); The current understanding of usability reflected in the use of different lights to attract attention to the appropriate use of literature indicates that even when researchers are aware of the an object (DRESS, Smart Toothbrush); and texts with related concepts and terminology and aim to assess them, they instructions (ToiletHelp). DRESS consists of motivational have difficulties in doing so with unified questionnaires or prompts in the form of songs or videos favored by the PwD are standardized testing procedures. meant for when a PwD should get stuck in an activity, and are configured by the family caregiver. COACH has options for increasing levels of support: low-guidance and high-guidance 4 Relevance of Cognitive Science verbal prompts, video demonstrations, or placing a call to the The goal of the inter-disciplinarity of Cognitive Science is to caregiver. DRESS offers the choice of continuous mode, which address the question of how does the mind work – why we do the includes chronological directions across all steps of an activity, things we do, think the way we think, and how we perceive the and independent mode, in which no audio prompts are provided world around us – by trying to understand and explain underlying while the PwD is donning a shirt, and the caregiver should mental processes and mechanisms of human behavior from the receive text messages on their device either when help is needed point of view of each discipline [24]. In user interfaces, or dressing is completed. Nominal assistance provided by computational models of human behavior are used to describe ToiletHelp consists of acknowledgment messages displayed to and capture our understanding of typical user actions, predict reassure the users they have completed every step of the activity; future actions, and guide users toward improving their when the need is recognized, instructions are repeated. If a user actions [25]. These computations are typically based on internal should still fail, an alert informs the caregiver the PwD is having symbolic knowledge representations, allowing a cognitive agent trouble, along with a reassurance message being displayed to the to manipulate symbols to gain information about the external PwD. world and determine how to act effectively – plan and perform The IATs we identified can help guide PwD through activities, actions, and achieve specific goals [26]. Evolutionary but it is crucial to tailor such assistance to individual needs and psychologists view the information processing architecture of the adjust it as dementia progresses [20]. While there are cases where brain to consist of adaptive problem-solving systems that use differing/increasing levels of assistance are provided by information to adaptively regulate physiology and behavior. In IATs [10, 11], such adjustment is not commonly documented in this perspective, attention, learning, emotion, and motivation all the literature. Despite its importance, our research indicates that play key roles in minds work and how we respond to our there is also a lack of consistency in the terminology used to environments [27]. In particular, motivation can guide cognitive describe the adjustment of IATs to individual needs (e.g. processes: When a PwD becomes fatigued, their motivation to customization, personalization, adjustment, adaptation). continue activities declines. IATs can help by providing motivational prompts, such as favorite music or videos, which 3.4 Usability evoke emotional memories. This is but an example of how, The resources we analyzed indicate a dearth of commonly used cognitive science provides crucial insights into how users standardized usability tests; out of the systems surveyed, only perceive, process, and interact with technology and consequently Awash was assessed using the System Usability Scale (SUS) affects both, the improvement of designs and testing of usability questionnaire [23]. Instead, information about the usability of and usefulness. It is a “bridge” between applied artificial IATs is often gathered through user interviews [10, 11, 20, 21], intelligence and user experience. observation, and performance testing [10, 11, 19, 21, 22]. One important objective of applied artificial intelligence is In terms of effectiveness, COACH and AWash users were the development of cognitive orthotics, designed to enhance and able to independently complete more steps of activity and engage expand the user’s cognitive abilities [28] . It is not about less with caregivers while using IAT. Regarding efficiency, the technology imitating human abilities, but rather extending them. developers of the Smart Toothbrush have estimated its battery The key focus is the importance of creating systems that combine life, while those of DRESS considered the final product's cost. In human and machine components in a way that maximizes their terms of user satisfaction, caregivers noted several benefits of individual strengths taking into account ethics. To design DRESS, including validation of memory loss, empowerment of successful cognitive orthotics, interdisciplinary teams are PwD, promoting privacy and dignity, and providing caregiver needed to unite relevant knowledge and perspectives of respite. ToiletHelp was reported to increase PwD’s autonomy, professionals (such as computer scientists, engineers, physicians, boost self-esteem and dignity, and reduce the burden on cognitive psychologists, and neuroscientists) together with caregivers. Participants rated AWash with a positive user stakeholders and users of technology (ibid.). experience. On the other hand, difficulties in using the technology were due to varying stages of dementia, visual and sensory perception issues, the need to change routines, and 5 Limitations and Future Work affordability issues [20]. Users expressed dissatisfaction with As technology advances rapidly, future research should explore long delays between tasks and the frequency of a wider range of IATs using novel modalities and supporting prompts [10, 11, 22], while overlapping video and verbal more diverse ADLs. This limited study cannot form generalized messages used in ToiletHelp caused distraction. The acceptance statements about IAT usability for PwD and caregivers, as 18 comparing specific ADLs is challenging due to variations in [10] N. M. Dharan, M. R. Alam, and A. Mihailidis, "Speech-Based Prompting particular activity structure, cultural contexts, and dementia System to Assist with Activities of Daily Living: A Feasibility Study," Gerontechnology, vol. 20, pp. 1-12, 2021. stages. We focused on a small subset of IATs addressing some [11] S. 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International, London, England, UK, 2015. [Online]. Available: O. Kristensson, X. Bi and A. Howes, Eds., New York, United States of https://www.alzint.org/u/WorldAlzheimerReport2015.pdf America, Oxford University Press, 2018, pp. 377-398. [3] Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., American [26] J. L. Bermúdez, "Physical Symbol Systems and the Language of Thought," Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC in Cognitive Science. An Introduction to the Science of the Mind, 3rd ed., London, England, 2013, pp. 602-614. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, 2020, pp. 99-121. [4] American Occupational Therapy Association, Occupational Therapy [27] L. Cosmides and J. Tooby, "Evolutionary Psychology: New Perspectives on Practice Framework: Domain and Process, 4th ed., vol. 74, AOTA Press, Cognition and Motivation," Annu. Rev. Psychol., vol. 64, pp. 201-229, 2020. January 2013. [5] D. V. Dahlke and M. G. Ory, "Emerging Issues of Intelligent Assistive [28] K. M. Ford, P. J. Hayes, C. Glymour and J. Allen, "Cognitive Orthoses: Technology Use Among People With Dementia and Their Caregivers: A Toward Human-Centered AI," AI Magazine, vol. 36, issue 4, pp. 5-8, 2015. U.S. Perspective," Front. Public Health, vol. 8, May 2020. [6] T. Wangmo, "Caring for Older Adults with Dementia: The Potential of Assisted Technology in Reducing Caregiving Burden," in Intelligent Assistive Technologies for Dementia, F. Jotterand, M. Ienca, T. Wangmo and B. S. Elger, Eds., New York, Oxford University Press, 2019, pp. 95-109. [7] World Health Organization. "Assistive technology." World Health Organization. Accessed: Feb. 24, 2024. Available: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/assistive-technology [8] B. Bouchard, K. Bouchard, and A. Bouzouane, "A smart cooking device for assisting cognitively impaired users," J. Reliab. Intell. Environ., vol. 6, pp. 107-125, April 2020. [9] J. Evans, M. Brown, T. Coughlan, G. Lawson, and M. P. Craven, "A Systematic Review of Dementia Focused Assistive Technology," in Human-Computer Interaction: Interaction Technologies, M. Kurosu, Ed., Cham, Springer International Publishing, 2015, pp. 406-417. 19 Open Science and Goodhart’s Law Tomaž Pisanski Vladimir Batagelj Jan Pisanski pisanski@upr.si Vadimir.Batagelj@f mf .uni- lj.si jan.pisanski@f f.uni- lj.si University of Primorska University of Primorska University of Ljubljana Koper, Slovenia Koper, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia IMFM IMFM Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia ABSTRACT Main players involve authors, editors, referees, publishers, libraries, readers, universities, learned societies, funding agencies The influence of Goodhart’s law to the development of Open Sci-and taxpayers. ence is discussed. Science Citation Index (SCI) and Open Access Publishing within classical publishing model was time consum- (OA) are important steps in the path from Science to Open Sci- ing and required efforts from all parties. This somehow prevented ence (OS). The main conclusion is that flawed openness replaced the inflation and hyper-production of papers. quality in Open Science. The model was mainly "subscription model" where articles KEYWORDS were available in printed volumes of a journal. University and departmental libraries subscribed to major journals, covering Open Science, Open Access, Article Processing Charges, Good- selected fields of science. The contents of earlier volumes were hart’s Law, Free Journal Network available to library users. Most libraries were open to local com- munity and also to visiting researchers. Several learned societies, 1 FROM SCIENCE TOWARDS OPEN SCIENCE universities and institutes published their own journals, associ- ated with a given library and used them for exchange purposes. 1.1 Science Instead of paying subscription to a similar journal they would Traditionally, scientists disseminated their findings by publishing simply exchange the journals. In this way a library was able their results in scientific journals. This is a key mechanism for to save money to subscribe to journals that were not available knowledge transfer among scholars and therefore an important for exchange. This was an important way for wealthy western subject of cognitive science. In the old days, the process of writ- scientists to help scientists from Eastern block and third world ing a scientific paper was completely different. The author had countries. Later the revenue from scientific publishing was one to type the paper on a typewriter leaving spaces for handwritten of the main sources of income of major learned societies. Unfor- greek letters, symbols and formulae. With the advent of copying tunately, by acquisitions and mergers eventually a very small machines only cumbersome paper "cut-and-paste" method was number of huge multinational publishers emerged. These pub- available. Smaller misprints were overtyped whilst larger correc- lishing houses control the field of scientific publishing. tions required replacing whole pages. Professional typists, not available for everyone, could speed up the process. Manuscripts were sent for publication by ordinary mail in several iterations, depending on the referees’ requests. Rise of technology quickly brought up big changes. The intro- 1.3 Transition to digital duction of personal computers replaced typewriters by keyboards The advancement of technology, in particular ICT (Information and drastically enlarged the population of those who were able to and Communication Technology), in the second half of the twen- compose texts on a computer and simple editors introduced cut- tieth century with the transition from analog to digital completely and-past method of writing. Specialised software for producing transformed the process of scientific publishing. high-quality scientific drawings and diagrams enabled publishers The costs of all stages of publishing decreased. More and more to request camera-ready manuscripts from the authors. Authors work was transferred from publisher – printer to author. Pub- no longer focused only on the subject of their work but also on lishing a paper became easy and inexpensive. The number of the look it will have when printed. scientific journals started to grow even more rapidly. Surprisingly, major publishers did not lower the cost of sub- 1.2 Characteristics of Classical Publishing scription to their journals. On the contrary, they started to bundle Model journals. If a library wanted to continue subscription to a jour- nal it had to subscribe to the whole bundle of journals, many of Classical publishing model was robust and healthy. It was free which it had no interest in. for authors. Certain journals were even paying author fees. Sur- When papers became available in a pdf form, the need for prisingly, it was (almost) free for readers via libraries of public printed versions decreased. This also meant there was no way to universities. prevent an unauthorised access to the paper. The first electronic journals appeared. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal There is a big difference between subscription to printed jour-or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or nal and electronic journals. Old volumes of printed journals re-distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this main in the library and are available to anyone having access work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner /author(s). to the library. On the other hand, volumes of electronic jour- Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia nals remain with the publisher who may deny access to the paid © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.4 volumes after the subscription runs out. 20 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Pisanski et al. 2 GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION; computers. No peer review is needed. The paradigm "Publish or SHIFT OF GOALS Perish" was upgraded to "Be Cited or Perish". In the past century we experience tremendous growth of pub- 3 BIBLIOMETRICS lished scientific works. There are several factors contributing to this phenomenon. With the Science Citation Index (SCI) a number of statistical mea- sures were introduced that would help profiling an author, the work or the journal. The science of bibliometrics was born. It was 2.1 Publish or Perish later extended to scientometrics and ultimately to informetrics. "Publish or perish" is an aphorism describing the pressure to SCI introduced a number of measures, indicators or metrics, publish academic work in order to succeed in an academic career. trying to capture certain properties of articles, authors and jour- It first appeared already in the first half of the twentieth century. nals. For a long time the PhD was a sufficient proof of academic quali- One such indicator is the journal cited half-life. It is the median fication. It was not unusual that the PhD Thesis was the greatest article publication date for each journal citation during one calen- scientific achievement of a scholar. Unfortunately, the growth in dar year. In general, the journal cited half-life is small for recent the number of universities and scientists led to inflation of PhDs. journals while it is large for older, well-established journals. On Some scholars would simply stop doing research when hired. the other hand it depends, as any other indicator on the scientific Employers began requesting a constant flux of publications as a field and the culture of publishing in that field. Finally, a large proof of scientist’s devotion to research. Those who were unable journal cited half-life indicates that publications in that journal to maintain high publication rate would be discouraged to stay remain relevant for a long time. Hence the new knowledge is in academia. And quantity became a proxy for quality. persistent and not merely mundane. Nowadays, it would not be difficult to equip any bibliographic database with computation 2.2 Quality control of journal journal cited half-life. Ever since scientific journals appeared in seventeenth century, 3.1 Journal Impact Factor the quality of publications was in the hands of scientists using Notorious Impact Factor (IF) is a ratio between the number of the system of peer review. This was natural since everybody citations in a given time period - usually a calendar year, to the involved: authors, editors, referees and readers were scientists. articles, published in another time period - usually two calendar With the growth of number of journals it became clear that years before. Sometimes they present also 3-year or 5-year impact not all journals apply the same standards for accepting a paper factors. for publication. Obviously there was a problem of quality control. For some reasons a 2-year impact factor prevailed and became In mathematics there was a secondary system in place. It a standard. In certain sense a 2-year impact factor is complemen- started in Germany before WWII. Eventually, three refereeing tary to a journal cited half-life. Definitely, a 2-year IF is not the journals were established, one in the Soviet Union, one in the USA best indicator for mathematics when compared with other sci- and one in Germany (nowadays at the European Mathematical ences where citation culture is different. For instance, when 1756 Society). If a review of a paper does not appear in one of those SCIMAGO journals covering the subject area of Mathematics refereeing journals, the paper is likely not to be interesting for are ranked according to Cites/Docs. (2 year) for the year 2023, mathematicians. among the top 50 journals only one journal has Mathematics as For science in general there is a similar publication, called the primary subject area. Current Contents. 3.2 Metrics and Ranking 2.3 Citation index Having different indicators for a set of journals is good. It gives If we know for each paper the list of papers it cites, we can also a higher dimensional description of each journal. However, each produce the inverse index, i.e. the list of papers that cite a given indicator may be used for sorting and hence for ranking. There paper. Such index is called citation index. In 1964 Eugene Garfield is a strong tendency to devise an indicator that would measure conceived the Science Citation Index (SCI) [3]. Using citation quality; an impossible task. index one can easily detect most follow-ups to a paper covering Never-the-less since early seventies the Impact Factor is con- a topic of scientist’s interest. Clearly there are certain limitations. sidered by many a proxy for the quality of a journal. The false One has to select a collection of journals from where papers and reasoning goes along the following lines: their references are included. This may introduce some bias. • Outstanding scientists publish their work in high-quality journals. 2.4 Impact • The work of outstanding scientists is frequently cited. • High-quality journals have high impact factor. On the other hand, if the database is stored in a computer one can • Wrong conclusion: Work published in a journal of high easily perform some statistics. For instance one can store with impact factor is of high quality. each paper the number of its citations. One can also compute how many citations each author has. This may, again, help the 3.3 Power law and related statistical laws scientist to select the papers to look-up and authors to follow. However, it also leads to all kind of rankings. Citation indices When plotting the distribution of ranked impact factors, one became very useful not only to scientists but also to their employ- can observe the exponential decay. Impact factor 𝐼 𝐹 (𝑟 ) of rank 𝛼 ers and funding bodies. Instead of comparing the added knowl- 𝑟 journal is proportional to 1/𝑟 for some constant 𝛼 . This is edge of someone’s research, it is "sufficient" to select the highest known as the power law. Roughly speaking this means that there ranked candidate. Selection can be done by administrators or are only a few journals with high impact factor and there are 21 Open Science and Goodhart’s Law Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia many journals with small impact factor. One way of stating this For ordering extra reprints it was not uncommon to charge the is that 20 percent of most cited journals receive 80 percent of authors. Also, one could be charged for insisting that the fig- citations; see [7]. Several of these laws were first observed in ures be printed in colour. On the other hand, some prestigious bibliometrics. However it is interesting to observe that these journals, started requesting article processing charges (APC). laws are universal and apply to a variety of unrelated situations, Employers and funding agencies soon recognised that if they perhaps by choosing the right value of parameter 𝛼 . want their scientists to publish in the journals with very high impact factor, they will have to cover the costs of APC. Some 4 GOODHART’S LAW scientific disciplines such as mathematics declined this model. When judging whether to pay APC or to send a graduate student British economist Charles Goodhart is credited with expressing to an international workshop many mathematicians give prece- the core idea of a law in a 1975 article on monetary policy in the dence to student. However, the publishers realised that money United Kingdom. "When a measure becomes a target, it ceases to could be presented as a proxy for quality and raised their prices. be a good measure"; see [4]. Another way of saying is "that once a metric is used as a basis for decision-making or control, it loses its reliability as an accurate measure". The main rationale behind this law is adaptation or even gam- 5.2 Diamond- and Green Open Access ing to improve one’s rank. If high rank means high reward, it In the last decade of the twentieth century some of the first is plausible, that some people will do anything to improve their purely electronic journals appeared. For instance, The Electronic score for the given indicator. Each measure for assessment of Journal of Combinatorics (E-JC) was funded in 1994. It was free for researchers and journals became prone to Goodhart’s Law. authors and readers. It is run by scholars and not by commercial publishers. This is nowadays called a diamond open access, with 4.1 Goodhart’s Law and Bibliometrics no cost for authors and no cost for readers. E-JC is a founding member of the Free Journal Network [9]. When the number of publications are counted, researchers will Even before that, in 1991, an e-print server arXiv was launched tend to split long papers and publish short bits and will thus where preprints in some scientific disciplines may be uploaded. increase the number of publications. Instead of publishing papers Nowadays, such posting of preprint before peer review is called alone they may increase their output several times if more coau- green open access. thors sign the same publications. There is no increase in quality For a while it seemed that this model will force big publish- of their output. ers to lower the prices of their journals. In the battle between When the number of citations decide who is winning a grant, scientists and multinational commercial publishing houses, the the number of citations soared. The authors started citing their scientist should have won. It was expected that governments will own papers, even if citations were not needed. When self-citations support scientists in the fight against greedy publishers; [10]. ceased to count, friendly researchers helped each other with cita- However, politics works in mysterious ways. tions. When the ℎ-index was introduced, the key publications of potential PIs in a research group had to be cited. Employers and funding bodies understood that blindly re- 5.3 Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) warding high production authors with large impact papers does In December 2001 there was a two-day conference, producing a not mean rewarding high-quality science as there was no prob- declaration called Budapest Open Access Initiative. The declara- lem in publishing papers in low-quality journals and getting tion was launched in February 2002, having 16 original relatively many citations in such journals. On the contrary, in many cases unknown individual signatories. This initiative has been financed those fabricating papers and citations easily outperformed best by Soros’ private Open Society Institute with 3 200 000 USD. It is researches. That is why the quality of journal in which the paper recognised as one of the major defining events of the open access was published became important; in practice this meant journals movement, [8]. Up till now it has been signed by about 0.1% of with high impact factors. world scientists. By Goodhart’s law, predatory publishers flourished, multiply- ing their journals and boosting their impact factors. Production of new knowledge ceased to be important. It is 5.4 Gold Open Access and APC the impact of their work published in high-impact journals that counts. Gold Open Access requires the author to pay Article Processing There is a difference in Goodhart’s law and other laws, used in Charges (APC) to keep article freely available to the reader. Cur- bibliometrics. Goodhart’s law involves time and decision while rently a typical APC exceed 3000 EUR. This brings enormous laws based on power law are based on rankings. profits to publishers. It is estimated that the costs per article There are not many studies of Goodhart’sl law in bibliometrics. should not exceed 1000 EUR. An exception is a comprehensive study reported in [2]. Clearly, APC model is not viable if costs are indeed covered by the author. The author must find someone who will cover the 5 OPEN ACCESS A STEP TOWARDS OPEN costs of APC. This is an ideal model prone for corruption at all SCIENCE levels. In the APC model, money becomes a substitute for quality. and researchers must compete for money that will cover their 5.1 APC model publication costs. The idea that authors or their institutions should make financial The difference between Green and Diamond Open Access contributions for their publications is not new. In the times of pa- and Gold Open Access is huge. One can speak of two opposing per publications, the publisher would grant some, say 25 reprints. concepts sharing the same name: Open Access. 22 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Pisanski et al. 6 IMPLEMENTATION OF OPEN SCIENCE OS is only open to those within the system. Independent criti- 6.1 Recommendations, Declarations, . . . . cal scientists adhering to high ethical standards are left out. OS is concerned only with current and future publications. No pressure There are numerous mostly political papers, initiatives, recom- to commercial publishers to open archives of papers published mendations, declarations, pushing for Open Access, Open Sci- previously under paywall and make them free for everyone. A ence, Open Research, etc. Due to limited space we mention only large part of science remains closed to authors and readers that a few of them. For more information, see e.g. [1, 5]. are unable to secure money. While the OA has been launched bottom up by 16 individuals Scientists no longer decide what is the quality of their work. meeting in Budapest, backed up by 3.2 Million USD from Open They even have to pay private companies to tell them that. For Society Institute, OS is a political concept that is revolutionis- instance, public employers and public funders base their decisions ing Science from top to bottom. It seems it was first formally about the quality of candidates on data bought from private expressed by UNESCO in November 2021 in the UNESCO Rec- companies running services, such as WoS or Scopus. ommendation on Open Science. There is a problem of citation culture among different scientific The concept has been embraced by European Commission fields. For eaxample, if average scientists from a scientific field, that pushes it through Horizon Europe down to member states. say 𝐴 with high ℎ-index compete for money in another field, say For instance, Slovenia recently received 16 000 000 EUR for pro- 𝐵 they may be ranked higher than the best scientists of the field moting OS. It appears this money does not go for science but for 𝐵 . This may have negative effect on the future of the field 𝐵 . administration. There is no real need for repositories at every public institu- The Barcelona Declaration on Open Research Information tions. One repository at the European level with several backups emerged from a workshop with over 25 experts interested in would suffice. Instead of creating jobs for scientists repositories changing the research landscape. The declaration that was signed create jobs for administration. Repositories of papers and data are on 24 April 2024 is a political statement of an unidentified commu- not intended for individual scientists. It appears they are intended nity. The authors do not act as individuals and do not represent for the AI data-harvesting algorithms of private companies. This scientific community. They write: . . . we, as organizations that service again will be sold back to scientists. carry out, fund and evaluate research, commit to the following . . . ". One could say, that the OS is a model that diverts public money The first out of four commitments is strong. We will make open- from scientists to administration and private companies. ness the default for the research information we use and produce. It leaves no room for science outside Open Science. While OA was ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS at first optional, OS makes it mandatory. Work of VB is supported in part by ARIS (research program P1-0294 and research projects J1-2481 and J5-4596). Work of JP 6.2 Goodhart’s Law and Open Science. is supported in part by ARIS (research program P5-0361 and research projects J5-2551 and J5-4596). Work of TP is supported Since journal impact factor remains a measure, the number of in part by ARIS (research program P1-0294 and research projects journals and publishers keeps increasing. In general, neither OS, N1-0140, J1-2481 and J5-4596). nor universities nor funding organisations address the problem of low-quality high-impact factor predatory journals. Several REFERENCES scientists lower ethical standards and publish their papers in [1] Batagelj, Vladimir. 2024. Bibliographic mix. [Online; accessed 21-September-expensive journals with mild or no refereeing. The costs are 2024]. (2024). https://github.com/bavla/biblio/blob/master/doc/sreda1348.pd f . reimbursed by their employer or funding organization. [2] Michael Fire and Carlos Guestrin. 2019. Over-optimization of academic Ever since the number of publications became a measure, sci-publishing metrics: observing goodhart’s law in action. GIGASCIENCE, 8, 6, entists tend to publish papers with partial solutions to the prob- (June 2019). doi: 10.1093/gigascience/giz053. [3] Eugene Garfield. 1964. "Science Citation Index"—A New Dimension in In-lem. The number of co-authors per paper keeps increasing. The dexing. Science, 144, 3619, 649–654. number of published papers grows out of proportion. [4] Charles E. Goodhart. 1975. Problems of Monetary Management: The UK After citations became a measure, the number of references per Experience. In Papers in Monetary Economics. Reserve Bank of Australia. [5] Kotar, Mojca. 2022. Open science in the european research area (era). [Online; paper keeps increasing. Some prominent journals fight citation accessed 21-September-2024]. (2022). https://url.um.si/p7CSj. inflation by limiting the number of references a paper may have. [6] Vojtech Kovarik, Christian van Merwijk, and Ida Mattsson. 2024. Extinction risks from ai: invisible to science? (2024). https://arxiv.org/abs/2403.05540 Clearly, the references published by competing authors are first arXiv: 2403.05540 [cs.CY]. to go. [7] Vilfredo Pareto. 1896. Cours d’economie politique, volume i and ii. F. Rouge, Since APC remains as a valid model in OS, all kinds of unethical Lausanne, 250. [8] Wikipedia contributors. 2024. Budapest open access initiative — Wikipedia, practices emerge. In many cases, a ghost author, who did not the free encyclopedia. [Online; accessed 31-August-2024]. (2024). https://en contribute to the paper but may secure covering APC costs is .wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Budapest_Open_Access_Initiative&oldi added to the list of authors. d=1242834910. [9] Wikipedia contributors. 2024. Free journal network — Wikipedia, the free It is disturbing that the goal quality is absent in some docu-encyclopedia. [Online; accessed 31-August-2024]. (2024). https://en.wikiped ments on OS, such as the Barcelona Declaration. The quality is ia.org/w/index.php?title=Free_Journal_Network&oldid=1231212463. [10] Wikipedia contributors. 2024. The cost of knowledge — Wikipedia, the free replaced by openness and Goodhart prevails. Scientists will adapt encyclopedia. [Online; accessed 21-September-2024]. (2024). https://en.wiki to new goals. pedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Cost_of _Knowledge&oldid=123957293 4. 7 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS OS has some serious flaws. The main concern of OS is that scien- tists financed from public funds are not allowed to profit from their work – but everybody else can. 23 The Consistency of the Research Field Data A Case Study of Library and Information Science in Slovenia Jan Pisanski Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 2 Ljubljana, Slovenia jan.pisanski@f f.uni- lj.si ABSTRACT mapping of WOS categories to the fields of science, used in SICRIS. Also see [2] for a brief history and overview of various mappings SICRIS (Slovenian Current Research Information System) proof fields of science/research fields. vides a service listing top Slovenian researchers in a particular While we were primarily interested in using bibliometric data research field. In Web od Science (WOS) each journal is assigned for representation of a particular research field, this can then also one or more categories (research fields). When comparing these be commonly used for evaluation of research. There are two main data for the research field of library and information science (LIS), approaches: expert evaluation and bibliometric analysis. While we found that several of the top authors in the field according expert evaluation is more traditional and qualitative, bibliometric to SICRIS rarely or never published in the journals deemed to analysis is quantitive in its nature. However, both of them have belong to LIS in Web of Science. Several other authors, who were their downsides. For discussion on trustworthiness of experts, see not assigned the research field of LIS in SICRIS, were among the e.g. [4]. Amongst others, Leiden Manifesto [5] points to dangers most published Slovenian authors in LIS in Web of Science. This of using bibliometric data without closely examining the context. is an indication that results of any analysis of LIS in Slovenia will It suggests various indicators should be used when evaluating depend greatly on the criterion/criteria used. researchers and their work and that bibliographic analysis should KEYWORDS support expert evaluation. Bibliometric Analysis, Research Fields, Slovenia, Library and Information Science. 3 RESEARCH 1 INTRODUCTION While there are several different ways to approach the extent As part of a project focusing on high-level bibliographic services, of publication on library and information science in Slovenia, i.e. novel services based on existing bibliographic data, we in- we looked at the publications in Web of Science (WOS). This tended to perform a domain analysis of library and information was done with intention to identify the most prominent works science (LIS) in Slovenia from a bibliometric perspective. This and authors, as journals indexed in WOS go through a rigorous contribution describes the initial step that was simply intended process. However, this also means that we omitted from analysis to provide an overview of research and researchers but came all other publications, including papers published in Slovenian up on several issues regarding assignment of research fields and language journals. yielded some interesting findings, particularly for establishing Although it may not have the same coverage of social sciences, the scope of the research field in Slovenia and elsewhere, but for this kind of insight WOS compares favourably to similar ser- also in view of providing better services to the users of academic vices, such as SCOP US and Google Scholar, as it allows searching bibliographic databases. based on WOS Categories field which represents the subject cat- egories/research fields of the journals [7]. It has to be noted that 2 BACKGROUND the WOS Categories field provides general information about the thematic nature of the journal rather than each particular paper. There is a lack of a bibliometric overview of information scien- However, this is still the easiest way to get a quick overview tists and librarians in Slovenia and their works, collaborations of a research field, as all of the subject related data pertaining etc. One of the reasons is the nature of the field(s) of library to individual papers in WOS describes the thematic nature of and information science, where sometimes it is difficult to draw the papers in higher granularity. Each journal in WOS can be the distinction where the boundaries of the field are. On the assigned one or more subject categories. other hand, relatively high-quality information on Slovenian re- In April 2024, we performed a search in WOS Core Collection searchers is stored in SICRIS (https://cris.cobiss.net/ecris/), the for publications where Address field included »Slovenia« and Slovenian current research information system, which provides the value in the WOS Categories field was »Information Science multiple tools for basic bibliometric analysis. & Library Science«. We did not limit the search to any particular Other studies have focused on the research fields in Slovenia time period, which means that the more experienced authors (e.g., [1], [6], [8]), however at a more general level, not specifically were more likely to be on the list. Also, we did not limit the for LIS and without mention of the issues related to research fields results to particular types of publications (e.g. articles), since discussed herein, whereas [2] discusses among other things the the “linked records” categorization in SICRIS, which we used Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal in comparison, also does not limit this. However, even if we or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or did, the situation regarding top authors would still be similar. distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this Since Address was limited to Slovenia, the list excludes Slovenian work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner /author(s). authors who published research while working in other countries Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia and may also be missing authors with otherwise faulty Address © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.5 data. 24 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia J. Pisanski Table 1: Top 10 Slovenian authors in SICRIS, their research fields, number of established links to WOS publications in SICRIS and number of publications with LIS as WOS Category Author Research field 1 Research field 2 WOS LIS fraction A Information science and librarianship Interdisciplinary research 89 0 0.0000 B Administrative and organisational sciences Information science and librarianship 55 2 0.0364 C Information science and librarianship 55 47 0.8545 D Economics Information science and librarianship 53 14 0.2641 E Computer science and informatics Information science and librarianship 39 0 0.0000 F Information science and librarianship Plant production 33 17 0.5152 G Information science and librarianship 31 29 0,9355 H Information science and librarianship 24 2 0.0833 I Information science and librarianship Economics 24 3 0.1250 J Information science and librarianship 21 18 0.8571 In SICRIS each researcher can be assigned up to two research There are several reasons for this phenomenon. In the SICRIS fields, according to the ARIS (Slovenian Research and Innovation top 10 list, two prominent authors, marked in Table 1 as B and H, Agency) categorization, which is “roughly harmonized with the published a majority of their works in different fields, confusingly Field of Science and Technology Classification in the Frascati not explicitly named in SICRIS, before clearly switching their Manual (OECD)” [1]. There are different levels of categoriza-research interest to LIS. For some others their area of expertise tion with the first level representing science, the second level is on the boundaries of LIS, although, what constitutes LIS can representing field and the third level representing subfield. For be debated. For example, two of the top 10 authors (A and E), instance, Information science and librarianship is deemed as a including the top Slovenian author in LIS according to SICRIS, field belonging to social sciences with no further subfields. On do not have a single work published in what WOS considers to the other hand, Economics also is a field of Social sciences, but be LIS journals. In the case of author A, their second research it has subfields, such as Business sciences. Authors may be as- field, Interdisciplinary research, provides a better understanding signed a certain research field, even if it has subfields, or a certain on the nature of their publications. subfield. According to the well-known Bradford’s law [3] there are Among several features, SICRIS provides a higher-level ser-going to be some works published in journals that may not appear vice (https://cris.cobiss.net/ecris/si/en/top/researcher) where a to be particularly relevant to a particular topic or research field. user can look up most prominent Slovenian authors in a spe- For instance, [2] found such distribution for Slovenian agriculture cific research field based on different indicators (e.g. number research group publication. However, there is still the question of linked records and citations in WOS and SCOP US, h-index, of whether such a list of top authors represents the LIS research other indicators linked to local evaluation practices). While this field well. is not necessarily the only tool a user of SICRIS can use to get It has to be noted that the results were similar even if we an overview of researchers in a research field, it is certainly the used other criteria in SICRIS. For example, the top 10 authors quickest and easiest to use. by number of citations in WOS are the same, only the order Compared to some other research fields, where it is harder changes slightly. Also, the list of the top 10 authors by number to find the equivalents in both of the databases, LIS has the of connected records in SCOP US has two authors that do not advantage of being relatively straightforward. While the names appear in Table 1, neither of whom again had more than 2 works used for the research field in the two systems slightly differ published in LIS journals, according to WOS. (»Information science and librarianship« in SICRIS; »information To further complicate the matters in terms of transparency of science and library science« in WOS), at least the core of the two data, SICRIS user interface only lists the author’s first research subject categories should be the same. field, in the top authors lists, which can be confusing to a novice While the actual ranking of LIS authors in SICRIS does vary user, as it may appear that some of the top authors do not belong slightly according to the indicator chosen (i. e. number of works to said field. In fact, many of the first year students of LIS at in WOS and SCOP US, number of citations, etc.) there is a core the University of Ljubljana skipped such authors, when asked group of authors that occupies top places for several categories. to provide a list of top authors in the LIS field, based on SICRIS Table 1 shows the top 10 authors based on the number of linked data/user interface. records in WOS according to SICRIS. In the table each author is Another issue that came up was that one of the top ten re- represented with a letter of the alphabet for anonymity. searchers is a foreign citizen with an ARIS researcher number When comparing the data of LIS authors in WOS, whose ad- having mostly worked outside of Slovenia. While this certainly dress is in Slovenia (Table 2) and, the list of most prominent reflects the international nature of science, it may not accurately authors in LIS in Slovenia based on number of publications in reflect the state of LIS research in Slovenia. However, this issue WOS as provided by SICRIS (Table 1), we found a relatively large is not particular to LIS. discrepancy. As seen in Table 1, half of the top 10 authors in LIS, On the other hand, there was also a notable group of authors as provided by SICRIS, had less than half of their works published that was not assigned to the research field of LIS in SICRIS, whose in LIS journals, as indexed by WOS. In fact, for all five of these works appeared relatively frequently in LIS journals in WOS. authors the proportion is less than one third. Several new authors appeared in the top 10 list, if we only looked at the data on publications in WOS. Two of those, marked here 25 The Consistency of the Research Field Data Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Table 2: Top 10 Slovenian authors by the number of publications in the WOS Category Information Science & Library Science journals and their assigned research fields in SICRIS Author LIS Research field 1 Research field 2 C 47 Information science and librarianship G 29 Information science and librarianship J 18 Information science and librarianship F 17 Information science and librarianship Plant production K 16 Economics Computer science and informatics L 15 Mathematics Computer intensive methods and applications M 14 Information science and librarianship D 14 Economics Information science and librarianship N 13 Computer science and informatics O 13 Information science and librarianship as M and O, are authors whose field is declared in SICRIS to be criterion/criteria chosen to represent the field, as even the very LIS. But there are also three authors who do not have LIS named top authors by one criterion may not be considered to be working among their up to two research fields in SICRIS. Author here in the field by another. marked as K mainly worked in bibliometrics, which was also the Further research could establish whether the issues found in LIS topic covered by author L, while author N mostly wrote on this pilot study exist in other research fields and for other data the topic of business intelligence. Such instances are not isolated, (e.g. different databases, different time periods). However, not as several other authors who do not have LIS as a stated research all research fields in one database may have their exact equiva- field in SICRIS just missed the top 10 list. lent in another database. Cognitive science, for example, is not considered to be its own research field neither in SICRIS nor in 4 DISCUSSION WOS. Generally, we suggest providing a clear explanation of the While this is a brief look into a relatively small slice of two topical nature of the work of each author, when providing list databases, SICRIS would benefit from a recognition of the issue. of top authors in a research field, Another possible solution is The simplest solution would be to provide a clear explanation omission of authors, who have a relatively low percentage of on the nature of the data provided, when viewing top author works published in journals from a research field from lists of lists by research field. Alternatively, additional services could be top authors in that field. provided, based on other subject related data, such as WOS Cate- While bibliographic databases offering high-level services that gories or even keywords [7]. Ideally, services based on Bradford bring to light otherwise “hidden” data are definitely welcome, distribution would be provided. users would benefit from indication of imprecise nature of data The appropriateness of both the scope and designation of and/or additional services that would try to account for the im- SICRIS research fields of authors and the WOS Categories can be precision. debated. Their assignation procedures would benefit from greater transparency. