1
1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education
* Corresponding author:  
E-mail address: Bukovnik.katja@gmail.com
Citation: Bukovnik, K., Torkar, G. (2025). 
Myths in biology: students’ opinion towards 
vaccination, climate change, genetically 
modified organisms and evolution. Acta 
Biologica Slovenica 69 (1)
Received: 30.08.2025 / Accepted: 03.12.2025 / 
Published: 05.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.14720/abs.69.1.23894
This article is an open access article distributed 
under the terms and conditions of the Creative 
Commons Attribution (CC BY SA) license
Original Research
Myths in biology: students' 
opinion towards vaccination, 
climate change, genetically 
modified organisms and 
evolution
Katja Bukovnik
 1,
*
, Gregor Torkar
 1
Abstract
In scientific discourse, the term "myth" is used to describe widespread and 
demonstrably false beliefs that contradict the current scientific consensus. Due 
to insufficient biological knowledge and conceptual understanding, various 
biological myths can arise and persist in the information overload, ultimately 
influencing public opinion and societal dynamics. To effectively combat and 
prevent biological myths, it is essential to first understand their origin. The aim of 
this study was to investigate the opinions of Slovenian secondary school students 
towards certain biological myths and to explore the relationship between these 
opinions and students' biological and scientific knowledge, self-assessment of 
their biological competence, and their interest in science subjects. The study 
focused on four biologically and socially significant areas included in the primary 
school curricula: vaccinations, climate change, genetically modified organisms, 
and evolution. Students with lower self-assessed biological knowledge or with 
lower grades in biology in lower secondary school were statistically significantly 
more likely to believe in myths related to climate change and evolution. Interest 
in science subjects was negatively correlated with scepticism about climate 
change. The national biology curricula show that climate change and evolution are 
among the most frequently covered topics, which may explain the associations 
between biological knowledge and myths. Students attending upper secondary 
schools with a limited number of science lessons, especially those in vocational 
education, were more prone to biological myths. The study highlights the critical 
role of formal biology education and interest in science in curbing the prevalence 
of biological myths. Given the rapid and complex advances in the natural sciences 
and their profound impact on daily life and societal development, there is an 
increasing potential for the emergence of biological myths. It is therefore crucial 
to ensure high-quality biological education at all levels of schooling.
Keywords
myth, ideas, vaccination, genetically modified organisms, climate change, evolution

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
Miti v biologiji: mnenja dijakov do cepljenja, podnebnih sprememb, gensko 
spremenjenih organizmov in evolucije
Izvleček
V znanosti izraz »mit« uporabljamo za označevanje razširjenih in nesporno napačnih prepričanj, ki nasprotujejo trenutno 
veljavni znanosti. Zaradi pomanjkljivega biološkega znanja in razumevanja lahko v poplavi vseh informacij nastajajo 
in obstojijo različni miti v biologiji, ki med drugim vplivajo tudi na družbeno dogajanje. Za uspešno odpravljanje in 
preprečevanje mitov v biologiji je sprva potrebno njihovo podrobnejše razumevanje. V raziskavi smo želeli ugotoviti, 
kakšna so mnenja slovenskih dijakov (N=376) do določenih mitov v biologiji ter povezave le teh z njihovim znanjem 
pri biologiji in naravoslovnih predmetih, lastno oceno biološkega znanja in zanimanjem za naravoslovne predmete. 
