170 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Let./Vol. 70 (136)
 Št./No. 4/2019
 Str./pp. 170–191
ISSN 0038 0474 Dženeta Camović
Some aspects of developmentally  
(non-) stimulating interactions of 
parents with preschool children – 
implications of basic determinants of 
parental behaviour
Abstract: In everyday life, children encounter different parental behaviours, both stimulating and 
non-stimulating. At an early age, parental encouragement and supportive behaviours are crucial for 
children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development, and their absence, neglect or undesirable atti-
tudes towards the children have negative consequences. The aim of this research was to gain insight 
into certain aspects of the interactions between parents and preschool children (4–6 years), in relation 
to some basic determinants of parental behaviour. The research covered selected forms of stimulating 
parental behaviours (reading with children, playing together, singing rhymes, etc.) as well as non-stim-
ulating ones (yelling at and hitting the child). The results show that there was a statistically significant 
difference in the practice of (non-) stimulating interactions between parents and children based on the 
gender of the parent and certain contextual factors. Parents with lower levels of education, with lower 
socio-economic status and from suburban areas were less engaged in stimulating activities with their 
children (reading to children, drawing with children, singing rhymes, playing with letters and numbers, 
etc.) that contribute to the development of graphomotor, cognitive and socio-emotional skills.
Keywords: preschool children, child development and learning, stimulating and non-stimulating 
interactions, parenting, home learning environment.
UDC: 373.2
Scientific paper
Dženeta Camović, PhD., assistant professor, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosopy, Department of 
Pedagogy, Franje Račkog 1, BA-71000 Sarajevo, Bosna in Hercegovina; e-mail: dzeneta.camovic@ff.unsa.ba

 Camović    171
Introduction
The true measure of child poverty and advantage is the quality of parenting a 
child receives, not just the money available to a household. 
                           (Heckman 2011, p. 83)
The research (Shonkof and Philips 2000, p. 188) shows that the most intense 
period of nerve cell development and synaptogenesis in the brain occurs in the first 
four years of life. During this time, parents are the first teachers to their children, 
and each time they encourage them to learn something new, they help them build 
new connections in their brains. This is why parents and teachers are referred to 
as “dendrite growers”, because as “gardeners”, they prepare the environment for 
their children’s growth (Tate 2011, p. 2). 
Parents have not only the first but also the longest lasting impact on children 
(Wheeler and Connor 2009, p. 12). They have the closest on-going relationship, 
which is immediate and permeates all aspects of daily life. In a family environment, 
learning is spontaneous and based on children’s initiative and natural curiosity, 
which is revealed through asking questions and taking the initiative to explore and 
try out new things. Parents can best understand children’s interests, answer their 
questions, engage in play and turn any situation into an opportunity for learning 
and development. With appropriate communication and interaction, emotional sta-
bility , consistent guidance and adequate encouragement, parents can significantly 
advance their children’s development and learning (Daly 2008, p. 171). Therefore, 
parenting is seen as the most demanding and responsible role in a person’s life, 
accompanied at the same time by high social expectations and an emphasis on 
good enough (Houghughi and Speight 1998, p. 294), supportive (Oven 2013, p. 12) 
and responsible parenting (Ljubetić 2012, p. 114). According to Houghughi and 
Speight (1998, p. 294), the core activities that constitute good enough parenting 
can be classified into three categories: care, control and development. Care refers 
to all activities that tend to satisfy the basic physical needs (need for food, sleep, 
physical contact, etc.) and socio-emotional needs of the child (security , love, stable 
and positive interactions through which the child can recognise his or her value 

172 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
and that of others). Control refers to directing children’s behaviour by setting and 
maintaining boundaries
1
 in a constructive way . Development includes all parenting 
activities aimed at playing together and socialising, encouraging children’s devel-
opment and learning and realising their full potentials. All of the above is further 
defined in the literature by the term parenting capacity (Cleaver et al. 1999, p. 
18), which is considered to be a key dimension in promoting child protection and 
well-being. In this sense, the most important determinants of parenting capacity 
are (1) meeting the basic existential needs of the child, (2) ensuring the child’s 
safety, (3) providing emotional warmth, (4) providing incentives and stimulating 
conditions for learning and development (5) guiding and setting boundaries and 
(6) stability (ibid.). 
The term parenting refers to everything that parents do together with their 
children, and it includes the tasks, behaviour and quality of the relationship 
(Quinton 2004, p. 27). Parental behaviour towards children and the quality of their 
relationship at an early age is a major determinant of the child’s health and future 
developmental outcomes (Oldershaw 2002, p. 2). In the context of Bronfenbren-
ner’s theory (1979, p. 173), children’s development and learning are influenced by 
interactions with parents and others, and parenting behaviour is determined by 
multiple factors in a wider and narrower environment. Some parenting behaviours 
can be bad for children (shouting, physical punishment and neglect) while others 
are stimulating (responsiveness, playing games and reading picture books). The 
reason why some parents are caring and supportive whereas others are restrictive 
and uninterested is related to the parenting ecology (Quinton 2004, p. 27). In this 
contextual understanding of parenting, based on Bronfenbrenner’s theory, it is 
emphasised that parental behaviour is shaped by multiple influences, including 
individual parental characteristics, child characteristics, material family conditions, 
quality of relationships with the spouse, relatives and friends and all contextual 
sources of stress or support that parents receive. Building on Bronfenbrenner’s 
environmental approach, Belsky (1984, p. 91) identified three basic determinants 
of parental behaviour: (a) parents’ personality and personal resources (gender, 
age, personality traits, their parents’ behaviour towards them, satisfaction with 
marriage), (b) the child’s characteristics (gender, age, temperament and abilities) 
and (c) contextual sources of stress and support (socio-economic status, family 
structure such as the number of family members, number of children or order of 
birth of children and different sources of stress or support).
Based on the above, the main goal of this paper is to gain insight into the se-
lected aspects of interactions between parents and children of preschool age (4–6 
years), which refer to two components of parenting capacity (Cleaver et al. 1999, 
p. 18) related to the basic determinants of parental behaviour (Belsky 1984, p. 91). 
The two selected components of parenting capacity include (a) providing incentives 
1
  Setting and maintaining boundaries refers to encouraging the child to exercise control over his 
or her behaviour. Good control refers to setting reasonable boundaries through which the child learns 
to distinguish between what is acceptable and what is not, and it is conducted in a consistent and warm-
hearted manner. Poor control means unreasonable limits or those that are implemented inconsistently 
with punishment or other practices that have a negative effect on child development. 

