Neologisms in the Language of Tourism as Indicators of Innovativeness in Tourism
Tina Orel Frank
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies - Turistica tina.orel@fts.upr.si
This paper is meant to highlight the often neglected connection between language and tourism. Languages reflect realities and, as such, they can be considered one of the strongest tools and an important indicator of human development and hence the development of tourism. In a journal dealing with innovations in tourism, we endeavour to achieve two objectives: firstly, to introduce lexical and terminological neologisms (roughly defined as new expressions) connected with tourism: these language structures obviously indicate paths of tourism development; and secondly, to alert the actors in tourism of new terminology. An era of robust globalization has put focus on researching the English language. The theoretical part of the paper sheds light on definitions of neologisms and the methods of their extraction, as well as touching upon the specifics of the language of tourism, while the practical section offers a selection of neologisms showing current path of tourism development. A semi-automatic method of neologism extraction was used to complete the list from different resources chosen according to the definitions of neologisms and characteristics of the language of tourism. This paper also attempts to highlight currently discussed sub-disciplines of tourism. For this purpose, we have additionally investigated the abstracts of one of the leading tourism journals, Annals of Tourism Research, and a journal dealing with innovations in tourism, Academica Turistica, Tourism Innovation Journal.
Keywords: language of tourism, tourism innovations, neologisms
Language is a resource that continually changes; it daily expands on certain fields while narrowing on others (Tulloch et al., 1997). Metcalf (2002) has observed that the English language daily produces more than ten thousand new expressions, though a vast majority of them never exists long enough to become a part of everyday use. Nowadays, changes in our society are extremely rapid to the point of being almost impossible to track. Especially problematic is terminology and with it the neologisms being created in the process of naming newly created concepts and objects for which certain languages do not have an expression or an existing one seems to be inappropriate or insufficient (Stein, 2002 in Moghadam &
Introduction
Sedighi, 2012). Neologisms, roughly defined as new expressions, are thus considered indicators of the development of society and, consequently, its language (Janssen; Karnedi, 2012). They are "a mirror of their times" (Ayto, 1999: iv). Ayto (1999) adds that by observing the fields in which languages develop most rapidly at a particular time, conclusions can be made about a society's main preoccupations of that time. For example, in the 1990s, the world dealt with politics, media and the Internet. In the third edition of Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2008), the fields producing new words and expressions of that time were environmental issues, the Internet, technology, food and drinks, diet and health as well as business and marketing. Neologisms thus indicate
the development of certain fields, but this very fact also makes them seriously challenging for analysis and translation (Janssen; Newmark, 1988; Čeh, 2012). They are easily overlooked, time-sensitive and often without any direct translational equivalents. Their vague, elusive and objective definitions depend on the subjective judgment of each individual researcher. The development of technology that enabled easier corpus analyses has made their extraction and lexical changes tracking somewhat less demanding.
In general, we can speak about two main objectives of neologism research (Janssen, unpublished): firstly, for updating of existing dictionaries and lexicons with newly coined expressions, and secondly, for describing neologisms and placing them according to their word classes, statistics of word formation, word origins, etc. Our paper falls more into the second category, but most likely adds a new dimension to the issue by supporting the primary aim of informing the principal audience about a problematic issue. In our case, we intend to inform tourism experts because they are considered one of the crucial stakeholders in tourism language creation (Karnedi, 2012: 4).
In short, this paper aims to introduce lexical and terminological neologisms connected with tourism, as indicators of tourism development and thus alert experts connected to the field of tourism of about such language issues, especially terminology. To achieve the two objectives, the introductory theoretical part of the paper presents and offers a definition of lexical and terminological neologisms, which are (in the second, practical part) searched for on the Internet and in two tourism journals. By researching the latter, we were additionally able to pinpoint the latest directions of tourism development. The publication of the research in this specific journal was intended to address experts dealing with tourism rather than merely addressing language experts already aware of the field of language use and development.