V raziskavi smo se osredotočili na štiri biološka področja, zastopana v učnih načrtih osnovnih šol, ki so družbeno 
pomembna - cepljenje, podnebne spremembe, gensko spremenjeni organizmi in evolucija. Dijaki, ki nižje ocenjujejo 
svoje znanje biologije ali so bili slabše ocenjeni pri predmetu biologija v osnovni šoli, statistično pomembno bolj 
verjamejo v mite o podnebnih spremembah in evoluciji. Zanimanje za naravoslovne predmete je v statistično 
pomembni negativni povezavi z nezaupanjem v podnebne spremembe. Pregled učnih načrtov za osnovno šolo v 
Sloveniji je potrdil, da sta podnebne spremembe in evolucija tudi zastopani z največ učnimi cilji med izpostavljenimi 
področji, kar bi lahko bil razlog za ugotovljene povezave med biološkim znanjem in miti. V srednjih šolah z manjšim 
obsegom ur naravoslovnih predmetov so dijaki bolj dovzetni za mite v biologiji, še posebej dijaki v vocational 
education. Raziskava je pokazala, da šolsko biološko znanje in zanimanje za naravoslovne predmete pomembno 
pri odpravljanju mitov v biologiji. Napredek v naravoslovnih znanosti je hiter in kompleksen ter pomembno vpliva na 
naš vsakdan in družbene spremembe. Hiter napredek in kompleksnost pa tudi povečuje možnosti pojava mitov v 
biologiji, zato je potrebno zagotavljati kakovostno biološko izobraževanje na vseh ravnem šolanja.
Ključne besede 
mit, predstave, cepljenje, gensko spremenjeni organizme, podnebne spremembe, evolucija
Introduction
The term myth, derived from the Greek word for "story" 
or "narrative," is frequently used in scientific discourse to 
denote beliefs that contradict established scientific knowl-
edge. Researchers (e.g., Sismondo, 1996; McComas, 2002) 
often use the term to describe widely held but demonstra-
bly false ideas. In many cases, myths also reflect broader 
ideological or cultural worldviews (Douglas, 2003).
The primary objective of science is to understand 
natural phenomena through explanation, prediction, and 
intervention. This understanding is achieved through scien-
tific explanations, theories, and models. Due to the inherent 
complexity of natural systems, scientific models necessarily 
involve simplifications and assumptions. These simplifica-
tions help manage complexity, facilitate understanding, and 
allow for the application of theoretical knowledge. While all 
scientific explanations are subject to some degree of uncer-
tainty, this does not render them invalid or untrustworthy. 
Rather, uncertainty is an inherent feature of scientific 
inquiry, stemming from the complexity of natural systems 
and human cognitive limitations. Scientific models are 
based on idealisations and approximations, while humans 
often operate with incomplete information about both past 
and present phenomena (Kampourakis & McCain, 2020).
Research has shown that the application of biological 
knowledge in real-world contexts is deeply intertwined 
with social, cultural, economic, and ethical factors (Forbes 
& Davis, 2008). Socio-scientific issues (SSIs) are charac-
terised by open-endedness, ethical and moral ambiguity, 
and the possibility of multiple legitimate solutions (Grace 
& Ratcliffe, 2003). Students often struggle to connect the 
biological knowledge acquired in the classroom to real-life 
contexts, resulting in difficulties applying their understand-

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
ing to everyday challenges (Tsaparlis et al., 2013). Some 
studies suggest that the breadth of content in science cur-
ricula can lead students to focus primarily on memorisation, 
at the expense of conceptual understanding and critical 
thinking (Hofstein et al., 2011).
To address these challenges, science education has 
increasingly embraced the use of SSIs—complex societal 
questions rooted in scientific knowledge, typically inter-
disciplinary in nature, and involving ethical and social 
dilemmas (Kolstø, 2001; Zeidler, 2014). These issues mirror 
the real-world challenges faced by industrialised societies 
in the development and application of science and tech-
nology (Levinson, 2006). Furthermore, SSIs frequently 
demand moral reasoning about ethical dilemmas, aspects 
often underrepresented in traditional science education 
(Morris, 2014; Tsai, 2018). Integrating SSIs into science 
instruction can help students better understand contem-
porary scientific controversies and foster their scientific 
reasoning skills (Zeidler & Sadler, 2023).
Although public trust in science remains relatively high 
in many countries, a growing trend of scientific scepticism 
has been observed, particularly regarding climate change, 
genetic modification, and vaccination (Rutjens et al., 2018). 
Such scepticism, often unwarranted, can have serious con-
sequences for public health, economic stability, and envi-
ronmental sustainability (Thangaraju & Venkatesan, 2019; 
Bavel et al., 2020). Science scepticism is heterogeneous 
in nature; its extent varies across scientific domains and 
among ideological groups (Rutjens & Van Der Lee, 2020).