      173 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
and stimulating conditions for learning and development and (b) guiding and set-
ting boundaries. For the analysis of the basic determinants of parental behaviour, 
the following were observed: (a) some determinants of parents’ personal resources 
(gender), (b) some characteristics of the child (gender) and (c) contextual factors 
(socio-economic status: parents’ educational level, material family status, place of 
residence; family structure: number of children in the family and order of birth 
of children).
Developmental importance of quality interaction between parents and children
The quality of interaction with parents during the first years of life plays a 
key role in shaping children’s perceptive, cognitive and linguistic abilities, and 
it influences their socio-emotional development and mental health in adulthood 
(Winter 2010, p. 7). The early responsive relationships that are formed with par-
ents and other people in the environment are important for brain development. 
Tate (2011, p. 40) points out that the need for human interaction is so significant 
that it is considered as one of the basic needs for the brain. This refers to two-way 
communication, which is important for creating new connections in the brain, and 
in which the child does not take a passive role but rather participates actively in 
the exchange, sending and receiving messages in an appropriate and stimulating 
communication environment. 
Supportive and caring parent–child interaction influences the development 
of linguistic, cognitive and social competence in early childhood. Parental respons-
iveness, positive emotional tone, appropriate instruction and support and shared 
engagement in specific contents are associated with positive developmental outcomes 
in the linguistic and cognitive domains (Dodici et al. 2003, p. 124). In addition, 
positive emotional statements, praise, smiling, caring touch and embrace without 
shouting or negative statements are associated with positive developmental out-
comes in children (ibid., p. 126).
Paterson (2011, p. 19) argues that mutual and reciprocal interaction between 
children and parents is the most important element in a child’s developmental 
process. This process is like “serving and returning” a tennis ball. When children 
seek interaction through facial expressions, crying, gesturing or using words and 
parents respond positively by gesturing, they return “the ball” in an appropriate 
and positive way , affirming the child and his or her expression, and an interaction 
conducive to brain development is established. However, in the absence of such an 
answer or if it is inappropriate, the brain does not receive adequate stimulation, 
which can negatively affect the further socio-emotional development of the child.
2
 
2
  In this connection, it is important to mention the “frozen face” experiment designed by the 
American developmental psychologist Edward Tronick. The experiment points to the importance of 
responsive mother–child communication but also to the risk of non-responsive communication if it 
occurs continuously and over a long period of time. Also, the experiment shows how vulnerable children 
are in the event of a lack of emotional response by those whom they are in close relationships with. In 
just a few minutes after the mother’s responsive reaction is missing, the child’s behaviour takes on a 
dimension of negative emotionality.

174 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
Alternating and reciprocal role-taking significantly determines the quality of 
communication and affects the development of the child. A responsive mother who 
responds appropriately and positively to the child’s need for communication creates 
a stimulating communication environment, which is crucial for early language 
development (but also significant for socio-emotional development). Neglected 
children—those who are rarely talked to—are less likely to develop language skills 
and to establish social interactions with people in the environment than children 
living in a supportive communication environment. Hence, we see that the develop-
ment of social interaction and the development of communication have a dialectical 
connection and condition each other (Bratanić 1993, p. 95). Communication in a 
warm emotional atmosphere with a responsive dialogue, spontaneous playing with 
children, reading, talking and singing can significantly stimulate the development 
of children’s social interaction and communication. 
Developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions between parents and children at 
an early age 
The contemporary role of parents is increasingly focused on engaging more in 
child upbringing and creating a stimulating home learning environment in which 
the child’s intellectual needs will be met and his or her curiosity for reading and 
research will be developed (Ljubetic 2011, p. 89). The quality of the home envir-
onment is crucial for child development and learning, and it is considered more 
important than the parents’ occupation, education or monthly income. In other 
words, it is more important what parents do with their children than who they are 
(Wheeler and Connor 2009, p. 9). Desforge (2003, p. 28) emphasises that what 
parents do with their children at home has a significant positive effect on the chil-
dren’s achievement and adjustment, even if all other positive factors are absent. 
Although low socio-economic status and lower levels of parents’ education are risk 
factors for children’s achievement, they can be overcome by parental engagement 
and active involvement in the upbringing of the child. 
Each child has the right to have a parent who provides supportive and respons-
ible parenting. Encouraging and responsible parenting of a young child consists 
of different joint activities involving the parent and the child that contribute to 
the quality of the mutual relationship and promote the development of the child’s 
cognitive, socio-emotional and/or graphomotor abilities (Pećnik 2013, p. 12). Stim-
ulating parenting is based on developmental and stimulating interactions between 
parents and children in the home environment. Wheeler and Connor (2009, p. 49) 
cite activities that “stretch” the child’s brain and create a stimulating home en-
vironment for his or her development and learning: reading with and to children, 
going on visits, creating opportunities for playing with friends, playing with letters 
and numbers, going to the library , singing rhymes, drawing and painting. Roberts 
(2009, p. 11) also mentions this activities that promote early childhood development 
and learning, but he adds some more, such as: playing with the child but having 
the child lead the game, telling the stories, visiting friends and attending cultural 