Neologisms
Fischer (1998) and Rey (1995) point out that the linguistic theory of the English language does not offer a strictly determined definition of a neologism. Nevertheless, most authors agree on a basic definition that describes neologisms as newly coined words or expressions or as already existing ones that have
gained a different meaning (Algeo, 1991, p. 2; New-mark, 1988). Almost every author adds to it by joining it with what Cabre (1999) describes as a subjective psychological position of a researcher. Algeo (1991) adds to this by stating that neologisms are also recently acquired words or word combinations that existing language sources do not yet enlist. Fischer (1998) remarks that neologisms can only be called as such when a word loses the status of being a "nonce-word", which David Crystal (2000) defines as a new complex word that is spontaneously coined by a speaker to fill the void at a given moment of communication. Voršič (2010) researched nonce words in Slovene advertisements and classified them into system and non-system nonce words. The former are generated according to traditional word-building processes while the latter are made via the use of unusual and atypical ones.
The component of time must not be neglected. Most of the speakers of an individual language community should detect neologisms as being new (Herberg, 1988 in Csak, 2011; Rey, 1995; Fischer, 1998). The problematic part here is that authors do not name any objective criterion for what could be defined as new or old; therefore, this is left to the subjective judgement of the researcher. At this point, one is undoubtedly also confused by the fact that there exists no well-defined and stable language vocabulary that could serve as orientation in deciding whether a word is new or not (Janssen, unpublished). As such a source, Algeo (1991, p. 2) nevertheless offers general language dictionaries that in their core definition do not touch upon the specific terminology also needed in our type of research. Malinski (in Csak, 2011) speaks of neologisms only when they appear three times in a base corpus and in at least two different sources, and when they are not citations of one another. In other cases, he speaks of "occasionalisms", which are expressions that only appear tied to particular occasions or special events, like obamacare (a label given to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in the United States). Vesna Muhvić-DiS manovski (2005, p. 6) treats occasionalisms as stylistic neologisms that are created as a result of a particular style of an individual author. She claims they are much rarer that denominative neologisms, which are a part of wider language community.
The basis of this paper is a definition of lexical and terminological neologisms for the field of tourism; they shall be approximately defined as newly coined words or word combinations from the field of tourism and its subareas that are not yet listed in the latest (i.e. fourth) edition of the Cambridge Dictionary (2013) or in A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism (2012). The former was chosen as one of the dictionaries with the most recent edition published, while the latter was chosen as the only specialized contemporary dictionary for the language of tourism found.
Language of Tourism
For the purposes of this paper, Cabre's (1999) distinction is essential. She separates general or lexical neologisms (present in general language) from those appearing in particular languages, terminological neologisms, also called "neonyms". Lexical neologisms, therefore, arise in general language, but this paper also attempts to touch upon terminological neologisms, appearing in one of the specific uses of language, namely in tourism. This field attracted our attention because it is notably intriguing, especially because it is "two-sided", meaning the language of tourism derives from two sides or directions - from the side of tourism experts and from the side of general public. Therefore, it is on one side specific (created by tourism experts), yet on the other spread among the general users who are also adding a considerable share to the vocabulary.
As is commonly known, tourism is one of the fastest growing and spreading sectors in the world and in recent times has also become a key element in social and economic development. Recently, the most commonly mentioned areas within tourism have been the flourishing of eco-tourism, sustainable tourism and responsible tourism, which reflect the current preoccupations of our society. In this flood of new types of tourism, offers and services, tourism experts often mention the sensitive area of dealing with new expressions. This is especially problematic when "transferring" one innovation and its newly coined expression from one language to another, since globalization has forced the English language to gain most new language creations, which are too frequently imposed on the individual development of less widely used world languages. Tourism experts are often left with no suitable language source
that could provide translational equivalents or suggest the use of expressions to lean on when introducing an innovation. Therefore, their subjective decisions lead to chaos with inconsistent use of new language. Our paper does not offer to solve the problem of translating or transferring numerous newly coined expressions to any language, but it stands as an important reminder that a plethora of new tourism innovations deliver a plethora of new expressions that are a delicate issue too often left neglected.