One significant contributor to science scepticism 
across multiple domains is the proliferation of conspiracy 
theories (Rutjens et al., 2021). These theories often claim 
to reveal hidden truths deliberately obscured by powerful 
elites and offer seemingly coherent explanations for 
complex or poorly understood events (Sullivan, 2009). For 
individuals experiencing a lack of control or uncertainty, 
conspiracy theories can provide a cognitive framework that 
helps them reject official narratives and regain a sense of 
understanding (Douglas et al., 2017). This phenomenon is 
particularly pronounced when scientific findings challenge 
individuals' core beliefs or ideological frameworks. Hence, 
the root of science denial often lies not in the science itself, 
but in what science symbolises within broader public and 
political discourse (Rutjens & Bradt, 2018). Many science 
sceptics perceive science as a threat to their values, 
beliefs, or worldviews (Rutjens et al., 2021).
In today's information-saturated environment, the rapid 
spread of both accurate and inaccurate content via the 
internet, and especially through social media, has led to 
widespread confusion and mistrust. Exposure to a large 
volume of conflicting information, especially when accom-
panied by the intentional or unintentional spread of misin-
formation, can increase public scepticism and uncertainty 
(Jerome et al., 2024).
Aim of the Study
This study aims to investigate whether students' biological 
knowledge and interest in science are associated with their 
opinions toward socially relevant biological myths in four key 
domains: vaccination, climate change, genetically modified 
organisms (GMOs), and evolution. These areas have been 
identified in the literature about Slovene students as prone 
to misconceptions and scientific scepticism (e.g., Ambrožič 
Dolinšek & Šorgo, 2009, 2011; Šorgo et al., 2014; Majer 
et al., 2019; Strgar & Möller, 2024; Torkar & Šorgo, 2020; 
Špernjak et al., 2023). These domains are represented to 
varying degrees in the Slovenian national primary school 
curriculum. Specifically, eight learning objectives pertain 
to viruses and vaccination, thirteen to climate change, four 
to genetic modification, and eighteen to evolution. Based 
on this distribution, we hypothesise that students' opinions 
toward these topics may differ depending on the extent to 
which each topic is addressed during primary and lower 
secondary education (Primary School Programme. Getting 
to know the environment. Curriculum, 2011; Primary School 
Programme. Science and Technology. Curriculum, 2011; 
Primary School Programme. Science. Curriculum, 2011; 
Primary School Programme. Biology. Curriculum, 2011)
Research Questions
After completing primary education, students in Slovenia 
enrol in various types of secondary schools, which differ 
in terms of duration, academic rigour, curriculum content 
and the extent of science education. In order to obtain a 
representative sample of Slovenian secondary school 
students, this study included first-year students from four 
types of secondary education programs as defined in the 
Slovenian education system: lower vocational schools, 
vocational secondary schools, technical secondary 
schools, and general secondary (Gymnasia programmes) 
(Eurydice, 2025). By selecting different types of secondary 
schools, we wanted to gain the best possible insight into 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
the population of students attending secondary education 
in Slovenia. The following research questions were posed:
1. What are students' opinions towards vaccination, cli-
mate change, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 
and evolution?
2. What is the relationship between students' knowledge 
of biology and science acquired in primary school, their 
self-assessed knowledge of biology, their interest in sci-
ence subjects and their opinions towards vaccinations, 
climate change, GMOs and evolution?
3. Are there statistically significant differences in the 
above variables among students in different secondary 
education programs?
Materials and methods
Sample Description
A purposive sample of first-grade students from a second-
ary school in the region of Gorenjska (northern Slovenia) 
was used for this study. The sample included students from 
four out of sixteen secondary schools in the region. Partici-
pants were enrolled in general secondary schools (n = 175), 
technical secondary schools (n = 123), vocational second-
ary schools (n = 45) and lower vocational schools (n = 33). 