      175 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
manifestations, playing with “dirty” materials (mud, sand, etc.), solving simple 
problems and encouraging new ideas. 
Children who are talked to, sung to and played with and encouraged to explore 
and think in their everyday home environment have a considerable intellectual 
and social advantage, better language skills and a higher level of self-confidence, 
than children whose parents didn’t expose them to those experiences (Wheeler and 
Connor 2009, p. 9). In particular, reading activities with and for children stand out 
as a significant contributor to their cognitive development. Preschool children who 
are less encouraged by the home learning environment and have fewer opportun-
ities to read are at greater risk of having reading problems than children who have 
lived in a richer environment with more stimuli to develop this skill. Therefore, the 
home environment is crucial to the early development of literacy , emphasising the 
importance of early demonstration of the value of reading within the family , reading 
to children and creating opportunities for them to read on their own, responding 
to their reading interests, enriching the environment with a variety of reading 
materials (picture books, books and other media) and creating opportunities for 
joint conversations with children (Evangelou et al. 2008, p. 8). Numerous scientific 
studies (Stričević 2006, p. 2) have shown that reading to children beginning at an 
early age is just as important for their development as providing for their basic 
needs (food, health, love, safety, etc.). Children who were read to by their parents 
between their first and third years and talked to about the contents of picture 
books had better language competencies between the ages of two and seven and 
better reading comprehension at the age of seven than children whose parents 
read to them less often (Crain-Toreson and Dale 1992, according to Fekonja Peklaj 
and Marjanovič Umek 2011, p. 59). These children also start to speak earlier, have 
richer vocabularies, use much more complex expressions and learn to read earlier 
than their counterparts (Bus et al. 1995; Hewison and Tizard 1980, according to 
Fekonja Peklaj and Marjanovič Umek 2011, p. 59).
A favourable home environment encourages emotional competence and cog-
nitive regulation in children, as opposed to an unfavourable environment, which 
causes children to exhibit poor memory and concentration, poor motivation and 
difficulties in planning and solving problems (Čudina Obradović and Obradović 
2006, p. 382). Therefore, the implications of the UN Convention on the Rights of 
the Child (Konvencija...1989) on parenting are focused on parental responsibilities 
in the upbringing of children. A parenting task is considered to be the application 
of those forms of leadership that take into account the needs of both – the parents 
and their child, without impairing the child’s physical and psychological integrity 
(Daly 2008, p. 36). This includes non-violent child upbringing and positive dis-
cipline. It should be noted that electing not to employ corporal punishment does 
not mean adopting a permissive parenting style, manifested by the absence of 
prohibitions, supervision and control; rather, parents are assertive and establish 
reasonable boundaries that are implemented in a consistent and warm-hearted 
manner. Children do not become badly behaved because of the absence of corporal 
punishment but because of the inconsistent and permissive behaviour of parents 
towards children. Longitudinal research (McCord 1997, according to Daly 2008,  

176 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
p. 47) links corporal punishment to socially maladaptive children’s behaviours, 
such as aggression, delinquency and antisocial behaviour. Physical punishment 
can be effective in achieving short-term obedience in children, but in the long run 
it results in many socio-emotional problems. The research indicates that the par-
enting style and disciplinary strategies used by parents influence children’s social 
competence (Katz and Mcclellan 1999, p. 26). Meanwhile, good parenting (by which 
we mean the authoritative parenting style) develops the child’s social skills (Čudina 
Obradović and Obradović 2006, p. 277). A rigid (authoritarian) parenting style that 
has low levels of warmth and high levels of control with inadequate parental actions 
(frequent shouting, commands, and (corporal) punishments) leads to lower levels 
of self-esteem and underdeveloped social competence in children. This means that 
parents who apply corporal punishment create a risky environment for their child’s 
socio-emotional development and his or her ability to cope peers. 
Based on this theoretical insight, we can conclude that interactions between 
parents and children of preschool age are the most important determinant of the 
children’s future learning and development. However , parenting behaviour towards 
children is determined by many factors, which significantly impact the quality and 
type of interactions parents have with their children. Accordingly, we set out the 
following research problem below. 
Methodology
Aim and research questions
The aim of this study was to gain insight into some aspects of the interactions 
between parents and their preschool children (4–6 years) regarding the basic determ-
inants of parenting behaviour: (a) some determinants of parents’ personal resources 
(gender), (b) some characteristics of the child (gender) and (c) contextual factors 
(socio-economic status: educational level of parents, material status of the family, 
place of residence; family structure: number of children in the family and order of 
birth of the children). The study covered two components of parenting capacity: (a) 
providing incentives and stimulating conditions for learning and development and 
(b) guiding and setting boundaries, exploring some forms of stimulating parental 
interactions (reading with children, playing together, singing rhymes, etc.) as well 
as the non-stimulating ones (yelling at or hitting the child). Hence, three research 
questions were posed:
 – How frequent are the examined stimulating and non-stimulating parental 
interactions with preschool children?
 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between the frequency of particular 
developmentally stimulating and developmentally non-stimulating parental 
interactions with preschool children and the selected basic determinants of 
parenting behaviour?