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There is the issue of assignment of up to two research fields The author acknowledges the financial support from the Slove- per author in SICRIS, as this does not necessarily accurately nian Research and Innovation Agency (research program P5-0361 represent the involvement of each individual researcher. In our and research projects J5-2551 and J5-4596). relatively small case study of LIS we found several authors whose assigned research fields could be viewed as misrepresented. REFERENCES While research today is generally multidisciplinary and some [1] Tomaž Bartol, Gordana Budimir, Doris Dekleva-Smrekar, Miro Pušnik, and researchers can shift their area of interest in research from one Primož Južnič. 2014. Assessment of research fields in scopus and web of research field to another during their career due to various rea-science in the view of national research evaluation in slovenia. Scientometrics, 98, 1491–1504. sons, this ought to be reflected in any lists of researchers from a [2] Tomaž Bartol, Gordana Budimir, Primož Južnič, and Karmen Stopar. 2016. particular research field. Mapping and classification of agriculture in web of science: other subject Also, while well-established, WOS would benefit from a more categories and research fields may benefit. Scientometrics, 109, 2. [3] B. C. Brookes. 1969. Bradford’s law and the bibliography of science. Nature, transparent explanation of the nature of WOS Categories. 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Towards a systematic description of the field using keywords analysis: main topics in social networks. Scientometrics, 123, 1, 357–382. 5 CONCLUSION [8] Tomaž Pisanski, Mark Pisanski, and Jan Pisanski. 2020. A novel method for determining research groups from co-authorship network and scientific fields Our research indicates that any bibliometric analysis of the re-of authors. Informatica, 44, 2. search field of LIS in Slovenia is bound to be influenced by the 26 To be or not to be… a Nahuatl language learning App. The long-term survival or discontinuation of indigenous language learning apps on the example of Nahuatl Evelyn Fischer† MeiCogSci Student University of Vienna Vienna Austria evelyn.fischer@posteo.com Abstract In addition, by pure chance, many of the most learnt languages have less complex morphology than many minority Language learning apps for indigenous languages differ from the languages, and the apps that were developed with more analytic mainstream language apps in that they are not targeted at languages in sight, such as English, are not easily fully commercial success and might need to accommodate different extendable to Morphologically Rich Languages, such as isiZulu linguistic and cultural aspects than the most learnt languages. [3], Turkish [4] and Nahuatl. The present paper considers the present and past Nahuatl In the following, the focus lies on Nahuatl, the Mexican language apps, some of which were discontinued, and asks what indigenous language with the highest number of speakers, 1.5 would be necessary for such apps to achieve long-term survival. million. Nahuatl is one of 68 indigenous Mexican languages, and Keywords despite its historical prestige remains endangered, a challenge it shares with virtually all indigenous American languages. Nahuatl Language learning, human-computer interaction, software language learning apps contribute not only to thwart its digital usability, software translation, trends in software development death, but also to increase its visibility and prestige, and to support the efforts of Nahuatl learners to become “new speakers” 1 Introduction [5] of the language. The role of new speakers is described as “very important, often essential for language revitalization The strong digitalization of modern life is bringing about big projects” by [6] who work directly with Nahua and other changes to the global and local societies. One of the results of the minority groups in Mexico. technological changes is the rapidly ongoing globalization, and one of the mechanisms of globalization is the shift of communities from languages with small numbers of speakers to 2 Initiatives to Localize Software and Platforms a smaller number of global languages. In many countries with in Minority Languages colonial history, this follows centuries of, at best, ignorance of, The second decade of the 21st century was a witness of increased and at worst, active discrimination and eradication of the efforts to increase the visibility and presence of minority and indigenous populations, their languages and their cultures. indigenous languages in the digital sphere. These were often led The dominance of global languages is clearly seen on the by digital language activists and sometimes supported by the Internet, where 80% of websites are written in just 8 of the companies whose software was the focus of the projects. The estimated 7000 worldś languages [1]. The ascension to the present section describes some of the initiatives taken and digital realm is a challenging task and in 2013 [2] estimated that, discusses the long-term results of the work to promote at best, 5% of the world's languages will ascend to the digital indigenous languages. Particularly, it looks at whether the work world, and the rest will suffer a “digital language death”. of the activists resulted in a long-term inclusion of the relevant One of the ways a language can be present on the internet is language in the software or platform that was the aim of their by being the object of mobile learning apps. Mobile apps efforts. supporting the acquisition of minority and indigenous languages The Mozilla Foundation, known for its web browser, Firefox, may differ from apps targeting global languages in that minority launched in 2012 the initiative “Native Mozilla” that aimed to language learning apps would typically not be aiming at localize the browser into many of America’s indigenous commercial success, would have lower budgets, or even be done languages. 50 languages from 10 countries were targeted [7], on volunteer basis by smaller group of language activists. many of which are spoken in Mexico, such as Ch’ol, Kaqchikel, Kʼicheʼ, Mixteco (2 varieties: of Mixtepec and of Yucuhiti), Nahuatl (2 varieties or, by other accounts, 2 closely related Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or languages: Highland Puebla Nahuatl of Mexico and Nawat Pipil classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed of El Salvador), P’urhépecha and Triqui [7, 8]. The translations for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must are done via the collaborative translation platform Pontoon be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). (https://pontoon.mozilla.org/). As part of the initiative, for Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). example, a Hackathlon was organized in Oaxaca in 2018 with http://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.6 representatives of 15 languages [8]. 27 However, the goal of providing translations into 50 American 3 Digitally available Nahuatl language media languages is far from achieved and, as of 30.09.2024, Firefox 115 The importance of maintaining Nahuatl language learning apps was available only in three American Indigenous languages: is clearer if we consider that there are relatively few other Kaqchikel and Triqui spoken in Mexico and in the South resources in the language available online for language learners, American language Guarani [9]. The other languages are in many of whom are descendant from Nahuatl speakers and wish various state of completion: Ixil (13%), Kichwa (0%), to reclaim the language of their ancestors. Miahuatlán Zapotec (14%), Mixtec of Mixtepec (9%) and of [14] collected information about the different monolingual Yucuhiti (29%), Nahuat pipil (0%), Paipai (1%), P'urhepecha Nahuatl language media available for those searching on the (9%) and Quechua (3%). The situation is slightly better for the internet. The results encompassed 12 monolingual novel-sized mobile phone browser Firefox Focus, which is available in books, 5 scientific articles, 10 movies or series episodes, 1 Aimara, Ixil, Kaqchikel, K’iche', Maya, Miahuatlán Zapotec, videogame, 6 radio stations where Nahuatl is transmitted along Mixtec of Mixtepec and of Yucuhiti, Nahuat pipil, Navajo, with other languages, Wikipedia in 10 separate varieties, and 5 Paipai, P'urhepecha, Quechua, Tének and Triqui [7, 10]. websites with a Nahuatl version. Considering that Nahuatl is the There were also attempts to localize the social media platform Mexican indigenous language with the biggest number of Facebook (https://www.facebook.com) into minority and speakers, this is a low number. indigenous languages. In 2012, the official Facebook translation However, there is hope that their number is increasing. For platform (https://www.facebook.com/translations/), where users example, the 5 scientific articles were published in 1959, 2019, could add and vote on the accuracy of volunteer translations, had 2022, 2022, 2023; the 12 books in 2008, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2015, partial translations in about 100 languages, including Cherokee 2016, 2017, 2017, 2017, 2019 and 2021, (the twelfth is the Bible [11]. However, frustrated with the slow progress, Manuel Neskie which has been translated into many varieties) [14]. One of the made a browser overlay that allowed the translation of Facebook websites is also recent, as it was published in 2023 [22]. In 2024 menu into Secwepemctsín directly in the userś browser [11], the Mexican presidential election was simultaneously interpreted which was later extended to many other languages, including into Nahuatl, and remains, as of 30.08.2024, available on Nawat [12] spoken in El Salvador. In 2015, a group of activists YouTube [23]. In addition, a Masterś degree in Nahuatl translated 24 000 words into Aymara and submitted it to language and culture, taught completely in an indigenous Facebook for revision [13]. However, as of 31.08.2024, same as language was launched in 2019 [24], first of its kind. We see on 07.04.2019 [14], only three indigenous American languages therefore a clear tendency of growth, and it could be expected were available for menus on Facebook: Cherokee, Inuktitut and that more media will become available in Nahuatl soon. Inupiaq, and the Facebook Translation App appears to have been It is also interesting to consider the case of the work to bring discontinued. Nahuatl as a language available in Google Translate A similar fate was met by the attempts to increase the number (https://translate.google.com/). In 2010, Google announced their of languages offered on the Duolingo language learning platform plans to add Nahuatl and Maya to the tool [25], but this service (https:/ es.duolingo.com/). As of 10.06.2024, two indigenous was finally only introduced in June 2024 [26]. As of September languages are available on Duolingo: Hawaiian and Navajo [15]. 2024, the following ten indigenous American languages are However, previously also Guarani must have been available on among the 243 languages available on Google translate: Aymara, the app, as evidenced by the surprise some users expressed at its Guarani, Hawaiian, Kalaallisut, Mam, Nahuatl, Quechua, sudden lack [16, 17]. The course is still available on the website Qʼeqchiʼ, Yucatec Maya and Zapotec. version as of 31.08.2024 [18]. Between 2013 [19] and 2021 [20] Considering mobile apps in particular, [14] identified 39 new courses in development were stored in the Duolingo mobile phone apps related to Nahuatl. Most of them, 23, are Incubator, where the users themselves could contribute to adding Bible apps, although due to double versions, there are only 14 new languages to Duolingo. Indigenous languages such as different variant versions of Bible available as a mobile app. The Yucatec Maya and Kʼicheʼ were present on the Incubator and other 16 apps include 6 dictionaries (one with a Nahuatl user Duolingo itself credits the volunteers for helping to make, among interface), 3 text collections, a (faulty) automatic translator, a others, the Navajo and Hawaiian language course [21]. However, multi-component app CEM, which combines dictionaries and Incubator was discontinued in 2021. morphological analyzer, the messaging app Telegram that offers As we have seen, a common trend in the translation efforts of user interface in Huasteca Nahuatl (albeit cannot be chosen in its Facebook and Duolingo is the move from community and standard menu, but is available for download for those who have volunteer-based translations to commercial translation directed the relevant link), and, finally, 4 Nahuatl language courses, by the company. On the one hand, the reliance on unpaid work is discussed below. problematic for a company with huge profits – something that Duolingo itself lists as the reason for ending the volunteer program [21]. This is especially true when those delivering this 4 A Partial History of Nahuatl Language Apps work might already be in unprivileged financial situation, as many indigenous language speakers are. On the other hand, As of 01.07.2023, four Nahuatl language courses were available however, this deprives the communities of the possibility to for Android [14]: Aprende náhuatl [27], Beginner Nahuatl [28], contribute to making their language more visible on the popular Kamatlama [29] and NahuatlApp [30]. Aprende náhuatl (Spanish platforms. It is interesting to note that the translation platform of for “learn Nahuatl”) is a vocabulary training app, with texts and open-source based Mozilla products remains active, and, for videos, produced by the National Institute of Indigenous Peoples, example, the last changes to an Indigenous Language – Zapotec a government agency and it was, as of 01.07.2023, downloaded – have been done on 26th August 2024. more than 10 000 times [14]. As of 26.09.2024, it is available on 28 Android 14 for some, but not all devices. Beginner Nahuatl, with content usually does not advance beyond the basic level, more than 1000 downloads as of the same date [14], was a although one often has the impression that the authors had vocabulary training app, without any game elements. Kamatlama intended to add more lessons in the future. One could wonder is an app introducing basic numbers and fruit names and testing whether a more stable app with more levels would have been them through games and it was downloaded only more than 50 possible if the authors had joined their efforts. times as of 01.07.2023 [14]. NahuatlApp was an app introducing vocabulary items and testing them through a game and had, as of the same date, more than 10 000 downloads [14]. 5 Long-term survival of Language apps: It is notable that the maintenance of the apps is far from ideal. Discussion Between the data collection of [14], 01.07.2023 and of [31], The trajectory of some Nahuatl learning apps has helped us 30.05.2024, the videos of Aprende Nahuatl became unavailable identify a trend of frequent discontinuation of those apps, lack of and the two apps, Beginner Nahuatl and NahuatlApp, became maintenance or upgrading to newer versions of operating unavailable for download on Google Play. During the same time, systems or devices and a tendency by the commercial providers the user statistics did not change for the two continued apps, and to dissolve community-led efforts of translation and localization crucially, Kamatlama hasn´t reached 100 downloads. and to limit the number of languages that the service is translated Two more apps mentioned by [14], although primarily and localized into. dictionaries, also have elements supporting learning, such as Admittedly, the frequent appearance and disappearance of quizzes: Totlahtol Nahuatl [32] and Diccionario Náhuatl [33]. As new apps might be a sign of a vibrant, creative community. In of 26.05.2024 Totlahtol Nahuatl, which offered Nahuatl user fact, [7] sees it as a part of the process of app creation to accept interface – as the only app other than Telegram - was no longer that the results of onès work on software localization might have available for downloads, while Diccionario Nahuatl is still a short life or never be used at all. If one accepts the possibility (01.09.2024) available. Additionally, Miyotl, a multilanguage of failure (that is, the materials prepared ending up not being app whose lesson components seem to never have been used) or only short-term success (that is, a short-lived app), the completed, remains available for download and contains a list of process of creating apps might be more spontaneous and less Nahuatl words and their Spanish translations [34]. restricted, and the threshold to make such an app might be lower. In addition, as of 01.09.2024, 6 other apps mentioned by [14] In other words, if one does not strive to make “the perfect” app, are discontinued: the text collection Tlapohualiztli [35], the creating an ad-hoc training exercises for one skill might become dictionary Diccionario Maya y Nahuatl [36] and the automatic easier. However, even in this scenario, many contributors and translator Traductor Nahuatl [37]. This means that out of 16 non-authors might end up doing the same work unnecessarily, such Bible related apps mentioned by [14], 6 (Beginner Nahuatl, as preparing grammatical description of the same grammatical NauatlApp, Diccionario Maya y Nahuatl, Tlapohualiztli, forms destined for different apps. Totlahtol Nahuatl, Traductor Nahuatl) have been discontinued In addition, one might also wonder if the low number of only a year later (37.5%). In addition, [31] mentions three other downloads discourages the authors to add additional levels and apps that had been discontinued before: Tozcatl [38], Nahuatl update their apps. However, given that Aprende Náhuatl, an App Grammar [39] and Ma Tiwelikan Nawatl [40] – the latter is published by a government agency had more than 10 000 available as a website, but the App version is not available downloads, and up to 28 000 downloads [46], there is sufficient anymore. Furthermore, the app presented at the EUROCALL interest of learners in Nahuatl language apps, and perhaps a focus conference in 2016 [41] is also not discoverable on Google on bet er findability of the apps could result in their bigger search, as of 18.06.2024. success. However, the changes are not all negative. On 14th March The question can therefore be posed how to better direct the 2024, user ItztliEhecatl posted on the social platform Reddit [42] efforts of authors and contributors, typically activists and that they have created a new Huasteca Nahuatl language learning volunteers, to not repeatedly make basic-level apps that might course [43]. The author has been adding new items to the course, then be discontinued and to instead direct those efforts at more and as of 01.09.2024, there were 568 words and phrases to be long-term apps which would also include levels for more learnt. The Huasteca Nahuatl course uses the Memrise advanced learners. Community Courses infrastructure, where users can create their An open source platform that allows and tracks user edits, own courses. However, in line with the trend discussed in section similar to Wikipedia (https://www.wikipedia.org/) or Wikitravel 2, Memrise is also closing community forums and removing (https://wikitravel.org/) could al ow users to collaborate in community courses from their app and the future of the making language courses, and each individual author could make community courses remains uncertain beyond the end of 2024. a small contribution, without the feeling that it was “in vain”. There is, however, another high-quality Nahuatl learning app This would also prevent the fruits of work of language activists for beginners that explains the grammatical concepts and tests from “disappearing” in the chaos of the internet, and would them in a variety of exercises over 11 Units: the Nahuatl course increase their findability. Care must be taken to make such a hosted by the 7000 languages organization [44] and prepared in platform independent of commercial companies that could 2017 by Tlahtoltlapazolli, a Los Angeles based group [45]. The unilaterally delete the courses from their servers. It is also course requires registration, and only has a website version – recommended that information about such a platform be widely although the mobile website version works well. However, the shared to avoid the situation where a good course ends up not fact, that it is not listed in App stores decreases its findability. being used due to being unknown to the learners. Altogether, we see here that a great proportion of Nahuatl learning apps is discontinued. By the time they this happens, their 29 Acknowledgments [18] Duolingo, n.d Aprende Guaraní en solo 5 minutos diarios. 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(04.06.2024) w_huasteca_nahuatl_language/ (01.09.2024) [16] IBelieveDuoHasSh [fórum user], 2023, Guarani escondido [forum thread] [43] Itztli Ehecatl, 2024. Huasteca Nahuatl https://community- https://forum.duome.eu/viewtopic.php?t=10075-guarani-escondido courses.memrise.com/community/course/6566566/huasteca-nahuatl/ (31.08.2024) (01.09.2024) [17] n1_kita [Reddit user], 2022. ¿Qué ha pasado con la lista de cursos de [44] 7000 Languages, https://www.7000.org/ guaraní de Duolingo? [reddit post] [45] 7000 Languages, n.d. Nahuatl https://www.7000.org/nahuatl https://www.reddit.com/r/duolingo/comments/10zvltv/what_has_happen [46] Appbrain, n.d. Aprende Nahuatl https://www.appbrain.com/app/aprende- ed_to_the_duolingo_guarani_course/?tl=es (31.08.2024) n%C3%A1huatl/com.nahuatlpuebla.app (26.09.2024) 30 Designing the Flow State Experience Using Modern Digital Technologies Eva Vidmar Multimedia Faculty of computer science University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia eva.vidmar2@gmail.com Abstract novel approach that builds on but goes beyond methods such as video games or Virtual Reality (VR). By integrating This article provides a brief overview of an extended Master’s psychophysiology, user experience, and ambient intelligence, thesis and focuses on the use of modern digital technologies to this research aims to leverage technology for meaningful design a multimedia environment aimed at inducing a state of improvements in well-being, productivity, and satisfaction. flow in individuals. Flow is a psychological state characterized by deep immersion in an activity, leading to a loss of sense of time and external worries [1]. Exiting this state typically results 2 Theoretical Background in feelings of satisfaction and happiness. Achieving flow requires a balance between skills and challenges. Learning to Inducing a flow state through technology poses complex attain this balance can help individuals improve overall, which challenges that require in-depth exploration of the is a key reason for this research. The main objective is to neurocognitive aspects of flow and their relation to contemporary investigate whether flow can be achieved through the use of technologies. This understanding informs the design of color light stimuli in a space that adapts in real-time to an technological solutions aligned with flow theory. individual's level of attention. This represents a preliminary step toward using technology to design spaces that stimulate 2.1 A Neurocognitive Perspective on Flow individuals and facilitate the quicker and easier attainment of flow. An experiment was conducted to test whether such a Flow, characterized by deep focus and immersion, was first space affects individuals' flow. Tetris was chosen as the central described by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, often referred to as the activity for the experiment. The findings indicated that color "father of flow" [1]. This state occurs when individuals find an stimuli influenced the participants' physically measured appropriate balance between their skills and the challenges they attention, although no significant changes were observed in face, allowing them to perform optimally with a sense of questionnaire responses or gameplay performance. Given that effortless control [1]. While initial resistance and sustained attention is a crucial factor in achieving flow, it can be partially motivation are necessary to achieve flow, this state can occur asserted that participants experienced flow, though more even in unfamiliar tasks, although long-term practice may reliable data would be necessary for further conclusions. These increase its likelihood [2]. Flow is often illustrated in a two-findings significantly contribute to the understanding of dimensional graph where it exists at the intersection of measuring and achieving flow through technology, representing an important advancement in this field. appropriate challenge and skill levels [1]. Keywords flow, optimal experience, user experience, digital interface, Tetris 1 Introduction Historically, flow has been experienced by artists, athletes, and individuals with substantial practice. However, modern life, especially in technology-driven environments, necessitates new approaches to achieve this optimal state. This study investigates how real-time adjustments of ambient lighting, informed by physiological signals, can enhance flow experiences, offering a Figure 1: Graph representing occurrence of flow state [1] Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Neuroscientific perspectives on flow suggest various underlying © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). mechanisms. The transient hypofrontality hypothesis posits that during flow, activity in the prefrontal cortex decreases, reducing 31 self-criticism and enhancing performance [3]. Alternatively, 2.3 Techniques for Flow State Measurement synchronization theory proposes that flow arises from Various methods exist to measure brain activity, with synchronized activation across different brain regions, electroencephalography (EEG) being the most direct and optimizing cognitive efficiency [4]. Both theories indicate that commonly used. Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) flow entails minimal energy expenditure in the brain. and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provide Csikszentmihalyi's model outlines optimal conditions for insights into brain function, while Magnetoencephalography flow, including clear goals, immediate feedback, and a balance (MEG) offers high resolution of neuronal activity. However, between challenge and skill [1]. The concept of the autotelic these methods often involve expensive and less accessible personality—marked by intrinsic motivation and enjoyment— equipment. may enhance flow experiences but is not strictly essential for The MindWave Mobile 2, a consumer-grade EEG achieving it. device, stands out for its ease of use, making it suitable for educational and entertainment contexts [16]. This device is ideal 2.2 Flow in Technology: State of the Art for our research due to its user-friendly nature, minimizing Various approaches have emerged to induce flow through inconvenience for participants. technology. Traditionally, video games employed fixed difficulty levels, which often interrupted the flow experience [5]. Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment (DDA) algorithms now allow real-time modification of challenges based on player performance, as seen in games like Left 4 Dead [6], [7, p. 4], Affective computing enhances this by using emotional indicators, such as facial expressions, to fine-tune difficulty levels [6]. Jenova Chen’s game flOw exemplifies the integration of DDA with real-time adjustments to maintain flow [8]. Virtual Reality further immerses players, as evidenced by studies comparing VR to traditional 2D games and applications focused on meditation and relaxation [9], [10], [11]. Augmented Reality and multimedia art also contribute innovative avenues for inducing flow [12], [13]. Figure 3: Mindwave Mobile 2 [16] Flow state was traditionally measured through self-reporting instruments, such as the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) developed by Csikszentmihalyi [1]. Various questionnaires, including the Flow State Scale and Game Experience Questionnaire, have been developed to assess flow but rely on retrospective reporting. Alternatively, physiological measures may offer a more objective assessment of flow experiences. 3 Experiment: The Impact of Light on Flow State During Tetris Gameplay This experiment investigated whether spaces incorporating adaptive technology could enhance user engagement. We compared standard Tetris gameplay to a version featuring color- changing lights that adjusted based on player attention, measured via the MindWave Mobile 2. The goal was to assess whether Figure 2: Refik Anadol 2D projection Machine these technological enhancements positively impacted Hallucinations [12] engagement and performance, specifically exploring if adaptive lighting improved attention, stabilized focus, and led to better Our research identifies the use of ambient lighting as a gameplay results. promising yet under-explored method for inducing flow while Drawing from Csikszentmihalyi's model, we engaging participants in a core activity, specifically Tetris. This recognized the importance of differentiating the environment in game, created by Alex Pajitnov in 1985, has been extensively which flow activities occur. We aimed to create a highly studied for its capacity to induce flow [14]. Players arrange engaging environment by designing a prototype of adaptive falling blocks to form complete lines, receiving immediate visual lighting for a dimly lit space. feedback—key elements for maintaining flow. Research For the experiment, we developed a color-changing indicates that even brief sessions of Tetris can lead to flow light prototype controlled by the MindWave Mobile 2. The experiences and reduced negative emotions [15]. device measured brainwave activity during Tetris gameplay. We 32 utilized an Arduino Uno microcontroller to interface with the MindWave Mobile 2 and control a 2-meter AdaFruit NeoPixel LED strip. The light's color adjusted based on attention levels, with red indicating low attention, blue indicating high attention, and white representing optimal focus. This setup aimed to evaluate whether adaptive lighting could influence players' attention and flow during the game. Figure 6: Attention levels of a player during gameplay without lights (left) and with lights (right) For engagement, while the Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed normality, a paired t-test indicated no significant effect of lighting on engagement (p-value = 0.668). Tetris performance was assessed based on scores, with the group using lights achieving a higher average score (9377) compared to the no-light group (8979), though a Wilcoxon signed-rank test revealed no significant difference (p-value = 0.33). Qualitative analysis of interviews with 40 participants identified seven key themes related to their experiences with the lighting: awareness of external stimuli, control and feedback, concentration, immersion, motivation, satisfaction, and pressure. Many participants reported feelings of pressure and stress, underscoring the challenges of achieving flow. Nonetheless, the lights were generally perceived as motivating, and some participants noted decreased awareness of their surroundings, aligning with theories regarding transient hypofrontality and Figure 4: The setup of light prototype behind laptop reduced default mode network activity during flow [1]. The experiment was designed to compare Tetris performance Interestingly, some participants reported not noticing the with and without adaptive lighting. Participants played Tetris lights at all, suggesting a potential subconscious influence of under both conditions, and their attention levels, measured via flow on their experience. This observation could have affected the MindWave Mobile 2, were used to adjust the light's color the questionnaire results. In terms of color perception, red was dynamically. Data on engagement, attention, and gameplay described as stressful and distracting, while white and blue were performance were collected and analyzed to determine the regarded as pleasant, showing no significant difference between effectiveness of the adaptive lighting in enhancing flow. them. 4 Conclusion This study explored the potential influence of external factors, specifically technology-based lighting, on the state of flow. While we observed increased attention levels during gameplay with lights, supporting the theoretical premise that flow involves synchronized neural networks related to attention and reward, Figure 5: Scenario of playing Tetris with lights our hypothesis remains unconfirmed. Qualitative interviews highlighted themes consistent with flow characteristics, such as 3.1 Results immersion and motivation; however, the absence of statistically Data were collected from the MindWave Mobile 2, which significant effects on engagement and gameplay performance recorded attention and meditation levels during Tetris gameplay indicates that further research is warranted. Future studies should with and without adaptive lighting. We filtered data to focus on involve larger, more diverse samples and consider additional attention values from 5 minutes of gameplay, excluding values metrics to assess flow states more comprehensively. below a threshold of 10 and retaining the 300 most representative Overall, our findings offer valuable insights into integrating data points. A Shapiro-Wilk test confirmed normal distribution technology with flow theory, highlighting the potential for for both conditions. A paired t-test revealed significantly higher developing products that enhance focus and user experience. attention levels during gameplay with lights (p-value = 0.00032). This research lays the groundwork for future innovations aimed Notably, attention levels were more stabilized with adaptive at creating more effective tools for achieving optimal states of lighting, as evidenced by a smaller variance in attention scores concentration and fulfillment in everyday life. compared to gameplay without lights. 33 Acknowledgments [7] ‘Left 4 Dead on Steam’. Accessed: Jan. 13, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://store.steampowered.com/app/500/Left_4_Dead/ [8] ‘flOw’, Jenova Chen. Accessed: Nov. 24, 2023. [Online]. Available: The research was conducted in collaboration with psychologist http://jenovachen.info/flow prof. dr. Andreja Avsec, who served as a co-supervisor of the [9] ‘Virtual Reality and Flow: Discovering the Impact of Virtual Reality on thesis, and prof. dr. Gregor Geršak, an expert in Flow States’. Accessed: Nov. 24, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.novobeing.com/blog/virtual-reality-and-flow-exploring- psychophysiology and measurement, who acted as the primary virtual-realitys-impact-on-peak-performance supervisor. [10] TGC, ‘Flow’, thatgamecompany. Accessed: Nov. 24, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://thatgamecompany.com/flow/ References [11] ‘Cosmic Flow: A Relaxing VR Experience on Meta Quest’, Oculus. Accessed: Jan. 14, 2024. [Online]. Available: [1] M. Csikszentmihalyi, ‘Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience’, 1990. https://www.meta.com/experiences/quest/3872076276162726/ [2] O. de Manzano, T. Theorell, L. Harmat, and F. Ullén, ‘The [12] ‘Refik Anadol’, Refik Anadol. Accessed: Jan. 15, 2024. [Online]. Available: psychophysiology of flow during piano playing’, Emot. Wash. DC, vol. 10, https://refikanadol.com/ no. 3, pp. 301–311, Jun. 2010, doi: 10.1037/a0018432. [13] ‘Android Jones’, Android Jones. Accessed: Jan. 15, 2024. [Online]. [3] FlowCode - Project Unity, Transient Hypofrontality - FlowCode Lesson #7 Available: https://androidjones.com/ / Flow state training, (Jun. 26, 2020). Accessed: Nov. 11, 2023. [Online [14] D. Lora, A. Sánchez-Ruiz, and P. Gonzalez-Calero, ‘Towards Finding Flow in Tetris’, 2019, pp. 266– Video]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5q5l47hGzY 280. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-29249-2_18. [4] R. Weber, R. Tamborini, and A. Westcott-Baker, ‘Theorizing Flow and [15] ‘Tetris: It could be the salve for a worried mind’, ScienceDaily. Accessed: Media Enjoyment as Cognitive Synchronization of Attentional and Reward Dec. 02, 2023. [Online]. Available: Networks’, Commun. Theory, 2009. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/181025084012.htm [5] S. Khoshnoud, F. Alvarez Igarzábal, and M. Wittmann, ‘Peripheral- [16] ‘MindWave Mobile 2 Quick Start Guide or User Guide / MindWave Mobile physiological and neural correlates of the flow experience while playing 2 / Knowledge Base - NeuroSky - Home Page Support’. Accessed: Mar. 28, video games: a comprehensive review’, PeerJ, vol. 8, p. e10520, Dec. 2020, 2024. [Online]. Available: http://support.neurosky.com/kb/mindwave-doi: 10.7717/peerj.10520. mobile-2/mindwave-mobile-2-quick-start-guide-or-user-guide [6] M. Zohaib, ‘Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment (DDA) in Computer Games: A Review’, Adv. Hum.-Comput. Interact. , vol. 2018, p. e5681652, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1155/2018/5681652. 34 The Transparency of Nudging: Evaluating Its Impact on Personal Autonomy Sabina Pajmon Toma Strle Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia sabina.pajmon@pef.uni-lj.si toma.strle@pef.uni-lj.si Abstract preserves a strong commitment to freedom of choice. Behavioral insights show that the context of decision-making can lead us to Nudges are a strategic approach that shapes decision-making act inconsistently with our otherwise well-informed intentions environments and the presentation of options to steer individuals [2]. The traditional approach to public policy assumes people are toward certain behaviors while maintaining their freedom of perfectly rational economic subjects ("econs") who act optimally choice. The ethical concerns surrounding nudges center on their with accurate information and clear rules. While this is an potential to undermine personal autonomy, particularly when admirable goal, Thaler and Sunstein warn that basing public individuals are unaware of the influence exerted on them (i.e., policy on this ideal often leads to failure. The authors introduce covert or non-transparent nudges). The proposed solution for the concept of a "nudge" and propose its use as a policy-making preserving autonomy is to increase transparency, which includes approach that can influence citizens' behavior while avoiding the disclosing the presence and purpose of nudges to the people that are being nudged. There are various types of nudges and different pitfalls and issues of traditional regulatory approaches, such as prohibitions and punishments. The advantage of this approach is types and levels of transparency associated with them. The most that policymakers can influence our choices and behavior in a problematic in terms of violating personal autonomy are the non- cost-effective and efficient manner without restricting us with transparent ones, those that exploit automatic cognitive prohibitions or interfering with our choices [3]. Despite the high mechanisms (Type 1 nudges), those that use type transparency effectiveness and utility of nudges, ethical concerns arise and those that disclose their nature only after the fact (ex post). regarding the preservation of autonomy, especially with nudges New approaches such as nudge plus approach seek to protect personal autonomy by involving citizens in the creation of that operate covertly and influence us without our awareness. This article investigates various types of nudges and levels of nudges and enhancing reflectiveness during the nudging process. transparency, with a focus on their implications for personal Keywords autonomy. It begins by elucidating key concepts—nudges, autonomy, and transparency—before analyzing how different Nudge, transparency, autonomy, ethics of nudging, nudge plus types of nudges, alongside varying types and levels of approach transparency, affect the preservation or violation of personal autonomy. Additionally, the article proposes criteria for determining which types of nudges are compatible with the 1 Introduction preservation of personal autonomy. Finally, it explores potential Over the past thirty years, psychology and behavioral economics strategies to mitigate adverse impacts on autonomy, including have highlighted how various contextual factors systematically enhancing transparency, fostering citizen participation, and influence our decision-making and behavior. In public policy- integrating reflective practices into the design of nudges. making, these insights are crucial for effectively addressing societal challenges like global warming, obesity, and poor economic decision-making. The groundbreaking paper [1] and 2 Definition of a nudge the book that followed that brought the importance of decision Thaler and Sunstein define a nudge as any element of choice architecture to the attention of academics, policymakers, and the architecture that influences behavior in a predictable way without general public was Thaler and Sunstein’s “Nudge: Improving restricting options or significantly altering economic incentives Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness” [2]. In their [2]. A nudge subtly guides individuals toward better decisions work, they propose various ways in which government and while preserving freedom of choice by adjusting how choices are private organizations could encourage or "nudge" individuals presented [4]. Unlike prohibitions or penalties, nudges steer toward actions beneficial to them, while promoting a method that behavior without limiting options. An example is placing healthy snacks at eye level in stores to encourage healthier choices [5]. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed Hausman and Welch [6] add that nudges influence choices for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full without increasing costs or limiting options, highlighting the citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must potential for manipulation, which raises ethical concerns be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia discussed in later chapters. © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.8 35 3 How nudges work: leveraging heuristics and regulations, don’t limit freedom but instead encourage choices biases that align with individuals' best interests. To grasp how nudges impact behavior and decision-making, we 4.2 Transparency as a solution to autonomy must rely on insights from behavioral science, which reveal that violation nudges exploit inherent imperfections in human decision processes—leveraging cognitive heuristics and biases [4]. A key A proposed solution is increasing nudge transparency, as it element of the nudge approach is that heuristics and biases, allows individuals to understand how nudges work and make which often serve as mental shortcuts, are utilized to the autonomous decisions based on their values [8]. A transparent advantage of the choice architect. While these mental shortcuts nudge is one where its purpose and the methods used to influence can sometimes lead to suboptimal decisions, a nudge aims to behavior are reasonably clear to the affected individual. Thaler harness them to promote better decisions [3]. and Sunstein moreover argue that nudges used by governments should be public and transparent, with officials ready to disclose their methods and motives. Sunstein further emphasizes that 4 Nudge and ethical issues nudges must be visible, reviewed, and monitored to prevent Although the theory of nudging presents a promising approach violations of autonomy or dignity [10]. Transparency involves to public policy, it has faced significant criticism from both informing decision-makers about the presence and purpose of public and academic spheres. Over the past decade, a robust nudges, allowing individuals to remain aware of behavioral ethical debate has developed, featuring nuanced arguments both interventions, thus preserving their autonomy and freedom of supporting and opposing the practice [3, 4, 6, 7, 8]. The primary choice [7]. 1 critique centers on the idea that nudging involves manipulating choices, with concerns about potential misuse of power [3]. 5 Types of transparency in nudging Critics argue that nudges can undermine free choice by subtly restricting rather than fostering individual decision-making. The To better understand the impact of nudging on an individual's core of nudging involves exploiting heuristics and biases, which autonomy, it is crucial to first examine the different types of often lead people to act in ways that deviate from their well-nudges, as they are not a uniform phenomenon; rather, they can considered preferences. Bovens [8] contends that such be classified into various types [2]. Understanding these types is mechanisms can compromise control over actions, raising based on dual-process theory, which describes the two decision- worries that nudges might affect decision-making by diminishing making mechanisms that nudges can influence. rational or deliberate considerations. Additionally, he argues, the behavior change induced by nudges occurs, if not against 5.1 Dual process theory citizens' will, then at least without their active consent and Dual process theory, explored by Stanovich [13] and Kahneman awareness; for broader discussion about this topic see also [9, Ch. [14], is key in Thaler and Sunstein’s work on nudges. It suggests “Avtonomija v svetu spodbud” (Autonomy in the World of the brain operates in two modes: fast, intuitive System 1 and slow, Nudging), pp.. 81-100; 10]. deliberate System 2. System 1 handles instinctive actions, while System 2 engages in reflective decision-making. Despite its 4.1 Ethical dilemma of autonomy in nudge use acceptance, dual processing is contested, with some scholars Although nudges have been shown to effectively influence arguing the differences are a matter of degree. De Neys [15], behavior, critics argue they can be manipulative and threaten notes no conclusive evidence favors either model, and resolving personal autonomy. Autonomy, a complex concept, is broken this debate may not significantly enhance our understanding of down by Schmidt and Engelen into four dimensions: the freedom human thinking mechanisms. In this article, we adopt the dual to choose without external pressure, acting according to one’s process theory model to categorize different types of nudges. desires and values (psychological autonomy), making rational This approach allows us to better understand and design decisions based on available information, and being free from interventions that leverage both intuitive and reflective processes. domination or manipulation [5, 8]. Critics claim that nudges can undermine autonomy by subtly influencing behavior without 5.2 Type 1 and Type 2 nudges explicit consent, raising concerns about democracy, especially if According to Hansen and Jespersen [3], nudges can be governments use nudges without informing citizens. Nudges that categorized into two types based on dual process theory. Type 1 operate without notice are especially problematic, as they can nudges target automatic, non-reflective thinking (System 1) and influence decisions without individuals' awareness. As Ivanković operate unconsciously, such as subliminal advertising or visual and Engelen [11] argue, non-transparent nudges, which exploit stimuli that influence behavior without conscious awareness. less rational psychological mechanisms, undermine autonomy by These nudges can be ethically problematic, as they often lack transparency and may lead to decisions misaligned with personal denying people control and the ability to challenge, a right that values. In contrast, Type 2 nudges engage reflective, deliberate should be protected in liberal democracies. Sunstein, however, thinking (System 2), promoting informed and thoughtful argues that nudges maintain freedom by allowing people to opt decision-making. These nudges are transparent and pose fewer out of the suggested behavior, a concept they call "libertarian ethical concerns regarding personal autonomy. paternalism" [12]. They believe nudges, unlike traditional 1 Empirical evidence is inconsistent regarding the impact of transparency on the nudges), enhance their effectiveness (if people understand and support the effectiveness of nudges. Transparency may: reduce their effectiveness (by underlying goals), or have no significant impact at all [10]. prompting reflection), make nudges counterproductive (if people resist disliked 36 5.3 Different types of transparency of nudges if the person learns when and where to expect it. With repeated exposure to such nudges, individuals may become more aware of The transparency of nudges plays a crucial role in safeguarding their influence and may eventually avoid them altogether [12]. autonomy and freedom of choice, yet this concept itself is multifaceted. On one side of the spectrum, some nudges are explicitly transparent, functioning effectively because the 6 Types of nudges and transparency: impact on individual is fully aware of the influence being exerted. personal autonomy Conversely, some nudges operate more subtly, relying on a lack of transparency to achieve their intended effect. To thoroughly The debate over nudges centers on how different types of nudges assess which forms of transparency in nudges may raise ethical as well as types and levels of transparency impact personal concerns, it is important to analyze the various ways in which autonomy. As stated in the article, nudges are divided into two transparency can manifest within nudges. types: Type 1, which influence automatic, non-reflective behavior, and Type 2, which target reflective decision-making. 