The language of tourism is one of the many specific fields of language that is considered multidisci-plinary. If we apply the model of Hoffmann (1984) and Braun (1993) (similarly to what was also done by Csak (2011) for the field of economy) to the language of tourism, three vertical levels of tourism language use are obtained:
-	The theoretical language of tourism is placed at the level of theoretical sciences, where typical genres include special books, monographs, scientific papers, etc. Mikolič (2013, p. 259) separated tourism terms into general tourism terms and terms from tourism sub-disciplines. This type of communication tends to have the highest level of abstraction as it is used as a medium between two experts;
-	Terms from other fields of science but connected to tourism. The degree of abstraction remains high as the level of using terminology;
-	Everyday language of tourism that descends to the level of an average non-specialist user. Its intention is to communicate information from one user to another via emails, blogs, and everyday conversations about travelling, etc. The degree of abstraction is the lowest as this is general, everyday language.
Neologisms are rarely dealt with according to individual disciplines or fields of study. Most commonly, they are researched within the field of computer sciences rich in constantly evolving technology, for example Moghdam &Sedighi (2012). Čeh (2012) touched upon the area in one of her studies, but she offers a limited selection of neologisms, from which the need arose to investigate the issue more thoroughly and systematically. The language of tourism evolves practically on a daily basis with the emergence of expressions coined by both professionals
and experts as well as general users. Globalization trends make the English language the most active in this field. Even though there are remarks supporting experts' detection of numerous neologisms in tourism, they have not been studied in detail.
Methods
Traditional techniques of new expression excerption involved people, usually lexicographers, studying texts with the intention of finding newly coined words. The current ability to collect and study large numbers of texts at a time, enabled by information technology, allows a more objective and automatic approach to selection. Manual techniques of excerption have become uneconomical (Paryzek, 2008, p. 163) as it is practically impossible to study vast amounts of texts using this method (Barnhart, 1985) and the current pace of text creation has never been faster. Therefore, a need for automation arose in the process of excerption. Thus far, the fields that have mostly benefitted from automation are those of tracking collocations and spelling changes. Experts use highly sophisticated mathematical tools to produce vast lists of collocations that, as Paryzek (2008, p. 163) states, should later be examined by lexicographers; however, this is rarely the case. In this context, neologisms are especially problematic because they are individual lexical units and because their appearance and location are mostly unpredictable: thus most of the mathematical techniques used in the past failed (Paryzek, 2008, p. 164). The first success was by Chlebda (1991), whom Paryzek (2008) cites in his research, when he developed a process of semi-automatic retrieval method, based on linguistic rather that statistical facts. The method assumes that new expressions most frequently appear within quotation marks or following language-specific phrases: so(-) called, called, termed, known as, defined as.
Since we are not dealing with general language, and because this paper intends to present a list of neologisms from the language of tourism, suitable language sources had to be chosen. Because of the socio-linguistic specifics of the field of tourism and its vertical levels, the sources were divided into two clusters: expert (providing us with terminological neologisms) and general ones (providing lexical neologisms). To make the research manageable, we narrowed the selection in the cluster of expert sources
to two scientific journals: a) Annals of Tourism Research (ATR), the leading scientific journal with the highest impact factor in the field of tourism; and b) Academica Turistica: Tourism and Innovation Journal (AC-TIJ), a journal dealing directly with tourism innovations, thus expected to offer a long list of new expressions. Within the cluster of general sources, we selected a) electronic sources: Google, Urban Dictionary, Word Spy and various so-called travel blogs (e.g. Nomadic Matt, A Luxury Travel Blog, The Barefoot Nomad, etc.); b) general language corpora (Cor-pus.byu.edu and American National Corpus).
In large amounts of texts, certain criteria have to be set in order to conduct an organized search. According to our neologism definition, the research searched for newly coined expressions appearing within quotation marks or/and following the phrases so(-)called, called, termed, known as, defined as. A large set of results required excluding those with at least one capital letter, proper names and abbreviations. Furthermore, all those connected with tourism or any of its sub-disciplines were selected and grouped accordingly. Afterwards, the selection of expressions were checked in order to determine whether they appear in any of the above-listed dictionaries (the fourth edition of Cambridge Dictionary (2013) and A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism (2012).