      177 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
 – Is there a statistically significant difference in the frequency of particular 
developmentally stimulating and developmentally non-stimulating parental 
interactions with preschool children in relation to the selected basic determ-
inants of parenting behaviour?
Sample
The survey included 310 parents of preschool children. Data were collected 
in 14 kindergartens in the Canton of Sarajevo, 10 in the city centre (distributed in 
different municipalities) and four in the wider city area (in different municipalities). 
In the case of boys, 29 fathers and 123 mothers completed the questionnaires, and 
in the case of girls, 29 fathers and 122 mothers did so. Seven parents did not enter 
information about their own or their child’s gender. Parents’ ages ranged from 
25 to 53 years (M = 35.37; SD = 5.04) while the children were 4 to 6 years of age 
(M = 5.23; SD = 0.94. In terms of birth order, the largest number of participants 
were parents of first-born children (47.74%), followed by those of second-born 
children (31.94%), and third-born children (6.45%). In terms of the number of 
children in the family, most parents had two children (54.84%), followed by those 
with one child (26.13%) and three children (11.61%). Regarding the socio-eco-
nomic status of the family, most parents reported good material status (61.61%), 
followed by medium material status (29.68%), very good status (6.45%) and poor 
material status (1.61%). None of the survey participants reported a very poor 
status, while two (0.65%) did not provide information on their family’s material  
status.
In terms of educational status, the highest number of parents had secondary 
education (42.90%) followed by higher education (42.58%), master/doctorate edu-
cation (10.97%) and elementary school education (3.55%). In the inner part of 
the city, there were more parents with a master’s degree/doctorate (100% of this 
sub-sample) as well as with a university degree (87.1% of this sub-sample). Most 
of the parents with secondary school education were in the inner part of the city 
(55.63%), whereas for the primary school level, the highest number of parents was 
in suburban settlements (90% of this sub-sample). 
In terms of the employment status, most of the parents were employed (68.39% 
of the sample), while a minority were unemployed (31.62%). Far more employed 
parents (91.61%) than unemployed parents (8.39%) had children who attended the 
whole-day kindergarten programme. Of the children who attended the compulsory 
preschool programme, the largest number of parents were the unemployed ones 
(53.38%) vs. the employed ones (44.62%). In all municipalities in the city centre, 
there were more employed parents (84.6% of this sub-sample) than unemployed 
parents (15,4%), while this ratio was reversed in suburban settlements (only 29.07% 
of this sub-sample was employed vs. 70,93% of unemployed). 

178 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
Instrument
The scale for assessing the diversity and frequency of developmentally (non-) 
stimulating interactions between parents and children of preschool age was con-
structed for the research purposes based on a theoretical analysis of recent liter-
ature. The scale consisted of 14 statements using a five-point Likert-type scale, 
where the parents were asked about the frequency of particular examined forms 
of interactions in the previous seven-day period (an answer of “1” means meant 
“not once in 7 days”, and “5meant 2–3 times a day”). Its reliability, expressed by 
the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, was α = 0.826, which supports its high reliability 
and internal consistency. Two questions called for a response to be recoded, as 
their content was defined differently from the rest. These claims were: “Hit the 
child when he/she disobeyed you” and, “Yelled at the child when he/she didn’t act 
according to your expectations”.
Procedure
The participants were involved in the research anonymously and voluntarily . 
The study was conducted using the group testing method, on kindergarten/school 
premises, at the time when parents brought their children to kindergarten/school. 
The testing was conducted by the researcher and lasted for 20 minutes. 
Data analysis
This was an empirical non-experimental correlation-type study . The internal 
consistency of the scale was verified using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Spear-
man’s correlation coefficient (rs) and the Mann–Whitney U test were used in the 
data analysis. Data processing was performed in the Statistical Package for the 
Social Sciences (SPSS) programme.
Results of the research and interpretation
Frequency of the examined stimulating and non-stimulating parental interactions 
with preschool children
In order to assess the diversity and frequency of developmentally (non-) stim-
ulating interactions between parents and children of preschool age, we provided 
parents with a scale to indicate whether or not each individual claim that related 
to specific stimulating or non-stimulating interactions with children referred to 
them. The graphical representation (Graph 1) shows the diversity and frequency 
of developmentally stimulating interactions between parents and children in the 
seven-day period preceding the survey. 

      179 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
Reading a picture book or a book to the child.
Playing together with the child for at least half an hour.
Drawing or painting together with the child.
Singing rhymes together with the child.
Writing or learning letters and numbers together 
with children.
Playing with letters and numbers in unusual ways.
Playing games that demand greater physical activity 
(running, jumping, etc.).
Helping the child to solve some simple problems.
Talking with the child alone for at least fifteen minutes 
and completely dedicated only to him/her.
Providing conditions for playing with friends.
Hitting the child when he/she disobeyed you 
(e.g. spanking the child or pulling the child’s ear/hair).
Yelling at the child when he/she did not behave 
according to your expectations.
Visiting a park or a playground with the child.
Visiting the theatre for children with the child.
Visiting a library with the child.
 
Not once in 7 days Once in 7 days 3 or 4 times in 7 days Every day once 2 or 3 times a day
Graph 1: The percentage of responses on the Scale of assessment of the diversity and frequency of 
developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions between parents and children (N=310)
Based on the above, it can be concluded that most children are exposed to stim-
ulating forms of interaction with their parents on a weekly basis. It is interesting 
to note that the most common stimulating activity between parents and children is 
play , and almost half of the parents (46%) reported that they play with their children 
every day . Meanwhile, reading to children usually occurs as an activity once in seven 
days. Only one-third of the parents said they read to children every day , and almost 
one-fifth said they do not do so not even once in seven days. Reading to children is 
just one of the activities that creates a stimulating environment for early literacy, 
but it is considered the central one (Bus et al. 1995, according to Fekonja Peklaj and 
Marjanovič Umek 2011, p. 58). The frequency and quality of reading to children 
are strong predictors of literacy development, language development and reading 
comprehension (Bus et al. 1995, DeBaryshe 1995, Reese and Cox 1999, Stadler and 