A total of 376 students took part in the study, including 
171 male students, 185 female students and 20 students 
who did not specify their gender. In Slovenia, in the same 
academic year, a total of 24,379 students were enrolled in 
the first year of secondary education. Of these, 726 were 
enrolled in lower vocational schools, 5,300 in vocational 
secondary schools, 10,309 in technical secondary schools, 
and 8,044 in general secondary schools (Statistični urad 
Republike Slovenije, 2025).
Data Collection 
The data was collected through an anonymous and volun-
tary survey using a structured questionnaire. In the intro-
ductory section, students were asked to report their gender, 
grade level, school attended and final grades in biology, 
chemistry and physics in 8th and 9th grades of primary 
school. In the second section, students assessed their inter-
est in science subjects compared to other subjects using 
a four-point forced-choice Likert scale: (1) least interested, 
(2) less interested, (3) more interested, and (4) much more 
interested, which was used to encourage respondents to 
indicate a clear preference and avoid neutral responses.
Subsequently, students were then asked to express 
their agreement with twenty statements representing 
common biological myths using a five-point Likert scale: (1) 
strongly disagree, (2) somewhat disagree, (3) neither agree 
nor disagree, (4) somewhat agree and (5) strongly agree. 
These statements were divided into four groups, each 
comprising five items on the topics of vaccination, climate 
change, GMOs, and evolution. Twenty-one statements 
addressed whether participants believed in conspiracy 
theories. In constructing the statements on biological 
myths, we based our approach on previously conducted 
research. The statements were developed based on pre-
vious research in these four domains  (e.g. Marris, 2001; 
Dolinšek & Šorgo, 2009; Touyz, 2013; Torkar & Šorgo, 
2020; Saunders, 2022; Cook, 2025).  
The same Likert scale was employed in the final section 
of the questionnaire in which students self-assessed their 
biological knowledge across eight different biological 
domains covered in primary school (knowledge of DNA 
structure, microbiology, human anatomy, evolution, pho-
tosynthesis and cellular respiration, plants, animals). Each 
domain was represented by two statements. In formulating 
the statements, we based them on the research by Bahar 
et al. (1999) and the national curriculum guidelines for 
science in grades 6 and 7 (Primary School Programme. 
Science. Curriculum, 2011) and for biology in grades 8 and 
9 Primary School Programme. Biology. Curriculum, 2011) 
were taken into account. Students completed the ques-
tionnaire at school during regular lessons. Completing the 
questionnaire required approximately 20 minutes.
Data Analysis
The data were analysed using both descriptive (frequency, 
relative frequency, mean, standard deviation, minimum and 
maximum) and inferential statistics using SPSS software. 
The average of the final grades in biology and all science 
subjects for eighth and ninth grades was calculated and 
used to measure correlations. Each subscale of biological 
myths, vaccination (α = .75), climate change (α = .70), GMOs 
(α = .60) and evolutionary theory (α = .63), consisted of five 
items. The average score for each subscale was used in 
further analyses. The average score for students' self-as-
sessed biological knowledge (α = .81) was calculated and 
employed in measuring correlations.  

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
Spearman's rank-order correlation coefficient was used 
to examine the relationships between students' interest 
in science subjects, their average final grades in biology 
and science in primary schools, their self-assessed knowl-
edge of biology, and their beliefs regarding vaccination, 
climate change, GMOs, evolution, and conspiracy theories. 
Differences in students' opinions according to the type of 
secondary school they attended were examined using the 
Kruskal-Wallis test and the Mann-Whitney U test. Effect 
sizes were also calculated (η2) (Cohen, 1992).
Results
Interest in Science Subjects, Academic 
Performance, Self-Assessed Biological 
Knowledge, and Belief in Biological Myths
T able 1 presents the descriptive statistics related to students' 
interest in science subjects (biology, chemistry, physics), 
their final grades in biology and all science subjects during 
primary school, their self-assessed biological knowledge, 
and their agreement with prevalent biological myths.
On average, students reported a relatively low interest 
in science subjects compared to other school subjects 
(M = 2.42, SD = 0.82), suggesting a below-average level 
of engagement. The mean final grade in biology obtained 
during primary school was moderately high (M = 3.77, SD 
= 0.94), slightly exceeding the average grade across all 
science subjects (M = 3.65, SD = 0.87). Students' self-as-
sessed biological knowledge was reported at a moderate 
level (M = 3.56, SD = 0.71).