The research was expected to produce a large set of new expressions as tourism is considered to be a rather interdisciplinary field of study as well as a rather interesting one from the sociolinguistic perspective, since it is created by experts as well as by the general public. We assumed that we could expect more new coinages from the side of the general public, i.e. more lexical neologisms, whereas the professional language of tourism would produce with a longer set of new terminological word combinations. Sayedi (2011) claims this to be typical of social sciences. Nevertheless, the generated list of both types of neologisms will have a significant contribution to understanding the new paths tourism has been taking in recent years. In addition to tourism, the field of language studies will also benefit from it as it will deepen the delicate field of neologism studies, because most previous research dealt with neologisms appearing in general language rather that dealing with a specialized field of study. At the rapid pace of world development and social changes, these kinds
of studies can offer a deepened insight into a certain field of study "only" by observing the language and expressions it uses.
Research
The analysed set of sources was a rather large one. It was, therefore, impossible to include and assess all the results in the scope of one article. Therefore, only those expressions that were subjectively selected as intriguing and furthermore considered to be indicators of what innovative in tourism will be mentioned. In future research, we plan to widen the scope and create a glossary of tourism neologisms with the help of tourism experts.
The research first examined the two aforementioned tourism journals. In the Annals of Tourism Research (ATR) we took into consideration the articles published in the four issues in the year 2013 (40 articles and 48 other types of publications). In Aca-demica Turistica: Tourism and Innovation Journal (AC-TIJ), seven articles of the last published issue in 2012 were fully available online. When attempting to research the texts published in scientific publications in tourism with the "semi-automatic" method, it was proven the method was inefficient with this type of publications, and the results were minimal in number. Therefore, the publications were also researched without the help of computers, which was still manageable considering the fact the amount of words used in this part of the research. The objective was to determine the general fields that tourism had been involved with in the previous two years. It was discovered that the most discussed issues in tourism are culture and cultural tourism (6 publications on the subject in ATR), heritage (8 publications in ATR and 2 in AC-TIJ), authenticity (8 publications in ATR), nature and animals (7 publications in ATR) and volunteer tourism (3 publications in ATR). The phrase responsible tourism was often used (3 publications in ATR). AC-TIJ mostly discussed the topic of the financial crises. Despite not being directly connected with neologisms, it was observed that what was sufficiently interesting was the fact both journals listed numerous types of tourism. It indicates that tourism has a tendency to diversify itself into many types. There were articles mentioning urban tourism, film tourism, creative tourism, geotourism, dark tourism, family tourism, voluntourism (volunteer + tourism),
etc. Dictionaries fail to include most of the types of tourism in their lists.
In the scope of general sources, the hits on the most widely used internet search tool, Google, were researched. Here we expected a long list of neologisms, assuming people are generally also very active on the Internet on the broad topic of tourism. The process of extracting neologisms was done by using the application for advanced search, which allowed us to limit the search according to language, time of publication and place of appearance. We gathered the expressions in the English language, using the semi-automatic method, which presumes that neologisms follow the phrases so(-)called, called, termed, known as, defined as, published in the past three years. Two online "dictionaries" (Urban Dictionary, Word Spy) were taken under consideration but here the new expressions were gathered "manually". The "semi-automatic" method was also used in certain tourism blogs.
The selection of neologisms was vast. There were many expressions derived from the word "vacation". Speakers defined their vacation as their mancation (taking vacation only in group of other men), grey-cation (taking vacation together with older generations of your family), haycation (taking vacation on a farm), playcation (vacation where your only intention is to play or have fun without considering any history, heritage, etc.), daycation (a vacation for one day), fake-ation (where most of you vacation time is spent working), staycation (staying + vacation: staying at home for vacation, mostly used in times of financial crises when people cannot afford longer vacations away from home) A term to sofalize was also used for staying at home and communicating only electronically.