180 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
McEvoy 2003, according to Fekonja Peklaj and Marjanovič Umek 2011, p. 58). The 
data point to the need for systematic and public encouragement
3
 of parents to read 
to their children and to familiarise themselves with the importance of reading for 
children at an early age, which should include preschool institutions, health centres, 
libraries, the media, etc. 
When it comes to the developmentally non-stimulating actions of parents to-
wards children, a significant percentage of parents (42%) reported that they apply 
corporal punishment. In comparison, shouting at children was a much more common 
form of unwanted interaction, practiced to a greater or lesser extent by 78% of the 
parents. Parents who attempt to establish control and discipline of their children 
by shouting and corporal punishment do not provide a stimulating environment for 
growing up or respect the basic rights that belong to every child under the Conven-
tion on the Rights of the Child (Konvencija 1989). Based on the above, we emphasise 
the importance of publicly promoting the non-violent upbringing of children and 
popularising the idea of positive parenting through parent support programmes, to 
which each parent is entitled (Durrant 2007, p. 3). 
Connection between the frequency of developmentally stimulating and 
developmentally non-stimulating parental interactions with preschool children 
and the selected contextual factors
In the following, we examine the association of stimulating and non-stimu-
lating parenting behaviours with two contextual factors: parents’ educational level 
and material family status. As these are the ordinal variables, we used Spearman’s 
correlation coefficient (r
s
). The data are presented in Table 1.
Positive correlations indicate that a higher score on a particular claim is  
accompanied by a higher parental educational level (i.e. the material status of 
the family). Based on the above table, it can be concluded that parents were 
more likely to read books or picture books to their children if they had a higher 
educational level (r
s
 = 0.308, p <0.001) and higher material status (r
s
 = 0.237, 
p <0.001). Parents with a higher educational level were more likely to play with 
their children (r = 0.162, p <0.01). Parents with better material status were 
more likely to draw or colour with their children (r
s
 = 0.138, p <0.05). Parents 
who sang songs more often with their children also had a higher educational level  
(r
s
 = 0.123, p <0.05) and better material status (r
s
 = 0.152, p <0.01). Furthermore, 
3
  Influenced by the knowledge of the importance of reading to a child at a young age, programmes 
are being developed to encourage reading from birth. In America, a programme called ‘Born to Read’ 
has been launched to raise awareness of the importance of reading for parents of young children. This 
programme also includes kindergartens, health centres, libraries, media, etc. In the UK and Scandinavia, 
and even in Croatia, parents receive library cards for children and information about the importance 
of reading to children from a young age when they are in maternity wards. A group of Ohio pediatrici-
ans received the World Reading Incentive Award in 2003. Each time a child came for an examination, 
paediatricians informed the parents of the importance of reading to children. Thus, by the age of five, 
children could receive ten picture books (ten mandatory examinations). Owning ten books of your own 
is considered the minimum that should be provided for every child (Stricevic, 2006).

      181 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
parents who wrote and learned letters with their children more often also had a 
higher educational level (r
s
 = 0.161, p <0.01) and better material status (r
s
 = 0.157,  
p <0.01). Conversely , parents who hit children more often when they disobeyed them 
had a lower educational level (r
s
 = -0.223, p <0.001) and a lower material status  
(r
s
 = -0.158, p <0.01). Similarly , parents who yelled at the children were more likely 
to have a lower educational level (r
s
 = -0.136, p <0.05) and lower material status 
(r
s
 = -0.207, p <0.001). Parents with higher educational levels visited the park/
playground with their children more frequently (r
s
 = 0.204, p <0.001) as well as 
the children’s theatre (r
s
 = 0.174, p <0.01). Parents with a better material status 
also took their children to the theatre for children more often (r
s
 = 0.181, p <0.01). 
All the correlations are statistically significant. These results add to the growing 
evidence showing that parental educational capacities reflect on their children’s 
lives within the family (Milanović et al. 2000). 
(Non-) stimulating parental behaviours Educational 
level
Material 
status
Reading a picture book or a book to the child. 0,308*** 0,237***
Playing together with the child for at least half an hour. 0,162** 0,093
Drawing or painting together with the child. 0,048 0,138*
Singing rhymes together with the child. 0,123* 0,152**
Writing or learning letters and numbers together with children. 0,161** 0,157**
Playing with letters and numbers in unusual ways (cutting letters/numbers out of 
paper, putting words/sentences together on a magnet board, etc.)
0,105 0,053
Playing games that demand greater physical activity (running, jumping, etc.). 0,039 0,029
Helping the child to solve some simple problems or tasks (puzzles/riddles, etc.). 0,097 0,106
Talking with the child alone for at least fifteen minutes and completely dedicated 
only to him/her.
0,010 0,044
Providing conditions for playing with friends. -0,099 -0,009
Hitting the child when he/she disobeyed you (e.g. spanking the child or pulling the 
child’s ear/hair).
-0,223*** -0,158**
Yelling at the child when he/she did not behave according to your expectations. -0,136* -0,207***
Visiting a park or a playground with the child. 0,204*** 0,081
Visiting the theatre for children with the child. 0,174** 0181**
Visiting a library with the child. 0,070 0,042
Table 1: Correlations of educational level and material status with (non-) stimulating parental behav-
iours (N=310) Legend: * p < 0,05; ** p < 0,01; *** p < 0,001