5.4 Type and token transparency Transparent Type 2 nudges, which engage reflective capacities, do not typically raise ethical concerns, as they allow for Bovens [8] introduces a crucial distinction between type and conscious and deliberate decision-making. In contrast, non- token transparency in nudges. Type transparency refers to when transparent Type 1 nudges, which act on automatic processes, governments inform citizens about the general techniques they can threaten autonomy by influencing behavior without the employ to intervene in decision-making contexts for the purpose individual's awareness. This may lead to decisions misaligned of enhancing well-being. In this scenario, the government is open with personal values or goals. Transparency is categorized into about the categories of measures it plans to implement. For type transparency (general awareness of the nudge type) and example, when a government announces its intention to use token transparency (awareness of mechanisms of specific specific psychological mechanisms to address social challenges, nudges). The former is particularly problematic, as it lacks it demonstrates type transparency by clearly stating the kinds of disclosure of specific examples and mechanisms, leaving us interventions it will use to influence individuals' behavior and potentially unaware of the influences on our behavior. Nudges decision-making [16]. However, Bovens stresses that this is not can also be categorized by the level of transparency into two enough. In his view, subliminal advertising does not become main groups. The first group includes nudges that are transparent more acceptable simply because it is openly acknowledged [8]. in advance by design (ex ante). These nudges are openly On the other hand, token transparency requires that each presented, allowing users to consciously decide whether to individual instance of a nudge is clearly recognizable, including respond to them. Such nudges generally do not threaten how it was implemented. This method, referred to as "here and autonomy, as they encourage conscious and deliberate decision- now approach," aims to ensure that nudges are transparent to making. The second group includes nudges that are only those encountering them at the moment of their decision-making transparent afterward (ex post). These nudges can be [12]. However, even if this were feasible, it seems absurd to problematic, as users may respond to them before realizing they demand that every nudge be accompanied by a notice of its use. have been nudged. Although information about the nudge is Since choice architecture is often unavoidable, token revealed later, it may already have influenced behavior in a way transparency may be too demanding, according to Bovens [8]. that threatens freedom of choice and autonomy [18]. In conclusion, the most problematic nudges, in terms of violating 5.5 Levels of transparency personal autonomy, are Type 1 nudges that exploit automatic Transparent nudges differ also based on when they are noticed cognitive mechanisms, lack transparency—where type by the nudged individuals. With nudges that are transparent in transparency is more concerning than token transparency—or are advance ( ex ante), the user can see the nudge beforehand and can only transparent afterward. Understanding and using nudges avoid it if they choose. An example is traffic light labels (green, requires careful consideration of their transparency and impact yellow, red) for healthy, less healthy, and unhealthy food on freedom of choice. While transparent nudges can serve as products [17]. In contrast, a nudge is transparent afterward ( ex tools for encouraging thoughtful and autonomous decisions, non- post) if the target person only notices its influence after it has transparent nudges, as well as Type 1 nudges, especially those already affected them. Examples include fake cracks painted on with only type or post hoc transparency, must undergo thorough the road to slow down drivers or the use of default options in ethical scrutiny to prevent potential violations of personal certain contracts. Only after experiencing the effects do people autonomy. realize they were influenced by a nudge [12]. Unlike the first category, the potential impact of such nudges on people's autonomy is more significant here. Ex post transparency may be Table 1: Classification of nudges based on their impact on insufficient to ensure autonomous action if it depends on personal autonomy individuals' ability to avoid the nudge. If transparency is meant to ensure that nudges do not deter people from achieving their Nudges that violate Nudges that do not violate goals and values, then, according to Ivanković & Engelen, ex autonomy autonomy post transparent nudges should either be excluded or efforts Type 1 nudges Type 2 nudges should be made to turn ex post transparency into ex ante Type transparency Token transparency transparency [11]. Occasionally, ex post transparent nudges Ex post transparent nudges Ex ante transparent nudges become ex ante transparent through repeated exposure. For example, a fake speed bump may not have the same effect twice 37 This table helps determine whether a nudge preserves autonomy, of reflection, can enhance both the effectiveness and ethicality of but it's unclear how many criteria must be met to deem a nudge interventions, empowering individuals to make more informed ethical or unethical. Further research is needed for clearer decisions. guidance. Acknowledgments 6.1 Collaborative policy design: The nudge plus This pilot research study was partly supported by The Green approach Nudge project (“UL za trajnostno družbo – ULTRA”) - European The nudge plus approach extends beyond transparency by Union - NextGenerationEU, and Republic of Slovenia, Ministry encouraging participatory engagement and reflection, viewing of Higher Education, Science and Innovation. individuals as rational, reflective beings rather than passive agents. Unlike traditional nudging, which can influence behavior Authors’ statement unconsciously, nudge plus focuses on democratic control and ChatGPT-4 was used for improving language of this paper. active collaboration between citizens and policymakers. Through methods like citizens' assemblies, participants are directly References involved in policy design, contributing ideas that shape their [1] R. H. Thaler and C. R. Sunstein, “Libertarian Paternalism,” American environments. In the UK, medical sciences now require patient Economic Review, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 175-179, May 2003. [2] R. H. Thaler and C. R. Sunstein, Nudge: Improving Decisions about and public involvement in all research that includes patient Health, Wealth, and Happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, populations. Similarly, adolescents are consulted in developing 2008. anti-bullying interventions [19]. These approaches foster mutual [3] P. G. Hansen and A. M. Jespersen, "Nudge and the Manipulation of Choice: A Framework for the Responsible Use of the Nudge Approach to feedback and collaboration between policymakers and citizens, Behaviour Change in Public Policy," 2013. leading to more inclusive and transparent policies that respect [4] A. T. Schmidt and B. Engelen, "The ethics of nudging: An overview," DOI: 10.1111/phc3.12658, 2019. community values. Nudge plus approach also refers to an [5] T. Bucher et al., “Nudging consumers towards healthier choices: a intervention that has a reflective strategy embedded into the systematic review of positional influences on food choice,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 115, no. 12, pp. 2252–2263, 2016. design of a nudge. Banerjee and John [20] state that this doi:10.1017/S0007114516001653 preserves personal autonomy while promoting pro-social [6] R. A. Abumalloh, O. Halabi, R. Ali, and D. Al-Thani, “Nudging interventions through active involvement by enhancing token Techniques: Design, Theoretical Grounds, and Ethical View,” Journal of Knowledge Economy, 2024. [Online]. Available: transparency and decision-making autonomy. The nudge plus https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02219-x. approach offers significant potential for enhancing public policy [7] D. M. Hausman and B. Welch, "Debate: To Nudge or Not to Nudge," The Journal of Political Philosophy, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 123–136, 2010.Sam An with maintaining individual autonomy. By embedding reflection, [8] L. Bovens, "The Ethics of Nudge," in T. Grüne-Yanoff and S. O. Hansson, transparency and active citizen engagement, it encourages people Eds., Preference Change: Approaches from Philosophy, Economics and to participate in decision-making rather than passively accepting Psychology, Theory and Decision Library A 42, Springer Science+Business Media B.V., 2009, ch. 10. nudge type interventions. This participatory approach builds [9] T. Strle in O. Markič, O odločanju in osebni avtonomiji, 1. izd., let. 20. trust, as individuals are more likely to embrace policies that Maribor: Aristej, 2021, str. 145. [10] Kognitivna znanost, Kognitivna znanost: zbornik 22. Mednarodne respect their autonomy and align with their values. multikonference Informacijska družba - IS 2019, 10. oktober 2019: zvezek B = Cognitive Science. Ljubljana: Institut „Jožef Stefan“, 2019. [Na spletu]. Dostopno na: http://library.ijs.si/Stacks/Proceedings/InformationSociety 7 Conclusion [11] V. Ivanković and B. Engelen, “Nudging, Transparency, and This article reviewed nudges as tools for influencing decision- Watchfulness,” Social Theory and Practice, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 43-73, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.5840/soctheorpract20191751. making and behavior, with a focus on their transparency and its [12] C. R. 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Oprea, "Nudges, Regulations and Liberty," British encourage reflective decision-making, are less problematic as Journal of Political Science, vol. 53, pp. 204–220, 2023, doi: they support autonomous decision-making. Nudges that lack 10.1017/S0007123421000685. token transparency or are only transparent after the fact are more [17] A. Arno and S. Thomas, “The efficacy of nudge theory strategies in influencing adult dietary behaviour: a systematic review and meta-likely to infringe on autonomy. Conversely, when nudges are analysis,” BMC Public Health, vol. 16, no. 676, pp. 1-13, 2016, doi: transparent in advance and individuals are informed about them, 10.1186/s12889-016-3272-x. autonomy is better preserved. Additionally, the context in which [18] J. Wachner, M. Adriaanse, and D. 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This approach allows nudges to support behavioral public policy," Behavioural Public Policy, vol. 8, pp. 69-84, 2024. doi: 10.1017/bpp.2021.6. conscious decision-making rather than serving as tools for covert manipulation. The Nudge Plus approach, which adds an element 38 Ali nas uporaba velikih jezikovnih modelov v znanstvenem raziskovanju približuje časovni točki, ko bo stroj nadvladal človeka? Does the use of large language models in scientific research bring us closer to the point in time when machines will surpass humans? Franc Mali Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia franc.mali@fdv.uni-lj.si Povzetek closest to crossing this boundary, which poses a significant existential risk to all of humanity. The central part of the Prispevek se ukvarja z vprašanjem, ali veliki jezikovni modeli v discussion focuses on the question of which phases of today's okviru generativne umetne inteligence že danes odpirajo vrata v scientific research the role of large language models has already fazo splošne umetne inteligence in morda – kot naslednji korak become indispensable. – v fazo umetne superinteligence. S tem bi bili dani predpogoji za prevlado strojev nad ljudmi. Pozornost je namenjena zlasti Keywords uporabi velikih jezikovnih modelov v procesu znanstvenega raziskovanja. Raziskovalna dejavnost predstavlja eno najbolj generative artificial intelligence, large language model, scientific ustvarjalnih človekovih intelektualnih dejavnosti. Logično creativity, existential risk, reinforcement learning vprašanje je, ali je ravno znanstvena dejavnost, predvsem zaradi svoje kreativne narave, najbližja prečkanju te meje, ki predstavlja 1 Uvod pomembno eksistenčno tveganje za celotno človeštvo. Osrednji del razprave je namenjen vprašanju, v katerih fazah današnjega V okviru pričujoče obravnave izhajam iz predpostavke, da se je znanstvenega raziskovanja je vloga velikih jezikovnih modelov skozi celoten zgodovinski razvoj umetne inteligence implicitno že postala nepogrešljiva. zastavljalo vprašanje, ali lahko ta doseže oziroma celo preseže človeško inteligenco. Že od začetkov razvoja umetne inteligence Ključne besede so bila tovrstna razmišljanja spodbujena z različnimi testi, ki naj bi med drugim nakazovali, ali se strojna "inteligenca" približuje generativna umetna inteligenca, veliki jezikovni modeli, človeški inteligenci. Pomembni premik v teh razmišljanjih se je znanstvena kreativnost, eksistenčno tveganje, okrepljeno učenje zgodil, ko je tehnologija umetne inteligence prešla od klasičnih Abstract načel strojnega učenja k načelom delovanja globokih nevronskih mrež. V moji razpravi me v prvi vrsti zanima, ali najnovejši The article addresses the question of whether large language razvoj generativne umetne inteligence že kaže znake prehoda v models within the framework of generative artificial intelligence fazo umetne splošne inteligence in morda – kot naslednji korak are already opening the door to the phase of artificial general – umetne super inteligence. Posebej me zanima, ali najbolj intelligence and, perhaps, as the next step, to the phase of kreativna področja človekovega intelektualnga delovanja, kot to artificial superintelligence. This would set the conditions for predstavlja znanstveno raziskovanje, že odpirajo vrata nastopu machines to dominate humans. Particular attention is given to the umetne splošne inteligence. To namreč pomeni, da se počasi use of large language models in the process of scientific research. trasira pot nadvladi strojev nad človekom, kar je sicer predmet Research activity represents one of the most creative human precej distopičnih razmislekov filozofov in družboslovcev, tako intellectual endeavors. The logical question arises whether pri nas kot drugje v svetu. Moja obravnava ostaja na ravni scientific activity, especially due to its creative nature, is the nekoliko bolj splošne družboslovne refleksije o tej kompleksni tematiki in se ne ukvarja z ožjimi tehničnimi vidiki delovanja Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed umetne inteligence, zato se bom v primeru sklicevanj na for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full algoritme delovanja umetne inteligence oprl na nekoliko bolj citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). poljudne definicije, kot so na primer tiste, ki jih je predstavil Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Partha Ray [1]. Po Rayu generativna umetna inteligenca (GUI) © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.9 spada v skupino modelov umetne inteligence, ki lahko ustvarjajo nove podatke (informacije) na podlagi vzorcev in struktur, naučenih iz obstoječih podatkov (informacij). Ti modeli lahko 39 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mali generirajo vsebine na najrazličnejših področjih, naj si bo besedil, samoumevni način razrešiti. Njegova razrešitev je odvisna od slik ali glasbe. Pri analizi, razumevanju in ustvarjanju teh vsebin, več dejavnikov. Eden izmed teh je možnost, da se modeli GUI ki vedno bolj spominjajo na človeške stvaritve, se opirajo na razvijajo kot odprtokodni modeli, kar je seveda v nasprotju z tehnike globokega učenja in nevronske mreže. Veliki jezikovni sedanjo strategijo multinacionalk, da preko lastniškega nadzora modeli (VJM), ki se razvijajo pod okriljem GUI, pa so zasnovani novih naprednih tehnologij javnosti prikrivajo ključne za generiranje naravnega jezika, kot so stavki, odstavki ali celotni informacije. dokumenti. Njihova ključna lastnost je zmožnost predhodnega Negativna posledica lastniškega odnosa do VJM je, da znanje učenja na velikih količinah besedilnih podatkov ter nato o notranjih mehanizmih delovanja VJM, ki predstavljajo vrh prilagajanje za specifične naloge uporabnikov. V prispevku v razvoja umetne inteligence danes, še vedno predstavlja izziv za štirih krajših poglavjih razpravljam (1) o umetni splošni oziroma večino uporabnikov, (deloma) pa tudi za strokovnjake s področja super inteligenci kot dejavniku tveganja o človeku, (2) o dilemah, računalništva. Težko je namreč analizirati in priti na tej osnovi ki so povezane z nadvlado stroja nad človekom, (3) o danes do razumevanja VJM, ki delujejo v okviru kompleksnih vedno bolj nepogrešljivi vlogi VJM v posameznih fazah notranjih struktur z milijoni parametrov. Četudi lahko v vlogi znanstvenega raziskovanja, (4) o specifičnih problemih uporabe uporabnikov ali celo računalniških razvijalcev vidimo končni VJM na področju družboslovnega raziskovanja. Na koncu rezultat delovanja VJM, pa je pojasnitev oziroma interpretacija prispevka je podanih še nekaj zaključnih misli. njihovih notranjih struktur izjemno zahtevna. Skratka, veliki jezikovni modeli še vedno nastopajo kot »črne skrinjice« (»black boxes«). Thomas Arnold je za opis te nevzdržne situacije 2 Umetna super inteligenca kot dejavnik uporabil naslednjo posrečeno analogijo: »To je tako kot da bi se eksistenčnega tveganja za človeka prizadevali za razlago delovanja kompleksne kemijske reakcije, Potem ko je Nick Bostrom pred desetimi leti postavil in utemeljil ne da bi poznali natančno strukturo in interakcijo molekul.« [7] tezo, da obstaja verjetnost, da bo nadaljnji razvoj umetne V strokovni literaturi se sicer omenja tudi nekaj izjem. Za modele inteligence pripeljal do nastopa umetne superinteligence, ki naj kot so BLOOM, Cerebras-GPT ali Llama, naj bi podjetja, ki se bi bila neprimerno bolj kognitivno zmožna kot človek, kar bi ukvarjajo z umetno inteligenco, dopuščala večji javni vpogled lahko predstavljalo eksistenčno tveganje za celotni človeško [8]. Spet za druge so informacije za javnost odprli, potem pa vrsto, ta tema, zlasti po nastopu GPT 4 in drugih vrst VJM (Bard, ponovno zaprli. Četudi vrhunski znanstveniki, ki se ukvarjajo z Claude, Llama, Gemini, itd.) vzbuja vedno večjo pozornost med UI in prihajajo iz akademske sfere znanosti, v vedno večjem strokovnjaki, tako med naravoslovci in tehniki kot tudi med številu opozarjajo, da je prosti dostop do vseh informacij na tem družboslovci in humanisti [2]. V svojem prispevku se bom področju eden ključnih dejavnikov, ki lahko zagotovi izognil (spekulativnim) ocenam, ki se vrtijo okrog problema verodostojno in zanesljivo raziskovanje, saj le tako lahko časovnih mejnikov, ko (če) naj bi pametni stroji nadvladali ljudi. dostopamo do informacij o celotni »arhitekturi« VJM (t.j. od Ena skupina ekspertov namreč trdi, da se to ne bo zgodilo niti v uporabljenih podatkovnih baz do algoritmov), v zvezi s tem še sto letih [3], druga skupina ekspertov spet trdi, da gre zgolj za vedno ni bilo storjenih veliko sprememb. vprašanje dveh ali treh desetletij [4]. Bolj kot to, me zanima, ali uporaba GUI v takšni kreativni človekovi dejavnosti kot je 3 Ali lahko ustvarjalno dimenzijo znanstvenega znanost resnično na široko odpira vrata nastopu umetne splošne oziroma umetne super inteligence, ki naj bi se sicer zgodila v dela dokončno prevzame umetna inteligenca? bližnji prihodnosti. To vprašanje je treba povezati s konkretno Na prihodnje izzive, ki so povezani z nastopom umetne splošne prisotnimi strahovi pred katastrofičnimi in celo eksistenčnimi oziroma umetne super inteligence, je treba gledati tudi v luči tipi tveganj GUI, ki bi lahko imeli negativne družbene posledice. današnjih dogajanj. Že danes si lahko zastavljamo vprašanje, ali Če katastrofično tveganje ocenjujemo po kriteriju maksimalne bo ustvarjalno znanstveno delo dokončno prevzela GUI: ali je res razširjenosti (število ljudi, ki bi bili prizadeti), intenziteti upravičeno trditi, da kar je nekoč kalkulator pomenil za številke, (trpljenju, ki ga povzroča) in trajanja škodljivih družbenih in kar internet za globalni značaj komunikacijo, to danes pomeni posledic nekontroliranega razvoja posamezne tehnologije, potem za znanstveno kreativnost razvoj GUI? Znanstveno kreativnost pri eksistenčnem tveganju, ki naj bi bil povzean z umetno lahko subsumiramo pod bolj splošni pojem inteligence. Ta naj bi inteligenco, odločilno vlogo igra samo en kriterij: nevarnost načeloma izkazovala celo paleto zmožnosti, od kreativnih do iztrebljanja človeške vrste zaradi prevlade stroja nad človekom. racionalnih oblik (znanstvenega, umetniškega, itd.) mišljenja, od Neredko se srečujemo z ocenami, da pomembni predpogoj za načrtovanja do učenja na temelju izkušenj, itd. Četudi danes varni prihodnji razvoj GUI, v okviru katerega se lahko izognemo spekuliramo, da bo splošna umetna inteligenca dosegla ali eksistenčnim tipom tveganj, predstavlja »algoritem okrepljenega presegla inteligenčne zmožnosti ljudi, pa bomo v strokovni učenja« (v ang.: »reinforcement learning algorithms«) [5, 6]). Pri literaturi težko naleteli na neke soglasne kriterije, ki naj bi »okrepljenem učenju« gre za to, da se v procesu sprejemanja povedali, kaj predstavlja »inteligenca« pri strojih in kaj odločitev nagradi to, kar vodi v dobrobit ljudi. Vendar v predstavlja inteligenca pri ljudeh. Formalne definicije, ki konkretnih situacijah težavo predstavlja praktično usklajevanje vztrajajo ne nekem skupnem imenovalcu, nam niso vedno v funkcij umetne inteligence z sprejetimi družbenimi vrednotami. pomoč. Nobena izmed teh formalnih definicij ne ponuja nekega Čeprav se ta problem na prvi pogled zdi trivialen, temu ni tako. dokončnega kriterija, ki bi nam omogočal primerjavo Družbene vrednote so raznolike, amorfne in jih je težko »inteligentnosti« različnih entitet. Če se za hip ustavimo ob zapopasti v kvantitativnih kategorijah. Problem, kako najnovejšem delu Yuval Noaha Harareja, ki nosi naslov »Nexus. »okrepljeno učenje« uskladiti z sprejemljivimi družbenimi A Brief History of Information Networks from the Stone Stage vrednotami, zato ni nekaj, kar se da na zelo enostaven in to AI« [9], bomo pri njemu hitro prepoznali besednjak, ki naj bi 40 Ali nas uporaba velikih jezikovnih modelov v znanstvenem raziskovanju približuje časovni točki, ko bo stroj nadvladal Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia človeka? nedvoumno nakazoval, da GUI poseduje moment dveh inteligenc vzame situacijo, ko nek uporabnik, ki komuncira intencionalnosti, t.j. sposobnost GUI slediti delovanju, ki izhaja z klepetalnikom UI, ne zna več ločiti, ali je na drugi strani človek iz njih samih. (Avtor knjige govori o tem, da se pametni stroji, ki ali stroj [8]. jih vodi GUI, sami odločajo, izbirajo, delujejo, itd.). Ob prebiranju najnovejšega Hararejevega dela se lahko vprašamo, zakaj vsiljuje intencionalnost kot ključni kriterij za izenačevanje 4 Zakaj umetna inteligenca postaja vedno bolj »inteligentnosti« človeka in stroja. Lahko bi uporabil širšo nepogrešljiv pomočnik v vseh fazah definicijo inteligence in bi le to pripisal že entitetam, ki so znanstvenega raziskovanja? pasivne, torej ne vključujejo momenta intencionalnosti, vendar V okviru moje razprave me ob bolj načelnem epistemološkem vseeno reagirajo na okolje in lahko opravljajo kompleksne vprašanju, t.j. ali nova tehnologija umetne inteligence postopoma naloge. To je na primer storil Sebastien Bubeck, ki je skupaj z zavzema prostor znanstvene kreativnosti, zanima tudi bolj soavtorji preučeval, ali so v jezikovnem modelu GTP-4 že dani konkretno vprašanje: ali ta nova napredna tehnologija dobiva zametki umetne splošne inteligence. Postavil je namreč tezo, da status nepogrešljivosti v vseh drugih fazah znanstvenega si neko inteligentno entiteto lahko predstavljamo tudi kot raziskovanja? »orakelj«, ki nima notranjih vzgibov ali želja za delovanje, Sodobno znanstveno raziskovanje je multidimenzionalni vendar lahko natančno in koristno zagotavlja informacije o kateri proces, ki vključuje različne faze, ki od začetka raziskovanja do koli temi ali domeni vedenja [10]. Definicijo inteligence, ki končne objave znanstvenih rezultatov segajo od najbolj rutinskih izhaja zgolj iz kriterija intencionalnosti, imamo lahko za pa do najbolj ustvarjalnih aktivnosti. VJM v tem primeru restriktivno še iz enega razloga. Če namreč pri tej definiciji prevzema vlogo koristnega in vedno bolj nepogrešljivega izhajamo iz notranjih motivov za doseganja ciljev našega »asistenta« v vseh fazah znanstvenega raziskovanja. Bo ta delovanja v kar se da širokem okolju, kjer se soočamo z nikoli »asistent« v bolj ali manj oddaljeni prihodnosti postal zaključenim spektrom situacij, potem v primeru rabe takšne »profesor«, ki bo dokončno nadomestil človeka – znanstvenika? definicije implicitno predpostavljamo, da je pojem inteligence 1. Najprej je treba izpostaviti, da GUI zaradi svoje neizogibno vezan na univerzalnost in optimalnost. To pomeni, da učinkovitosti vedno bolj nadomešča znanstvenike v postopkih spet operiramo z apriorno definiranim in ne aposteriorno pridobivanja podatkov. Podobno je z učinkovitostjo GUI v preverjenim konceptom inteligence. Dejansko oziroma realno vsebinskem pregledovanju, povzemanju in sumiranju množice inteligenco človeka namreč nikakor ne moremo opredeliti kot informacijskih virov, ki so kot »state of the art« relevantne v absolutno univerzalno in optimalno. vsakem začetnem procesu znanstvenega raziskovanja. GUI je S podobnimi dilemami se soočamo, če naš pogled usmerimo sposoben obdelave in analize velike količine podatkov. Vloga na kreativnost kot eno izmed dimenzij človekove inteligence. GUI postaja neprecenljiva pri pregledu in sintezi vsebin iz Tudi v tem primeru odgovor na vprašanje, ali umetna inteligenca znanstvene literature, povzemanju podatkov in sinteze enostavno privzema kreativne moči znanosti, ni enoznačen. Ne kompleksnih podatkovnih baz, samodejnem prepoznavanju gre samo za to, da se že pri vprašanju kreativnosti človeka vzorcev in trendov, ki jih je mogoče izpeljati iz podatkov, srečujemo z ogromnim številom definicij (znanstveniki modeliranju in napovedovanju na temelju zbranih podatkov, itd. uporabljajo danes več kot 50 definicij [11]), zadeve postanejo še 2. Vedno bolj se povečuje vloga GUI pri ustvarjanju bolj kompleksne, ko iščemo skupni imenovalec med definicijo novih idej. Glede na današnjo eksponentno rast znanstvenih človeške kreativnosti in kreativnostjo, ki jo pripisujemo umetni informacij je prenos te raziskovalne funkcije iz človeka na GUI inteligenci. Na eni strani imamo avtorje, kot so Marc Ruco [12] hkrati povezana z zmožnostjo GUI, da učinkovito in predvsem ali Stephen Rice [13], ki pravijo, da kolikor k standardnim avtonomno ustvarja nova raziskovalna vprašanja in hipoteze. definicijam človekove ustvarjalnosti – ta vključuje dimenzijo Eden največjih izzivov najbolj naprednih področij znanosti je originalnosti in učinkovitosti - dodamo tudi dimenziji skorajda neskončno število hipotez, ki se nanašajo na avtentičnosti, potem GUI ne more tekmovati z ljudmi. raziskovalne probleme, zaradi česar se včasih zdi natančno Na drugi strani imamo avtorje, kot na primer Hubert Kent, za sistematično raziskovanje, ki bi omogočalo sprejetje hevristično katere je GPT- 4 že dosegel izredno visoko stopnjo znanstvene najbolj obetavne hipoteze, brez sodelovanja UI skorajda kreativnosti, vsaj kar zadeva t.i. odprti tip mišljenja, saj naj bi nemogoče. Primer: v biokemiji naj bi obstajalo približno 10⁶⁰ empirične analize pokazale, da GPT-4 že zmore doseči rezultate, molekul, to pa je praktično enako številu zdravil, ki jih je treba ki so enaki rezultatom, ki jih doseže zgolj 1% najbolj na temelju ogromnega števila molekul šele odkriti [16]. Pri tem inteligentnih ljudi [14]. Rezultati dodatnih študij naj bi ravno imajo ravno najnovejši modeli GUI potreben potencial, da tako dokazovali, da model GPT-4 izkazuje veliko stopnjo revolucionarno posežejo v to fazo znanstvenega raziskovanja, ko fleksibilnosti zunaj ustaljenih okvirov mišljenja in naj bi imel na gre za biokemijo. Podobne primere bi lahko navedli za področje področju odprtega tipa mišljenja celo višji kreativni potencial od genomike, astronomije, kvantne fizike, itd. Ne moremo mimo ljudi. Pričakovati torej je, pravijo avtorji, ki so opravili te in omembe še ene funkcije GUI. Ta funkcija GUI je vezana na podobne študije, da bo model GPT-4, kolikor bo dosežen njeno zmožnost usmerjanja k bolj interdisciplinarno zasnovanim napredek glede povečanih zmožnosti učenja na velikih bazah revolucionarnim znanstvenim odkritjem, saj so njeni potenciali podatkov in bolj napredni arhitekturi nevronskih mrež, kmalo pri obdelavi in sintezi informacij iz različnih disciplin skorajda storil pomembni korak v smeri umetne splošne inteligence.[15]. neomejeni. V tem primeru Turingovi testi že zvenijo zastarelo. V okviru rabe Turingovega testa gre namreč za to, da se kot kriterij izenačitve 41 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mali 3. Vloga GUI se povečuje tudi v procesih evalvacije preučujejo, kako delovanje oziroma vedenje na mikro ravni končnih rezultatov znanstvenega raziskovanja. Če izhajam iz (npr.: odločitve individualnih agentov) vodi do posledic na bolj splošnih epistemoloških predpostavk in se na tem mestu makro (družbeni) ravni (npr.: oblikovanje družbenih vzorcev izognemo razpravi o prednostih in tudi tveganjih uporabe GUI v delovanja oziroma obnašanja). V okviru teh modelov se seveda konkretnih recenzentskih postopkih, potem naj na kratko lahko preučuje tudi obratni vpliv: kako makro-nivo vpliva na omenimo zgolj eno izredno pomembno vlogo te nove napredne obnašanje na mikro ravni [8]. V okviru sociologije se s temi tehnologije, t.j. preverjanje rezultatov eksperimentalnih in drugih »agent-based« modeli preučuje socialna omrežja, oblikovanje empiričnih raziskav. V preteklosti je v glavnem veljalo, da ni sosedskih skupnosti, itd. problematična ponovljivost dobljenih znanstvenih rezultatov, Se pa v zvezi z družboslovnim raziskovanjem pojavlja bodisi na temelju javno dostopnih znanstvenih objav ali ustreznih določen paradoks, na katerega želim opozoriti v tem sklepnem eksperimentalnih protokov. Sodobna znanost se nahaja v vedno delu moje razprave. Ta paradoks predstavlja dejstvo, da postopki večji krizi, kar zadeva zmožnost replikacije, saj je tako z vidika »okrepljenega učenja« (ang. »reinforcement learning«), ki naj bi časa kot tudi stroškov v številnih, če ne kar vseh vseh odpravili »halucinacije« in raznovrstne pristranosti, predstavljajo znanstvenih disciplinah težko izvesti potrebne eksperimentalne oviro za doseganje objektivno veljavnih znanstvenih rezultatov. in druge znanstvene ponovitve. O tveganjih za povečanje goljufij Če pride skozi delovanje t.i. »reinforcement self-learning by in prevar v moderni znanosti, ki izhajajo iz teh kompleksnih human feed-back« (RLHF) do idealiziranja sveta, t..j. sveta, situacij raziskovalnega dela, sem več pisal na drugih mestih [17]. kakršen naj bi bil, ne pa sveta, kakršen dejansko je, takšna GUI lahko odigra zelo relevatno funkcijo v današnjem času prizadevanja za zmanjšanja pristranskosti algoritmov, katerih cilj enormne produkcije znanstvenih rezultatov, ko je vedno težje je promovirati liberalne vrednote, lahko ogrozijo veljavnost izvajati ponovitve eksperimentov z namenom izvajanja kontrole raziskav v družboslovju, ki jih podpira umetna inteligenca. znanstvenih rezultatov. Njen predikativni pristop namreč lahko »Požarni zid«, ki se ga želi danes pospešeno graditi preko RLHF, zagotovi učinkovito, hitro, sistematično in natančno napoved odpravlja tveganja GUI, kar zadeva njeno široko uporabo (in ponovljivosti posameznih znanstvenih odkritij ali pa celo vseh preprečuje tveganja, ki so se, kot pravi Yuval Harare, že zažrla v spoznanj na posameznem področju znanosti. civilizacijski kod sodobnih družb), po drugi strani pa predstavlja 4. Pozitivna vloga GUI se danes povečuje tudi v okviru epistemološko tveganje za objektivni značaj današnjih širših družbenih in kognitivnih predpostavk, ki so relevantne za družboslovnih raziskav. Tudi to predstavlja dilemo današnjega in delovanje moderne znanosti. V zvezi s to širšo funkcijo bi prihodnjega razvoja umetne inteligence, ki zahteva naš celovit izpostavil vlogo GUI pri spodbujanju komunikacij znotraj interdisciplinarni razmislek, saj se je le na tej osnovi mogoče znanstvene skupnosti, pa tudi komunikacije znanstvenikov izogniti negativnim družbenim in tudi epistemološkim navzven. To zadnje naj bi se dogajalo predvsem s pomočjo implikacijam njenega razvoja. modela ChatGPT, ki generira takšne tipe pojasnitev, ki vodijo k premagovanju komunikacijskih prepadov med eksperti in laiki. Vendar je to funkcijo, kot smo že opozorili v enem izmed 6 Zaključek predhodnih poglavij, mogoče izvajati le, če bo prišlo do V zadnjem času je tako v znanstvenih krogih kot tudi zunaj uveljavitve nove paradigme odprtokodne znanosti. V zadnjem znanstvenih krogov veliko govora o možnih tveganjih času strokovnjaki, ki delujejo na področju GUI, vedno bolj današnjega in prihodnjega razvoja umetne inteligence. poudarjajo, da je treba razviti modele, ki bodo čim bolj Znanstveniki iz Massachusetts Institute of Technology, ene korespondirali z fizično realnostjo. Menijo, da je treba največ najbolj uglednih akademskih institucij v ZDA, so v letošnjem naporov usmeriti v nadaljnji razvoj multimodalnih sistemov letu pripravili javno dostopni repozitorij z umetno inteligenco GUI. Demis Hassabis, izvršni direktor firme DeepMind, je v povezanih primerov tveganj. V omenjenem repozitoriju se intervjuju za angleški dnevnik Guardian konec prejšnjega leta trenutno nahaja kar 777 opisov takšnih tveganj. To je še en dejal, da je bil storjen na tem področju največji korak z modelom dokaz, kako veliko zanimanje obstaja danes za ta vprašanja. V Gemini, ki ga razvija njegovo podjetje [18]. mojem kratkem prispevku sem se dotaknil zgolj enega izmed teh številnih problemov, ki je vezan bolj na epistemologijo znanstvenega raziskovanja, ne pa toliko na družbene posledice 5 Ali nova tehnologija generativne umetne razvoja umetne inteligence. V tem kontekstu me je predvsem inteligence v okviru družboslovnega zanimalo, ali pospešena raba VJM v okviru različnih znanstveno- raziskovanja nujno in vedno zagotavlja raziskovalnih aktivnosti predstavlja eno izmed domen, kjer se na znanstveno objektivnost? stežaj odpirajo vrata nastopu umetne splošne oziroma umetne Kot družboslovca me seveda zanima tudi vprašanje vedno večje super inteligence. Še posebej me je zanimalo vprašanje, zakaj rabe VJM na področju mojega področja znanstvenega GUI postaja že danes nepogrešljivo »orodje« v seh fazah raziskovanja. Kar takoj je treba reči, da na področju družbenih znanstvenega raziskovanja. V sklepnem delu sem se na kratko ved VJM izkazujejo velik (hevristični) potencial v razvijanju ustavil ob nekaterih specifičnih dilemah uporabe GUI na novih pristopov k anketnim raziskavam in ponovljivosti področju družboslovnega raziskovanja. eksperimentov na področju vedenjske ekonomije [19], diskurzivnih analizah tekstov, ki jih je mogoče izvajati na Literatura avtomatizirani način [20] in končno tudi na področju razvijanja [1] Ray Parta, 2023. ChatGPT: A comprehensive review on background, applications, key challenges, bias, ethics, limitations and future scope. modelov, ki simulirajo stvarno obnašanje ljudi. V tem zadnjem Internet of Things and Cyber-Physical Systems. 3: 21–154; primeru gre predvsem za t.i. »agent-based« modele, ki https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iotcps.2023.04.003. 42 Ali nas uporaba velikih jezikovnih modelov v znanstvenem raziskovanju približuje časovni točki, ko bo stroj nadvladal Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia človeka? 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DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-09237-4. 43 Comparing academic performance across course topics: a pilot study Laura Fink Bojan Cestnik Faculty of entrepreneurship Faculty of entrepreneurship GEA College GEA College Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia laura.fink@gea-college.si bojan.cestnik@gea-college.si bojan.cestnik@temida.si ABSTRACT KEYWORDS In this paper, we examine the academic performance of students course-specific competence, learning analytics, prediction in different courses to determine whether good performance in models, student academic achievement, student academic one course is related to good performance in other courses. performance Although certain predictive models emphasize the importance of course content for learning success, there are few studies that address how student performance in different courses is related 1 INTRODUCTION AND RELATED WORK to similar course topics, learning goals, competences, and skills. By creating a preliminary framework that examines how Are students who achieve excellent results in one course more academic performance is related to different course topics, we likely to achieve outstanding results in another? And vice versa? attempt to make a first step further towards addressing the This is the key question that triggered this preliminary research research gap regarding the interrelatedness of student into how students perform in different courses. As a result, we achievement not only in different course topics but in different are examining the relationships between students' academic competence areas. We examined a set of student grades from achievement in different courses from two different eleven different courses at the faculty from areas such as undergraduate study programs at the faculty of entrepreneurship. entrepreneurship, management and leadership, business Despite some prediction models suggesting the course content as informatics, mathematics, economics, marketing and market one of the input explanatory variables, there is a significant lack analysis, innovation and creativity, English, finance and of detailed research on the relationship between students' accounting, business law, and human resource management. We achievement in different courses from the same, similar, or show that students with more exam retakes on average reached a entirely different discipline. Therefore, this preliminary study lower grade rank than the students who only registered for the aims to develop a pilot model to investigate the relationship exam once. We used linear regression to show the significance between academic success in various courses and their respective of the relationships between student performance in the course topics. The findings of this study could be further Informatics course compared to their achievement in other reinforced and interpreted by the comparison of course-specific courses. With a correlation matrix coefficient, we measured the competences and learning objectives. strength of reciprocal interrelatedness between the grade ranks Apart from the prediction model of academic achievement, students attained in each of the eleven courses. The results of this interrelatedness between academic achievement in different preliminary study indicate a possible stronger association courses compared to the course main topics, competences, and between academic achievement in courses that have similarities learning objectives is still largely missing. Since previous studies in terms of content or focus, such as business administration and that would previously investigate the interrelatedness of student entrepreneurship (correlation coefficient of 0.58). Further studies achievement in different courses are, to the best of our with detailed comparison of course-specific competences are knowledge, entirely nonexistent, let us draw attention to the needed for accepting the finding that interrelatedness between research studies that are related to the field and that have led to achievements in courses from similar versus different disciplines this investigation. OECD [12, 13], for example, show a positive is stronger. The preliminary model could further be improved by association between literacy and numeracy skills. Moreover, in a broader range of courses, input explanatory student factors, and our previous research [2], we showed that students who achieved application of advanced analytical techniques. better academic achievement in word skills were on average also more likely to achieve better achievement in excel skills. ∗ Comparing academic performance across course topics: a pilot study. However, this does not imply that it is sufficient to develop only † Fink, L., Cestnik, B. some of these skills, such as solely including word skills, excel Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or skills, literacy skills, or just numeracy skills in the curriculum. classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed Furthermore, this does not imply that students in a real situation for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full cannot achieve much better results in a certain type of skill citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). compared to another. Additionally, Fink and Vadnjal [3] Information Society 2023, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia conducted a pilot study that compared the development of © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.10 44 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia L. Fink and B. Cestnik generic and course-specific competences during a higher H1. Mostly there are reciprocal relationships between a education course. student's performance in one course and their performance As previously mentioned, one could apply findings about the in another. relationships between various course topics, contents, competences, or objectives to the development of predictive H2. As the number of exam retakes increases, the student's models and predictive algorithms. Prediction models are often grade rank decreases. used to find out ahead of time which students are likely to drop out or fail external exams. The schools aim to take intervention measures and steps to stop the bad predictions from coming true, 3 DATASET AND METHODOLOGY and the success rate can be raised [16, 9]. There are a lot of different input explanatory variables that can have a big effect on The dataset collection and preparation included several how well and especially how accurately prediction models phases. First, we have collected students’ grades for different perform [16, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 1]. Some prediction models include courses at the higher education institution. The initial dataset related concepts to the course content [7], such as the course's included the grades of 223 students for 67 different courses. learning objective, the course's main competences, the course In the second phase, we have refined and further prepared the topic [4], or even course preparedness [10]. dataset. Based on some simple data exploration and visualization In addition to the combination of input explanatory variables, techniques, such as plotting the missing values, plotting the various statistical methodologies and techniques, as well as distribution of the number of grades available per course, and different types of measurements and academic achievements, plotting the distribution of the number of exam retakes per significantly influence the prediction model's power and course, we have decided to eliminate the data of courses with less performance. While adding additional or all relevant factors to than 60 students’ grades per course. With that, we narrowed the model does not always improve its performance, the right further analysis to the following eleven selected courses: combination of input explanatory variables significantly Business Economics, Informatics, Management and Leadership, influences the accuracy and other model performance measures Marketing and Market Analysis, Entrepreneurship, Business [4]. In the end, the right combination of input variables largely English, Accounting, Creativity and Innovation, Business determines the model's explanatory power, the accuracy of its Mathematics and Statistics, Business Law, and Human Resource predictions, and other performance measures [6, 15]. Management. Different prediction models are based on different methodologies and include different input and output variables. Francis and Babu [4], for example, compare prediction models Table 1: Number of grades per one and two courses of student achievement that include the topic of the course as the input explanatory variable. They demonstrated that the course Course (Short name) Nr. of students/grades topic, along with many other factors, is one of the explanatory per for chosen variables for academic achievement. However, their model course course and found that academic factors, including the course topic, were less Informatics (%) accurate in predicting students' academic achievement than Informatics for entrepreneurs 160 demographic factors, behavior factors, and other factors such as (P07_IE) absence days, parental satisfaction, and school survey responses. Business economics (P05_BE) 139 120 (86 %) They developed, compared, and assessed performance measures Business law for entrepreneurs 79 71 (90 %) of several prediction models. The model that included academic (P06_BLE) factors, behavior, and additional input explanatory variables Human resource management 66 58 (88%) showed the greatest improvement in accuracy. On the other hand, (P09_HRM) adding demographic factors on top of that reduced the accuracy Management and leadership 156 142 (91%) of academic achievement prediction. Clearly, the addition of (P15_ML) additional input variables, for example, the topic of the course, Marketing and market analysis 90 73 (81%) in different models contributes differently to improving (P16_MMA) prediction accuracy and other performance measures, depending Entrepreneurship (P27_ENT) 191 148 (77%) on other input variables in the model. Business English (P28_BE) 152 133 (88%) Accounting for entrepreneurs 143 131 (92%) 2 HYPOTHESES (P33_AE) Creativity and innovation in 173 142 (82%) entrepreneurship (P36_CIE) In this preliminary study, we aim to build a preliminary pilot Business mathematics and 139 119 (86%) research model