In terms of agreement with common biological myths, 
students expressed the highest level of agreement with 
myths concerning genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 
(M = 2.86, SD = 0.76), followed by myths related to vaccina-
tions (M = 2.62, SD = 0.92), evolution (M = 2.43, SD = 0.81), 
and climate change (M = 2.25, SD = 0.81).
 Table 2 provides a more detailed overview of the indi-
vidual statements related to biological myths, categorised 
into four thematic areas: Distrust of vaccines, denial of 
climate change, distrust of genetically modified organisms 
(GMOs) and denial of the theory of evolution. A total of 
24% of respondents somewhat agree or strongly agree 
with the claim that COVID-19 vaccines are not effective 
and safe for all people, as the vaccine was allegedly 
only tested on individuals of white ethnicity. In addition, 
41% of students somewhat or strongly agree that natural 
immunity acquired through infection is a better option 
than immunity acquired through vaccination. Only 24% of 
respondents somewhat agree or strongly agree with the 
statement that current climate change is part of the Earth's 
natural temperature fluctuation cycle and not a conse-
quence of human activity. As many as 48% of respondents 
somewhat agree or strongly agree with the myths that if 
cows and chickens consume genetically modified feed, 
their meat, milk and eggs are also genetically modified. 
Finally, 35% of respondents somewhat agree or strongly 
agree with the belief that life on earth was created by a 
creator or multiple creators.
 Topic Mark N M SD Min. Max.
Interest in science subjects ISS 376 2.42 .82 1 4
Average final biology grade ABG 365 3.77 .94 1 5
Average final grade in science subjects in primary school AGS 366 3.65 .87 1 5
Self-assessed knowledge of biology SBK 376 3.56 .71 1 5
Myths about vaccinations V 376 2.62 .92 1 5
Myths about climate change CC 376 2.25 .81 1 5
Myths about GMOs GMO 376 2.86 .76 1 5
Myths about the theory of evolution E 376 2.43 .81 1 5
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for interest in science subjects, final grades in biology and all science subjects, self-assessed biological knowledge and 
agreement with biological myths.
Tabela 1. Opisna statistika za zanimanje za naravoslovne predmete, povprečno zaključeno oceno pri predmetu biologija in vseh naravoslovnih pred-
metih v osnovni šoli, lastna ocena znanja biologije ter sstrinjanje z biološkimi miti.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
Statements (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) M SD
Myths about vaccinations
1 Vaccinations are unnecessary because many 
countries have low infection rates.
30 % 20 % 29 % 12 % 9 % 2.54 1.29
2 COVID-19 vaccines contain microchips. 51 % 11 % 25 % 6 % 8 % 2.17 1.36
3 The COVID-19 vaccine has been proven to cause 
changes to DNA.
30 % 21 % 28 % 13 % 8 % 2.51 1.27
4 The COVID-19 vaccines are not effective and safe for 
all people because they have only been tested on 
individuals of white ethnicity.
33 % 16 % 26 % 11 % 13 % 2.64 1.42
5 Immunity acquired by infection is a better choice 
than immunity acquired by vaccination. (related to 
COVID-19).
11 % 13 % 34 % 21 % 20 % 3.27 1.22
Myths about climate change
6 The current climate change is part of the natural 
fluctuations in the Earth's temperature and not the 
result of human activity.
31 % 26 % 18 % 13 % 11 % 2.52 1.34
7 There is no empirical evidence for global warming. 35 % 22 % 34 % 6 % 2 % 2.24 1.08
8 There is no correlation between the average 
temperature and the amount of CO2 in the 
atmosphere.
31 % 18 % 39 % 8 % 4 % 2.42 1.13
9 The Earth is indeed cooling, as the growing ice on 
the Antarctic shows.
55 % 15 % 18 % 5 % 6 % 1.98 1.24
10 Extreme weather has nothing to do with global 
warming.
48 % 23 % 17 % 9 % 4 % 2.10 1.24
Myths about GMOs
11 The consumption of genetically modified organisms 
leads to changes in the DNA of human body cells.