182 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
Examining the differences in the frequency of particular developmentally stimulating 
and developmentally non-stimulating parental interactions with preschool children 
in relation to the selected contextual factors 
In the following, we will examine the differences in the frequency of particular 
developmentally stimulating and developmentally non-stimulating parental interac-
tions with preschool children in relation to the selected contextual factors: place of 
residence (suburban or urban) and family structure (number of children in the family 
and birth order). In order to check for differences in (non-) stimulating parenting 
behaviours, taking into consideration the area of the city , the areas were divided into 
narrower urban (four municipalities) and suburban areas. The Mann–Whitney U test 
was applied because participants’ responses to the corresponding scale statements 
were not distributed according to the normal curve (Table 2). 
(Non-) stimulating parental behaviours Grouping 
variables
(area of the 
city)
Average 
rank
U P
Reading a picture book or a book to the child. urban
suburban
174,08
104,72
5246 0,000
Playing together with the child at least for half an hour. urban
suburban
169,41
119,28
6517 0,000
Drawing or painting together with the child. urban
suburban
161,40
134,68
7793 0,015
Singing rhymes together with the child. urban
suburban
165,70
125,11
6980 0,000
Writing or learning letters and numbers together with children. urban
suburban
165,70
128,94
7348 0,001
Playing with letters and numbers in unusual ways (cutting letters/
numbers of paper, putting words/sentences together on a magnet 
board, etc.)
urban
suburban
162,07
138,38
8160 0,028
Playing games that demand greater physical activity (running, 
jumping...).
urban
suburban
155,92
154,41
9538 0,891
Helping the child to solve some simple problems or tasks (solving 
puzzles/riddles, solving simple problem tasks).
urban
suburban
155,10
151,18
9260 0,719
Talking with the child alone for at least fifteen minutes and 
completely dedicated only to him/her.
urban
suburban
159,72
142,75
8536 0,116
Providing conditions for playing with friends. urban
suburban
145,92
173,20
7718 0,012
Hitting the child when he/she disobeyed you (e.g. spanking the child 
or pulling the child’s ear/hair).
urban
suburban
145,12
182,54
7306 0,000
Yelling at the child when he/she did not behave according to your 
expectations.
urban
suburban
150,33
168,97
8474 0,082
Visiting a park or a playground with the child. urban
suburban
163,95
128,02
7226 0,001
Visiting the theatre for children with the child. urban
suburban
157,35
147,03
8842 0,218
Visiting a library with the child. urban
suburban
156,45
153,03
9420 0,558
Table 2: Differences in (non-) stimulating parental behaviours in relation to the city area (N=310)

      183 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
Based on the above, it can be concluded that parents from urban areas were 
more likely to read to their children more frequently, play with them, draw/paint 
with them, sing rhymes with them, write and learn letters together and play with 
them more frequently with letters and numbers in unusual ways. On average, 
parents from suburban neighbourhoods were statistically significantly more likely 
than parents from urban municipalities to create conditions for their child to play 
with friends (Mann–Whitney U = 7718, p <0.05). Also, parents from the suburbs 
hit their children when they did not obey them statistically significantly (Mann–
Whitney U = 7306, p <0.001) more frequently than urban parents. Parents from 
the urban municipalities were statistically significantly more likely to visit the 
park/playground with their children than parents from suburban neighbourhoods 
(Mann–Whitney U = 7226, p <0.01). Parents from suburban neighbourhoods 
shouted at their children more frequently than parents from urban areas, but the 
difference was not statistically significant (Mann–Whitney U = 8474, p >0.05). 
Regarding the order of birth (Table 3), it can be seen that parents read more to 
their first-born children compared to children who were born later, and the result 
was statistically significant (Mann–Whitney U = 6881, p <0.01). Likewise, they 
were statistically significantly more likely to play with their first-born children 
compared to later-born children (Mann–Whitney U = 7327, p <0.05). Parents 
were also statistically significantly more likely to draw and colour with their first-
born children (Mann Whitney U = 7103, p <0.05), sing rhymes (Mann Whitney 
U = 7311, p <0.05) and visit a park or playground with them (Mann Whitney  
U = 5955, p <0.01)
(Non-) stimulating parental behaviours Grouping
variables
(order of 
birth)
Average 
rank
U P
Reading a picture book or a book to the child. first
second/third
145,54
117,84
6881 0,002
Playing together with the child for at least for half an hour. first
second/third
143,47
121,55
7327 0,015
Drawing or painting together with the child. first
second/third
142,33
119,70
7103 0,013
Singing rhymes together with the child. first
second/third
141,73
121,43
7311 0,027
Writing or learning letters and numbers together with children. first
second/third
137,20
129,06
8235 0,374
Playing with letters and numbers in unusual ways (cutting letters/
numbers out of paper, putting words/sentences together on a magnet 
board, etc.)
first
second/third
139,28
126,57
7934 0,156
Playing games that demand greater physical activity (running, 
jumping, etc.).
first
second/third
137,48
128,74
8196 0,341

184 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
Helping the child to solve some simple problems or tasks (solving 
puzzles/riddles, etc.).
first
second/third
132,58
131,31
8497 0,889
Talking with the child alone for at least fifteen minutes and 
completely dedicated only to him/her.
first
second/third
140,92
123,43
7551 0,053
Providing conditions for playing with friends. first
second/third
136,37
126,63
7921 0,283
Hitting the child when he/she disobeyed you (e.g. spanking the child 
or pulling the child’s ear/hair).
first
second/third
130,30
137,33
8309 0,399
Yelling at the child when he/she did not behave according to your 
expectations.
first
second/third
134,48
132,33
8630 0,810
Visiting a park or a playground with the child. first
second/third
150,36
110,13
5955 0,000
Visiting the theatre for children with the child. first
second/third
133,95
132,96
8707 0,887
Visiting a library with the child. first
second/third
130,92
136,59
8399 0,253
Table 3: (Non-) stimulating parental behaviours with children in relation to the order of the birth 
(N=310)
When it comes to the number of children in the family, Table 4 shows that 
parents with only one child were statistically significantly more likely to read 
to their children than parents with more children (Mann–Whitney U = 7149,  
p <0.05). They also drew or coloured with them more frequently (Mann-Whitney 
U = 6774, p <0.05) and visited a park or playground with them more frequently 
(Mann–Whitney U = 6192, p <0.01). Similar tendencies were observed in terms 
of playing with the child, although the result was not statistically significant 
(Mann–Whitney U = 7902, p > 0.05). These findings, which indicate that younger 
children or children from families with multiple children are the recipients of fewer 
stimulating behaviours (reading, playing), are consistent with other studies. They 
point to the theory of reduced family incentives (Blake, 1981, according to Cudina 
Obradovic and Obradovic, 2006), which assumes that with each subsequent child 
parents will have less time and material resources for each individual child. As a 
result, encouraging treatment of an individual child will become less common in 
families with multiple children.