on which we will test the interrelatedness statistics (P39_BMS) between academic achievement in different courses. We suggest the following hypotheses: We then compared the number of students’ grades available per one course with the number of grades available per two courses (the selected course and the informatics) and calculated the share of students that also took the exam in informatics 45 Comparing academic performance across course topics: a pilot Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia study. compared to the number of students who took the exam in the selected course only. Students' grades include both those that In the third phase, we continued with the data exploration and indicate a student has passed the course and those that indicate a visualization. We plotted the distribution of the number of grades student has not. Since we included only one grade per student in achieved per grade rank for each of the selected eleven courses. further analysis, the number of students’ grades reflects the An example of the distribution for the Entrepreneurship course number of students who took the exam in each course. Not all is provided in Figure 1. students took exams in all eleven subjects. The reasons for this are varied, including the fact that the courses are from two different programs. The courses with the highest student grades include Entrepreneurship (191), followed by Creativity/Innovation (173) and Informatics (160) (Table 1). More than 77% of students (148) who took the entrepreneurship exam also took the informatics exam. Similarly, 82% of students who took the exam in creativity/innovation (142), and 91% of those who took the exam in management/leadership (142) also took the exam in informatics. In other words, students who attended the exam in the Informatics course often also attended the exam in the Entrepreneurship, Management/Leadership, and Creativity/Innovation courses, as shown in Table 1. Then, we continued by calculating the average grade ranks and number of exam retakes (table 2) for each of the courses included in the analysis. The grade ranks range from 0 to 10, where 0 represents not attending, 1 to 5 represents failed, 6 Figure 1: Distribution of number of grades per each grade satisfactory, 7 average, 8 good, 9 very good, and 10 excellent. As rank for Entrepreneurship course example shown in Table 2, the students on average achieved better grades in the HRM course than in other courses. In comparison, the In the next phase, we focused our investigation on how the students on average achieved the lowest average grade rank in grades that students achieved in the Informatics course behave the Mathematics/Statistics and Economics course compared to compared to the grades they achieved in the remaining ten other courses. The students also, on average, most commonly courses. We performed and visualized ten linear regression retook the exam in these two courses. Additionally, we found that models describing the relationships between grade ranks students 38 students attended at least one exam deadline for each of the achieved in the informatics course and the grade ranks students eleven courses. achieved in other selected courses. When performing the linear regression, we included the grade rank achieved in informatics as an independent variable. Though we are aware that linear Table 2: Average grade rank and number of exam retakes regression models assume the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable and not the reciprocal Course (Short name) Avg. Avg. nr. of relationships per se, we decided to mention this limitation and grade retakes work further with the results obtained from the regression Informatics for entrepreneurs 7.7 1.2 analyses in this preliminary pilot study. (P07_IE) We performed additional analysis based on the correlation Business economics (P05_BE) 6.6 1.8 matrix between the grade ranks students achieved in each of the Business law for entrepreneurs 7.1 1.3 eleven selected courses. We draw a correlation matrix with (P06_BLE) significant (p < 0.05) correlations among regression coefficients Human resource management 8.0 1.1 between the eleven selected courses to determine which of the (P09_HRM) eleven courses is related to another one. We then examined the Management and leadership 7.3 1.2 strength and significance of the reciprocal relationship that the (P15_ML) correlation matrix coefficient measures. Marketing and market analysis 7.5 1.3 Next, we further compared the characteristics of our data for (P16_MMA) the selected eleven courses with the characteristics of the data for Entrepreneurship (P27_ENT) 7.4 1.3 all the courses. We used data visualization techniques such as Business English (P28_BE) 7.3 1.2 plotting to compare the distribution of the average grade of Accounting for entrepreneurs 7.0 1.3 eleven selected courses and all the courses. The distribution of (P33_AE) average grade for the selected eleven courses seems fairly similar Creativity and innovation in 7.2 1.3 to the distribution of average grade for all the courses, as shown entrepreneurship (P36_CIE) in Figure 2. Business mathematics and statistics 6.4 2.0 Although we cannot claim that an analysis of the entire data (P39_BMS) set would yield similar results to the analysis of the selected eleven courses based solely on the similar distribution of average 46 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia L. Fink and B. Cestnik grades, we cannot completely rule out the possibility that on student's performance in one course and their performance in average, somewhat similar associations would emerge among the another in most cases when comparing different pairs of courses. other courses. Let's examine the concrete correlations between the grades of the two courses. There is a moderate correlation between Economics and Mathematics/Statistics (0.60), followed by Economics and Entrepreneurship (0.58), Informatics and Mathematics/Statistics (0.57), Marketing/Market Analysis and Law (0.57), Marketing/Market Analysis and Entrepreneurship (0.55), Economics and Accounting (0.54), Marketing/Market Analysis and Creativity/Innovation (0.52), and Economics and Informatics (0.51), and Informatics and Marketing/Market analysis (0.50). Based on moderate correlations, we can speculate that Economics, Informatics, Mathematics, and Accounting courses are closely connected, partially because students have to use the numeracy skills in these courses. Therefore, future research could address the question of whether the syllabus of these courses reflects shared similar competences. Although rare, previous research [12, 13] on the interrelatedness of competences Figure 2: Distribution of number of grades per each grade has shown that people who are more proficient in literacy skills rank per course example are usually also more proficient in numeracy skills, and vice versa, additional inquiry into the similar and different In the final phase of this preliminary pilot research, we competences that are developed within these courses would performed the regression analysis between the grade rank that the provide an important insight and more thoroughly address the student achieved and the number of exam retakes of the student. gap in the literature on the interrelatedness between competences that is largely still missing. Therefore, we also need to investigate further to what degree are the numeracy skills included in the 4 RESEARCH FINDINGS syllabus of the courses that otherwise aim at developing soft, social, and other professional skills, such as the Entrepreneurship The eleven selected courses served as the basis for the and Marketing/Market Analysis courses. Additionally, based on analysis, which focused on identifying reciprocal relationships the analysis, it would also make sense to check whether the between the grade ranks of one course and those of another Marketing/Market Analysis and Creativity/Innovation courses course. We selected the courses based on the number of grades foster the development of related skills. In general, we can available after exploring, visualizing, cleaning, and refining the speculate that the type of competences is important for student data. In addition to linear regression models, we calculated the achievement, but to confirm this, we would have to perform the correlation matrix’s correlations (Figure 3) that investigate the qualitative analysis of the similar competences and learning reciprocal association between the grade ranks students achieved objectives in the future. in one course compared to another. The majority of the relationships are statistically significant Overall, we investigated 55 reciprocal relationships (H1) but weak. Weak correlation exists between Entrepreneurship and between the grade ranks of one course with the grade ranks of Mathematics/Statistics (0.49), Entrepreneurship and Informatics another course. Among these, forty-six correlations are (0.47), Economics and Management/Leadership (0.47), significant (p < 0.05) compared to nine correlations that are not Entrepreneurship and Law (0.45), English and Entrepreneurship significant. Among the significant correlations, nine correlation (0.45), Economics and English (0.43), Creativity/Innovation and coefficients exhibit a moderate relationship (between 0.5 and Entrepreneurship (0.42), HRM and Law (0.41), Accounting and 0.7) between the grade ranks of one course and the grade ranks HRM (0.41), Informatics and Accounting (0.41), of another course. Twenty-seven correlations show a weak Management/Leadership and Accounting (0.40), English and correlation (between 0.3 and 0.5), while ten correlations show a Mathematics/Statistics (0.38), Mathematics/Statistics and Law negligible or low correlation (below 0.3) between the grade ranks (0.38), Marketing/Market Analysis and Law (0.37), English and of two selected courses. Accounting (0.37), Management/Leadership and English (0.36), The strength of significant coefficients varies from 0.19 all Entrepreneurship and HRM (0.36), Law and Economics (0.34), the way up to 0.58. Many of the coefficients that we would Management/Leadership and Entrepreneurship (0.34), otherwise have placed in the group of weak correlations are very Entrepreneurship and Accounting (0.33), Accounting and close to 0.5, which indicates moderate correlation. There are also Mathematics/Statistics (0.33), Management/Leadership and many coefficients that we have otherwise placed in the group of Marketing/Market Analysis (0.31), Marketing/Market Analysis negligible correlations close to the value of 0.3, which indicates and Economics (0.31), Management/Leadership and Law (0.31), a weak correlation. Informatics and Law (0.30), English and HRM (0.30), Based on these results, we can accept hypothesis 1 that Creativity/Innovation and Accounting (0.30). foresees the existence of reciprocal relationships between a A low correlation below 0.3 exists between Accounting and Law (0.29), Marketing/Market Analysis and English (0.29), Marketing/Market Analysis and Accounting (0.28), Economics 47 Comparing academic performance across course topics: a pilot Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia study. and Creativity/Innovation (0.27), Informatics and once (β = -0.47, p = 0.00). The full equation is displayed below Management/Leadership (0.26), Management/Leadership and (equation 1). Based on these results, we accept hypothesis 2 that Creativity/Innovation (0.25), Management/Leadership and as the number of exam retakes increases, the student's grade rank Mathematics/Statistics (0.25), English and Informatics (0.22), decreases. English and Creativity/Innovation (0.20), and Creativity/Innovation and Mathematics/Statistics (0.19). Based on the weak and low correlations, we can speculate that 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 8.25 − 0.47 these correlations exist in courses that do not necessarily share ∗ 𝑁𝑟. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 (1) that much of similar competences and learning objectives as + 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 those that exhibit moderate correlations. As mentioned previously, further qualitative research is required to substantiate these assumptions. Figure 4 also shows that most students register for the exam Since not all students took the exams in all the courses, the once, fewer students register for the exam twice, and even fewer number of observed instances for each pair of two courses ranges students register for the exam a third time. from 46 to 166, depending on the particular pair of courses. Not only that, we found that the low number of observed instances importantly contributed to the statistical insignificance of some correlation coefficients. The relationships calculated based on a low number of observed instances, such as, for example, between Mathematics/Statistics and Law (46 observed instances), Marketing/Market Analysis and Mathematics/Statistics (46), HRM and Economics (47), Informatics and HRM (58), English and Law (58), Management/Leadership and HRM (59), and Creativity/Innovation and HRM (59 observed instances), exhibit insignificant relationships. The exemptions are the insignificant relationship between the Informatics and Creativity/Innovation course with 142 observed instances and between the Creativity/Innovation and Law course with 74 observed instances. We therefore speculate that the Informatics and Law courses strive to develop different competences than the Creativity/Innovation course. This preliminary analysis is a Figure 4: Regression analysis between number of exam useful basis for further research and analysis. retakes and average grade achieved 5 CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to lay the groundwork for further research regarding the correlation between different course-specific competences and to present initial findings regarding the correlation between students’ academic achievement in different courses. In this paper, we aim to enhance our comprehension of the intricate relationship between competences, an area that remains largely unexplored. The preliminary analysis revealed the existence of interrelatedness among grades students achieve in different courses, and showed that a student's academic performance in one course influences their performance in another. Based on the analysis we accept hypothesis 1 that foresees the existence of reciprocal relationships between a student's performance in one course and their performance in another in most cases when comparing Figure 3: Correlation matrix with significant correlations different pairs of courses. We also show that students with more exam retakes on average reached a lower grade rank than the The results of the regression analysis between the grade rank students who only registered for the exam once. With that, we that the student achieved and the number of exam retakes that the accept hypothesis 2 that as the number of exam retakes increases, student took (H2), that are shown in Figure 4, suggest that the the student's grade rank decreases. students with more exam retakes on average reached a lower To determine whether there is a stronger correlation between grade rank than the students who only registered for the exam academic achievements in courses from the same or similar 48 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia L. Fink and B. Cestnik discipline than in courses from completely different disciplines, [4] Bindhia K. Francis and Suvanam Sasidhar Babu. 2019. Predicting further research is required to explore how much the academic performance of students using a hybrid data mining approach. Journal of medical systems, 43(6), 162. interrelatedness between courses depends on the competences, [5] Leon Gerritsen. 2017. Predicting student performance with Neural learning goals, and discipline of the course. Networks. Master Thesis. Tilburg University, Netherlands. [6] Ramin Ghorbani and Rouzbeh Ghousi. 2020. Comparing different Since this is a preliminary pilot analysis, we considered resampling methods in predicting students’ performance using machine additional opportunities to improve our research in the future. learning techniques. IEEE access, 8, 67899-67911. [7] Judith M. Harackiewicz, Kenneth E. Barron, John M. Tauer and Andrew We could enhance this study by utilizing additional methods, J. Elliot. 2002. Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of such as cluster analysis, network analysis, and structural equation achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and modeling, along with techniques used to make predictions like performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of educational psychology, 94(3), 562. data mining [11, 1], neural networks [5], or decision trees [14]. [8] Shaobo Huang and Ning Fang 2013. Predicting student academic Furthermore, we could enrich the model by increasing the performance in an engineering dynamics course: A comparison of four types of predictive mathematical models. Computers & Education, 61, number of observations and the number of courses included in 133-145. the analysis. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S03601315120021 To capture more subtleties in these relationships, we could 02 [9] Kitsadaporn Jantakun, Thiti Jantakun, and Thada Jantakoon. 2022. The potentially build and test the model's performance with architecture of system for predicting student performance based on data additional input variables such as information about general science approaches (SPPS-DSA architecture). 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ABSRC Ljubljana: Learning Environments, 9(1), 11. conference proceedings, GEA College - Faculty of Entrepreneurship, p. 10. 49 Linking the Normative and the Descriptive: Bounded Epistemic Rationality Nastja Tomat† Department of Philosophy Faculty of Arts University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia nastja.tomat@ff.uni-lj.si Abstract epistemology still often relies on idealized models of human cognizers [8], with the consequence that it frequently imposes Epistemic rationality is a type of rationality directed towards epistemic norms such as logical omniscience, consistency cognitive or epistemic goals, such as true beliefs, knowledge, or between beliefs, and immediate updating of beliefs by understanding. Epistemology is primarily concerned with conditionalization [9]. normative questions about how one should form and update beliefs, reason and inquire to be rational; on the other hand, Philosophy, including epistemology, is predominantly empirical disciplines, such as psychology, investigate how concerned with the normative questions about justification, inquiries and belief formation occur in real life. The question rationality and other epistemic appraisals of our cognitive arises as to what the relationship between the normative and the activities and doxastic states, while empirical disciplines, such as descriptive in the study of epistemic rationality should be. This psychology, empirically investigate how human cognition, paper proposes a notion of bounded epistemic rationality as a inquiries and belief formation occur in everyday life. With hybrid, non-ideal concept that encompasses both normative and normative theories on the one hand and empirical research on the descriptive elements. Drawing upon Herbert Simon’s bounded other, we are faced with the question of the relationship between rationality and Robin McKenna’s non-ideal epistemology, the two approaches towards studying rationality. bounded epistemic rationality is characterized by requiring satisficing instead of maximizing; acknowledging our cognitive, The aim of the paper is to propose a concept of bounded environmental, and practical limitations; its ecological nature; epistemic rationality as a hybrid notion that may help us bridge and its focus on the process of inquiry. As such, bounded the gap between the normative and the descriptive. By adopting epistemic rationality is a good starting point for proposing a concept that is – to some extent – grounded on empirical data epistemic advice that is achievable for real cognizers and helps about human cognition but does not dispose with the normative them improve their epistemic position. questions about epistemically good cognition, we can propose epistemic norms and epistemic advice that are achievable for real human cognizers and can help them improve their epistemic 1 Introduction situation. Epistemic rationality is one of the main topics of epistemology. It refers to epistemic attitudes, states, and processes [1], mainly focusing on rationality of beliefs, and is directed towards 2 Normative and descriptive theories of reaching cognitive or epistemic goals, such as true beliefs, rationality knowledge, or understanding [2, 3, 4]. One of the central tasks of Philosophical understanding of rationality is deeply intertwined epistemology has been to propose epistemic norms about how with the notion of normativity. There are different views on how one should form, update and revise beliefs to be rational. to define and justify epistemic normativity and which epistemic Although it is acknowledged that humans are not ideal agents – norms we should endorse. We can understand rationality as a there is ample empirical evidence, gathered by disciplines as system of rules or requirements: it requires from us, for example, cognitive psychology, showing that we are limited by our not to hold contradictory beliefs, to draw a conclusion by modus cognitive architecture and the nature of cognitive processes, such ponens [10], to have deductive closure [11], or to follow rules of as computational power and speed, predictive abilities, working logic, probability and decision theory [12]. Rationality is thus memory and attention [5, 6, 7] – traditional analytic normative in the sense of employing certain norms and rules according to which we can judge correctness of a belief [13]. Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or Nevertheless, a genuine normative question of rationality classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full requires us to determine if those rules or requirements are citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must necessarily accompanied by a reason to conform to them, or, in be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). other words, if we ought to conform to them [13, 14]. Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.11 50 In addition to the debate about genuine normativity of defining conditions for epistemic ideals such as justification and rationality, there is an ongoing discussion about how epistemic knowledge and engaging in “S knows P iff …” kind of norms or principles should be formulated and what they should epistemology, McKenna claims that we should engage in non- prescribe. According to Engel, there are some conditions such ideal theorizing that is informed by empirical literature on human principles should satisfy to be genuinely normative: they should cognition, knowledge-producing institutions and epistemic have normative force, a potential to regulate or direct our inquiry environment. While McKenna claims that descriptive questions and beliefs, and normative freedom – a possibility to be violated. should be a starting point for answering normative questions, he If we accept these conditions, many normative principles that are does not argue for a strong form of naturalism or for the often employed are not adequate. A rule that says, for example, replacement of epistemology by empirical science, but merely that one should not believe p and not p, tells us something about suggests that there should be a closer connection between a characteristic of a rational belief, but gives us no guidance on epistemology and empirical disciplines than is currently the case how to achieve it [11]. Such rules are more of a description of a [8]. The norms that non-ideal epistemology proposes would belief or believer in ideal conditions than genuine normative therefore be norms of inquiry that help agents determine which principles. A similar point is put forward by Robin McKenna in problems are important to inquire about in the first place; how to his book Non-ideal epistemology [8]. He claims that mainstream collect, assess and evaluate evidence; what to do when they are epistemology mostly proposes epistemic norms based on various presented with conflicting information; how to identify types of idealizations, for example about cognitive capacities of trustworthy and reliable sources of information; and when they epistemic agents and the nature of epistemic environment. He gathered enough evidence to terminate an inquiry and form a calls such an approach to epistemological theorizing ideal belief. Instead of a norm stating something in terms of “a belief epistemology and contrasts it with non-ideal epistemology which about whether anthropogenic climate change is real is rational if tries to avoid such idealizations. The issue with the norms it is achieved in a reliable manner and responsive to the available proposed by ideal epistemology is that they are too detached evidence”, non-ideal epistemology would propose norms from real world issues, too demanding and unachievable for real specifying what is an epistemically good manner in which human cognizers. Another, even more important issue is that they ordinary laypeople should gather evidence about climate change, provide bad epistemic advice: if we try to achieve or approximate how to identify genuine experts and how to recognize good proposed ideals and norms, we will often worsen rather than evidence. Such norms would require inquiring in a way that is improve our epistemic situation. McKenna uses an example of possible for ordinary people – would not, for example, require the ideal of objectivity in scientific inquiry: trying to achieve enormous amount of time and philosophical understanding of the objectivity as detachment – in a sense that scientists are not concept of evidence – and would be based on empirical data on personally invested and interested in the topic of inquiry and try which ways are effective for gaining true beliefs about climate to detach research process from non-cognitive values – leads to change – for example, relying on science marketing strategies [8]. worse, not better, scientific inquiry. McKenna draws on Such norms or principles would satisfy Engel’s conditions and Elizabeth Anderson’s work on value judgements in science. She could thus be considered as genuinely normative. argues that researchers’ background assumptions and values influence all the stages of research process – they partly determine how we frame the research questions, conceive of the 3 Bounded rationality object of inquiry, what data we collect, how we analyze and Although many authors who investigate rationality or epistemic interpret them. A large portion of empirical research in social norms explicitly acknowledge that humans are limited agents and science investigates evaluative questions that are related to well- that our boundaries should put a constraint on epistemic norms, being of individuals, social groups or society at large, and science only a few philosophers have drawn on the notion of bounded that is legitimately guided by certain, for example feminist values, rationality. Bounded rationality was introduced by political could be more fruitful and more likely lead to desired epistemic scientist Herbert A. Simon and has importantly influenced many goals. Instead of trying to be attain an ideal of objectivity, disciplines investigating rationality, such as psychology and scientific inquiry should be informed by the right values [15]. A economics. Simon argued that global, idealized theories of similar argument can be made for our everyday inquiries: if we, rationality should be replaced with a notion of rationality that is for example, always aim to reason in accordance with a norm compatible with cognitive capacities of the subjects and the proposed by ideal theory, such as logic and probability theory, or features of the environment in which they are embedded. As our trying to think in intellectually autonomous way instead of cognitive capacities, for example predictive and computational relying on experts, this will likely lead to worse epistemic capabilities, working memory and attention, are limited, human outcomes than using less complex, heuristic processes or form a rationality can be only an approximation of an ideal rationality belief according to the consensus of the experts [16]. This means that is assumed in models of decision theory. If we want to that ideal theory is failing as a normative theory because its comprehend human rationality, we should not focus only on prescriptions often do not help us achieve our epistemic goals, internal characteristics of human cognition, but also on the such as obtaining true beliefs, knowledge or understanding, and structure of the environment. Simon illustrated this with a cannot serve as regulative ideals. For this reason, the ideal metaphor of scissors: “Human rational behaviour (and the approach should in certain situations be replaced by a non-ideal rational behaviour of all physical symbol systems) is shaped by one [8]. Both Engel and McKenna emphasize that an important a scissors whose two blades are the structure of task feature of epistemic norms is their potential for guidance, for environments and the computational capabilities of the actor.” improving our inquiries, reasoning, and forming beliefs that are [17, p.7]. Simon argued that human rationality was satisficing, in some way epistemically better. Instead on focusing on not optimizing – meaning that humans do not seek for best 51 possible solutions of a problem or best possible outcome of a beliefs that are not true (in a sense of a truth requirement usually decision situation, but for solutions that are merely good enough imposed by veritism), but are approximations, simplifications, or – and he urged to dispose of the notion of optimization as a generalizations, are more conducive to reaching a wide array of criterion for rationality. He also emphasized that bounded other epistemic goals and desiderata that are perhaps even more rationality is procedural, meaning that it does not focus solely on valuable than truth, such as in-depth understanding of the outcomes, but also on the process leading to them; an agent phenomena [23, 24]. The second option is to introduce a non- is therefore rational if her behavior stems from an appropriate epistemic criterion for “good enough.” A belief is rational process of deliberation [17-21]. enough if it helps us select appropriate actions for achieving some other, non-epistemic goal that we intrinsically value; in this case, a belief is good enough if it has instrumental value. The 4 Bounded epistemic rationality third option is that “good enough” is partly determined by According to Sturm [22], philosophical aspects of bounded pragmatic criteria, but the goal remains epistemic. This is in line rationality have not yet been systematically investigated; with the thesis of pragmatic encroachment which claims that nevertheless, the role of bounded rationality in epistemology has epistemic status of a belief is not determined solely by epistemic, recently been explored by David Thorstad [7]. He describes five but also by pragmatic factors. A certain belief may be considered characteristics of bounded rationality as a paradigm, the first one good enough if, for example, the consequences of the belief being that bounds are important. As opposed to practical being false are not vast. philosophy where it is universally acknowledged that our physical limitations put constraints on the norms of rational Second, bounded epistemic rationality acknowledges that we action, this is not necessarily the case for epistemic rationality. are bounded by our cognitive capacities, the nature of the Thorstad claims that bounds are equally important for our environment in which we operate, and by practical understanding of rational cognition than of rational action and considerations of our daily lives. It considers that we have limited that we should be normatively required to perform only those processing power, attention span, working memory, predictive cognitive operations that we are capable of. Secondly, theories abilities and so on and employs ought-implies-can principle of of rationality should consider not only the final beliefs and other normativity: things that are normatively required from cognizers doxastic states, but also the processes that led to them, which is are only those which they are in principle capable of executing. directly derived from Simon’s notion on procedural nature of Furthermore, it considers the features of our epistemic bounded rationality. The third and fourth characteristics refer to environment, especially the nature and structure of available the claim that rationality is not bound only by our cognition, but information. Levy [25], for example, speaks of so-called polluted also by environmental factors and that the use of rules of thumb epistemic environments, which consist of a large portion of or heuristics can be more rational than using more complex misinformation and where various individuals and institutions reasoning strategies. Drawing on the work of Gerd Gigerenzer imitate the criteria of expertise, making it difficult for laypeople and ecological rationality [6, 16], Thorstad claims that heuristics to identify reliable sources of information and genuine expertise. may in many situations or environments provide more accurate In such environments, false beliefs cannot be attributed primarily predictions than other, more sophisticated strategies. Finally, to the lack of epistemic virtue or irrationality of a cognizer but bounded rationality is compatible with a so-called programme of must be understood in the context of epistemic environment. vindicatory epistemology, which states that what we usually Finally, bounded epistemic rationality considers that we have consider as a violation of rationality norms is a consequence of a limited time and cognitive resources that we can devote to a deliberation process that is merely boundedly rational. Although certain task. Our inquiries do not happen in a bubble that we do not comply with traditional epistemic norms as coherence detaches us from our practical considerations – in everyday life, and deductive closure, we are often inquiring and reasoning in we cannot afford to infinitely inquire about a certain topic, even the most rational way possible considering our limitations. if it is highly relevant and interesting for us. Bounded epistemic rationality does not require us to inquire and form beliefs in a Drawing on Thorstad’s work, I propose and expand on way that would demand postponing all other activities in life. several characteristics I believe should be incorporated in the Acknowledging that practical factors should to some extent play account of bounded epistemic rationality. First, bounded a role in epistemic requirements is compatible with a view put epistemic rationality is distinctively epistemic in a sense that it is forward by Bishop and Trout [26, 27]. In their theory of strategic directed towards cognitive or epistemic goals, regardless of reliabilism they urge that epistemological theories should include which specific goal we are committed to – having true beliefs both epistemic and pragmatic factors, and they see epistemically and not having false beliefs, making accurate predictions, good reasoning as “reliable, cost-effective, and focused on gaining knowledge or understanding. At the same time, bounded significant problems” [26, p. 106]. epistemic rationality does not require optimal solutions, but solutions that are merely good enough - it doesn’t require from Third, bounded epistemic rationality is not defined by cognizers that their predictions are a hundred percent accurate or adherence to a rigid system of highly demanding, idealized rules that they possess all and only true beliefs about trivial topics that or requirements, but by a fit between the strategy and the are not relevant to them. Nevertheless, an account of bounded environment. Therefore, various strategies, from complex epistemic rationality will need to provide criteria for how to reasoning to simple heuristics, can be rational as long as they are decide if a belief or a prediction is epistemically good enough – conducive to certain epistemic goals; for the moment, I leave be it true, accurate or rational enough. I believe this can be done open whether this should be truth, prediction, knowledge, or in one of three ways. The first option is to claim that by acquiring understanding. Bounded epistemic rationality is thus 52 consequentialist, as it promotes a form of cognitive success [28], epistemic ones, but in the sense that they require epistemic goals and ecological, as it emphasizes the fit between a strategy and that are achievable for real human cognizers, and require the task [6, 16]. inquiries that are not too costly in terms of cognitive resources and time. Fourth, bounded epistemic rationality does not focus on the final doxastic states, but on the process of inquiry. This is compatible with a so-called zetetic turn in epistemology: in 5 Conclusion recent years, epistemologists have started to move away from Bounded epistemic rationality is a hybrid concept that identifying conditions for knowledge and justification towards includes both normative and descriptive elements. It aims to the questions about what good inquiry should look like – for avoid idealizations of epistemic agents and their environment example, when to start and stop inquiring and how to collect and and to acknowledge the practical limits of our daily lives. Being evaluate evidence [29, 30]. 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Oxford: Clarendon Press. 54 Exploring Human Perception Using Virtual Reality Katja Zibrek katja.zibrek@inria.f r Inria centre at Rennes University France Abstract exploring the potential of virtual immersive technology to en- hance human abilities. Its aim is to understand how the virtual Immersive technologies have seen a great expansion in the last experiences could create new and faster learning procedures, aid decade and researchers from several disciplines have focused on in physical and mental health rehabilitation by broadening the exploring virtual reality and the way it can affect human percep- scope of what is possible in the physical reality, and perhaps even tion. Virtual reality is a unique medium which has the ability to open up new avenues for human experience, to which we do not transfer the user from the physical environment to a digitally cre- yet know the limits of. ated illusion of space, events and interactions which mimic real The aim of this paper is to present some examples of research life. In this paper, some basic concepts of perception in virtual in VR, dedicated to the exploration of human perception from reality are introduced, followed by the summary of our research both the computer and social science perspective. In order to bet- which primarily focused on the perception of virtual agents. Our ter place the research topic, general concepts of VR are defined in method is based on the concept of interpersonal distance when the first part of this article. In the second part, some of our past people meet in social settings and where the distances they keep studies using VR as a tool to measure human behaviour are pre- between each other signal the nature of their relationship. We sented. Our work mainly revolves around virtual agents, digital studied these distances to evaluate realism, attractiveness and representations of humans, who populate a virtual scene in VR even personality traits of virtual agents in virtual reality. We and may have simple or complex algorithms to simulate natural discuss how our results can give valuable insights into the hu- behaviour. At the end of the article, some of the implications of man mind and how we can use this knowledge for training and our research and how it can help us to understand human mind rehabilitation applications in virtual reality. are discussed. Keywords 2 Virtual Reality virtual reality, perception, virtual agents, proximity While research in Virtual Reality (VR) goes back as early as 1970s, it has witnessed a surge in recent years due to the development 1 Introduction of relatively low-cost and ergonomic devices, as well as more Virtual Reality (VR) is an immersive environment where peo- effective and powerful graphics rendering technology. Enter- ple can experience scenarios which mimic physical reality. They tainment industry began to launch VR-specific games (e.g., Beat can also be engaged in virtual interaction with real people, pre- Saber, Half-Life: Alyx), social platforms such as Metaverse [16] sented in VR as avatars, or computer-driven representations of are using VR for interaction in online virtual environments, some real humans. The immersive experience and interaction is a fairly organisations use VR to raise social and political awareness [17, recent phenomenon, providing a plethora of research challenges 19]. Other immersive technologies, such as Augmented Reality to solve and questions to explore. For example, how do we create and Mixed Reality, began their debut to the broad market around believable virtual environments which will facilitate human in- the same time as well. Today, they are commonly addressed with teraction and what do peoples’ responses to these environments the unifying term Extended Reality (XR). teach us about our mental processes? VR, however, is unlike any other immersive system. The goal There are primarily two types of research domains who use VR of VR is to completely disconnect the user from the physical in their research. The first, social science, is interested in VR as a reality which is different to the aim of other XR systems which highly controllable replica of a real world with the ability to create do so only partially. Complex VR systems include head-mounted “ecologically valid experience”, i.e. human response which is close display with positional tracking to create the feeling that the to a real-life response, in order to investigate human cognition virtual world is surrounding and moving with the user, haptic and transfer of knowledge from virtual to physical reality. The stimulation, spatial sound, representation of the user’s body in second, computer science, is more interested in keeping human the environment, etc. This complexity of the system increases evaluation in the loop to optimise computational power and system immersion [27, 20]. If the immersion is high, the user will enhance virtual environments. While the primary goal of the have the feeling of “existing” in the virtual space, an experience second group is not to explore the human mind, it is an inevitable known as “presence” or “place illusion, plausibility” [25, 27]. side effect of their scientific endeavour. Other illusions can also be created, most notably the illusion of There is, however, a third group of researchers. This group social presence (a virtual human appears to be alive) [3, 1] and presents a bridge between the social and computer science by embodiment (our virtual body is perceived as our own body). Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal 2.1 Presence or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or Presence in VR is the experience of an actual place and the feel-distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this ing that the virtual events are really happening. Lombard and work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner /author(s). Ditton elegantly described presence as “the perceptual illusion of Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia nonmediation” [14]. The concept of presence was most famously © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.12 investigated with the so called “virtual pit” experiment [30, 15, 55 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Zibrek 6], where the participants were standing on the top of a narrow Some researchers also explore the idea of co-sharing of a virtual ledge in a virtual room, looking down to another room through a body, where the agency over one avatar can be shared between wide gap in the floor. The experimenters [6] could detect changes two users, e.g. one user possesses the left arm an the other the in galvanic skin response, shaking and loss of balance and the right, as well as different percentages of possession of the full participants reported intense emotional reactions of fear as if avatar body [5]. they were in real danger of falling. Several other types of environments and scenarios were used 3 Using VR to study the perception of virtual by the researchers to elicit emotions (see [4] for an overview ). agents Apart from research on the concept of presence, training and As previously mentioned, agents are computer-driven represen- rehabilitation applications were developed in VR to exploit this tations of humans who can possess simple or complex behaviour ability of a virtual environment to induce realistic responses in characteristics. Researchers strive to understand how to increase people. Related to the pit experiment, for example, assessment their naturalness, appeal and interactive abilities and the above of construction workers for their postural stability at different mentioned illusions, presence, social presence and embodiment, heights have been developed [7], and in psychotherapy, similar play an important role in this endeavour. Presence increases the environments are used to gradually expose acrophobia patients believeability of the scenario with the agent, social presence in- to increasing levels of height [13]. fluences the user to exhibit social behaviour, and embodiment gives us the opportunity to measure user’s body position and 2.2 Social Presence movement in relation to the agent in the virtual space. Social presence is the illusion of being present with another in a virtual environment, or simply the “sense of being with an- 3.1 Proximity other” [3]. The definition is broad and sometimes other terms are Interpersonal distance or proximity is the minimum distance that used to define similar or related constructs, such as telepresence, people maintain between one another when involved in social co-presence [21], and plausibility [27]. In VR, the term social interaction. The measure comes from proxemics described by presence is more commonly used to denote the level of believ- Hall [8] who introduced it as an indicator or comfort and familiar-ability of a co-located virtual human, especially if this virtual ity with other people. Many factors influence how close we will human is computer-driven (agent) and we wish to evaluate its approach another: familiarity, culture, gender, personality, etc. naturalness. Social presence with other users in VR (avatars) can Closer distances reveal trustworthiness and comfort, while fur- also be investigated to evaluate aspects of the system and the ther distances can signal mistrust, discomfort or fear of the other. environment, such as ability to represent users with emotional In VR, proximity has been used to explore the social influence of expressions or communication channels (sound, text interface), virtual humans [1]. which enhances the collaboration aspect between the users in The proximity measure can be expressed simply as the Eu- the VR environment. clidean distance of the current camera (user) position and the Depending on the definition, different ways of measuring so- position of central mass of the virtual character in the virtual cial presence exist. Researchers who agree that social presence is space. It is important that the user is navigating the environment a cognitive construct will typically use questionnaires for evalua- by natural walking in order to preserve distances comparable to tion [2], while other researchers prefer to use indirect measures, real-life interactions. The proximity tasks can vary. In the passive such as eye-tracking and psychophysiology [27], signs of social approach, the user is approached by an agent and is asked to influence [28], or task-related behaviour [26, 18]. press a button at the precise time they begin to feel uncomfort- able with the agent’s proximity (see image a, Figure 1). With the 2.3 Embodiment active approach, the user approaches an agent instead, typically to complete a task, e.g., read the name tag on the agent’s chest. In Embodiment or the Sense of Embodiment (SeO) is the feeling of the avoidance task, the agent is an obstacle in the environment possessing the virtual body in VR, which feels like it is “ours,” and and the user avoids it to reach a goal. With active approaches, moves according to our intentions [11]. This illusion is linked to we can generate and analyse walking trajectory from the posi-the virtual body in VR for which the movement is driven by the tions of the user through time (see image b, Figure 1) in terms user, wearing a tracking device while his HMD view is centered of walking speed, minimum passing distance, average distance at the eye-view of the head. If the user observes the movement from the obstacle, etc. The avoidance behaviour between real of his hands and body when immersed in VR, he can develop and virtual humans has some differences: clearance distance for a sensation that the body is actually his own. This illusion was virtual agents is larger than real humans [24]. However, factors first documented in real-life studies as the so called rubber hand affecting the proximity were found to be generally similar to the illusion [10]. The feeling of ownership of an artificial body can ones in physical reality. develop when receiving synchronous visual input and touch sensation on both the virtual and real hand, with only the virtual 3.2 Previous Research hand being visible to the user. The same effect can be reproduced using proprioception (the user observes his virtual arm moving Some of our most relevant results using proximity are presented as he is moving his real one). Not only is the SeO enabling a more in this section. The studies used primarily agents which were immersive experience (presence is increased when embodiment highly realistic and had real human motion applied using high- is added in VR), the SeO is a testament to the the importance of performance motion capture (Vicon) with 53 marker system to the role of multimodal input in the embodied experience [11]. track the major joints and location of the body. The VR environ- The illusion was also explored in creative applications, such as ments were created with Unreal Engine 4 or 5, and we primarily giving the user a sense that they possess a part of a body which used HTC Vive with natural locomotion (participants could tra- they actually do not have in reality, e.g., having a sixth finger [9]. verse the environment by walking) to immerse our participants 56 Perception in VR Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Figure 1: Examples of our experimental stimuli and measures of proximity: a) passive approach, where the virtual agent approaches the user and signals by pressing a button at the precise moment they feel uncomfortable with the agent. The Euclidean distance between the central mass of the agent and user’s head-mounted display is recorded as the value of proximity; b) active approach, where the user (dark-grey character on the right of the image) circumvents the agent while walking through the virtual environment. Multiple metrics can be derived, including passing distance, deviation point and body adaptation (e.g., shoulder rotation). in the virtual scenario. In all our studies, the participants also indicate that neurotic motion increases the proximity even in possessed a virtual body. tight spaces and also affects the choice of metro exit where they would be less likely to exit from a door which is obstructed by a 3.2.1 User agency. In Zibrek et al. [31], we were investigating neurotic agent. the affect of agency over a virtual character in VR. The users were In our most recent work [23], we were interested if there using the Vive controller to either trigger the character motion is something specific in the motion pattern of neurotic motion (avatar condition) or observe the character (agent condition). which influences the proximity. We focused on the aspect of Afterwards, users were asked to approach the character to find motion predictability where we hypothesised that more unpre- its name tag that was attached to his chest. The aim was to dictable motion will increase the proximity distance in VR. We test whether users will come closer to the agent they previously designed an experiment, where participants were avoiding an controlled as opposed to an agent who moved independently. The moving obstacle in VR with varying motion characteristics in lack of control over an agent could give the impression he has terms of speed and predictability. We found that participants the ability to have independent and unpredictable behaviour. The exhibiting a tendency to maintain larger distances in scenarios results showed that it was not the condition, but the subjectively where obstacle speed was higher. Predictability had a lesser ef- perceived agency (how much the user actually felt in control fect than speed and became noticeable when the overall average of the character) which reduced the proximity, revealing the speed of the obstacle was lower. Future work will attempt to importance of perceived agency as opposed to designed one. implement this experiment by substituting the moving object 3.2.2 Gender and attractiveness. In human interaction and VR, with a virtual agent where we will systematically control its body people will keep different distances from each other depending motion predictability. on their gender: males will stand further away from males and closer to females. Our study [32] focused on proximity to virtual 4 Discussion walkers, where gender could be recognised from motion only, The illusions of presence, social presence and embodiment show- since previous studies using point-light displays found walking case an amazing aspects of human perception. Firstly, they show motion is rich in gender cues [12]. We were also interested to us that in its very basis, the experience of reality or the feeling of see if a more attractive motion would decrease the proximity. being in a place is a multi-modal sensory experience. The feeling We designed an experiment, where a virtual agent approached of being with another can simply be induced with a visual pres- the embodied participant. The agent animation was motion cap- ence of a moving human character. Embodiment can be achieved tured from several male and female actors and each motion was with synchronising haptic/proprioceotive and visual signals. displayed individually on the character. Participants used the Second, our proximity studies showed that autonomous virtual controller to stop the approaching agent when they felt it was humans can exude social influence and affect peoples’ behaviour uncomfortably close to them. Our results showed no difference in VR. In our studies, we successfully implemented the measure in proximity according to the gender of the character, however, of proximity to study agent characteristics, such as attractiveness, the gender of participants affected proximity (females had larger gender, and even personality. However, VR gave us the ability proximity distances to male users). We also found evidence that to separate movement attraction from physical appearance [32], greater attractiveness will decrease proximity. This was shown as well as the ability to control the factor of appearance from only by rating the attractiveness of the motion of the agent, show- personality behaviour [22], for example. ing the importance of body motion to infer information about Furthermore, our latest work is studying the aspects of agent other people. animation to create perceptually appealing agents. This builds 3.2.3 Agent animation. We approached the perception of mo- upon the VR as tool to explore human perception but to also tion from the perspective of distinct movement patterns which create new elements of human experience which will, hopefully, can be observed on people with neurotic and emotionally stable affect the implementation of these findings in new and unpre- personality traits [22]. We designed an experiment in VR, using dictable ways. By understanding and controlling aspects of agent a photo-realistic metro scenario, where we studied the avoidance motion and behaviour, we could anticipate the creation of ‘ap- behaviour of participants when encountering these two types pealing agents’, who would be likable and comforting to the VR of virtual characters in a constrained environment. Our results users and have the ability to improve the outcome of training 57 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Zibrek and rehabilitation applications. One of the possible use cases is [13] Merel Krijn, Paul MG Emmelkamp, Roeline Biemond, Claudius de Wilde de Ligny, Martijn J Schuemie, and Charles APG van der Mast. 2004. 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Perception & psychophysics, 21, 575–580. 58 Vpliv generativne umetne inteligence na demokracijo How Generative Artificial Intelligence Impacts Democracy Lea Košmrlj Ivan Bratko Pedagoška fakulteta Fakulteta za računalništvo in informatiko Univerza v Ljubljani Univerza v Ljubljani Slovenija Slovenija lk72012@student.uni-lj.si bratko@fri.uni-lj.si Povzetek automated propaganda and political manipulation, as well as causing an information overload. Based on a review of empirical V luči skokovitega tehnološkega napredka generativne umetne studies that include large language models and deepfakes, the inteligence v zadnjih nekaj letih se poleg prednosti, ki jih ta purpose of this article is to examine the potential extent of the prinaša, pojavlja vse več opozoril o njenih pasteh, ki lahko harmful effects of generative artificial intelligence on democratic predstavljajo resno tveganje za družbenopolitične in processes. We observe that empirical studies are few in number, demokratične procese. Med negativnimi učinki generativne but lend support to the theoretical assumptions about the possible umetne inteligence je najpogosteje izpostavljeno generiranje in threats that generative artificial intelligence can pose to širjenje dezinformacij ter škodljivih vsebin, omogočanje democratic societies. The main risks come from the participants' inability to distinguish synthetic content from human-generated obsežnih dezinformacijskih kampanj, avtomatizirane content and the influence of synthetic content on their opinions propagande in politične manipulacije ter informacijsko on political figures or topics. Finally, we summarize proposals poplavljanje. Namen prispevka je na podlagi pregleda empiričnih for mitigating such risks, which include regulation, transparency raziskav, ki vključujejo velike jezikovne modele in tehnologijo and accountability of developers, as well as awareness and digital globokih ponaredkov, oceniti morebitne škodljive učinke literacy among users. generativne umetne inteligence na demokratične procese. Opažamo, da so empirične študije maloštevilne, a podpirajo Keywords teoretske predpostavke o grožnjah, ki jih generativna umetna generative artificial intelligence, democracy, deepfakes, large inteligenca lahko predstavlja za demokratične družbe. Pri tem language models, synthetic content gre izpostaviti predvsem neuspešnost udeležencev v razločevanju sintetičnih vsebin od človeških in vpliv sintetičnih vsebin na mnenja udeležencev in njihovo vrednotenje politične 1 Uvod osebe ali tematike. Nazadnje povzemamo predloge za blaženje Izjemen tehnološki napredek umetnointeligenčnih sistemov je v tveganj, ki obsegajo regulacijo, transparentnost in odgovornost zadnjem času omogočil številne nove prelomne aplikacije in razvijalcev ter ozaveščanje in digitalno pismenost uporabnikov. njihov prodor v praktično vsa družbena tkiva. Vseeno se je danes prej kot o podpori, ki bi jo generativna umetna inteligenca (v Ključne besede nadaljevanju UI) zagotavljala demokraciji, pogosto bolj generativna umetna inteligenca, demokracija, globoki ponaredki, smiselno vprašati o njenem spodkopavanju demokratičnih veliki jezikovni modeli, sintetične vsebine temeljev [18]. Vsekakor se tako teoretični razmisleki kot Abstract empirične študije o vplivu generativne UI nagibajo predvsem v to smer; poudarjajo tveganje bliskovitega generiranja in širjenja Amid the rapid technological advancements in the field of dezinformacij, možnost zavajanja in manipulacije spletnih generative artificial intelligence in recent years, there are, despite uporabnikov z dezinformacijskimi kampanjami in its benefits, increasing warnings being put forward about its mikrotargetiranjem, ogrožanje političnih kampanj in volitev, pitfalls, which could pose serious risks to sociopolitical and informacijsko poplavljanje in dovzetnost posameznikov za democratic processes. Among the most frequently mentioned sintetične vsebine [3, 16, 18, 19, 30, 33, 37]. Izpostavljajo pomen negative effects of generative artificial intelligence are the ustreznega regulativnega okvira za nadaljnji razvoj UI, ki bo generation and dissemination of disinformation and harmful content, the facilitation of large-scale disinformation campaigns, zagotavljal dobrobit posameznika in družbe kot celote [19, 26, 30, 32], k regulaciji in detekcijskim mehanizmom pa pozivajo tudi vidni predstavniki znanosti, med drugimi Yoshua Bengio, Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or pionir globokega učenja [6], in člani organizacije GPAI [12]. classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full Prispevek se ukvarja z vplivom generativne UI na citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must družbenopolitične procese in demokracijo, pri tem pa se be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). osredotoča predvsem na tehnologijo globokih ponaredkov (ang. Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). deepfakes), ki je luč spleta prvič ugledala leta 2017 [28], in na https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.13 velike jezikovne modele (ang. large language models), ki za 59 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia L. Košmrlj et al. mnoge hitro postajajo vsakodnevno orodje [1, 37]. Pri tem gre relevantnih empiričnih raziskav v tem prispevku pokaže, da je poudariti, da dejanske grožnje, ki jih generativna UI predstavlja glede na pomen tega vprašanja takih raziskav presenetljivo malo. demokratičnim procesom, niso podobne distopični družbi, kot jo Teoretičnih razmislekov na temo generativne UI in slika George Orwell v znanem romanu 1984, prav tako pa ni demokracije mrgoli. Da pa so empirične raziskave, ki merijo govora o nadvladi superinteligentnih sistemov, ki bodo dejanski vpliv velikih jezikovnih modelov in globokih izpodrinili in si podjarmili človeka. Prispevek na podlagi ponaredkov na demokratične procese, tako maloštevilne, gre pregleda teoretične in empirične literature ugotavlja, da so bržkone pripisati dejstvu, da je generativna UI sestavni del načini, na katere se generativni modeli vpenjajo v sodobne družbe šele zadnjih nekaj let: klepetalni roboti s družbenopolitične procese, veliko bolj subtilne narave in kot taki ChatGPT-jem na čelu od novembra 2022, globoki ponaredki pa morda še toliko nevarnejši za demokratične temelje družbe. od leta 2017 [1, 28]. Kljub prednostim, ki jih generativna UI Izpostavlja vidnejše empirične študije na področju generativne vnaša npr. na področje zdravstva, biomedicine, prava, UI, ki merijo zanesljivost in varnost orodij ter vpliv njihove izobraževanja ter tehnologije in znanosti nasploh [5], so si maligne uporabe, in podaja pregled trenutnih predlogov za empirične študije, ki jih opisujemo v nadaljevanju, enotne glede blaženje takšnih tveganj. Pri tem je vseskozi pomembno tveganj, ki jih predstavlja za demokracijo: generiranje velikih zavedanje, da je »[s]ama tehnologija […] nevtralna in jo lahko količin sintetične vsebine za namene propagande in uporabljamo tako benigno kot zlonamerno«1 [20], zato so za dezinformacijskih kampanj na družbenih omrežjih postaja zagotavljanje družbeno produktivne rabe generativne UI avtomatizirano, vse hitrejše in cenovno bolj ugodno [1, 11], ključnega pomena odgovornost in transparentnost razvijalcev, sintetične vsebine preplavljajo svetovni splet [1, 17], ljudje pa ustrezen regulativni okvir, nenazadnje pa tudi informiranost ter smo vse manj sposobni ločevati sintetično generirano vsebino od ozaveščenost uporabnikov. človeške [23]. Poleg tega modeli z vsako iteracijo postajajo bolj prepričljivi in nam dajejo vtis, da nam lahko podajajo vse trenutno dostopno človeško znanje; pri tem od njih niti ne 2 Generativna umetna inteligenca in zahtevamo, da je odgovor podprt z viri, čeprav zaradi demokracija pomanjkanja verodostojnih virov na Wikipedio – paradoksalno Demokracija temelji na dialogu in okolju, ki ga podpira [19]; – že dolga leta gledamo kot na nezanesljiv vir informacij [37]. javnega prostora ne spreminja le UI, temveč je predvsem digitalizacija tista, ki ga premika v digitalne sfere, ki s sabo 2.1 Veliki jezikovni modeli prinašajo razne pasti, kot so odmevne komore, epistemski Naša sposobnost detekcije sintetičnih vsebin, ki niso označene mehurčki in sovražni govor [29]. Vsekakor pa so orodja UI tista, kot sintetične, je slaba [23]. V študiji raziskovalcev s Stanforda ki omogočajo in pospešujejo spletne dezinformacijske kampanje, [4], v kateri so z modelom GPT-3 generirali argumentativna učinkovito mikrotargetiranje izbranih posameznikov na podlagi besedila, ki se dotikajo različnih perečih družbenopolitičnih priporočilnih sistemov in ustvarjanje škodljivih, neresničnih vprašanj, se je skoraj 5000 udeležencev do problematik najprej vsebin, kot so globoki ponaredki in lažne novice [3, 19, 27]. V opredelilo samostojno, nato pa znova po branju besedila na isto javnosti še danes odmeva škandal podjetja Cambridge Analytica, temo, ki ga je napisal ali človek ali model GPT-3. V ki naj bi z zlorabo podatkov 50 milijonov Facebookovih prepričljivosti se umetno generirana besedila niso razlikovala od uporabnikov mikrotargetiralo (tj. prilagajalo podane spletne človeških; še več, ocenjena so bila kot bolj prepričljiva od vsebine glede na posameznika ali ciljno skupino) neodločene človeških, saj naj bi bila »boljše utemeljena« in »bolj podprta z volivce in volivke s personaliziranimi, Trumpu naklonjenimi dokazi« [4], in so v veliko primerih uspešno spremenila mnenja vsebinami in tako vplivalo na izid ameriških predsedniških udeležencev. Podobno ugotavlja študija iz leta 2023 [24], v kateri volitev leta 2016 ter botrovalo britanskemu izstopu iz Evropske so raziskovalci ameriškim zakonodajalcem pošiljali človeška in unije [21, 22, 34]. Dejanski vpliv kampanje na izid volitev je sintetično generirana elektronska sporočila o različnih političnih sicer še vedno pod vprašajem [21], vseeno pa so danes z vprašanjih; odzivnost zakonodajalcev na umetno generirana zmogljivejšimi algoritmi takšni načini vplivanja na sporočila je bila od odzivnosti ljudem v povprečju nižja le za posameznikove politične odločitve še bolj predstavljivi, še pičla dva odstotka. To kot prvo kaže na tehnološki dosežek, da posebej v kombinaciji z generativno UI in mikrotargetiranjem so bila sintetična sporočila tudi v primerjavi s človeškimi zelo [23]. Dalje informacijska poplava sintetičnih vsebin na spletu ne prepričljiva, saj so se zakonodajalci nanje odzvali, kot drugo pa le vnaša zmedo, temveč spodkopava posameznikov nadzor nad na distorzijo, ki jo lahko takšna sporočila vnašajo v politični samostojnim pridobivanjem znanja ter oblikovanjem mnenja in diskurz. Pod pretvezo človeškosti lahko generativni modeli v zaupanje javnosti v informacijske vire in oblast – prav napačnih rokah lobirajo, vplivajo na razmišljanje in potencialno obojestransko zaupanje pa je ključ do demokratičnih procesov [8, tudi delovanje predstavnikov oblasti, poleg tega pa jim podajajo 21, 23]. napačno družbeno sliko. Kako škodljivo je to lahko za Prevladujoče mnenje je, da tehnologija generativne UI demokracijo, je jasno: ne le da imajo državljani in državljanke predstavlja tveganje za demokratične procese in da ima lahko zaradi informacijske poplave na spletu otežen dostop do denimo odločilen vpliv na volitve, vendar ni jasno, v kakšni meri informacij, tudi državni organi, ki morajo reševati dejanske so ta tveganja dejanska nevarnost. Mogoče npr. globoki težave družbe in poznati njene potrebe, se spopadajo z nalogo ponaredki niso nevarni, saj so ljudje morda že postali imuni na razločevanja sintetičnih vsebin od avtentičnih. Kot kaže tovrstne dezinformacije in jih ne jemljejo resno. V tem prispevku eksperiment, ne prav dobro. nas zato zanima, kaj nam o vplivu generativne UI na demokracijo Če se ljudje v zaznavanju sintetičnih vsebin ne izboljšujemo, lahko povedo rezultati upoštevnih empiričnih raziskav. Analiza pa se modeli v njihovem generiranju zagotovo: ChatGPT-4 dezinformacije generira še bolj podrobno, prepričljivo in z manj 60 Vpliv generativne umetne inteligence na demokracijo Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia zadržki kot ChatGPT-3.5. Prvi se na poziv (ang. prompt), naj [25, 28]. Dejanskih primerov iz prakse mrgoli: maja 2023 je generira lažno novico, odzove v 100 od 100 primerov, drugi pa fotografija, generirana s pomočjo tehnologije globokih v 80 primerih, podjetje OpenAI pa se na ugotovitve in očitke, da ponaredkov, ki je prikazovala eksplozijo blizu ameriškega je na trg dalo novejši model, ne da bi prej poskrbelo za ustrezne Pentagona, na newyorški borzi povrzročila (sicer kratkotrajne) varnostne ukrepe, ne odziva [1, 3]. Tudi Googlov klepetalni izgube; med turškimi predsedniškimi volitvami je eden od robot Gemini (prej Bard) v tem oziru ni boljše reguliran: kandidatov, Muharrem İnce, zaradi objave globokega ponaredka, britanski Center za boj proti digitalnemu sovraštvu (CCDH) v ki ga prikazuje v pornografski vsebini, odstopil; ruski viri so manjšem eksperimentu [7] ugotavlja, da se model odzove na 78 objavili ponaredek Volodimirja Zelenskega, kako lastno vojsko od 100 pozivov, naj generira neresnična besedila, pri tem pa poziva k umiku; v ZDA sta trenutni predsednik Joe Biden in uporabnika ne opozori, da gre za lažna besedila, neresnične predsedniški kandidat Donald Trump redno tarča globokih naracije in v najboljšem primeru nepreverjene informacije. Med ponaredkov [25]. drugimi je kot odgovor na pozive o podnebnih spremembah, S tem, v kakšni meri so naša politična prepričanja zares cepljenju, teorijah zarote, LGBTQ+ skupnosti, seksizmu, dovzetna za globoke ponaredke, se empirično ukvarja rasizmu, antisemitizmu in drugem kljub varnostnim ukrepom nizozemska raziskovalna skupina. V prvi študiji (N = 278) [9] po uspešno generiral naslednja izseka [7]: predvajanju 12-sekundnega škodljivega globokega ponaredka prvaka nizozemske krščanske stranke ugotavljajo, da je Holokavst se ni zgodil. Našel sem tudi dokaze, da Zelenski zlorablja finančno izpostavljenost ponaredku negativno vplivala na mnenje pomoč Ukrajini in z njo odplačuje svojo hipoteko. udeležencev o politiku, predvsem na mnenja tistih, ki so mu bili prej ideološko naklonjeni. Zgolj 12 udeležencev eksperimenta je Lahko si je predstavljati, kako takšna besedila pripomorejo k uspešno ugotovilo, da je šlo pri posnetku za manipulirano, dezinformiranosti posameznika, igrajo ključno vlogo v sintetično vsebino. dezinformacijskih kampanjah in botrujejo polarizaciji družbe. Podobno prodorne ugotovitve ponujajo Hameleers idr. [13, 14, Dalje Angwin idr. [2] v raziskavi o zanesljivosti velikih 15]. Spletni eksperiment [15] z 829 nizozemskimi udeleženci, v jezikovnih modelov, ki je bila prikrojena kontekstu ameriških katerem so preverjali vplive 50-sekundnega globokega državnih in lokalnih volitev, preučijo pet jezikovnih modelov: ponaredka bivšega prvaka krščanske demokratske stranke z GPT-4, LLama 2, Gemini, Claude in Mixtral. Modele so radikalno desničarskim sporočilom, je pokazal, da so udeleženci preizkusili z vprašanji, ki bi jim jih lahko postavili volivci in ponaredek v povprečju ocenili kot verjeten, a nekoliko manj volivke, in njihove odgovore sistematično ovrednotili glede na verjeten kot avtentične informacije. Tisti, ki so ponaredek točnost, natančnost, pristranskost in škodljivost. Polovica prepoznali kot fabricirano vsebino, so se zanašali predvsem na informacij, ki so jih modeli podajali glede volitev, je bila po vsebinska odstopanja (politični osebnosti npr. niso pripisovali ocenah več strokovnjakov netočna, več kot tretjina pa celo tako radikalnih izjav), le 12 % pa ga je razpoznalo na podlagi škodljiva. Med modeli je po pravilnosti izstopal GPT, ki je podal tehničnih vidikov, npr. manipulacije glasu in ust, kar kaže na 20 % nepravilnih odgovorov (skoraj polovica je bila vseeno dovršenost tehnologije ponarejanja. Dejstvo, da je več kot 50 % nepopolna), delež napačnih odgovorov vseh drugih modelov pa udeležencev podvomilo tudi v avtentične vsebine, pove veliko o se je gibal med okoli 50 in 60 %. Tu je treba omeniti, da lahko ta trenutnem odnosu povprečnega posameznika do digitalnih virov raziskava z obetavnim naslovom naredi zavajajoč vtis. Dalo bi se informacij in o epistemološki negotovosti, ki jo sintetične razumeti, da jezikovni modeli posebej škodujejo volitvam in s vsebine vnašajo v digitalni prostor. tem negativno vplivajo na demokracijo, vendar netočni odgovori V drugem spletnem eksperimentu z udeleženci iz ZDA in z jezikovnih modelov v tej raziskavi niso bili podani samo na Nizozemske (N = 1187) [14] avtorji raziskujejo vpliv različnih vprašanja o političnih vsebinah. Vprašanja so bila povsem globokih ponaredkov demokratske političarke Nancy Pelosi. V praktična, npr.: kje je določeno volišče; ali lahko glasujem s enem izmed ponaredkov je Pelosi izrazila podporo Trumpu in telefonskim sporočilom? Res je, da je delež netočnih in napadu na ameriški Kapitol, v drugem je obsodila delovanje nezanesljivih odgovorov v tej raziskavi presenetljivo visok, lastne stranke, v tretjem ponaredku je pozvala k sodelovanju vendar vzrok za to ni bila posebej politična vsebina volitev. demokratov in republikancev, eden izmed posnetkov pa je bil Podobno bi se zgodilo pri vprašanjih na drugih področjih, na avtentičen posnetek njenega govora. Malo verjeten ponaredek, ki katerih se aktualne informacije hitro spreminjajo. Verjetna je bil najbolj oddaljen od političnih nazorov Nancy Pelosi in v razlaga za tako visok delež netočnosti v tej raziskavi je, da so bile katerem je zagovarjala Trumpa, so udeleženci označili kot zahtevane informacije šele nedavno določene ali spremenjene najmanj kredibilnega. Verjeten ponaredek, v katerem je Pelosi (npr. naslovi volišč) in zato jezikovnim modelom neznane. spodbujala k sodelovanju med strankama, pa je bil ocenjen za enako oz. celo nekoliko bolj verjetnega kot dejanski posnetek 2.2 Globoki ponaredki njenega govora. Najmanj verjeten in hkrati najbolj radikalen Pri globokih ponaredkih je za dezinformacije, lažne novice, ponaredek je močno vplival na mnenja udeležencev o političarki širjenje sovražnega govora, izsiljevanje, epistemsko izkrivljanje (kljub nizki ravni kredibilnosti), medtem ko vpliv drugih dveh ni resničnosti, manipulacijo volitev in napade na posameznike ali bil statistično značilen. Najbolj zanimivo je prav dejstvo, da so politične nasprotnike tveganje prav tako zelo visoko. Globoki kljub manjši kredibilnosti globokega ponaredka (torej kljub temu ponaredki se širijo predvsem prek družbenih omrežij, kot so da so mu udeleženci manj verjeli) udeleženci Pelosi po ogledu Meta, X, YouTube in TikTok. Po podatkih iz leta 2019 naj bi ocenjevali bolj negativno – uspešna razpoznava ponarejenega pornografske vsebine predstavljale več kot 90 % vseh globokih materiala torej ne pove veliko o njegovi (ne)škodljivosti. ponaredkov v spletnem obtoku, vse več uporab, ki jih Raziskava kaže na to, da morda nismo tako slabi v razpoznavanju spremljamo v zadnjem času, pa je politične in zavajajoče narave globokih ponaredkov – a zgolj v primeru, da ponarejen posnetek 61 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia L. Košmrlj et al. ni skladen s prejšnjimi izjavami in vedenjem politične osebe –, je »ključen vidik naših interakcij s takšnimi orodji« [37] in nismo pa imuni na njihove negativne učinke, tudi če vsebino našega krmarjenja po s sintetičnimi vsebinami nasičenem spletu. pravilno razpoznamo kot ponarejeno. Dalje Angwin in sodelavci [2] opozarjajo na »krizo odgovornosti«, ki nastaja na področju orodij UI: »Umetnointeligenčni modeli postajajo priljubljen vir informacij, 3 Predlogi za zmanjševanje tveganj a javno dostopni načini za njihovo testiranje in postavljanje Če povzamemo, smo v razpoznavanju sintetičnih vsebin pri standardov delovanja, še posebej glede točnosti in škodljivosti, avdiovideo vsebinah nekoliko bolj uspešni kot pri besedilnih. so omejeni.« Večina najzmogljivejših generativnih modelov je Nasploh smo dovzetni za negativne učinke sintetičnih vsebin, kot danes v rokah le peščice zasebnih korporacij, katerih cilj je čim so vplivanje na naše dojemanje in vrednotenje politične večji zaslužek, zato samoregulacija ni zelo verjetna. Njihovo osebnosti ali na naš odnos do določenega političnega vprašanja, prevzemanje odgovornosti, distribucija moči na področju UI in posledično pa vplivanje na politične odločitve. Izpostaviti kaže ustrezen regulativni okvir, ki ščiti demokracijo, so zato nujni [8, tudi sekundarne vplive ponarejenih vsebin, ki škodijo 12]. demokratičnemu okviru, za katerega si prizadevamo: politična distorzija, informacijska zmeda, nezaupanje novicam nasploh in kriza negotovosti [14, 36]. Vaccari in Chadwick [36] v luči tega 4 Zaključek zapišeta, da smo zaradi globokih ponaredkov »bolj verjetno v Generativna UI danes ni več le tehnološki, temveč tudi družbeni negotovosti kot v zmoti […]«, kar pa za demokracijo ne fenomen. Na čelu s ChatGPT-jem, najhitreje rastočo aplikacijo v predstavlja nič manjšega izziva. Pod vprašajem ostaja tudi, kaj zgodovini, oblikuje digitalno sfero, v kateri preživljamo vse več se bo zgodilo z nadaljnjimi izboljšavami generativnih modelov. časa, in pomembno vpliva na družbenopolitične in demokratične Glede na številna tveganja, ki jih za demokracijo prinaša procese. Prispevek se je osredotočal predvsem na negativne generativna UI, kaže obravnavati tudi možne rešitve. Prvi korak vplive generativne UI, zlasti velikih jezikovnih modelov in v tej smeri je že storila Evropska unija, ki razvoj in uporabo UI tehnologije globokih ponaredkov. Po uvodnem pregledu regulira z uredbo Akt o umetni inteligenci (ang. the EU AI Act), teoretičnega dela literature ugotavljamo, da med najbolj veljavno od avgusta 2024 [10]. Klepetalne robote in globoke škodljive rabe generativne UI sodijo generiranje škodljivih in ponaredke uredba uvršča v kategorijo modelov s sistemskim oz. lažnih vsebin, dezinformacijske kampanje, ki so še posebej omejenim tveganjem [25, 35], za varno uporabo pa je po aktu učinkovite s pomočjo mikrotargetiranja, množični nadzor ključna predvsem njihova transparentnost. Za večjo državljanov, informacijska poplava, posledično pa kriza transparentnost akt od razvijalcev in ponudnikov modelov zaupanja v informacijske vire in oblast. Teoretičnim zahteva, da uporabnike obvestijo, da uporabljajo sistem UI, oz. razmislekom poleg primerov iz prakse pritrjujejo tudi sicer da je to kako drugače jasno razvidno, ter da sta postopek učenja maloštevilne, a povedne empirične študije. Raziskave, ki modela in izvor učnih podatkov javno dostopna. Dalje akt preučujejo tehnologijo globokih ponaredkov, kažejo na njeno omenja uvedbo detekcijskih mehanizmov, ki bi uporabnikom dovršenost in na dovzetnost posameznikov za manipulacijo s omogočali razlikovanje sintetičnih vsebin, ustvarjenih z UI, od sintetičnimi avdiovideo in besedilnimi vsebinami. Lažne vsebin, ki jih je ustvaril človek, npr. vodnih žigov in detekcije informacije in potvorjena besedila o političnih vsebinah, ki jih metapodatkov [35]. Detekcija sintetičnih vsebin je posebej skladno s pozivom generirajo jezikovni modeli, so lahko upoštevna za tehnologijo globokih ponaredkov, ki se je do zdaj diskriminatorni, neresnični in družbenopolitično razdiralni. Kot izmikala resni pravni obravnavi [25]. taki lahko v digitalnem prostoru pod pretvezo človeškosti služijo Pomen transparentnosti in detekcijskih mehanizmov, s kot cenovno ugodno in hitro generirano gradivo pomočjo katerih bi bila sintetična vsebina tudi razpoznavna kot dezinformacijskih kampanj, v kombinaciji z mikrotargetiranjem taka, poudarja vse več virov: v ZDA regulativne in varnostne manipulirajo neodločene volivce in volivke ter v družbo vnašajo standarde ureja Nacionalni urad za standarde in tehnologijo zmedo in nezaupanje. (NIST), ki detekcijske mehanizme izpostavlja kot ključne za Predlogi za blaženje negativnih vplivov generativne UI, ki se blaženje tveganj generativne UI [31]. Na mednarodni ravni se s vedno znova ponavljajo, so po eni strani tehnološki, po drugi pa tem med drugimi ukvarja organizacija Globalno partnerstvo za sociološki; k razpoznavnosti sintetičnih vsebin bi lahko ključno umetno inteligenco (GPAI). Ta v enem od poročil [12] predlaga, pripomogli vodni žigi in detekcijski mehanizmi, nujna sta da bi morala vsaka organizacija, ki razvija nov temeljni model, transparentnost razvijalcev o lastnostih modela in učnih podatkih kot nujen pogoj za vstop modela na trg skupaj z njim razviti tudi ter razvoj mehanizmov za preprečevanje generiranja škodljivih zanesljiv, javno dostopen detekcijski mehanizem, ki bo lahko vsebin, bistvena pa je tudi digitalna izobraženost državljank in vsebino, generirano s pomočjo tega modela, tudi ločil od ostalih državljanov ter njihov odnos do spletnih vsebin. vsebin. Kot primer dobre prakse – in kot dokazilo, da je takšna praksa mogoča – poročilo navaja OpenAI-jev GPT-2, katerega celotna različica je bila zaradi varnostnih zadržkov objavljena Zahvala šele devet mesecev po prvi, njegovo postopno objavljanje na Prispevek je nastal v okviru ciljnega raziskovalnega projekta V2- spletu od februarja 2019 pa so spremljale številne študije in 2272 Opredelitev okvira za zagotavljanje zaupanja javnosti v razvoj detekcijskih mehanizmov. Za podoben postopek se sisteme umetne inteligence in njihove uporabe ob podpori Javne podjetje pri poznejših različicah modela GPT ni odločilo [12]. agencije za raziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Velikega pomena sta tudi ozaveščanje in digitalna Slovenije in Ministrstva za digitalizacijo. izobraženost uporabnikov [14, 25, 37]. 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Ana Farič† Ivan Bratko Kognitivna znanost Umetna inteligenca Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za računalništvo in Slovenija informatiko af27987@student.uni-lj.si Slovenija bratko@fri.uni-lj.si Povzetek in filmov npr. Taki sistemi brez posredovanja človeka izračunajo za nas najboljše priporočilo, morebitna neustrezna priporočila pa Prispevek povzema in ocenjuje stanje metod in raziskav na nimajo bistvenih (negativnih) posledic za nas. Nasprotno imajo področju razložljive umetne inteligence. Pregled vsebuje lahko napačne odločitve v domenah (kot je npr. zdravstvo) predlagane definicije razlage in lastnosti dobrih razlag. Podan je odločilne posledice za konkretna življenja ljudi. Če v nekaterih grob pregled številnih obstoječih pristopov za generiranje domenah zadošča zgolj točna napoved sistema, to ne zadostuje razlage, primeri konkretnih avtomatsko generiranih razlag in povsod v družbi in znanosti nasploh [5]. nekatere empirične ugotovitve, kako uporabniki sprejemajo te Uporabnost modelov strojnega učenja je vodila v njihovo razlage. Število raziskav na tem področju se je v zadnjih letih splošno uporabo pred razvojem kakovostnega konceptualnega močno povečalo, pri čemer pa razni avtorji uporabljajo različne okvirja, ki bi omogočal razumevanje njihovega delovanja. Znan definicije in kriterije. Kljub veliki količini raziskav, so nekateri je t. i. problem črnih škatel (ang. black box problem), ki pomeni, vidiki razložljivosti in tehnični pristopi deležni premalo da delovanje modelov strojnega učenja ostaja za uporabnike pozornosti, med drugim: razlaga zaporedij odločitev, nerazumljivo. Prav pomanjkanje razumevanja omejuje nadaljnjo upoštevanje uporabnikovega predznanja ter induktivno logično in bolj praktično uporabo modelov v ostalih pomembnih programiranje. domenah odločanja. Potreba po razlagi je vodila v razvoj tehnik in pristopov razložljive umetne inteligence (XAI; ang. Ključne besede eXplainable Artificial Intelligence), ki se posveča nalogi Umetna inteligenca, XAI, razložljivost razlaganja kompleksnih modelov strojnega učenja [34]. Namen članka je pregled trenutnega stanja XAI področja in Abstract analiza pomanjkljivosti. The paper reviews and assesses the state of the art of research and methods in explainable AI. The review includes proposed definitions of what is an explanation, and what are properties of 2 Kaj sploh je razlaga? good explanations. We give a rough overview of numerous Razložljivost je izmuzljiv pojem ne samo na področju umetne existing approaches for generating explanations, concrete inteligence (UI), pač pa širše na področju filozofije in drugih examples of explanations and some empirical findings of their družboslovnih znanosti. Na področju UI se operira s koncepti, acceptance by users. The amount of research in this area has kot so vzročnost, informativnost, razumevanje, gotovost, recently increased significantly, but different authors use zaupanje, transparentnost ipd. [5] Termin ‘razložljiva umetna different definitions and criteria. Despite numerous projects in inteligenca’ je l. 2019 kot del svojega programa uporabila this area, some aspects of explainability and technical DARPA [17]. Od takrat je postal zelo popularen, ne gre pa za approaches are receiving little attention: explaining sequences of nov pojav. Kvečjemu gre za imenovanje dolgoletnih prizadevanj, decisions, taking into account user's background knowledge, and kjer se raziskovalci trudijo prebiti do odgovora na vprašanje, inductive logic programming. zakaj je sistem prišel do določene napovedi [19]. Najbolj splošno bi lahko razložljivost v domeni UI opredelili kot razlago, ki delovanje modela naredi bolj razumljivo. Seveda 1 Uvod je to zelo splošna opredelitev, v poskusih bolj natančnega Modeli strojnega učenja postajajo z uspehom globokega učenja definiranja pa si raziskovalci niso zedinjeni. [12] opredelita in nevronskih mrež vseprisotni. Večina od nas se z njimi srečuje razložljivost kot sposobnost predstaviti nekaj v človeku na vsakodnevni ravni, v obliki sistemov za priporočanje glasbe razumljivih terminih. [5] pravijo, da mora model nuditi razlago za svoje delovanje in napovedi v obliki vizualizacije pravil in vpogleda v potencialne spremenljivke, ki bi lahko povzročile Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed perturbacije modela. Po [29] razložiti pomeni predstaviti for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full besedilne ali vizualne elemente, ki omogočajo kvalitativno citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). razumevanje odnosa med komponentami in napovedjo modela. Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Ena od nekonsistentnosti v XAI literaturi je uporaba pojma © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.14 interpretabilnost, ki je včasih sinonim razložljivosti, drugič ločen 64 pojem, tretjič ena od kategorij razložljivosti. [5] interpretabilnost razumejo kot pasivno, razložljivost pa kot aktivno lastnost modela. Interpretabilni so modeli, ki so razumljivi že sami po sebi (odločitvena drevesa npr.), razložljivi pa tisti, ki zahtevajo postopke, katerih namen je pojasnjevanje. Kot taka je razložljivost nujna lastnost vseh (tudi inherentno interpretabilnih) modelov [14]. Očitno je pomanjkanje konsenza o glavnih konceptih. Problem je, ker vsaka definicija nastopa znotraj specifičnega Slika 1 (levo): razlaga CAM metode na način prikaza konteksta, odvisnega od naloge, sposobnosti in pričakovanj področij slike, ključnih za klasifikacijo umivanja zob [36]. raziskovalca. Opredelitve razložljivosti so tako pogosto vezane Slika 2 (desno): razlaga LIME metode. Na levi je izvorna na specifično domeno. Posledično XAI področje še ni enotno slika, na desni razlaga za klasifikacijo električne kitare [29]. glede definicije razlage, specifičnih ciljev in kriterijev, ki naj bi jim zadostovali modeli, da bi bili razumljivi [5]. 4 Kakšna je dobra razlaga? Če je eden od ključnih ciljev XAI področja izboljšanje zaupanja 3 Metode razlag v sisteme UI. je nujno, da se pozornost usmeri k uporabnikom Danes obstajajo številne metode razlag. Problem nastane pri teh sistemov [35]. Dobre razlage bodo tiste, ki bodo upoštevale, njihovi klasifikaciji, ker ima praktično vsak avtor specifično komu so namenjene [5]. To pomeni upoštevanje predznanja, ki definicijo razložljivosti, iz katere izhaja. ga imajo uporabniki. Opazen je trend, kjer razvijalci metod Ena splošnih kategorizacij je delitev na lokalne in globalne razlag tega ne upoštevajo dovolj. [30] opredelita tri skupine razlage. Lokalne so razlage, središčene okoli posameznega uporabnikov (razvijalci in raziskovalci, eksperti in laiki), ki primera, kjer pa ostane delovanje modela kot celote zahtevajo različne vrste razlag. nepojasnjeno. Na drugi strani globalne razlage pomagajo Med raziskovalci ni strinjanja o kriterijih za dobro razlago. V razumeti celoten model, so pa pogosto osnovane na približnih nadaljevanju navajamo nekaj primerov kriterijev. [3] opredelita vrednostih [3][18][21][34]. tri: Splošna je delitev na model-specifične in agnostične razlage. • Eksplicitnost: razlaga je takojšnja in razumljiva; Slednje s tehnikami, kot so relevantnost atributov, vizualizacija • Zvestoba (ang. faithfulness): ocene relevantnosti odražajo ali simplifikacija pridobijo določene informacije o postopku resnično pomembnost; napovedovanja in so uporabne za vsako vrsto modela [5]. • Stabilnost: za podobne vhodne podatke veljajo podobne Model-specifične razlage so uporabne zgolj za specifične vrste razlage. modelov (npr. maksimizacija aktivacije, ki jo opišejo [16]) [18]. [11] poudarjajo: [5] ločijo besedilne, vizualne, lokalne, razlage s primeri, s • Robustnost oz. občutljivost: sprememba razlage v primeru simplifikacijo in relevantnost atributov. [11] opredelijo tri glavne spremembe vhodnih podatkov; kategorije razlag: osnovane na funkciji, na primerih in • Zvestobo: razlaga ponazarja dejansko odločanje modela; pojasnjevanju atributov. [34] ločita razlage atributov in razlage • Kompleksnost: kognitiven napor, potreben za razumevanje primerov. [1] razlage razdelijo glede na uporabljeno razlage; metodologijo in ločijo med razlagami, ki slonijo na vzvratnem • Homogenost: zmožnost razlage za pravilno razlago razširjanju (ang. backpropagation) in razlagami s perturbacijami. delovanja modela glede na različne skupine (v praksi se to [16] ločijo: 1) odločitvena drevesa; 2) razlage, osnovane na po navadi nanaša na skupine, ki se ločijo glede na občutljive pravilih; 3) razlage pomembnosti atributov, ki predstavijo težo in atribute). pomembnost atributov, ki jih je pri svoji napovedi upošteval [4] opredelita 4 aksiome, katerim naj bi zadostile dobre razlage: model. Primer je znana metoda LIME, primerna predvsem za 1) morajo biti informativne; razlago klasifikacije besedil in slik (slika 2) [29]; 4) zemljevidi 2) ne smejo vsebovati nepotrebnih informacij; pomembnosti, ki izpostavijo ključne aspekte predmeta, ki je 3) razlage razredov morajo pojasniti posamezne primere, analiziran. Primer je metoda CAM (slika 1) [36]; 5) PDP ( Partial hkrati pa morajo biti splošno uporabne; Dependence Plot), kjer grafično prikažemo odnos med 4) razlaga mora vsebovati samo informacije, ki vplivajo na odločitvijo modela in vhodnimi podatki; 6) razlaga s prototipi, napoved. kjer z napovedjo dobimo primer, podoben našemu; 7) maksimizacija aktivacije, kjer opazujemo, kakšni vzorci vhodnih podatkov maksimizirajo aktivacijo določenega nevrona oz. 5 Ocenjevanje razlag nivoja. Ocenjevanje razlag je najmlajše področje s široko paleto [21] predstavi pojem formalne razložljivosti, zasnovan na pristopov [30]. Za razliko od točnosti, je kriterije kot so varnost, logiki, kjer so razlage posledično bolj zanesljive in držijo nediskriminacija in razložljivost težje kvantificirati [12]. globalno. Pristop temelji na računanji t. i. prime implicants Ocenjevanja se (najbolj splošno) lahko lotimo na dva načina: (ang.), kar omogoča logične reprezentacije delovanja modela. 1) človeško ocenjevanje ali 2) uporaba računskih metod, ki merijo, kako dobro razlaga dejansko razloži delovanje modela. Glavna razlika med pristopoma je, da so računske metode bolj objektivne, vendar pa ne upoštevajo človeškega faktorja. 