Furthermore, the general language appearing on the internet showed the occurrence of many types of tourism, such as libel tourism (connected with law suits), medical tourism (visiting a destination in order to receive some kind of medical treatment), fertility tourism (coming to receive medical treatment for their infertility problems), stem-cell tourism (going to destinations where clinics offer stem-cell treatments), disaster tourism (visiting sites offering any type of remains after a certain disaster), tattoo tourism (travelling to get their tattoo from the best tattoo masters), space tourism (extreme type of tourism of-
fering a trip to space), hahal holidays (destinations offering alcohol-free restaurants and bars, single-sex spas, etc.), babymoon (the last holidays before a couple has a child). According to these results, it almost seems that every reason for travelling defines a type of tourism nowadays.
Blends using the word "bikini" seem to be very popular: facekini (face + bikini), fatkini (fat + bikini), tankini (tank top + bikini), burkini (burka + bikini). Much is written about tourist photography (nonprofessional photography of tourists on their travels) and about photobombing (deliberately appearing in someone else's photo). Also popular are selfies (photos taken by oneself of oneself), that developed into footsies (a photo of one's foot) and legsies (a photo of one's legs). Food has also become an important part in travelling. People mention street food (dishes offered directly in streets), fusion cuisine (dishes that mix several cuisines) and like to try cakepops (small round pastries on a stick).
Some other new expressions were also: boatel (a hotel on a boat), glamping (a glamorous camping), glampsite (a glamorous campsite), flashpacking (travelling around the world with only a few items of clothing but with the most modern equipment to enable tweets and other internet communication), human safari (travelling to observe people, usually tribes), tourista (traveller's diarrhoea),
Discussion
Despite the fact that all the expressions indicating innovations in tourism could not possibly fit inside the limited space a journal offers for publishing, we managed to present the selection of those clearly stating the directions of tourism development. At this point, it should again be emphasized that this kind of research proves that language is an indicator of development. Nevertheless, as much it is useful and intriguing to investigate its changes and directions in certain fields of study, one must be aware that it still is a field needing particular attention. Especially nowadays, in times of rapid globalization, English is often becoming the only language of communication among researchers, scientists and professionals, thus neglecting the development of terminology of other languages. At this point, we would like to call the attention to the fact that languages are under the vast influence of the invasive English language, and
that its users must become aware of proper knowledge transfer, which entails not only correctly understanding and using the expressions coined in the English language, but most importantly taking care to properly transfer them into other languages. Most often one has to decide whether and how to translate terms into their language or to use an English version where the term could be used in its original or obtain a change in its spelling or pronunciation. The list of options here is long and no written guidelines or rules apply that one could depend on; therefore, languages with fewer speakers often receive numerous expressions, which frequently results in long lists of problematic coinages with no clearly defined usage. Letting the professionals, researchers or broadly defined creators of tourism field of study know about this issue was also one of the main objectives of this paper.
This paper has attempted to indicate that a field of study as interesting as the rapidly developing language of tourism needs greater attention in the future. Dealing with an issue so intriguing should result in deciding whose "responsibility" new expressions ought to be, since there is a great need for systematic extraction and organization in the flood of new coinages. This would offer tourism experts who need guidance in dealing with neologisms some support. To conclude, most definitely it can be agreed upon the fact that tourism experts have to communicate and cooperate with linguists on this delicate matter and vice versa, because one cannot handle the issue of neologisms in tourism without the help of the other.
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Internet sites
Academica Turistica - Tourism and Innovation Journal
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/annals-of-tour-
ism-research/ A Dictionary of Travel And Tourism http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/
acref/9780191733987.001.0001/acref-9780191733987
American National Corpus http://www.anc.org/data/oanc/ngram/ British National Corpus
http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/corpus/index.xml Corpus.byu.edu
http://corpus.byu.edu/variation.asp Google
www.google.com Urban Dictionary http://www.urbandictionary.com/ Nomadic Matt
http://www.nomadicmatt.com/ A Luxury Travel Bolg http://www.aluxurytravelblog.com/ The Barefoot Nomad http://www.thebarefootnomad.com/