      185 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
(Non-) stimulating parental behaviours Grouping variables
(number of children)
Average 
rank  
U P
Reading a picture book or a book to the child. one
two or more
160,73
138,87
7149 0,038
Playing together with the child for at least half an 
hour.
one
two or more
152,44
142,81
7902 0,352
Drawing or painting together with the child. one
two or more
162,83
136,72
6774 0,014
Singing rhymes together with the child. one
two or more
150,94
142,72
7805 0,402
Writing or learning letters and numbers together with 
children.
one
two or more
139,71
147,74
7995 0,449
Playing with letters and numbers in unusual ways 
(cutting letters/numbers out of paper, putting words/
sentences together on a magnet board, etc.)
one
two or more
144,65
145,83
8395 0,910
Playing games that demand greater physical activity 
(running, jumping, etc.).
one
two or more
142,83
146,53
8248 0,728
Helping the child to solve some simple problems or 
tasks (puzzles/riddles, etc.).
one
two or more
138,62
146,12
7907 0,476
Talking with the child alone for at least fifteen 
minutes and completely dedicated only to him/her.
one
two or more
157,51
140,13
7411 0,096
Providing conditions for playing with friends. one
two or more
144,83
142,99
8134 0,861
Hitting the child when he/she disobeyed you (e.g. 
spanking the child or pulling the child’s ear/hair).
one
two or more
141,77
146,95
8162 0,591
Yelling at the child when he/she did not behave 
according to your expectations.
one
two or more
135,74
149,28
7674 0,191
Visiting a park or a playground with the child. one
two or more
169,62
134,27
6192 0,001
Visiting the theatre for children with the child. one
two or more
148,62
144,29
8211 0,593
Visiting a library with the child. one
two or more
144,49
145,89
8382 0,799
Table 4: (Non-) stimulating parental behaviours with children in relation to the number of children in 
the family (N=310)

186 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
Differences in the frequency of developmentally stimulating and developmentally 
non-stimulating parental interactions with preschool children with respect to some 
parent and child characteristics 
 Considering that parenting behaviour is shaped by multiple influences, in-
cluding the characteristics of children and parents, the relationship between the 
tested forms of interactions and the gender of parents and children was examined. 
Table 5 shows that parent–child interactions were determined more by the gender 
of the parent than by the gender of the child. No statistically significant differ-
ence was found with respect to the gender of the child and the (non-) stimulating 
interactions examined. However, given the gender of the parents and the average 
grades obtained, it is noticeable that mothers were more engaged in all stimulating 
interactions, except for games that require more physical activity and attending 
theatre for children, where fathers achieved slightly higher average grades. Mothers 
also drew and painted with their children (Mann–Whitney U = 5888, p <0.05), 
sang rhymes with them (Mann–Whitney U = 5409, p <0.05) and talked to them 
alone for at least fifteen minutes each day statistically significantly more frequently 
than fathers (Mann–Whitney U = 5250, p <0.01). Regarding non-stimulating 
interactions, mothers yelled at or hit their children slightly more frequently than 
fathers, but not to a statistically significant level. Furthermore, boys were more 
frequently exposed to such non-stimulating interactions than girls, with the results 
nearly but not quite reaching statistical significance. 

      187 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
PARENTS CHILD
(Non-) stimulating parental behaviours Grouping
variables 
(gender)
Average 
rank 
U P Average 
rank
U P
Reading a picture book or a book to the 
child.
male
female
148,43
153,48
6987 0,680 151,13
155,87
1134 0,625
Playing together with the child for at least 
half an hour.
male
female
151,68
153,32
7179 0,891 149,55
158,48
1109 0,347
Drawing or painting together with the child. male
female
129,80
156,77
5888 0,028 147,51
157,49
1079 0,307
Singing rhymes together with the child. male
female
121,69
159,33
5409 0,002 154,86
151,16
1134 0,706
Writing or learning letters and numbers 
together with children.
male
female
138,96
156,37
6428 0,158 160,05
147,91
1084 0,215
Playing with letters and numbers in unusual 
ways (cutting letters/numbers out of paper, 
putting words/sentences together on a 
magnet board, etc.)
male
female
151,75
153,30
7183 0,899 155,67
152,32
1152 0,728
Playing games that demand greater physical 
activity (running, jumping, etc.).
male
female
170,42
148,82
6229 0,081 156,89
151,09
1133 0,555
Helping the child to solve some simple 
problems or tasks (puzzles/riddles, etc.).
male
female
151.,72
151,45
7155 0,982 148,43
156,51
1093 0,406
Talking with the child alone for at least 
fifteen minutes and completely dedicated 
only to him/her.
male
female
118,98
160,57
5250 0,001 150,55
156,45
1125 0,540
Providing conditions for playing with 
friends.
male
female
143,22
152,90
6680 0,426 150,24
153,77
1120 0,715
Hitting the child when he/she disobeyed you 
(e.g. spanking the child or pulling the child’s 
ear/hair).
male
female
145,93
154,70
6840 0,431 161,05
146,91
1069 0,110
Yelling at the child when he/she did not 
behave according to your expectations.
male
female
137,26
156,77
6328 0,106 163,25
144,69
1035 0,052
Visiting a park or a playground with the 
child.
male
female
140,41
154,80
6514 0,237 145,83
159,26
1053 0,164
Visiting the theatre for children with the 
child.
male
female
154,74
151,34
7036 0,717 146,51
159,53
1063 0,080
Visiting a library with the child. male
female
151,38
153,39
7161 0,757 151,38
156,63
1137 0,306
Table 5. (Non-) stimulating parental behaviours with children in relation to the parent and child 
gender (N=310)