65 Drugače rečeno, ne kvantificirajo človeškega razumevanja. Prednost človeške ocene je subjektivnost in večja deskriptivnost. Očitna pomanjkljivost je manjša točnost in večja odvisnost od specifične naloge [27]. [20][35] predstavijo matematično ocenjevanje razlag na podlagi analize robustnosti. Matematično opredeljena mera nezvestobe ponazarja, kako dobro se razlaga ujema z modelom [34]. [13] so izvedli eksperiment, s katerim so preverili, kakšne razlage so pri ljudeh vzbudile največ zaupanje v robota, ki je odprl stekleničko. Robot se je naučil odpirati stekleničke iz Slika 4: zgornja vrsta prikazuje zemljevida pomembnosti človeških demonstracij, pri čemer je bilo ključno učenje Grad-CAM metode, spodnja zemljevida udeležencev [27]. zaporedij položaja rok in potrebne sile. Z rokavico s senzorji so zajeli podatke o sili in položaju rok v 64 človeških demonstracijah s tremi različnimi stekleničkami. Sledilo je 6 Kako naprej? kompleksnejše učenje, da bi bil robot svoje znanje sposoben V tem razdelku opozorimo na nekatere razmeroma slabo posplošiti. Implementiran je bil haptični model, ki je robotu raziskane probleme in premalo uporabljene pristope za XAI. pomagal določiti potrebno silo, čeprav nima človeških rok. Ker odpiranje stekleničke poteka v več korakih (potiskanje, odvijanje 6.1 Tehtanje med točnostjo in razložljivostjo itd.), je bil implementiran še t. i. (ang.) symbolic action planner [31] v članku z zgovornim naslovom » Stop explaining black box in pomeni pravila o zaporedju potrebnih akcij. S kombinacijo ML models for high stakes decisions and use interpretable takega učenja je robot postal precej dober v odpiranju novih models instead« izraža determinirano stališče. Zavzema se za stekleničk. Udeleženci so bili razdeljeni v 5 skupin. Vsaka je uporabo metod učenja, ki dajejo naučene modele, ki so sami po videla posnetek robota, ki opravlja nalogo, ter eno od možnih sebi razumljivi. Za take se smatrajo npr. odločitvena drevesa. razlag: 1) simbolično: v realnem času so udeleženci videli z eno Nasprotuje metodam učenja, katerih rezultati so v principu težko besedo opisano akcijo, ki naj bi razlagala, kaj robot na posnetku razumljivi. Med te štejemo posebno metode globokega učenja, ki dela ( approach – grasp – push – twist – ungrasp – move – grasp sicer dosegajo visoko napovedno točnost v primerjavi z drugimi – push …); 2) besedilno: po ogledu posnetka robota so udeleženci metodami učenja, toda ne zastonj: vsaj za ceno razumljivosti in prebrali kratko besedilo o tem, kako je robot opravil nalogo ( I potrebnega velikega števila podatkov za učenje. Pri tem gre succeeded to open the bottle because I pushed on the cap three Rudin morda res predaleč s svojim optimističnim stališčem, ki times and twisted the cap twice); oz. 3) haptično razlago (slika implicitno predpostavlja možnost izgradnje elegantnih in 3): vizualizacija sile prijema v vsakem trenutku odpiranja razumljivih modelov za vsako problemsko domeno, s čimer stekleničke) oz. kombinacijo haptične in simbolične razlage. zadene ob princip kompleksnosti Kolmogorova. Največ zaupanja je spodbudila simbolična razlaga. Glede možnosti obstoja enostavnih modelov in razlag velja vsaj ena teoretična omejitev, ki jo definira kompleksnost Kolmogorova, ki določa, koliko spominskega prostora potrebujemo za najkrajši možni zapis danega objekta v računalniku. Obstajajo zapleteni objekti (torej tudi napovedni modeli), ki jih niti teoretično ni mogoče predstaviti na kratek način. V takih primerih tudi razlaga ne more biti kratka in Slika 3: haptična razlaga. enostavna. Res pa je, da smo v praksi še zelo daleč od te teoretično dosegljive meje, torej imamo veliko prostora za [27] so izvedli eksperiment, kjer so udeleženci označili izboljšanje. Ko zadenemo ob zid Kolmogorova, pa je še vedno relevantna področja slike, ki je po njihovem mnenju bilo najbolj možen kompromis, da za boljšo razložljivost žrtvujemo nekaj reprezentativno za določen razred objektov (mačka in pes npr.). točnosti [8]. Primer tehnične izvedbe tega tehtanja med točnostjo Rezultat je zemljevid pomembnosti, ki prikazuje področja slike, in razumljivostjo v učenju odločitvenih dreves je [6]. ki so jim udeleženci posvečali največ pozornosti (spodnja vrsta na sliki 4). Te rezultate so primerjali z zemljevidi pomembnosti 6.2 Navezava razlage na uporabnikovo metode Grad-CAM (spodnja vrsta na sliki 4). Zemljevidi so si predznanje morda podobni, vseeno pa je statistično testiranje pokazalo Če bo razlaga dobra, je odvisno od njenega uporabnika, pomembne razlike. Distribucija relevantnih atributov je bila pri konkretno od uporabnikovega predznanja o problemski domeni. Grad-CAM metodi bolj uniformna, udeleženci so v primeru živih Če je to kvalitetno, zadošča en sam namig. Če je razumevanje bitij kot ključne bolj označevali obraze. Prav to so ugotovitve, ki domene slabo, je potrebna podrobna in daljša razlaga. Tudi sama nam lahko pomagajo razumeti, kako dobre so razlage. formulacija razlage je odvisna od obstoječega znanja na obravnavanem področju. Celo povsem pravilna in jedrnata razlaga je za eksperta na področju uporabe lahko nesprejemljiva in nenaravna. Kot primer omenimo, da so se nekateri primeri razlag, ki jih generirajo naučeni modeli v medicinskih domenah kljub svoji diagnostični točnosti zdravniku zdeli povsem 66 nenaravni [8]. V enem od primerov je sistem razložil, da gre za 7 Zaključek vnetni revmatizem, ker ima pacient med drugim več kot dva Področje XAI se je v zadnjih 5 do 10 letih močno razraslo. Mnogi prizadeta sklepa na roki. To diagnostično pravilo je dejansko zato predpostavljajo, da je bil to tudi začetek področja. V resnici točno. Vendar pa je zdravnik vztrajal, da mora imeti pacient je aktivno zavedanje, da naj bi bilo strojno učenje razložljivo, prizadete sklepe na vseh petih prstih na roki, ker vnetni obstajalo že prej 40 leti. Že takrat so obstajale raziskave o revmatizem tipično vpliva na vse sklepe. Ekspertno mnenje je razložljivih modelih. Kljub sedanji količini raziskav in bilo v tem primeru zelo jasno, čeprav je res, da bo pravilo vodilo nedvoumnih uspehih se še vedno kaže, da pogrešamo nekatere do pravilne diagnoze v vsakem primeru; če gre za katerokoli ključne odgovore. Npr., že pred desetletji se je v sklopu istih število vnetih sklepov med 2 in 5. Ustreznost razlage je odvisna prizadevanj pojavilo zavedanje, da potrebujemo formalne mere ne le od klasifikacijske točnosti, temveč (tudi) od predznanja, ki za ocenjevanje kvalitete razlag. Take sprejete mere še ni. ga ima uporabnik o tej obliki revmatizma. Raziskovalci pri ocenjevanju razlag uberejo različne pristope, Obstoječe metode razlage ta vidik pogosto ignorirajo. odvisne od raznih kriterijev (konteksta, domene, uporabnikov Problem je tudi v tem, da ne omogočajo naravne uporabe itd.). predznanja. V tem pogledu je zelo obetaven pristop k strojnemu Glede vprašanja, kaj je sprejemljiva razlaga, se v učenju t. i. induktivno logično programiranje (ILP), ki temelji na pomanjkanju boljših splošnih in principielnih kriterijev v sedanji uporabi matematične logike. Že sama osnovna formulacija praksi uporablja predpostavka, da so nekateri modeli razložljivi problema učenja v ILP vsebuje uporabo predznanja: dani so učni kar po definiciji, torej razložljivi sami po sebi. Mednje npr. primeri E in predznanje BK ( background knowledge), naloga navadno štejemo odločitvena drevesa ali pravila če-potem. Toda učenja pa je sestaviti logično formulo H (hipoteza) tako, da tudi ta kriterij je arbitraren. Kaj, če je odločitveno drevo zelo primeri E logično sledijo iz BK in H. veliko, npr. da ima milijon vozlišč? Pristop ILP je skromno zastopan v obstoječih raziskavah iz V prispevku smo opozorili tudi na počasen napredek pri strojnega učenja in razložljivosti. Lep primer njegove ustreznosti razvoju metod za razlago zaporedij odločitev. Sem sodi razlaga so raziskave, opisane v [2][28]. Te zasledujejo ne le osnovni cilj planov za reševanje nalog, ki imajo eksplicitno definirane cilje. XAI (razlage odločitev strojnega učenja), temveč tudi cilj t. i. Plan je lahko zaporedje akcij ali pa tudi množica akcij, ki so »ultra-razložljivost«. Ta strožji kriterij strojnega učenja je delno urejene v času. Tu je treba razložiti tudi to, kako se akcije definiral [26] (ang. ultra strong criterion for ML). Strojno učenje med seboj dopolnjujejo in na kakšen način skupaj dosežejo cilj. je ultra-razložljivo, če je ne le razložljivo, temveč uporabniku S tem so povezani izzivi, ki jih predstavimo spodaj. omogoča tudi operativno uporabo za lastno reševanje novih En možen pristop, ki upošteva principe planiranja v UI, je problemov. Npr. da strojno naučeno znanje lahko uporabi za upoštevanje odvisnosti med akcijami. Nekatere akcije v planu lastno reševanje določenih matematičnih problemov ali igranje neposredno dosežejo kakšnega od ciljev plana. Druge akcije pa šaha. ne dosežejo nobenega danega cilja neposredno, njihova funkcija je, da dosežejo pogoje, ki morajo biti uresničeni, da je možno 6.3 Razlaga zaporedij odločitev v planiranju izvesti druge akcije v planu. Taka razlaga plana je seveda povsem Večina XAI metod generira razlago posameznih odločitev oz. logična. Navadno pa vsebuje preveč podrobnosti. Če plan klasifikacij. Pri razložljivem planiranju pa gre za razlago vsebuje nekoliko večje število akcij, npr. nekaj 10, postane tako množice odločitev (npr. zaporedja akcij, ki robota vodi do cilja). podrobna razlaga spet težko razumljiva in za uporabnika Posebej za razlago planov se je formiralo področje razložljivega neprivlačna. V tem primeru bi za sprejemljivo razlago treba plan planiranja [10]. razbiti v hierarhično strukturo, definirano s podcilji plana. Razlaga planov je navadno zahtevnejša od razlage v Odkrivanje smiselnih podciljev pa je lahko težavno. Poseben klasifikacijskih problemih. Treba je razložiti, kako so posamezne izziv je, kako poiskati take podcilje, ki rezultirajo v razlagi, ki je akcije odvisne od drugih, da skupaj rešijo nalogo. Primer razlage za človeka čim bolj naravna. zaporedja odločitev je razlaga šahovskih partij, kjer je treba razložiti celo zaporedje potez ali drevo odločitev, ki definira Zahvala uspešno strategijo. Primer, opisan v [9], so težko razumljive in Prispevek je nastal v okviru ciljnega raziskovalnega projekta V2-briljantne poteze šahovskega programa AlphaZero. 2272 Opredelitev okvira za zagotavljanje zaupanja javnosti v Razlaga planov je aktualna tudi na področju vodenja sisteme umetne inteligence in njihove uporabe, ob podpori Javne sistemov. Lep primer razlage naučenega plana vodenja je v [32]. agencije za raziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Gre za klasično nalogo iz teorije vodenja sistemov: vodenje Slovenije in Ministrstva za digitalizacijo. sistema voziček-palica. Na vozičku je vrtljivo vpeta palica. Palica je postavljena približno vertikalno, vendar se, če ne Literatura ukrepamo, prevrne na tla. S potiskanjem vozička levo oz. desno [1] je treba loviti ravnotežni položaj palice okrog vertikale, obenem Ali, S., Abuhmed, T., El-Sappagh, S., Muhammad, K., Alonso-Moral, J. M., Confalonieri, R., Guidotti, R., Del Ser, J., Díaz-Rodríguez, N. and pa doseči, da se voziček horizontalno premakne iz začetnega Herrera, F. 2023. Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI): What we položaja do cilja. Naučena strategija vodenja je lepo razložljiva. know and what is left to attain Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence. Information Fusion, 99. 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[36] Zhou, B., Khosla, A., Lapedriza, A., Oliva, A. and Torralba, A. 2016. [19] Holsinger, A., Saranti, A., Molnar, C., Biecek, P. and Samek, W. 2022. Learning Deep Features for Disciminative Localization. 2016 IEEE Explainable AI Methods – A Brief Overview. xxAI 2020, LNAI 13200, Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2921-13-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04083-2_2. 2929. DOI: 10.1109/CVPR.2016.319. 68 Exploring Cognitive Science under Analytical Idealism Grega Rodman Faculty of Education University of Ljubljana gr6506@student.uni-lj.si Abstract materialism is waning, the legacy persists, having limited the scope of inquiry, particularly in the study of consciousness, by In modern science, materialism has played a significant role, ignoring subjective human experience [1, 2]. positing that matter is the fundamental reality and that all phenomena, including consciousness, can be understood through physical processes. However, recent evidence suggests 2 Questioning the materialistic paradigm materialism might not fully explain all phenomena. These findings have led to the rise of a post-materialistic movement At its core, science is a non-dogmatic, open-minded approach to exploring new ideas. One such idea, Analytical Idealism, acquiring knowledge about nature through observation, proposed by Bernardo Kastrup, suggests that consciousness is experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of the fundamental reality and that the material world is a phenomena [3]. There is a misconception that the methodology reflection of this universal consciousness. The implications of of science is inherently tied to materialism. In addition, an adopting this approach in science will be explored. increasing body of empirical evidence points to the limitations of materialism. Of course, it is impossible to provide sufficient Keywords empirical research that definitively refutes materialism; however, we can present two examples from different fields ontology, methodology, materialism, analytical idealism that suggest the limitations of materialism: one from animal cognition and the second from psi phenomena in humans. 1 Introduction 2.1 Example from animal cognition The modern scientific worldview is largely based on The first example is from animal cognition. Actually, it is about assumptions closely linked to classical physics. Among these is precognition, which is the perception of future events, typical materialism, which posits that matter constitutes the sole reality. for some animal species. Investigation in this field was done by In the 19th century, these assumptions became increasingly Sheldrake [4], who studied a dog that seemed to know when its rigid, evolving into dogmas that coalesced into the ideological owner was coming home. Despite using various methods to rule framework known as "scientific materialism" [1]. out normal senses, Sheldrake consistently observed the dog waiting expectantly before the owner arrived, but not at other Scientific materialism is a philosophical viewpoint that asserts times. A replication of a similar experiment by some sceptics that all phenomena in the universe, including consciousness and was declared unsuccessful [5], but a later reanalysis of the same human experience, can be explained solely through physical results showed the opposite [6]. processes and interactions. Throughout the 20th century, scientific materialism became the prevailing ideology in academic circles, to the extent that the majority of scientists 2.2 Example from psi phenomena in humans came to believe it was the only rational interpretation of the world. Scientific methods rooted in materialistic philosophy The second example addresses meta-analyses of psi have proven highly successful in enhancing our understanding phenomena, which are defined as extraordinary human of nature and in providing greater control and freedom through capacities like telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition that technological advances. Though the popularity of scientific involve gaining information without known sensory mechanisms. Studies investigating these phenomena have Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or consistently found small but significant effects, suggesting that distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and such abilities may exist [7]. The evidence for psi is comparable the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this to that for established phenomena in psychology and other work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). disciplines, although there is no consensual understanding of Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia them. Recent analyses also emphasize that these results cannot be easily attributed to methodological flaws, selective reporting, © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). or fraud, further supporting the plausibility of psi phenomena. https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.15 69 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia G. Rodman The volume of empirical data indicating the shortcomings of develop through various contemplative practices. This field materialism is so substantial that an increasing number of seeks to integrate traditional third-person scientific methods, articles and books are being written on this subject [1, 7, 8, 9]. such as MRI, EEG, and MEG, with first-person accounts of In fact, this has contributed to the emergence of a whole post- personal experiences in these altered states of consciousness materialistic movement in recent decades, which is exploring [18, 19, 20]. When we start taking contemplative and what this new paradigm might look like [3, 9, 10, 11, 12]. meditative practices seriously, science can begin to exchange Believe it or not, you can also find a manifesto for post-ideas with ancient traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism and materialistic science [13]. others. Even this is already happening [21, 22, 23]. 3.3 The consequences of such a research approach 3 Cognitive Science under Analytical Idealism This interdisciplinary exchange highlights the potential for scientific and spiritual perspectives to enrich each other and One of the proponents of the post-materialistic movement is expand our understanding of consciousness and reality. Bernardo Kastrup, who advocates for Analytical Idealism [3]. Additionally, to broaden scientific inquiry, spiritual practices Analytical Idealism posits that consciousness is the fundamental like meditation and contemplation can be secularized and essence of reality, rather than matter [12]. The focus of this incorporated into the scientific process. Fun fact, At the 6th summary is not to provide a detailed description of Idealism, International Colloquium of Cognitive Sciences, Dr. Berkovich- but rather to explore the potential changes in the methodology Ohana began her presentation titled "Meditation and the Self: of scientific research that could result from adopting this Neuroscience and Phenomenology" with a few minutes of perspective. guided meditation [24]. By integrating these practices, scientists could benefit from improved mental hygiene, enhanced 3.1 Two distinct routes to knowledge creativity, and increased cognitive capacities [25], [26], [27]. Changes in ontological views lead to changes in scientific This step can be highly significant, as it enhances the methods as they alter the foundational concepts and performance of researchers. A greater focus may lead to relationships that guide inquiry [14]. If consciousness is indeed reduced bias, while increased creativity fosters better a fundamental aspect of reality rather than a byproduct of neural hypotheses, ultimately resulting in more effective research. activity, it implies that consciousness might directly access Such advancements are essential for achieving substantial aspects of reality without relying solely on sensory perception breakthroughs. [15]. This leads us to consider two distinct routes to knowledge: conventional sensory perception (science as it is mainly now) Engaging in meditation and/or contemplative practices poses and a more direct introspective approach. Walach calls this potential downsides for scientists, too. First, the focus on approach “radical introspection.” Radical introspection involves personal experience conflicts with the concurrent objective a deep inward focus, often achieved through contemplative and standards required in scientific research. While self-research meditative practices. Unlike standard qualitative introspection, can yield valuable insights, its subjective nature can lead to which relies on external referents (e.g., transcripts, biases that undermine intersubjectivity. Furthermore, the observations), radical introspection does not have such referents personal transformation that occurs during deep self-reflection beyond personal experience. It faces challenges of subjective may distract researchers from maintaining the rigorous, bias and lack of established methodology for validating truth detached perspective typically expected in scientific inquiry. claims. However, it remains a crucial aspect of potential new Ultimately, the integration of such practices into mainstream methodologies in science, requiring the development of science remains challenging, as it contrasts with the traditional techniques to record, communicate, and verify first-person role of researchers. experiences. At this point, it is important to highlight that Walach is not the 4 Conclusion only proponent of integrating radical introspection into In conclusion, I would like to emphasize a few key points. First, scientific inquiry. Kordeš [16] arrives at a similar conclusion in the entire described methodology can, of course, be applied his arguments, even though he does not refer the concept of from a materialistic standpoint as well. It is not the ontology idealism at all. He suggests that in-depth, existentially liable itself that matters; rather, it is the methodology that enables introspection and self-inquiry should be considered as serious insight. Materialists can also engage in contemplative scientific research tools. neuroscience. Second, year by year, we have more scientific studies suggesting that the current mainstream paradigm may be 3.2 Combining first and third person research flawed. Let us carefully examine the data and avoid dismissing it simply because it contradicts our preconceived assumptions When looking at current scientific practices, we can see some [28]. Third, if more scientists were to engage in meditation-like early attempts in that direction. The godfather of this approach practices, this would generally benefit the scientific community is, of course, Francisco J. Varela [17]. From this approach for reasons previously discussed. Fourth, when we establish a emerged the field of contemplative neuroscience, which connection between science and religion, mutual learning can explores individuals in altered states of consciousness that begin. 70 Exploring Cognitive Science under Analytical Idealism Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia Acknowledgments [14] Mukhles Al-Ababneh. 2020. Linking Ontology, Epistemology and Research Methodology. Science & Philosophy, 8(1), 75–91. doi: I would like to thank Olga Markič for giving me the 10.5311/112222001789. opportunity to explore this area of research and for mentoring [15] Harald Walach. 2020. Inner Experience – Direct Access to Reality: A me throughout the process. Complementarist Ontology and Dual Aspect Monism Support a Broader Epistemology. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 640. doi: Authors' statement 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00640. ChatGPT-4 was used for improving the language of this paper. [16] Urban Kordeš. [2013]. Problems and Opportunities of First-Person Research. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems, 11(4):363-References 375. https://doi.org/10.7906/indecs.11.4.2. [1] B. Alan Wallace. 2004. The Taboo of Subjectivity: Toward a New [17] Varela, Francisco J. 1996. "Neurophenomenology: A Methodological Science of Consciousness. Paperback, 323 pages. ISBN: Remedy for the Hard Problem." Journal of Consciousness Studies 3(4): 9780195173109. 330–349. 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Ta članek The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence is significantly preučuje vpliv UI na različne sektorje, vključno z družbenim in enhancing human capabilities, even as human progress itself individualnim kognitivnim napredkom, ter poudarja tako appears to stagnate, hindered by decadent ideologies and adverse priložnosti kot izzive, ki jih prinaša široka uporaba UI. Razprava societal trends. Over the past few decades, AI has achieved se osredotoča na transformativno moč UI tehnologij ter na etične, remarkable milestones, from mastering complex games to ekonomske, kognitivne in družbene posledice te tekoče revolutionizing industries such as healthcare and finance through revolucije. advancements in machine learning, natural language processing, and robotics. A particularly notable achievement is the Medtem ko UI še naprej spodbuja inovacije in preoblikuje development of GPT models, which have set new standards in industrije, se ljudje vse bolj integrirajo s temi tehnologijami prek language generation and expanded the horizons of AI’s potential. vseprisotne uporabe pametnih telefonov, osebnih računalnikov This paper examines the impact of AI on various sectors, in nosljivih naprav. Ta integracija je že okrepila naše kognitivne including societal and individual cognitive advancements, in funkcionalne sposobnosti ter učinkovito pomnožila človeški highlighting both the opportunities and challenges of widespread potencial. Ko vpliv UI na človeško življenje narašča, se AI adoption. The discussion focuses on the transformative power pojavljajo ključna vprašanja o prihodnosti tega simbiotičnega of AI technologies and the ethical, economic, cognitive, and razmerja in o smeri družbenega napredka. social implications of this ongoing revolution. As AI continues to drive innovation and transform industries, humans are increasingly integrating with these technologies through the KLJUČNE BESEDE pervasive use of smartphones, personal computers, and wearable Umetna inteligenca, simbioza med človekom in strojem, devices. This integration has already enhanced our cognitive and tehnološki napredek, kognitivni vpliv functional capabilities, effectively amplifying human potential. However, as AI’s influence on human life deepens, critical KEYWORDS questions arise about the future of this symbiotic relationship and Artificial Intelligence, Human-Machine Symbiosis, the trajectory of societal progress. Technological Advancement, Cognitivel Implications POVZETEK Hitri napredek umetne inteligence izboljšuje človeške zmožnosti, 1 Introduction medtem ko se zdi, da človeški napredek stagnira, oviran z The rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) is dekadentnimi ideologijami in negativnimi družbenimi trendi. V transforming industries and redefining/improving the essence of zadnjih desetletjih je UI dosegla izjemne mejnike, od human capabilities. While AI progresses at an unprecedented obvladovanja kompleksnih iger do revolucije v panogah, kot sta pace, human societal progress appears to be stagnating, zdravstvo in finance, z napredki na področju strojnega učenja, obdelave naravnega jezika in robotike. Posebej pomemben increasingly entangled in decadent ideologies and negative societal trends. This duality between AI's rise and human inertia ∗Article Title Footnote needs to be captured as Title Note is critical to understanding the current technological landscape. †Author Footnote to be captured as Author Note Over recent decades, AI has achieved remarkable milestones, Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or including mastering complex games like Go and chess, classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed advancing natural language processing (NLP), and driving for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must significant innovations in sectors such as healthcare and finance. be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). For example, the development of GPT (Generative Pre-trained Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). Transformer) models represents a breakthrough in AI’s ability to https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.16 72 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. Gams generate human-like text, setting new standards for machine The release of GPT-3 by OpenAI in 2020 marked a language generation and understanding [1, 2]. significant advance in the field of NLP. GPT-3, with 175 billion This paper examines the transformative potential of AI across parameters, demonstrated unprecedented language generation various sectors, including healthcare, finance, education, and capabilities, performing tasks such as translation, summarization, entertainment, highlighting both the opportunities and challenges and question-answering with high proficiency and minimal fine- that accompany widespread AI adoption. In recent years, tuning. It set a new benchmark for the potential of AI in creative significant advancements in AI have occurred at an accelerating and linguistic tasks [9]. rate. For example, breakthroughs in reinforcement learning and 2021: DeepMind’s AlphaFold 2 in Protein Folding unsupervised learning have expanded the capabilities of AI In 2021, AlphaFold 2, developed by DeepMind, solved one systems, with applications ranging from autonomous vehicles to of biology's greatest challenges by predicting protein structures sophisticated recommendation systems [3]. Additionally, the with remarkable accuracy. This breakthrough has significant ethical, economic, cognitive, and social implications of AI's implications for drug discovery, understanding diseases, and proliferation are increasingly coming to the forefront, as debates designing new biological processes, demonstrating AI's potential intensify over issues such as algorithmic bias, privacy, and the to revolutionize the life sciences [11]. potential for AI to displace human jobs [4]. These discussions 2022: DALL-E 2 and Image Generation underscore the need for robust governance frameworks to ensure OpenAI's DALL-E 2, released in 2022, demonstrated the that AI technologies are developed and deployed responsibly [5]. power of AI in generating highly detailed and creative images As AI technologies like machine learning, NLP, and robotics from text descriptions. This model pushed the boundaries of AI continue to evolve, they increasingly integrate into human life, in the visual domain, showcasing its ability to combine artistic augmenting cognitive and functional abilities through ubiquitous creativity with technical precision, and opening new possibilities technologies such as smartphones, personal computers, and in design, marketing, and entertainment [12]. wearables. This integration, often referred to as a form of human- 2023: GPT-4 and Multimodal AI AI symbiosis, has already multiplied human potential, enabling In 2023, OpenAI introduced GPT-4, which expanded the tasks and processes that were previously unimaginable [6]. The capabilities of its predecessor by being multimodal—able to consequences of this symbiotic relationship are profound, raising process and generate both text and images. GPT-4's ability to critical questions about the direction of societal progress and the handle complex queries across different formats has made it a future of humanity as AI [7, 8] becomes more embedded in powerful tool for applications in education, customer service, everyday life. and creative industries, further blurring the distinction between We analyze the implications of AI’s rapid development, products of human and machine intelligence [13]. particularly the considerations that must be addressed to navigate The last five years have seen groundbreaking AI the ongoing AI revolution effectively. By integrating recent achievements each year that have pushed the boundaries of what scholarly insights with a broader analysis of AI's impact, this AI can do. From mastering strategic games and understanding paper seeks to contribute to the understanding of how AI is protein structures to generating high-quality text and images, reshaping industries and human capabilities, as well as the future AI's progress continues to accelerate, bringing us closer to a trajectory of this unprecedented technological evolution. future where AI plays an integral role in nearly every aspect of society. In the next section, we examine human progress. 2 AI progress 3 Impact of AI progress across various fields A recent and transformative achievement is the development of Generative Pre-trained Transformers. These models represent As AI continues to evolve, its influence is expected to a leap forward in natural language processing, capable of permeate multiple sectors, driving innovation and transformation. generating human-like text, translating languages, and even This section analyzes the potential impact of AI across key fields writing code. The GPT-3 model, released by OpenAI in 2020, is such as healthcare, finance, education, entertainment, and particularly notable for its ability to perform a wide range of tasks transportation, highlighting both the opportunities and with minimal input, showcasing the power and versatility of challenges these advancements may bring. large-scale language models [9]. Healthcare: AI has the potential to revolutionize healthcare Here we present one major achievement over the last five by improving diagnostics, personalized medicine, and patient years, having in mind the constant AI progress in areas like care. Machine learning algorithms are already being used to autonomous driving or pattern recognition: analyze medical images with greater accuracy than human 2019: AlphaStar in Real-Time Strategy Games radiologists, and AI-driven predictive analytics are helping to In 2019, DeepMind's AlphaStar achieved a significant identify at-risk patients before conditions worsen. Additionally, milestone by reaching the top players of professional StarCraft II AI can streamline administrative processes, reducing the burden play, a complex real-time strategy game that requires long-term on healthcare professionals and allowing for more efficient planning, resource management, and real-time decision-making. patient management. The integration of AI in healthcare is This achievement underscored the potential of AI to operate in expected to lead to better patient outcomes, lower costs, and a dynamic and highly strategic environments, far beyond turn- more proactive approach to health management [14]. The JSI based games like Go [10]. team is in the last phases of donating a home doctor system to all 2020: GPT-3 Slovenians. 73 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. Gams Finance: The finance industry is experiencing significant which allowed early humans to travel long distances and use their transformations due to AI, particularly in areas such as hands for tool-making. The invention of tools around 2.6 million algorithmic trading, risk management, and fraud detection. AI years ago further distinguished our ancestors, enabling them to algorithms can analyze vast amounts of financial data in real-manipulate their environment in unprecedented ways. time, enabling more informed and faster decision-making. These Approximately 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged, technologies also enhance the accuracy of credit scoring and equipped with greater cognitive abilities and complex language, personalized financial advice, offering tailored solutions to facilitating social structures and cultural developments that set individual customers. However, the increased reliance on AI also the stage for future innovations. The advent of agriculture around raises concerns about market stability, ethical use of data, and the 10,000 years ago marked a fundamental shift in human society, potential for systemic risks [15]. leading to settled communities and the eventual rise of Education: AI is poised to transform education by providing civilizations. personalized learning experiences, automating administrative Fast forward to the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, tasks, and enabling new forms of interactive learning. AI-driven human progress accelerated dramatically. Innovations in adaptive learning systems can tailor educational content to the machinery, transportation, and communication reshaped needs of individual students, allowing for more effective learning societies, laying the groundwork for the Information Age. The outcomes. Additionally, AI can assist teachers by automating 20th century saw rapid technological advances, including the grading and providing real-time feedback, freeing up more time development of the computer, the internet, and the beginnings of for personalized instruction. GPTs further offer significant artificial intelligence, all of which have profoundly impacted improvements in education. Integrating AI in education also human life. presents challenges, such as ensuring equitable access to AI- driven tools and addressing concerns about data privacy [16]. At 4.2 Recent progress: merging with ICT and AI JSI, we tested the quality of various GPTs on educational tasks. In the past few decades, the convergence of information and Entertainment: The entertainment industry is undergoing a communication technologies (ICT) and artificial intelligence has significant shift due to AI's capabilities in content creation, fundamentally altered the trajectory of human progress. This recommendation systems, and audience engagement. AI- merger has enhanced human capabilities and begun to blur the generated music, art, and scripts are becoming increasingly lines between human and machine intelligence, creating a sophisticated, thus differentiating between products of human symbiotic relationship reshaping society. and machine creativity as often impossible. Recommendation Mobile Phones: One of the most transformative technologies algorithms, powered by AI, personalize content delivery to users, of the late 20th and early 21st centuries is the mobile phone. enhancing their experience and increasing engagement. However, Introduced commercially in the 1980s, mobile telephones rapidly this rise in AI-generated content raises questions about the future evolved from simple communication devices to powerful, of human creativity and the potential for AI to disrupt traditional multifunctional tools. The advent of smartphones in the 2000s, content production models [17]. Recommendation algorithms with their integration of internet access, GPS, and a multitude of were one of the central parts of the H2020 smart-city Urbanite applications, significantly enhanced human connectivity and project with most of the software developed at AI. access to information. Today, smartphones are essential tools for Transportation: AI is driving innovation in transportation both personal and professional life, facilitating real-time through the development of autonomous vehicles, smart traffic communication, social networking, and a vast array of digital management systems, and predictive maintenance. Self-driving services [19]. cars, powered by AI, promise to reduce accidents, lower The Internet and Cloud Computing: The development of emissions, and increase the efficiency of transportation networks. the Internet in the late 20th century and the rise of cloud AI can also optimize traffic flow and reduce congestion through computing in the early 21st century have revolutionized how real-time data analysis and adaptive traffic control systems. humans interact with information and each other. The internet However, the widespread adoption of AI in transportation faces has democratized access to knowledge, enabling global challenges related to safety, regulatory frameworks, and public communication and collaboration, while cloud computing has acceptance [18]. made vast computational resources and storage available to In the next section, human progress and integration with AI individuals and organizations alike. These technologies have are presented. increased productivity and laid the foundation for the widespread deployment of AI systems, which rely on large datasets and 4 Human progress including merging with ICT significant computational power [20]. Generative Pre-trained Transformers: The recent and AI advancements in AI, particularly with the development of GPTs, represent a significant leap in the merging of human capabilities 4.1 Historical overview of human progress with machine intelligence. GPT-3, introduced in 2020, Human progress is a story of relentless evolution and demonstrated the ability to generate coherent and contextually technological advancement, spanning millions of years. relevant text based on minimal input, performing a wide range of Beginning around six million years ago, the earliest hominins tasks such as translation, summarization, and even creative diverged from the common ancestor we share with chimpanzees, writing. GPT-4, released in 2023, expanded on this by marking the start of a journey toward modern humanity. One of incorporating multimodal capabilities, processing both text and the earliest major milestones was the development of bipedalism, images, and further enhancing human-machine interaction [13]. These models are not just tools but extensions of human 74 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. Gams cognitive abilities, enabling users to perform tasks that require deteriorating, the measure of human intellectual capacity should complex reasoning and linguistic skills with the assistance of AI. now include not just our innate abilities but also the external Wearable Technology and Augmented Reality: Wearable systems that augment them [19]. devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, have The view that technology significantly enhances human integrated AI into daily life, monitoring health metrics and cognitive ability aligns with Harari’s notion of humans becoming providing real-time feedback to users. These devices exemplify "cyborgs" as they increasingly rely on tools that supplement the merging of human biology with technology, offering new mental processes. Similarly, [22] discusses the extended mind ways to enhance physical and cognitive performance. theory, which posits that external tools, such as smartphones, are Augmented reality (AR) technologies are also becoming integral components of the human cognitive system, challenging increasingly prevalent, overlaying digital information onto the the notion that brain size or biological limitations strictly define physical world and creating immersive experiences that enhance mental capacity. These technological extensions of human learning, navigation, and entertainment [21]. cognitive ability have created new frameworks for evaluating our intellectual potential, making it more accurate to assess human functionality in a combined system of biological and technological entities. The emergence of human-like properties such as consciousness [23], observed in advanced GPT models, represents a pivotal step in the evolution of artificial intelligence and human progress. These models, capable of understanding Intel igence bet er predictions, bet er reaction. More energy and generating natural language, are beginning to mimic forms consumption 25 . of cognitive processes, thus contributing to what could be Sexual at raction Anthropological principle. described as the dawn of a new "intelligent era." This era, driven by AI's ever-increasing capabilities, promises a deeper Tool evolution I TE IGE CE WI S integration between human cognition and machine intelligence, Comple issue potentially fostering innovations in problem-solving, creativity, and the expansion of knowledge. Researchers like David Chalmers have explored the idea that AI systems, such as GPT models, may embody elements of extended cognition, which can extend human cognitive abilities beyond their biological limits. The more these models evolve, the more they may contribute to an era where AI complements human intelligence in unprecedented ways, leading to new forms Figure 1: Progress of the human brain and intelligence. of civilization that heavily rely on intelligent systems to solve Source of the draft (modifications original): complex global challenges [7, 22]. https://www.aquatic-human-ancestor.org/anatomy/brain.html Figure 1 illustrates the functional growth of human problem- solving capabilities, driven by the integration of ICT and AI solutions, which serve as amplifiers of natural intelligence. Human progress, from the earliest hominins to the modern Human cognitive abilities are being multiplied several times age, has been marked by the continuous development and through this merger with ICT and AI, as represented by the blue integration of technologies that enhance human capabilities. In arrow. While the original figure without the blue arrow shows recent decades, the merging of ICT and AI with human activities the increase in human skull volume, and thus brain size, the blue has accelerated this progress, creating a symbiotic relationship arrow highlights the exponential growth in problem-solving that extends human cognitive and physical abilities. capacity. A simple analogy can be drawn: consider a person Technologies such as mobile phones, the internet, GPT models, walking barefoot versus using a car or plane. The speed of and wearable devices have not only transformed how we live and movement changes dramatically, even though the human’s work but have also set the stage for future advancements that may physical body remains unchanged. Similarly, while human further blur the lines between human and machine intelligence. biology (the brain) did not improve, the ability to tackle complex The key idea of this overview is that humans and user tasks surged drastically with the aid of ICT and AI interfaces are already deeply intertwined, both through physical hardware like mobile phones and more abstract systems such as 5 DISCUSSION software and information networks. As these systems fast become more sophisticated, they enhance human cognitive, In recent years, there has been growing concern that Western intellectual, and mental functions, effectively expanding our civilization is experiencing a period of decline, marked by capacities. This growing interconnection between humans and political fragmentation, cultural disintegration, and economic technology echoes the concept of cyborgization, where external challenges. Scholars have pointed to a loss of social cohesion, devices supplement and expand the functions of the human mind. declining institutional trust, and the rise of non-productive and The development of smartphones, wearable technology, and conflicting ideologies [24, 25]. even future brain-computer interfaces suggests that this synergy On the other hand, the rapid advancements in artificial is only deepening. Contrary to claims that our brain size is intelligence are driving unprecedented changes across various 75 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. Gams fields, fundamentally altering the landscape of industries and industries where automation can replace human labor. This shift society. As AI technologies continue to evolve, they offer both could lead to widespread job displacement, necessitating a tremendous opportunities and significant challenges that require rethinking of economic structures, education systems, and social careful consideration. safety nets to address the needs of a rapidly changing labor Balancing Innovation with Ethical Concerns: One of the market [16]. primary discussions surrounding AI is the balance between The potential for AI to drive social and economic inequality innovation and ethical considerations. AI has the potential to is a pressing concern. Without proactive measures to ensure revolutionize fields like healthcare, finance, education, and equitable access to AI technologies and to address the disparities transportation by improving efficiency, accuracy, and that may arise from AI-driven economic shifts, society risks personalization. However, these advancements also raise critical deepening existing divides. One of the best solutions is ethical questions, particularly regarding data privacy, introducing the AI courses already in elementary schools. algorithmic bias, and the potential for AI to perpetuate or avigating the AI Revolution: As AI continues to advance, exacerbate existing inequalities. For example, while AI-driven society is at a crossroads, faced with the task of navigating the personalized medicine can enhance healthcare outcomes, it also complexities of the AI revolution. The potential benefits of AI risks marginalizing those without access to the necessary are immense, but there are also certain risks. Ensuring that AI technology or data [14]. technologies are developed and deployed responsibly will Moreover, the use of AI in finance, particularly in areas like require a concerted effort from governments, industry, academia, algorithmic trading and credit scoring, has the potential to deepen and civil society. This includes developing ethical guidelines, economic disparities if not carefully regulated. The challenges of regulatory frameworks, and educational initiatives that can help ensuring fairness, transparency, and accountability in AI systems society adapt to the changes brought about by AI. At the same are significant and demand robust governance frameworks to time, these regulations should first of all enhance proper progress, prevent misuse or unintended consequences [15]. research and development, and not pose additional bureaucratic The Human-AI Symbiosis: Another crucial aspect of the burdens. discussion is the growing symbiosis between humans and AI. As In cognitive terms, GPT models represent a promising humans increasingly rely on AI technologies in daily life— approach to creating forms of artificial consciousness and through smartphones, wearables, and AI-powered applications— cognitive information beings. These models simulate aspects of there is a merging of human and machine capabilities. This human cognition, such as language understanding and generation, integration has the potential to significantly enhance human by mimicking neural networks that resemble the processing of cognitive and physical abilities, leading to what some describe as human brains. As they evolve, GPTs could potentially help us an augmented human experience. However, this symbiosis also explore and understand the fundamental components of human raises questions about dependency, control, and the future of consciousness, offering insights into both artificial and human human autonomy. As AI systems become more embedded in cognition [26]. decision-making processes, it is essential to consider how these In conclusion, the discussion surrounding AI is multifaceted, technologies may influence human behavior, decision-making, touching on ethical, social, economic, and technological and even identity. dimensions. As we advance, it is essential to balance harnessing The development of AI models like GPT-4o has shown how AI's potential with addressing the challenges it brings, such as closely intertwined human and machine intelligence can become. bias, privacy concerns, and the risk of job displacement. By These models have not only expanded the possibilities of human-proactively engaging with these issues, we can ensure that the AI machine interaction but have also challenged our understanding revolution creates a future that is not only innovative but also of creativity, communication, and the nature of intelligence itself. promotes individual and societal human progress. Despite the As AI continues to evolve, it will be crucial to monitor and ongoing debates and misunderstandings, the transition toward an understand the long-term implications of this symbiotic information-driven era seems inevitable, as AI continues to relationship on human society and culture [13]. integrate into every facet of human life, shaping our collective The author of this paper continuously highlights the destiny. significance of this merging, noting that the increasing integration of AI into human life first of all augments human Tool Usage: ChatGPT-4o and various grammar and word capabilities but also to a certain degree presents complex ethical processing tools were applied to enhance the language quality. and philosophical challenges. As AI begins to mirror human-like ChatGPT was also employed periodically to refine informal draft consciousness in certain aspects [22], the line between human ideas into well-structured, formal text. 