188 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies  
 
Camović
Conclusion
The above results clearly show large variations in the frequency of stimulating 
and non-stimulating interactions between parents and children of preschool age 
based on specific characteristics of parents and children as well as certain contextual 
factors. It can be concluded that parents from urban municipalities and those with 
a higher educational level and better material status were more likely to engage in 
desirable interactions with their children, thus creating a more stimulating home 
learning environment for child development and learning. Parents with a higher 
educational level and better material status were statistically significantly more 
likely to read books or picture books to their children, to sing rhymes with them, 
to write more often and to learn letters with them. In addition, parents with a 
higher educational level were statistically significantly more likely to play more 
often with their children, visit the park/playground with them and visit the theatre 
for children. Parents with a better material status were statistically significantly 
more likely to draw or paint more often with their child and take their children 
to the theatre for children. Parents from urban areas were more likely to read to 
children more often, play with them, draw/paint with them, sing songs with them, 
write and learn letters with them and play with letters and numbers in unusual 
ways. Meanwhile, parents from suburban neighbourhoods, of lower educational 
levels and with a poorer material status were more likely to engage in undesirable 
interactions (such as yelling or hitting the child) with their children. Parents who 
hit their children more often when they disobeyed had lower educational attainment 
and lower material status. Similarly, parents with lower educational attainment 
and a lower material status yelled at their children more frequently . Parents from 
suburban neighbourhoods were also statistically significantly more likely to hit 
their children when they not obey them. Additionally , parents were also more likely 
to engage in stimulating interactions with their first-born children compared to 
children born later, and this was also true for only children compared to children 
from families with multiple children. The gender of parents and children was not 
related to the stimulating and non-stimulating interactions examined in the study , 
whereas the gender of the parents significantly determined the type and frequency 
of the interactions. Mothers were more frequently engaged than fathers in stimu-
lating activities with their children. 
Based on the results mentioned above, and taking into account the contextual 
factors, two different educational approaches can be observed: on the one hand, 
parents living in urban areas, who have higher educational attainment and a 
better socio-economic status, and on the other, for parents living in suburban en-
vironments, with a lower educational level and lower socio-economic status. While 
some parents are focused on actively supporting and stimulating their children’s 
development and learning, others passively follow their children’s natural devel-
opment. The final result of these different approaches to upbringing is a gap in 
developmental opportunities for children from less stimulated families, resulting in 
poorer child achievement. Recognising these risk factors (lower levels of education, 
lower socio-economic status, living in suburban municipalities) and their impact on 

      189 Some aspects of developmentally (non-) stimulating interactions of parents with ...
parenting behaviours could lead to strengthening contextual sources of parental 
support and empowerment (e.g. providing various forms of parenting support) in 
the local community.
The results could be useful for planning parenting programmes, which rep-
resent just one element in the wide range of support strategies for parents in local 
communities (which can be implemented through health, education, cultural and 
other public institutions). Parenting programmes can help parents improve their 
parenting and the quality of the home learning environment to improve child devel-
opment and learning. The developmental gap, created very early among children of 
different socio-economic backgrounds, could be reduced if parents are empowered 
and encouraged to engage with their children in ways that contribute to their early 
development and learning. Such support could significantly improve parents’ ability 
to create an optimal environment for the development of their children’s potential 
in the family setting while ensuring that their basic developmental needs are met. 
Parents need to be made aware (especially parents who are at risk) that what they 
do with their children on a daily basis—the way they deal with them—significantly 
determines the children’s future achievements, as stimulating activities such as 
reading to children, playing games and responsive and warm interactions are as-
sociated with better developmental outcomes. In order to improve children’s well-
being and developmental outcomes, it is necessary to provide parents with different 
means of support to help them engage with their children in daily activities that 
stimulate early development and learning. 
The main limitation of this research is that the sample is unrepresentative, 
as only a number of parents were surveyed. However, we must point out that the 
construction of the sample, based on the defined variables, effectively represents 
the population of parents in the Canton of Sarajevo, so the results of this research 
could be used to plan further research or actions. 
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Dženeta CAMOVIĆ (Univerza v Sarajevu, Bosna in Hercegovina)
NEKATERI VIDIKI RAZVOJNO (NE)STIMULATIVNIH INTERAKCIJ STARŠEV S PREDŠOL-
SKIMI OTROKI – IMPLIKACIJE TEMELJNIH DETERMINANT STARŠEVSKEGA VEDENJA 
Povzetek: Otroci se v vsakdanjem življenju srečujejo z raznolikim, bolj ali manj stimulativnim vedenjem 
staršev. V zgodnjem obdobju sta podpora in spodbujevalno vedenje staršev ključna za otrokov kognitivni, 
socialni in čustveni razvoj. V kolikor to umanjka ali pa starši celo zanemarjajo otroka oz. imajo do njega 
neustrezen odnos, ima to negativne posledice. Namen raziskave, ki jo predstavljamo v prispevku, je 
bil pridobiti vpogled v nekatere vidike interakcije med starši in njihovimi predšolskimi otroki (starimi 
med 4 in 6 let) v povezavi z nekaterimi temeljnimi determinantami starševskega vedenja. V raziskavi 
smo upoštevali izbrane oblike stimulativnega (branje z otroki, igranje z njimi, petje pesmic, ipd.) ter 
nestimulativnega starševskega vedenja (vpitje na otroke, telesno kaznovanje). Ugotovili smo statistično 
pomembne razlike zlasti med spoloma staršev , ko gre za prakse (ne)stimulativnih interakcij med starši 
in otroki. Prav tako rezultati kažejo, da starši z nižjo stopnjo izobrazbe, nižjim socialno-ekonomskim 
statusom in tisti iz ruralnega okolja v manjši meri izvajajo stimulativne dejavnosti s svojimi otroki (branje, 
risanje, petje, igranje s črkami in števili, itd.), tj. dejavnosti, ki prispevajo k razvoju grafomotoričnih, 
kognitivnih ter socialno-emocionalnih spretnosti. 
Ključne besede: predšolski otroci, razvoj in učenje otrok, stimulativne in nestimulativne interakcije, 
starševstvo, domače učno okolje.
E-naslov: dzeneta.camovic@ff.unsa.ba