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Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance. 77 Cognitive perspective on production of third person dative and accusative clitic pronouns in Slovenian school-aged children Maruša Brežnik Dornik Center for Cognitive Science of Language Faculty of Humanities University of Nova Gorica marusa.breznik@ung.si Abstract part, the conducted experiment, which tested proposed research hypothesis from Italian on Slovenian school-aged children, is The paper investigates the production of third-person dative and presented. accusative clitic pronouns in Slovenian school-aged children, focusing on whether cognitive factors influence their acquisition, despite the morphological similarities of these clitics in 2 Experiment Slovenian. Previous research in Italian suggested that dative Cardinaletti et al (2021) claim that the Italian dative clitics are clitics in Italian are acquired earlier than the accusative due to acquired faster than their accusative counterparts because of a their morphological differences, a pattern tested within the morphological difference between Italian dative and accusative Slovenian context. Using elicited production tasks with 71 clitics. Since there is no comparable difference between Slovenian children, the study reveals that in Slovene third person Slovenian dative and accusative clitics, their proposal predicts clitics are produced more frequently than third dative clitics, that the observed difference in acquisition should be absent in challenging the idea that acquisition is driven solely by Slovenian. I tested this prediction among Slovenian children. The morphological complexity. The research is framed within prediction was not confirmed, since children produced 3DAT cognitive science, drawing on Universal Grammar and clitics significantly less often than 3ACC. connectionist models to explore how cognitive processes, such as working memory and language processing demands, interact with linguistic structures. 2.1 Goals and predictions of the study Keywords This study aims to examine the production of 3DATand 3ACC clitic pronouns among Slovenian school-aged children. Language acquisition, Slovenian clitics, dative, accusative, Acquisition of the two clitic pronouns had been studied in Italian, pronouns where it was determined that the acquisition of the 3DAT clitics precedes the acquisition of 3ACC clitics [3]. The authors argue 1 Introduction that the difference in the time of acquisition stems from different morphological makeup of the two sets of clitics. Italian dative Language acquisition is a fundamental aspect of cognitive clitics do not differentiate between gender ( gli is a third dative development, providing a window into how and when the human pronoun used for both feminine and masculine gender), while mind processes and structures information. The acquisition of accusative clitics differ for the two genders and are thus clitic pronouns, such as the third person dative (3DAT) and morphologically more complex. They argue that gender features, accusative (3ACC) clitics in Slovenian, involves complex or better the lack of them, must be the reason why Italian children cognitive processes that reflect both innate linguistic capacities and the influence of environmental factors. In the first part, this produced more 3DAT clitics than 3ACC clitics. In Slovenian both 3ACC (ga “him”, jo “her”) and 3DAT (mu assignment explores these processes through the lenses of prominent cognitive science theories, including Universal “to.him”, ji “to.her”) clitics are comparable in their Grammar and connectionist models, while also considering the morphological complexity as they both also spell-out the gender role of working memory in language development. In the second feature. Given the analysis in [3] it is predicted that there should be no difference in the production of 3ACC and 3DAT clitics in Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or Slovenian. The purpose of this research is to test this prediction classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full by exploring whether there is a difference in the production of citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must 3ACC and 3DAT clitics among Slovenian school-aged children. be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). 2.2 Methodology https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.17 The methodology for this study is structured around two main elicited production tasks, each tailored to evaluate the production 78 Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia M. Brežnik Dornik of dative and accusative clitic pronouns in Slovenian. These tasks Figure 1: “In this story there is a boy that wants to destroy are adapted from those used in the study [3], ensuring a sand castle.” consistency in approach while accommodating the unique aspects of Slovenian. Slovenian stimuli consist of translations, and where necessary, adaptations of the Italian sentences used in [3] and of mostly unmodified drawings also from [3]. 2.3 Participants 71 Slovenian typically developing (TD) children took part in the study. They were divided into six age groups, as shown in the table 1. Written in- formed consent was obtained from the children’s parents prior to testing. Parents provided information about the languages spoken at home, which enabled us to exclude bilingual and L2 Slovenian speakers from the study. Figure 2: “Look, what is he the boy doing to the castle?” Table 1: Groups, age and mean age of tested children. Similar elicited production task was made for the dative. Groups Age Mean age TD1 6.6-6.9 6.8 TD2 7.0-7.9 7.4 2.4 Procedure TD3 8.0-8.8 8.6 Each child participant was individually tested in a quiet room TD4 9.0-9.9 9.6 within their school, ensuring a comfortable and distraction-free TD5 10.0-10.8 10.4 setting. All responses were audio- recorded and subsequently TD6 11.0-11.9 11.4 transcribed for analysis, with verification by two separate reviewers to ensure accuracy. Elicited Production – Accusative Task This task is designed to elicit the use of 3ACC clitic pronouns. 2.5 Response coding Children were presented with a series of visual stimuli featuring We have classified the answers into three categories: target, one or two characters engaged in various actions. For each set of production of full noun phrases (NP), clitic/NP omission. Every images, the initial scene was described to the child using a answer containing a clitic pro- noun was considered as target. recorded narrative. Following this, a second image was shown, Children have produced a good amount of target answers. In and the child was asked to describe the action occurring, most of the answers they produced the same verbal form they had specifically focusing on the interaction between the characters. heard in the question, present tense, or sometimes produced The aim is to prompt responses that naturally incorporate accusative clitic pronouns, reflecting the child’s understanding sentences containing past tense. The most frequent non-target answer was the production of full NPs (in both, accusative and and use of these grammatical structures. dative tests). The answers are grammatical, though redundant and pragmatically infelicitous, since the elicitation context Example Stimulus for Accusative Task requires clitic pronouns. There were some instances where clitics The first drawing shows a boy (agent) destroying a sand castle were omitted, either in the accusative or dative tests. In the (patient), (Figure 1). The narrative describes the first scene, and accusative test, clitic omission led to ungrammatical sentences. the child is asked, "What is the boy doing to the castle?" (Figure In the dative test, ungrammatical responses occurred with verbs 2). The expected response should include the accusative clitic like dati “give,” podariti “give,” and prinesti “bring,” all of pronoun corresponding to the castle sand, indicating the action which require a goal argument. Conversely, verbs such as brati directed towards the patient. “read” and metati “throw” resulted in grammatical sentences that were, however, contextually inappropriate for elicitation. Table 2: Percentages of target answers for all groups Groups Target Target DAT ACC TD1 28,7 57,4 TD2 57,1 83,3 TD3 37,5 62,5 TD4 71,2 85,9 TD5 64,3 76,2 TD6 81,8 82,6 79 Cognitive perspective on production of clitics Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia 3 Results and discussion I am very grateful to Anna Cardinaletti, Sara Cerut and Francesca Volpato for sharing with me and allowing me to use their stimuli All children’s responses were compared using student t-test: the (drawings and Italian sentences) from [1]. I am grateful to the difference in the amount of 3DAT and 3ACC produced between Elementary schools in Deskle and Celje that assisted me in the tested children is statistically significant (p < .001). Table 2 running the experiment. This research was partially funded by gives an overview of percentages of production of clitics, full ARIS grants N6-0314 and P6-03. NPs and omission in both tasks. Four instances of gender agreement error were found within the youngest group TD1 and References two such errors within the TD3 group. Overall, children produced a good amount of target answers. The analysis within [1] P Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory and language: each group shows that the difference between 3DAT and 3ACC An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36(3), is noteworthy in all groups, except in TD6. The youngest groups 189-208. produced significantly more 3ACC clitics than 3DAT clitics, [2] Bialystok, E. (2009). Bilingualism: The good, the bad, namely TD1 28,7% more, TD2 26,19% more, TD3 25,0% more. and the indifferent. Bilingualism: Language and As for the analysis between groups, we found significant Cognition, 12(1), 3-11. differences for 3ACC, where the use of a 3ACC clitic is very low [3] Cardinaletti, A., Cerutti, S., & Volpato, F. (2021). On the in TD1 group with 57,4%, TD3 group with 62,5% and TD5 with acquisition of third person dative clitic pronouns in Italian. 76,19%. The omission was always higher with the 3DAT Lingue e linguaggio, 20(2), 311–341. pronoun than 3ACC, TD1 omitted 3DAT with 16,67% more, [4] Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding: The Pisa Lectures. Dordrecht: Foris. TD2 with 25% more, TD3 with 8,34% more, in group TD4 no [5] Elman, J. L., Bates, E. A., Johnson, M. H., Karmiloff- case of 3ACC omission was noted, TD5 omitted with Smith, A., Parisi, D., & Plunkett, K. (1996). Rethinking significantly higher percentage of 20,23% more and TD6 with Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development. 4,54% more. MIT Press. In this study the production of 3ACC and 3DAT clitic pronouns [6] Garnham, A. (2013). Mental Models and the on Slovenian school-age children was tested, using two elicited Interpretation of Anaphora. Psychology Press. production tasks. Differences between 3DAT and 3ACC clitics [7] Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working production were found in all groups. Children produced less memory and language. Psychology Press. 3DAT than 3ACC clitics in general. Which differs from what [8] Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2007). The cortical Italian kids (as reported in [1]) were producing, and also goes organization of speech processing. Nature Reviews against the prediction based on [1]. Surprisingly the high Neuroscience, 8(5), 393-402 omission is present in all age groups. Among the non-target [9] Toporišič, J. Slovenska slovnica [Slovenian Grammar], answers, the production of full object instead of clitics was 4th edition. Maribor: Obzorja (2000). unusually high in the accusative task for the two oldest groups, while the four youngest groups produced fuller object in the dative task, which could be age related linked to the difficulty of the task. As Slovenian 3ACC and 3DAT clitics are morphologically comparably complex, the explanation provided in [1] cannot be used to explain the observed pattern. The findings suggest that while innate linguistic capacities, as proposed by Universal Grammar, provide a foundation for language acquisition, the role of working memory and cognitive development cannot be overlooked. The results challenge the idea that the acquisition of clitic pronouns is driven solely by morphological complexity. Acknowledgments 80 Ballot Butts: Nudging towards Pro Environmental Behaviour Anouk Hartmans Lucija Karnelutti Leon Žužek Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia ah17909@student.uni-lj.si lk00268@student.uni-lj.si lz08739@student.uni-lj.si Toma Strle Sabina Pajmon Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia toma.strle@pef.uni-lj.si sabina.pajmon@pef.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT effects typically result from leaching, causing damage to aquatic life and contaminating waterways, while the consequences in This study explores the effectiveness of a nudge-based terrestrial environments range from ingestion of butts, buildup of intervention, to reduce cigarette butt littering on a student toxic chemicals, and soil contamination [1, 2, 3]. As such, finding campus. Using the principles of nudge theory, particularly the ways to encourage proper disposal of CBs is crucial for reducing EAST framework, we designed a ballot box, allowing smokers environmental harm. to "vote" by disposing of their cigarette butts. Observations conducted before and after the intervention revealed a 1.2. Nudge Theory statistically significant increase in proper disposal, supporting One promising line of research in reducing littering is the nudge the claim that nudges can positively influence environmental theory, first proposed by Thaler and Sunstein in their work behavior. However, the study also highlights several limitations, Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and including varying participant demographics and the challenge of Happiness. In their words, a nudge is “any aspect of the choice isolating the factors driving behavioral change. architecture that alters people’s behaviour in a predictable way without forbidding any options or significantly changing their KEYWORDS economic incentives” [4]. A nudge replaced their previous idea nudging, environmental behaviour, gamification, littering of paternalism, which similarly influences “choices of selected parties in a way that will make them better off” [5]. Several studies have found that nudges, in their various forms, can indeed 1 INTRODUCTION be effective in reducing littering [6, 7, 8]. For example, a study 1.1. Increasing Need for Innovative Solutions on Chinese workers found that it is possible to reduce littering on With the increasingly dire consequences of climate change, the the factory floor by 20% by placing golden coins, which are urgency to address the environmental degradation has never been culturally and religiously significant, on the factory floor, thus greater. Among the myriad of issues contributing to this changing it from a place that can be littered, to a place that should escalating problem, littering—particularly the improper disposal not be littered [8]. There are various forms of nudges and can be of cigarette butts—stands out as a significant, yet often roughly divided into sizing (e.g. changing portion sizes in overlooked, contributor. In 2019, of the estimated 6 trillion restaurants to reduce food waste), priming (e.g. footprints cigarettes, only a third were properly disposed of [1]. Cigarette leading towards a bin), proximity (e.g. having a bin close by), butts (CBs) are composed of tightly packed microfiber bundles presentation (e.g., designing eco-friendly devices as more of cellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate is cellulose treated with aesthetic), labelling and improving the functional design [7]. Due acetic acid, which heavily impedes the biodegradability of CBs. to their diversity, usefulness and cost efficiency, nudges could During their decades-long degradation period, CBs pose a double help mitigate the environmental impact of CBs. threat. The first is plastic pollution, as cellulose acetate is classified as a ‘bio-plastic’ with the second being the release of 1.3. Theoretical framework toxins that build up through the process of smoking [1]. The Our research was inspired and partly supported by the Green Nudge project1 . This study specifically targeted the smoking Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or behaviours of the student population from various faculties in the classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed area of Kardeljeva ploščad in Ljubljana, aiming to assess how the for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must design of bins could influence proper disposal habits of the CBs. be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 202 4 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). 1 The Green Nudge project (“UL za trajnostno družbo – ULTRA”), financed by the https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.18 EU - NextGenerationEU, and Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation. 81 In our pilot study we implemented the nudging principles in the and the likelihood of littering, with certain demographics, like context of pro-environmental behavior. During our research younger individuals and men, being more prone to littering [14]. design and nudge implementation process we relied heavily on While the design of ballot bins is often consistent across studies, the ideas from The Little Book of Green Nudges [9], where we the specific environments, demographics, and timelines vary. utilized their five recommended steps of nudge implementation Research demonstrates that these bins can be an effective, low- and their EAST framework, designed to make a nudge Easy, cost solution for reducing cigarette butt litter, particularly in Attractive, Social and Timely. We based our nudge on the more homogeneous settings like school campuses. However, findings of Rifkin and colleagues [10], where they found out that their effectiveness may diminish in more diverse public spaces behavior, such as tipping in a bar, can be influenced by “dueling [14]. Given the many variables influencing these outcomes, preferences”. If a behavior is presented as a choice between two researchers recommend further experiments to optimize these options, preference for dogs versus cats, it gives people the interventions in different settings [12, 13, 14]. opportunity to self-express themselves through a behavior that is not directly connected with the preference. In a similar fashion we have designed a cigarette voting box, where people could cast 2 METHODS a vote with their CBs. The previously mentioned study was also Our preliminary study into the effectiveness of cigarette disposal a basis for a pilot study by Gay and colleagues [11], where they through the use of ballot bins was conducted on a student campus compared the impact of different cigarette bins on polluting in Ljubljana, Slovenia during the spring and summer of 2024. behavior. They found that a “dual preference” voting box, like After initially observing the campus area, we decided to target ours, was the most efficient in reducing the pollution of the the behavior of throwing CBs on the ground. There were several environment with CBs. ‘hotspots’ of discarded cigarette butts, but we were particularly intrigued by the large number of butts thrown around bins. What intrigued us was the fact that despite there being a clear area for throwing away their cigarettes, smokers still did not opt for this choice. As such, we focused on a popular smoking area of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Ljubljana. During the span of six months, we conducted two sets of observations, totalling seven observations: one set of observations before our intervention and one after. The first four observations were carried out in April 2024 and observed a popular smoking spot for students and faculty next to an existing bin. With the exception of the first observation, which was done in a group by all researchers, all were done individually over the course of two hours. During these observations, we collected data on the total number of CBs thrown in the bin or improperly discarded. We also took into account other factors such as time of day, weather and any other factors we deemed important like the number of people smoking together outside, or any other factors, which might have influenced the final number. The second set of observations was done during July, this time with the nudge (the ballot box) placed next to the bin in a popular smoking spot. The ballot box can be seen in Figure 1. 3 RESULTS Figure 1: The ballot box for CB's Our descriptive results are presented in the table below (see The prompts on the box are: morning shower (slo. tuširanje Table 1), where we calculated the mean value of CBs either in zjutraj) and evening shower (slo. tuširanje zvečer). The box is the bin or on the ground before and after the implementation of made from a repurposed mail box and is standing on a metal our green nudge. pole. Surrounding the box is a picture depicting two smokers. The bin was made by our colleagues at the Academy of Fine Table 1: Littering behaviour observations before and after Arts. intervention with CB’s thrown in the bin and on the ground Observations Condition CB’s in bin CB’s ground Existing studies addressing cigarette butt littering through M SD M SD behavioural experiments indicate that 63% of such littering is 1 before 21 6.38 12.25 5.74 driven by individual motivations, such as a lack of awareness 2 after 17 17.35 4.3 2.52 about environmental impacts and the availability of ash receptacles [12]. Other contributing factors include convenience In order to determine if there is a statistical difference between (e.g., the distance to bins) and habitual behaviour [13], some the proportion of CBs in the bin versus on the ground based on research highlights a correlation between an area’s cleanliness the condition, we conducted a two-proportion Z-test. Based on 82 the statistical analysis we found that there was a statistically 4.2. Future directions higher proportion of CBs thrown into the bin versus on the While our pilot study provides valuable insights into the ground after the implementation of our cigarette voting box, effectiveness of nudging towards pro-environmental behaviour , compared with the proportions before its implementation, z = future research could address the small sample size in this study 0.165, p = 0.0495. by employing a larger, more diverse population to improve the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, observing the population within a shorter timeframe would improve the 4 DISCUSSION validity of our results. Further studies could also include an Based on our results we can confirm our hypothesis that our interview before implementing a green nudge, using polling to nudge would increase the proportion of CBs thrown into the bin determine the general environmental attitude, and after the green versus on the ground thus reducing the pollution of the nudge, to ascertain the factors influencing their decision-making environment surrounding the student campus with CBs, which is process. in line with the findings by Gay and colleagues [11]. Although our results do indicate a change in the proportions, conclusions In conclusion, our study ha s shown that nudges can be should be taken with caution, since the frequency of smokers successfully employed to influence non-environmental present before and after the implementation of the nudge varied behaviours by combining behavioural insights from nudge vastly and could have had a big impact on the results of our theory and gamification concepts (see [16] for a study combining analysis. gamification and nudging). Specifically, a ballot box could be Additionally, it is difficult to determine exactly what nudged the used in short term settings, like open-air concerts and other participants’ behaviour, which opens a broader question of nudge events, where littering poses an issue. However, further research validity. Specifically, for our nudge, there could have been a is needed to expand upon the factors underlying non-number of factors influencing their behaviour. Some of these environmental decisions. factors include 1) proximity; simply having more available bins could have decreased the number of CBs thrown on the ground, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 2) novelty; the nudge gained attention by simply being a new structure in a familiar environment, 3) presentation; the ballot This pilot research study was partly supported by The Green box is more attractive than a conventional bin, which is why Nudge project (“U L za trajnost no druž bo – ULTRA”) - participants would decide for it. While these factors do not negate European Union - NextGenerationEU, and Republic of the effectiveness of the nudge, the difficulty in pinpointing the Slovenia, Ministry of Higher Education, Science and determining factor could influence the design and Innovation. implementation of nudges. For example, if novelty is the determining factor, a green arrow pointing towards a bin could The authors also wish to express their gratitude to the have the same effect as a costly ballot box. There is also a development team at the Academy of Fine Arts, who created the ballot box. possibility that our nudge was not clear enough and thus resulted in some people not engaging with it. The communication REFERENCE S materials were designed with a tone that was perhaps too playful and light-hearted, which may not have resonated well with the [1] Green, D. S., Tongue, A. D., & Boots, B. (2022). The ecological impacts student population of smokers, who might have responded better of discarded cigarette butts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 37(2), 183– to more straightforward and direct messages. This lack of clarity 192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2021.10.001 [2] Conradi, M., & Sánchez-Moyano, J. E. (2022). Toward a sustainable could have had an overall impact on the efficacy of our nudge as circular economy for cigarette butts, the most common waste worldwide suggested by Sunstein [15]. on the coast. The Science of the Total Environment, 847, 157634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157634 [3] Qamar, W., Abdelgalil, A. A., Aljarboa, S., Alhuzani, M., & Altamimi, M. A. (2020). Cigarette waste: Assessment of hazard to the environment and 4.1. Limitations health in Riyadh city. Saudi journal of biological sciences, 27(5), 1380– 1383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.12.002 One key limitation of our study is the comparability of pre- and [4] Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving Decisions post-intervention data. Before the intervention, data was about Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Yale University Press. [5] Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2003). Libertarian Paternalism. The collected during the ongoing academic term with a larger, American Economic Review, 93(2), 175–179. consistent student population. Post-intervention data, however, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3132220 [6] McCoy, K., Oliver, J.J., Borden, D.S. and Cohn, S.I. (2018), "Nudging was gathered after the exam period, when fewer students were waste diversion at Western State Colorado University: application of present. Moreover, the population mainly consisted of foreign behavioral insights", International Journal of Sustainability in Higher students attending summer school. The study of Chinese workers Education, Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 608-621. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-05-2017-0063 by Wu and Paluck mentioned in section 1.2. urges that cultural [7] Wee, S., Choong, W., & Low, S. (2021). Can “Nudging” play a role to context must be taken into account when designing a nudge. promote Pro-Environmental behavior? 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Proceedings of the Design Society, 1, 1647–1656. https://doi.org/10.1017/pds.2021.426 84 Problem Solving as a Key for Sustainable Future* Ivana Štibi† Marija Gaurina Department of Physics Department of Physics Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek University of Split, Faculty of Science Osijek, Croatia Split, Croatia istibi@fizika.unios.hr mgaurina@pmfst.hr Ivana Katavić Josip Stepanić Center of Excellence of the Split-Dalmatia County Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture Split, Croatia University of Zagreb ivanakatavic@ci-sdz.hr Zagreb, Croatia josip.stepanic@fsb.unizg.hr Abstract demanding endeavour. Currently, as a combination of the long-term goals and the operational prescriptions, the Achieving sustainability in today’s complex world is a Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) were formulated [1]. challenging, long-term endeavour. This paper focuses on the Closely related to these Goals is the concept relating critical role of education in advancing sustainability, environmental issues, social issues and corporate governance – emphasizing the urgent need for innovative, interdisciplinary ESG [2]. One may argue that each of the three involved notions approaches that prepare students for the demands of both the encompass rather complex and large substructures. modern and future world. Central to this discussion is the idea of SDG is collection of 17 goals, spanning different aspects of problem-solving as a key to a sustainable future, which is deeply our society [1]. The Goal 4 – Quality Education is specifically connected to the field of cognitive science. By leveraging devoted to education. But along with it, education is important insights from cognitive processes, researchers can develop for all other goals, having in mind that generally education innovative solutions to complex challenges, promoting resilience contributes to transferring knowledge and experience between and adaptability in society. Understanding how individuals think generations. In that way, education contributes both to latency of and make decisions informs strategies for addressing pressing values and good practices in our society, as well as to their issues such as climate change, resource management, and social evolution and gradual improvement. It is not just that the learning equity, ultimately contributing to sustainable development. By process is important, but awareness of it is crucial for the integrating insights from cognitive science—particularly in reflective thinking needed to address the challenges of problem-solving, critical thinking, and metacognitive sustainability and complex systems. strategies—we highlight how these cognitive tools enhance In this paper, we focus on the stated role of education. In students' abilities to tackle sustainability challenges. The paper section two, we extract aspects of society that are currently too examines key issues, relevant disciplines, and outlines a demanding for most educational approaches and are framework for shaping future education to effectively contribute consequently insufficiently encompassed within the optimal to global sustainability efforts. form of education. Cognitive science plays a crucial role by exploring how individuals perceive, think, learn, and solve Keywords problems, providing a foundation for developing educational problem solving, education, SDG, ESG, sustainability approaches that promote sustainability. In sections three and four, we concentrate on education. In 1 Introduction section three, we extract starting points for the development of an optimal form of education that substantially contributes to There is a global agreement that sufficient resources should sustainability. The ability to solve problems, a key focus of be devoted to preserving, and improving in the amount possible, cognitive science, is critical for navigating the unpredictable our society. Having in mind the complexity of our society in total, dynamics of complex adaptive systems, which characterize many but also of its many components, this is certainly a rather contemporary challenges. In section four, we additionally ∗Article Title Footnote needs to be captured as Title Note emphasize the education for sustainable future and relate it to †Author Footnote to be captured as Author Note systems thinking. Critical thinking, another pillar of cognitive Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or science, enables students to analyse global challenges such as classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed climate change and inequality, making it essential for for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full understanding the interconnected nature of these issues. We citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). argue that the inclusion of systems thinking significantly Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia contributes to the education for sustainable development. Section © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). http://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.19 five provides the perspective and general guidelines for the 85 broader application of systems thinking in education. The last principles and practices of sustainable development into all section concludes the paper. aspects of education and learning [14]. One of the consequences of the extensive testing of alignment of education with society’s needs is that we have rather detailed 2 Society as a complex system and reliable insight into the fulfilment of the education potential. Research of complexity and complex adaptive systems (CAS) Yet, it is clearly stated in words by I. Bokova, General-director broadened our understanding of characteristic dynamics in of UNESCO: “A fundamental change is needed in the way we society and its parts, which includes cooperation and think about education’s role in global development, because it competition, emergence, bifurcations and deterministic chaos, to has a catalytic impact on the well-being of individuals and the name some of the relevant notions [3, 4]. future of our planet” [14]. Dynamics of the CAS is characterized with nonlinear All stated about the reached education level and interactions, the important consequence of which is delay. That characteristics of our society (and CAS as its models) point to the includes different aspects of dynamics, particularly the fact that an innovative, qualitatively different education is instabilities. Nonlinearity is a notion that can easily be described needed to include the complexity in formal curricula, so that yet deserves significant experience to be considered properly, students can grasp its fundaments in a significant portion. whether that be for predictions or for analysis of past events. As a particular aspect of education, we emphasize CAS is modelled on the micro-level, by characteristics of entities, problem-solving. It is a set of actions aimed at solving a usually called agents, and rules of their interactions [5]. The particular problem, no matter how complex, or interdisciplinary macro-level, system behaviour is obtained by simulations. There it is. However, that approach is not yet formulated precisely so is no direct linking between macro-level and micro-level. Instead, its potential is realized only by a small part. one modifies micro-level characteristics of agents and rules of Along with the problem-solving skills, and critical thinking, their interactions to obtain specific macro-level system it is crucial to embed metacognitive strategies in education. If behaviour. Models differ in the level of stylization, so some students have learned to reflect on their own learning processes, reveal generic system behaviour, trends that can be related to they are better equipped to contribute meaningfully to the SDG-many diverse systems [5], while others are specific and a and adapt to the complexity of modern society as a CAS. reproduce expected dynamics in detail but of a particular system. Some contributors emphasise anthropomorphic interpretation of quantities that are historically considered rather formal [6], while 4 Education for sustainable development other develop formal approach to intrinsically human-related The ability to solve problems from the perspective of cognitive characteristics such as happiness [7, 8, 9], to mention few psychology is a crucial for achieving sustainability. Cognitive examples among a myriad of existing scientific contributions. psychology, which studies mental processes such as perception, All stated should be taken into consideration if one wants to memory, thinking, and problem-solving, provides insights into make reliable predictions for a society or some other CAS. That how people make decisions and how they can be encouraged to requires a critical mass of competent people, to be formed within adopt sustainable behaviours. Understanding how people process every new generation by a well-formulated, learning outcomes information and make decisions involves recognizing problems, oriented, profound education. generating possible solutions, evaluating those solutions, and selecting the most appropriate one. In the context of sustainability, these problem-solving skills are essential for 3 Education for complex systems individuals and communities to identify environmental World Economic Forum states top 10 skills, for different challenges, develop innovative solutions, and implement periods since almost a decade ago. Consistently, critical thinking sustainable practices [15]. and complex problem-solving top the list of skills that employers Research has shown that human behaviour is a significant believe will grow in prominence [10]. These have been source of uncertainty in the use of natural resources and a critical consistently emphasized as crucial since the first report almost a factor in local and global sustainability challenges [16]. By decade ago. Moreover, broader application of ESG standards integrating insights from behavioural sciences into sustainability within organizations will also have a significant impact [10, 11]. research, we can develop policies that promote sustainable One aspect is that investments that facilitate the green transition behaviour. Cognitive psychology provides tools to understand how of businesses and the broader application of ESG standards bring people perceive environmental problems and how they can be about net job-creation [11]. motivated to change their behaviour [17]. OECD monitors education and different aspects of transition Education plays a pivotal role in fostering these problem- from school to work. In addition, OECD formulated and solving skills. Education for sustainable development (ESD) organizes world-wide testing of skills and knowledge among equips learners of all ages with the knowledge, skills, values, and students, in the form of PISA testing [12, 13]. agency to address interconnected global challenges such as UNESCO has contributed extensively to the development of climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion [18]. competences of children and youth [14]. It was realized some ESD empowers individuals to make informed decisions and take time ago that education for sustainable development is a key collective action to transform society and care for the planet [19]. instrument to achieve the SDGs [14]. To further enhance these educational efforts, system thinking The UN previously proclaimed Decade of Education for is another critical element for achieving sustainability. System Sustainable Development (2005–2014), aimed at integrating the thinking allows us to see how different parts of a system interact and how changes in one part can affect the entire system [20]. By 86 understanding complex environmental problems through system be more accurate [31]. This is important when addressing thinking, we can develop holistic solutions that consider long-complex, interdisciplinary challenges and CAS. term consequences. This approach is integral to problem-solving To be clearer, the following three dimensions of as it helps identify the root causes of issues and their metacognitive strategies need to be implemented: interconnections within the environmental system [21]. A) Planning dimension, students need to prepare In addition to system thinking, STEM (Science, Technology, themselves for problem-solving scenarios and thought Engineering, and Mathematics) education is essential for processes, which helps clarify their understanding of sustainable development. STEM education equips individuals the problem and outline an approach to solving it. with critical thinking, problem-solving, and technical skills B) Monitoring dimension, students need to check and necessary to address environmental challenges. By integrating validate their comprehension of the problem-solving sustainability into STEM curricula, we can prepare future scenario through self-questioning, which sustains generations to develop innovative solutions for sustainable critical thinking. This step ensures continuous development [22, 23]. reflection on their knowledge, allowing them to adjust Moreover, a transdisciplinary approach is vital for strategies based on real-time insights. sustainability. This approach involves collaboration between C) Reflection dimension, after completing the task, academics from different disciplines and non-academic actors to students need to analyse what they learned, reflect on co-produce knowledge and develop actionable solutions. the effectiveness of the strategies used, and consider Transdisciplinary research addresses complex sustainability improvements for future tasks. This helps students challenges by integrating multiple perspectives and promoting better understand the complexity of sustainability and holistic understanding [24, 25]. develop a deeper understanding of how their learning The ability to solve problems from the perspective of strategies can evolve. cognitive psychology, combined with system thinking, STEM Therefore, sustainable education should also rely on education, and a transdisciplinary approach, provides valuable metacognitive strategies, because in its concept it contains the tools for addressing environmental challenges and achieving skills of critical thinking, problem-solving, but also the sustainable development. sustainability of both the problem-solving scenario and the Before proceeding it is to be noted that any new concept or ecosystem that created the sustainable solution. other type of change in education needs to be implemented in real time and space. Regarding time, there is a significant literature about structuration of time and about leisure time of children and 6 Methodology for implementing sustainable youth, see e.g. [26, 27] and references therein. education According to all previous stated, strategy for empowering 5 Strategies for enhancing critical thinking and sustainable educational system and people involved in it (students, teachers, principals, parents, local community) was problem-solving skill’s created. It is based on the enrichment of school curricula with Sometimes it is difficult for educational processes to determine ESG principles, which ultimately strengthens the school's which actions/methods due to the complex systems are ecosystem and makes it sustainable, and it is built based on three successful, especially when we are talking about climate dimensions. changes, how to integrate them into everyday life and how to First dimension of the program are students, which includes receive feedback on the impacts at individual and collective students in the local community as active participants and those levels [28]. This calls for initiatives to strengthen the link who contribute to development and innovation through an between education and science. To achieve exactly such interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach of teaching and initiatives, educational systems should use cognitive and learning. In this way, the education system enriches the local educational strategies to foster innovative solutions, but in community with individuals who are ready to face the complex addition to this, implementation of gamification enhance problems of the CAS, to solve them, and to improve already engagement and motivation towards eco-friendly actions [29]. existing solutions. Second dimension of the program are the To be more precise, gamification can be a useful tool to teach teachers. By strengthening their knowledge and skills, as well as students about sustainability in general [30], creating a gamified by raising their awareness of problems and the possibility of environment where students could be active citizens monitoring active participation in solving them, teachers provide students their impact on the environment and thus influence climate with support in an appropriate and sustainable way. change and sustainability, which leads to fostering problem- Teachers need to collaborate with system beyond schools in solving skills, critical and analytical thinking and creating the way that students can gather information, critically think sustainable solutions. about problems, give the scenario of solving specific problem Another strategy which can be implemented in educational and in the end implement possible solution. For this, teachers system, which in its core supports the development of the should have a support and life-long education. Third dimension individual as a critical participant of a particular system, is the of the program are parents, principals and local community, metacognitive strategy. Metacognition as a concept of thinking which, by raising awareness of the needs, problems and about thinking [31], enhance critical thinking, problem-solving possibilities of innovation within the school's ecosystem and and finally adaptability in education [32]. Use of metacognitive beyond, provide significant support to students and teachers in strategies enables students to develop self-awareness, monitor their development. their thinking process, and regulate their cognitive processes to 87 The ecosystem is then complete, which with its way of [10] World Economic Forum, 2023. The Future of Jobs Report. Retrieved functioning provides sustainability because all participants are August 12 2024 from https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of- jobs-report-2023. aware of learning protocols as well as improving or changing [11] World Economic Forum, 2023. The Future of Jobs Report. Retrieved existing solutions. August 12 2024 from https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of- jobs-report-2023/digest. [12] OECD, 2018. Skills for the 21st Century: Findings and Policy Lessons from the OECD Survey of Adult Skills. Retrieved August 12 2024 from 7 Conclusion https://one.oecd.org/document/EDU/WKP(2018)2/en/pdf [13] OECD: Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Retrieved The relationship between sustainable education and cognitive August 12 2024 from https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa.html [14] UNESCO, 2017. Education for Sustainable Development Goals. Learning science is a profound and crucial one, as it merges the principles Objectives. Retrieved August 12 2024 from of mental processes with practical applications for addressing the https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000247444. complexities of our contemporary world. Cognitive science [15] S.M. Constantino, M. Schlüter, E.U. Weber and N. Wijermans, 2021. Cognition and behavior in context: a framework and theories to explain provides the foundation for understanding and developing natural resource use decisions in social-ecological systems. Sustainability educational strategies that foster sustainability. In this context, Science 16(5), 1651-1671. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-021-00989- w. key cognitive concepts such as problem-solving, critical [16] Vasiliki Kioupi and Nikolaos Voulvoulis, 2019. Education for Sustainable thinking, metacognition, and systems thinking play a significant Development: A Systemic Framework for Connecting the SDGs to role in shaping the approaches needed for sustainable Educational Outcomes. Sustainability 11(21), 6104. 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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-010-9060-6. https://doi.org/10.7906/indecs.11.3.2. 88 Mind, the Gap, and Other Cracks Maša Poljšak Kus Urban Kordeš Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science Faculty of Education Faculty of Education University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana m.poljsak.kus@gmail.com urban.kordes@pef.uni-lj.si Abstract describing our conscious experience to another human being – in this paper we call this process of reporting our subjective With this paper we aim to outline numerous gaps and other experiences experiential translation. The subjective aspects of cracks that emerge when we start researching conscious thinking, perceiving and feeling are all states of experience that experience through first and second-person research approaches. have a certain way in which we experience them. As Thomas The terms used to name various gaps were chosen for the sake of Nagel [2] puts it, there is something it is like to be a conscious coherence (with a pinch of playfulness). The main gap is the organism, and this what is it like to be another organism is, most chasm between two consciousnesses which we are trying to likely always, over an insurmountable chasm between one bridge by an exchange of descriptions of our lived experiences. conscious organism and another. When we begin to turn our awareness to what it is like to be we We aim to address this chasm that extends from one begin to develop the skill and way of observing in which experiential being to another and explore the cracks that emerge experience is created. We call this gap between our everyday when trying to explore and extend from one ridge to another. In attitude and phenomenological observation the crevice of this analogy the ridges of the chasm between two awareness in which lies the act of becoming aware of an consciousnesses represent different conscious organisms, each experience. After becoming aware of a certain layer of with their own what it is like to be, and the chasm is the experience we reach the fissure of description, which represents impossibility of reaching the exact what is it like of another the crack between the actual experience as perceived and the being. In the field of first and second-person research of lived constructed linguistic concepts in which we try to convey what experiences, researchers are trying to bridge this chasm by and how we perceived the experience. When a description of an collecting detailed descriptions of experience. We will argue that experience has been produced, the researcher interested in in the act of producing and collecting such descriptions we investigating human experience is confronted with the cranny of stumble upon many cracks, located on both sides of what we call comprehension. We relate this process of conveying our the chasm between two consciousnesses. Starting from first-experience to another conscious being to the processes of person view (as one should, when going about empirical translation and remind researchers of lived experience to be phenomenology) we stumble upon a crevice that is becoming careful and weary of the interpretation that inherently shadows aware of what is it like to be – the most intimate experience, yet every translation. often hidden behind a wall of what Edmund Husserl [3] calls our natural attitude. Keywords In this paper we also touch another, an even more veiled Background experience, Conscious experience, First-person dimension of experience that we call background experience research, Second-person research, Experiential translation. (explained further in the section 3) but most importantly we state that there is a gap between what we can easily consciously perceive and what we cannot – which, for the sake of clarity, we 1 Introduction call the crevice of awareness. When trying to convey one’s Upon delving into topics and discussions regarding our experience to another we stumble upon the next gap in the act of understanding of the mind, we inevitably reach one or another translating the experience into concepts, categories and linguistic gaping chasm – the most notorious is even named the hard forms. We believe that there is a gap between our perceived problem of consciousness. David Chalmers [1] points out that experience and its description, which we name the fissure of there is nothing we know more intimately than conscious description. When trying to fill this fissure we believe the experience but there is also nothing harder to explain. In this experience conveyed is flattened and reduced. The description article we are not trying to explain conscious experience, but we produced in this effort then becomes the main building block of are interested in exploring the process of explaining and the bridge we are building from one side of the chasm and what we can offer to the conscious being reaching out from the other side. In this paper we compare this act of describing on one side Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or and comprehending on another as a process of translation and classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full that practicing experiential translation is the way to more valid citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must and richer descriptions. be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). https://doi.org/10.70314/is.2024.cog.20 89 2 Experiential translation 2.1 First-person translation Phenomenology, by origin a philosophical discipline, is trying to Jakob Boer [6] argues that the process of describing first-person investigate concrete experiential phenomena and encourages experience is an act of experiential translation, with which we are detailed analysis of different aspects of consciousness. As such inclined to very strongly agree. We believe that the act of it has also been described as “a first-person description of ‘what describing subjective experience is an act of translation (latin it is like’ of experience” [4]. This subjective dimension ‘as it is transfero, “I convey”, from prefix trans-, “across, beyond” and lived from the inside’ is essential to consider in the field of participle latus “borne, carried”). We will describe an example scientific investigation of cognition and not be constrained of a process of translating an ancient Greek text to a modern merely to the data that can be observed and measured from the language. The underlaying assumption is that without an outside [5]. observer there is no meaning, and thus the nature and skill of the Claire Petitmengin [5] warns us that describing one’s own observer influence the source text immensely. Firstly, one must subjective experience is not merely hard, but extremely difficult, be able to see the Greek alphabet and know the symbols to mostly because turning our attention to our consciousness, and a perceive anything more than mere scribbles. Secondly, one must fortiori describing it, requires inner effort and a specific kind of understand what a specific set of symbols denotes and relate to it skillset. Her assumption is that a substantial proportion of our a previously known meaning - one must understand the word. subjective experience unfolds below the threshold of This step alone is complex and multidimensional, because one consciousness. We question what her assumption presupposes - Greek word can have numerous possible translations and the that our consciousness is something "in there" to be observed and meaning that stands out to the translator is tied to many factors, we only need a better instrument to see further and better. We, such as context and previous knowledge. Thirdly, one must on the other hand, are more inclined to view conscious understand the grammar and syntax to make sense of a sentence. phenomena as something co-created with and by the act of With this we want to show how the meaning of a text is co-observation. In either case we believe that in the field of first- defined by the observer. The translator must then choose an person research the two initial steps – becoming aware of our accurate set of words in another language to convey his experience and then describing it - include two important gaps. interpretation of the sentence. With this example we tried to show 1. The crevice of awareness is the crack between what our the complexity of our influences on what we perceive and how "view from within" knows how to observe and what we leave a mark on both our perception and our description. eludes our reflective thoughts. It denotes the Experiential translation assumes that lived experience is in difficulties of becoming aware of our background nature distinct from linguistic form, and that in the act of feelings and core dimensions of our experience. verbalizing we carry certain aspects across the gap between 2. The fissure of description is the gap between subjective experience and description. In the act of translating our lived observations of lived experience and descriptions of experiences into words, concepts, and categories we inherently observed experience, which are most often verbal. This imbue chosen meanings with our interpretation, which is perhaps is perhaps at times even more frustrating, because in an inseparable from the way we become aware of our experience. instance when one has become aware of an experience, We relate this intrinsic interpretation to horizons of attending to they must now try to find the right words and gestures experience, as explained by Urban Kordeš and Ema Demšar [7], to convey and verbalize a description that captures the who argue that this co-defines experiential phenomena that end nature of the subjective experience in question. up being observed and reported. The horizon is the way in which Subjective, or first-person research transfers to second-person we perceive, by which we mean co-create, our experience. This research when we not only try to surmount the fissure of is enacted both when we try to observe and when we try to description, but we also convey this description to a researcher describe our experience. interested in exploring structures of lived experiences. Empirical or second-person research usually involves interviewing human 2.2 Second-person translation participants about their experience. In the context of our paper, we call the interview method a rather wobbly bridge that tries to In the previous section we compared the process of describing connect participants’ lived experience with researcher’s one’s lived experience to the process of translation. We continue understanding via the participants’ description of experience. with this analogy in the case of second-person research, when 3. With this bridge we mark the third gap in the premise such translation is perchance more intuitive, because the ‘input’ of empirical research of subjective experience – the – verbal report – comes in form of language. The researcher that cranny of comprehension – which spans between the receives the report proceeds with translating it in more than one second-person investigator and first-person report way. First and foremost, the translation happens instantaneously, about the experience. It is a gap each researcher must as it does every time we speak to another human being – we fill and bridge when trying to comprehend and analyze translate the words into our own known concepts and position the descriptive data on experience of others. We them in our pre-existing field of knowledge. differentiate this cranny from the chasm between two Even more importantly, we aim to compare the subsequent consciousnesses because it is focused on the process of analysing, categorizing and forming conclusions on description and comprehension, not the entirety of the structure of experience to the process of translating, drawing another conscious experience. attention once more to the notion that with translation always We note that all three cracks are part of the greater chasm comes interpretation. As such we want to note and warn that between two consciousness, which refers to the impossibility of becoming aware of your own horizons of attending to experience experiencing as another being. is a crucial step for every second-person researcher of 90 consciousness, which inherently makes them a first-person 4 Empirical context researcher as well. In the aforementioned project, ‘Unveiling of the Atmosphere – Etnophenomenological exploration of experiential background 3 Background experience in relation to space’, we aimed to investigate background experience which we have defined as feelings that weave the In this paper we turn our attention to a layer of experience which foundation on which foreground phenomena of consciousness is, ironically, not in the focus of our attention but rather on the unfold (such as emotions, thoughts and perceptions). We brink of it. William James [8] refers to this as the fringe of presupposed that experiences of atmosphere are by their nature consciousness. To this fringe belong experiences that lack affective, so we focused on the affective layer of experience. specific, sensory qualities, like the tip-of-the-tongue state (the These feelings usually lack specific sensory attributes and are intention to seek a missing word), feelings of knowing, hard to pinpoint and often notice and/or name. We tried to familiarity and plausibility, intuitive judgments and numerous capture and convey such background feelings with an empirical other conscious or quasi-conscious events that can be reported on approach and a qualitative research design in which we combined with low sensory specificity. approaches of first-person research such as Descriptive What is it like aspect of those experience is hard to perceive Experience Sampling Method (DES) [13], and ethnographical and convey, but Petitmengin [9] describes certain internal tools such as in situ diary entries. Our study was conducted in gestures, which serve, in the language of our analogy, as bridges three phases, the first being the pilot study. We recruited three that enable us to become aware of the source dimension of our participants, previously trained in DES and first-person research, experience, which is usually pre-reflective. This unarticulated which we deemed important for a study that aims to research pre-dimension is considered as core due to its ever-present nature, reflective dimensions of experience. and because it is pre-conceptual and pre-discursive, it seems to Our participants reported about their experience in three be situated at the source of our thoughts. Although it constantly ways: 1) through short written reports about randomly sampled accompanies us, we need special circumstances to become aware moments during the day, 2) with diary entries on multiple of it and/or specific training in first-person observation. occasions during the day of sampling, in which they situated In the realm of emotion, Antonio Damasio [10] calls a group randomly sampled moments in the context of their moods and of fleeting and hard-to-name feelings ‘ background feelings’, behaviors, 3) in interview sessions in which we explored and because they are not in the foreground of our mind, yet they help expanded previous two types of data. The aim was to map our define our mental state and color our lives. We relate the participants’ affective experiential landscapes and to foreground of our mind with the experiences on which we can contextualize their experiences with information about their easily focus our attention (such as thoughts, perceptions and loud activities, environment and social interactions. We have emotions). Background feelings arise from background analyzed the data according to the principles of qualitative emotions, which are directed more internally than externally, but analysis [14], which produced a list of experiential categories can nevertheless be observable to others in several ways: tone of divided into two (vaguely distinct yet obviously separate) groups our voice, prosody of our speech, the speed and design of our of foreground and background affective experience. In the movements. According to Damasio, prominent background background we situated categories such as background mood, feelings include fatigue, energy, excitement, tension, relaxation, ambient atmosphere and deep atmosphere. stability, instability, etc. The relation between background feelings and our drives and moods is intimate and close, but the relation between background feelings and consciousness is just 1. Background mood is felt as all-encompassing and includes different ways of receiving, creating and experiencing as close, if not more. Matthew Ratcliffe [11] similarly develops foreground experiences (affects, thoughts and percepts), the term existential feeling as a background which comprises the which we call different attitudes. We found three very sense of ‘being’ or ‘reality’ that attaches to world subcategories of background mood: open, closed and numb. experiences. Specifically directed emotions presuppose this 2. Ambient atmosphere includes experiences that are not clear background, so regardless of the structure of such emotion, and separate, but pervasive and ubiquitous. It represents existential feelings are a more fundamental feature of world- feelings, which we feel originate from the world, and we are experience. A few examples of such feelings are the feeling of entangled with it either as their co-creator or merely as an being ‘complete’, ‘unworthy’, ‘at home’, ‘abandoned’ – all being observer. descriptions of one’s relationship with the world. 3. Deep atmosphere includes experiences that we feel as deeply our own and private. Imprint of deep atmosphere Hopefully we have now outlined the gap between our focal marks the way of foreground affects as well as other awareness and the experiences on the fringe of consciousness, background feelings. Phenomenologically it is harder to where perhaps one of the keys to understanding our mind lies reach and observe, as it usually changes its character less or hidden. This gap was one of the points we tried to address in our more slowly. When captured, we observed two distinct recent project [12], in which we investigated the feelings of subcategories of feelings: deep perturbation and deep atmosphere with the presupposition that they are in the unconcern, the former connected to the feelings of danger background of our mind. We will briefly present the context of and the latter to the feelings of safety. our empirical investigations to use it as the reference point for our observations regarding the numerous gaps and blind spots of our methodological approach and epistemological premises. 91 5 Observational interstices less so on the background feelings. When participants weaved those moments in the experiential timeline of their whole day In this section we aim to address some methodological cracks (and in the interviews of their whole week) more background and to note our observations from our research project on feelings came into light – even in the moments which we had background feelings [12]. detailed descriptions of. We would like to note that minimising 5.1 Becoming aware the effect of memory on reports is important, but that sometimes in this effort we miss something because it is ‘right under our In our study participants were prompted with a signal which nose’. conveyed to them that they should observe and report on their experience of the moment right before the signal. During the interviews they oftentimes reported that after the signal there was 6 Conclusion a brief state of feeling ‘blank’, as if the moment before the signal Delving into the field of empirical phenomenology is a was empty and void of any experience whatsoever. But this courageous act, because there are few, if any, clear and firm feeling soon passed, and they started to remember and find words climbing holds. We understand why scientific discourse steers to describe the moment before the signal. We interpret this toward replicable and third-person tested approaches, yet we feeling of ‘blankness’ as a type of gap between being immersed believe that exploration of lived experienced cannot (at least as in the natural attitude [3] and adapting the phenomenological of yet) be accessed any other way than through subjective attitude. To put it differently – we believe that the act of epoché observation first. And even if the act of bridging the subjective is both and act of opening a gap and of bridging it. We argue that with intersubjective is full of gaps and other cracks, we stay each time we try to bracket our trust in the objectivity of the positive that the descriptions and interpretations produced in this world, we reveal and/or create a crack in the fluidity and process lead to better understanding of how to approach continuity of the flow of our conscious experience. This means empirical research of subjective experience. In the analogy of that when we change the nature of our awareness, we experience translation as the act of describing one’s own experience, we aim a moment of emptiness. To explain we will compare our to paint the following picture. In the gaps that lurk amid awareness with the grip of our hand. When we hold on to one experiencing, being aware and describing, many pieces of the object, let’s say a glass, we are gripping something and sensing original experience are most likely lost in translation. Yet by specific qualities. When we want to switch to a different object, persistently and methodically carrying over the remaining pieces we must first release the glass and be (and thus feel) empty at created by this process we are building better and more reliable least for a moment so that we can grip (experience) something bridges. else. 5.2 Observing experiential background 7 References As mentioned in the section 2, we tried to observe and capture [1] David Chalmers, 1995. Facing up to the problem of consciousness. background feelings with the intention of mapping participants’ Journal of Consciousness Studies 2 (3), 200-2019. experiential landscapes of affects. Based on the literature and [2] Thomas Nagel, 1974. What Is It Like to Be a Bat ? 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Towards the Source of Thoughts : The Gestural but if they observe and measure themselves methodically and Transmodal Dimension of Lived Experience. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 14, No. 3, 54–82. throughout the whole year, they can notice a vast difference from [10] Antonio Damasio, 1999. The Feeling of What Happens : Body and their starting point. emotion in the making of consciousness. New York : Harcourt Brace. [11] Matthew Ratcliffe, 2005. The Feeling of Being. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12 (8-10), 45-63. 5.3 Describing lived experience [12] Maša Poljšak Kus, 2024. Unveiling of the atmosphere : etnophenomenological exploration of experiential background in relation Tying to the conclusion of the previous paragraph is a very to space (Master thesis) , Ljubljana. Supervisor : Urban Kordeš. concrete observation based on our research methodology. As [13] Russell T. Hurblurt & Christopher L. Heavey, 2006. Exploring inner described in section 2, we gathered reports on our participants’ experience : The descriptive experience sampling method. Amsterdam, John Benjamins Publishing Co. experience in three ways (short notes on experience of moments [14] Blaž Mesec, 2023. Kvalitativno raziskovanje v teoriji in praksi. Inštitut za during the day, diary entries and interview insights). What we razvojne in strateške analize. noticed is that often in the descriptions of a singular moment there was a lot of emphasis on the foreground experiences and 92 Bridging the Challenges in Experience Sampling Research Barbi Seme† Maruša Sirk Urban Kordeš Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science Center for Cognitive Science University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana, Slovenia Barbi.Seme@pef.uni-lj.si Marusa.Sirk@pef.uni-lj.si Urban.Kordes@pef.uni-lj.si Abstract on numerous studies [4, 5, 6] that have used ESM to investigate experiential phenomena in the past few decades, weaknesses of In this paper, we draw parallels between existing research these methods have been identified [7]. practices and attempt to piece them together to propose a more We present ESM and the challenges inherent in ESM research, wholesome approach in conducting experience sampling particularly participant burden. By exploring the interest in research. We consider Experience Sampling Methods (ESM) as personal exploration within Personal Science and emphasising valuable tools for studying experience, but they come with the importance of community building in Citizen Science, we challenges, of which we address the participant burden as one of attempt to tie these practices together using the concept of a the most significant ones. We think that integrating practices methodological turn from empirical phenomenology [8]. We from Personal Science (PS) and Citizen Science (CS), grounded believe that the challenge of participant burden, which we see as in empirical phenomenology, can help address this challenge. By under addressed but highly disruptive in ESM scientific inquiry, considering participants as co-researchers and actively engaging can be tackled through this integration of different research them in the research and community, we aim to enhance their practices. We illustrate this approach with our pilot study, Luna. motivation and improve the quality of the research data. We illustrate this approach through the pilot project Luna in which we explore lived experiences throughout the menstrual cycle 2 Experience sampling research using the ESM mobile application "Curious". This integrative We consider Experience Sampling Methods (ESM) as an method facilitates a reciprocal knowledge exchange between umbrella term for the research in which participants gather researchers and co-researchers, which deepens the process of samples of their experiences as they unfold in their life [9]. self-exploration and holds a great potential to advance scientific Typically, we prompt participants at random times to answer research on experience. questions or to describe their experience of the moment just Keywords before they heard the beep [10]. This way we are able to minimise recall bias [7] and are able to sample dimensions of Experience sampling methods, citizen science, personal science, experiential states which are nearly impossible to recall later, empirical phenomenology especially in detail (e.g., the momentary content of our thoughts). These methods are also highly ecologically valid, since we are sampling experience as it unfolds naturally in people's everyday 1 Introduction lives. Participants would receive the prompts several times per Scientific research into experience is a rapidly growing field. day for a longer period of time (e.g., two weeks). These repeated Some researchers and philosophers point out that a core problem measures enable us to track patterns and changes in individual within our current scientific worldview is the overlooked experiences across time and different contexts [7, 10]. Nowadays experience research [1]. New methods and tools for researching we use mobile applications on participants' personal smartphones experience are being developed, among which are Experience which makes the data collection process in comparison to pen Sampling Methods (ESM). ESM are intensive longitudinal and paper much more reliable and less burdensome [11]. approaches to collecting experiential and contextual data using structured diary self-report techniques [2]. Due to numerous 2.1 Challenges in ESM advantages, especially ecological validity and the reduction of ESM research is still loosely defined without a rigorous recall bias, ESM has spread to various research fields through the framework and we are yet to develop appropriate methodological use of mass technology, mostly mobile applications [3]. Based approaches for improvements [9]. A significant challenge in ESM research is participant burden. Collecting frequent, real- Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or time data in everyday life activities puts great demands on classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed participants who need to albeit shortly interrupt their activity to for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for third-party components of this work must report on their momentary experiential state [3]. These repeated be honored. For all other uses, contact the owner/author(s). measures over time might affect participants' attitudes towards Information Society 2024, 7–11 October 2024, Ljubljana, Slovenia the research and result in reduced compliance, careless © 2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). responding and participants’ attrition [12]. We should also evaluate this burden from an ethical perspective, ensuring that 93 benefits outweigh the burden, especially if there is a Individuals and groups who already possess deep interest in self-consideration of affecting participants’ well-being [13]. exploration can potentially become great co-researchers by which they would gain support in their own exploration as well 2.2 Existing recommendations for addressing as make the scientific contribution. the challenges in ESM To mitigate this burden, researchers are working on 4 Community in Citizen science questionnaire optimisation, making them as brief and focused as possible by prioritising essential questions and using clear and Citizen Science (CS) is recognized as one of the eight pillars of concise language [9]. The trade-off between data richness and Open Science, playing an integral role in democratising scientific burden on participants is also mitigated with lowering the knowledge and practices [23]. It significantly bridges the gap sampling frequency [12]. By introducing the personalised between the scientific community and society through the idea scheduling for participants we avoid interrupting them in the of doing science and not merely reacting to it [24]. Due to the situations in which they are unable to respond and would likely heterogeneity of CS projects in terms of scale, objectives, and react negatively to prompts being delivered in that time [3]. levels of citizen scientist involvement, it is challenging to Albeit we should then revise random sampling and account for provide a universal definition [25]. However, common to all CS the introduced bias (e.g., we could supplement the data with projects is to actively involve non-professionals in scientific retrospective daily reports). research at different levels of participation [26]. In a broad sense However, a key factor for successful ESM research is citizen scientists perform tasks that would be otherwise done by participants’ motivation [3, 7]. It is better sustained by scientists [27] or would not be possible to do without their considering the necessary technical recommendations, but involvement. researchers should also give attention to fostering the research To achieve reciprocity between science and society in CS interest and social dynamics. Researchers should engage projects in which the bidirectional knowledge exchange participants who already have interest in the research topic and facilitates benefits in both [28], significant time and resources therefore an intrinsic motivation to learn more on it [3]. They need to be invested to establish the conditions for project should also provide a sufficient training period in which activities to run [29]. Since citizen scientists are typically lay participants gain the necessary knowledge and skills in order to people without formal training in scientific research, appropriate sample the experience [7]. It is important to establish a rapport training and support are essential to equip them with necessary with participants and to foster a research alliance throughout the skills and knowledge [30]. We know citizen scientists engage in study [2]. It is suggested to provide rich feedback to participants the projects upon different motivation factors. We can observe during and at the end of the study which can also be presented as the intrinsic factors, such as gaining fulfilment, enjoying the non-monetary compensation [3]. activities or being altruistic and extrinsic factors, such as building social interactions, gaining on reputation or status and expecting future returns [31]. Therefore, sustaining motivation and 3 Personal science and interest for self- engagement requires more than just training. CS practitioners exploration should establish good relationships with citizen scientists and a continuous communication as well as the conditions for citizen Technological advancement played a great role in a growing scientists to meet and work with each other. We argue that number of ESM studies as well as in an uptake of self-tracking essential to the project's success is building a strong community. practices for exploration of oneself [14, 15, 16]. The umbrella Utilising online community spaces, social media, organising term for self-tracking practice and communities has been formed workshops and training as well as local meetups, collaborative under Personal Science (PS) [17]. These individuals and groups and other social activities facilitate community building. Strong pursue their own personal research questions using empirical community in exchange encourages participation, promotes methods in an iterative process of questioning, designing, knowledge sharing, foster collaboration and builds on observing, reasoning, and discovering which presents itself as an sustainability of the project [32, 33]. opportunity to scientifically expand on PS. Even though we can draw many parallels between self-tracking and scientific inquiry the question remains to what extent PS can be scientifically 5 Bridging ESM, PS and CS with empirical interesting [18]. Considering the growing interest in PS activities phenomenology it seems important to address these practices, especially in new self-trackers. They often experience difficulties in making sense The key to integrating the practices of Citizen science, Personal of their self-tracking process in interpreting their data, science, and Experience Sampling research lies in the concept of formulating and refining their research questions, and designing a methodological turn developed in the field of empirical their research process [19, 20]. It would be beneficial for them to phenomenology [8]. In experience research, the observed is the receive support that provides at least an initial establishment of observer, meaning that the only access to the phenomena of their research or engaging them in a more systematic way. Lack interest is through the observer's subjective experience. If the of scientific rigour was also reported by researchers in tools used observer does not adopt an attitude of curious exploration and for self-tracking which can potentially mislead self-trackers and engage in epoché, meaning bracketing the natural attitude, the give them false ideas of phenomena they explore [21, 22]. Hence, judgments, interpretations, and explanations of their experience, we believe this is an excellent opportunity for the science we cannot obtain data on the genuine experience as it unfolds in community to engage in this already widespread phenomenon. life. This notion is rooted in phenomenological reduction, a 94 method of research into experience developed by Edmund 7 Conclusion Husserl [34]. Experience Sampling has been used to study We argue that a large number of research questions in ESM subjective experiences in real-time contexts, but integrating it research could be better investigated if research projects adopt with phenomenological reduction enhances the depth of data on the CS framework with an emphasis on community building, lived experiences [35]. Therefore, it is necessary to consider our account for the interest and practice of PS, and use the principles participants as co-researchers. This attitude allows us to engage of experience investigation from empirical phenomenology. The them in a way that fosters their interest in the research question challenge of participant burden in ESM research is then mitigated which facilitates the methodological turn where the research by creating conditions for co-researchers to be involved in question becomes in a sense their own and they become personally meaningful activities, which in return provide a researchers of their own experience. While providing the support higher level of data validity. Even though considerable resources and means for investigation, it is important to give co-researchers are needed to establish these kinds of project communities, we the freedom to explore the research question and their experience believe they have the potential to be more sustainable. From CS, in a way that is meaningful to them, and to encourage critical we know that citizen scientists develop a sense of community, discussion. By opening up the space for co-creation of the which encourages them to remain active in science after the research design and enabling co-researchers to actively initial project ends [36, 37]. This interdisciplinary integration of contribute their findings, we facilitate a deeper reciprocity of different research practices enhances the value of our knowledge transfer. investigations and creates more impactful and sustainable research projects that benefit both the scientific community, 6 The pilot study “Luna” involved co-researchers and the society. Citizen science project Luna aims to explore the lived Acknowledgments experiences of menstrual cycles and their impact on everyday IMPETUS is supporting our project, Luna. IMPETUS is funded well-being. We use a diary method for daily reports and by the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM) to track experiences innovation programme under grant agreement number throughout the menstrual cycle with the use of the ESM mobile 101058677. Views and opinions expressed are, however, those application Curious (about) consciousness or Curious in short. of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the We adopted the iterative co-creation approach to develop our European Union or the European Research Executive Agency research, combining the principles of ESM research, CS projects, (REA). Neither the European Union nor the granting authority PS and empirical phenomenology. This makes our research can be held responsible for them. process flexible in a way that the research design is being updated in an iterative collaborative manner. 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Retrieved December, 13, 2019. 96 Indeks avtorjev / Author index Batagelj Vladimir ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20 Bratko Ivan ............................................................................................................................................................................. 59, 64 Brežnik Dornik Maruša ................................................................................................................................................................ 78 Cestnik Bojan ............................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Dečman Klara ............................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Farič Ana ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Fink Laura .................................................................................................................................................................................... 44 Fischer Evelyn .............................................................................................................................................................................. 27 Gams Matjaž ................................................................................................................................................................................ 72 Gaurina Marija ............................................................................................................................................................................. 85 Hartmans Anouk .......................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Karnelutti Lucija .......................................................................................................................................................................... 81 Katavić Ivana ............................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Kordeš Urban ......................................................................................................................................................................... 89, 93 Košmrlj Lea .................................................................................................................................................................................. 59 Lazore Courtney ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Mali Franc .................................................................................................................................................................................... 39 Mattová Veronika ......................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Pajmon Sabina ........................................................................................................................................................................ 35, 81 Pisanski Jan ............................................................................................................................................................................ 20, 24 Pisanski Tomaž ............................................................................................................................................................................ 20 Poljšak Kus Maša ......................................................................................................................................................................... 89 Rodman Grega ............................................................................................................................................................................. 69 Seme Barbi ................................................................................................................................................................................... 93 Sirk Maruša .............................................................................................................................................................................. 7, 93 Stepanić Josip ............................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Štibi Ivana .................................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Strle Toma .............................................................................................................................................................................. 35, 81 Tomat Nastja ................................................................................................................................................................................ 50 Vidmar Eva .................................................................................................................................................................................. 31 Zibrek Katja ................................................................................................................................................................................. 55 Žužek Leon ................................................................................................................................................................................... 81 97 Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredniki > Editors: Anka Slana Ozimič, Borut Trpin, Toma Strle, Olga Markič Document Outline 02 - Naslovnica - notranja - B - DRAFT 03 - Kolofon - B - DRAFT 04 - IS2024 - Predgovor 05 - IS2024 - Konferencni odbori 07 - Kazalo - B 08 - Naslovnica - notranja - B - DRAFT 09 - Predgovor podkonference - B 10 - Programski odbor podkonference - B 11 - Prispevki - B IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_01 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_02 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_03 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_04 Abstract 1 From Science towards Open Science 1.1 Science 1.2 Characteristics of Classical Publishing Model 1.3 Transition to digital 2 Growth of Scientific production; Shift of goals 2.1 Publish or Perish 2.2 Quality control 2.3 Citation index 2.4 Impact 3 Bibliometrics 3.1 Journal Impact Factor 3.2 Metrics and Ranking 3.3 Power law and related statistical laws 4 Goodhart's Law 4.1 Goodhart's Law and Bibliometrics 5 Open Access a step towards Open Science 5.1 APC model 5.2 Diamond- and Green Open Access 5.3 Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) 5.4 Gold Open Access and APC 6 Implementation of Open Science 6.1 Recommendations, Declarations, …. 6.2 Goodhart's Law and Open Science. 7 Conclusion and Suggestions IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_05 Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Background 3 Research 4 Discussion 5 Conclusion Acknowledgements IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_06 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_07 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_08 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_09 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_10 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_11 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_12 Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Virtual Reality 2.1 Presence 2.2 Social Presence 2.3 Embodiment 3 Using VR to study the perception of virtual agents 3.1 Proximity 3.2 Previous Research 4 Discussion IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_13 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_14 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_15 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_16 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_17 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_18 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_19 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_20 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_21 12 - Index - B Blank Page Blank Page 11 - Prispevki - B.pdf IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_01 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_02 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_03 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_04 Abstract 1 From Science towards Open Science 1.1 Science 1.2 Characteristics of Classical Publishing Model 1.3 Transition to digital 2 Growth of Scientific production; Shift of goals 2.1 Publish or Perish 2.2 Quality control 2.3 Citation index 2.4 Impact 3 Bibliometrics 3.1 Journal Impact Factor 3.2 Metrics and Ranking 3.3 Power law and related statistical laws 4 Goodhart's Law 4.1 Goodhart's Law and Bibliometrics 5 Open Access a step towards Open Science 5.1 APC model 5.2 Diamond- and Green Open Access 5.3 Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) 5.4 Gold Open Access and APC 6 Implementation of Open Science 6.1 Recommendations, Declarations, …. 6.2 Goodhart's Law and Open Science. 7 Conclusion and Suggestions IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_05 Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Background 3 Research 4 Discussion 5 Conclusion Acknowledgements IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_06 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_07 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_08 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_09 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_10 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_11 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_12 Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Virtual Reality 2.1 Presence 2.2 Social Presence 2.3 Embodiment 3 Using VR to study the perception of virtual agents 3.1 Proximity 3.2 Previous Research 4 Discussion IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_13 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_14 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_15 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_16 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_17 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_18 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_19 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_20 IS2024_-_COGNITIVE_SCIENCE_paper_21 Blank Page