19 % 23 % 35 % 17 % 7 % 2.73 1.15
12 A tomato from your own garden contains no genes, 
whereas genetically modified tomatoes do.
32 % 17 % 24 % 14 % 13 % 2.66 1.39
13 Genetically modified organisms are merely an 
instrument used by the authorities to control the 
global economy.
24 % 18 % 37 % 12 % 8 % 2.69 1.22
14 If cows and chickens consume genetically modified 
feed, then their meat, milk and eggs are also 
genetically modified.
14 % 15 % 23 % 30 % 18 % 3.24 1.29
15 GMOs cause the formation of cancer cells and 
tumours in humans.
11 % 17 % 45 % 21 % 6 % 2.99 1.05
Myths about the theory of evolution
16 Life on earth was created by a creator/creators. 27 % 10 % 28 % 15 % 20 % 2.93 1.43
17 The human eye is so complex that it cannot have 
developed by chance through evolution.
27 % 19 % 36 % 10 % 8 % 2.60 1.23
18 All plants and animals have remained unchanged 
and perfect since the beginning of life on Earth.
56 % 19 % 14 % 6 % 6 % 2.01 1.26
19 Mutations are always harmful; therefore, they cannot 
contribute to the evolution of species on Earth.
41 % 21 % 26 % 6 % 5 % 2.21 1.20
20 Fossils are not sufficient evidence for the evolution 
and the relationship of species on Earth.
50 % 25 % 16 % 4 % 6 % 1.99 1.17
Table 2. Detailed Overview of Individual Statements Related to Biological Myths
Tabela 2. Podrobnejši vpogled v posamezne trditve o mitih v biologiji.
*(1) strongly disagree, (2) somewhat disagree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) somewhat agree, and (5) strongly agree.

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
Association between Interest in Science 
Subjects, Average Final Grade in Biology 
in Primary School, Self-Perceived Biology 
Knowledge, and Belief in Biological Myths
Figure 1 presents Spearman's rank correlation coefficients 
for statistically significant associations between variables. 
Students' opinions related to the denial of climate change 
were significantly negatively correlated with their interest 
in science subjects compared to other school subjects 
(r
s
 = -.21; p < .001), with their self-assessment of biology 
knowledge (r
s
 = -.30; p < .001), and with their average final 
grade in biology in primary school (r
s
 = -. 17; p = .001). Opinions 
reflecting denial in evolutionary theory were significantly 
negatively associated with students' self-perceived biology 
knowledge (r
s
 = -.27; p < .001) and with their final grade in 
biology in primary school (r
s
 = -.12; p = .027). Furthermore, 
interest in science subjects was negatively associated with 
belief in climate change myths (r
s
 = -.21; p < .001). Figure 
1 also highlights other statistically significant associations 
between the variables. Students' self-assessed biology 
knowledge was positively associated with their final grade 
in biology in primary school (r
s
 = .47; p < .001). 
A significant positive correlation was also found between 
students' interest in science subjects and their final grade in 
biology (r
s
 = .35; p < .001), as well as between interest in sci-
ence subjects and their self-assessed biology knowledge (r
s
 
= .31; p < .001). Statistically significant associations were also 
identified between certain categories of biological myths. 
Due to the large number of connections and for the 
sake of clarity, the diagram does not display statistically 
non-significant correlations; these include correlations 
between interest in science subjects and distrust in 
vaccinations (r
s
 = -.11; p = .053), distrust in GMOs (r
s
 = -.04; 
p = .448), and denial of evolutionary theory (r
s
 = -.08; 
p = .109). Between self-assessed knowledge of biology and 
distrust in vaccinations (r
s
 = -.03; p = .581), as well as distrust 
in GMOs (r
s
 = -.10; p = .062). Between the average grade in 
biology and distrust in vaccinations (r
s
 = -.03; p = .556) and 
distrust in GMOs (r
s
 = -.01; p = .062). Finally, there was a 
significant correlation between the overall average grades 
in science subjects and distrust in vaccinations (r
s
 = .043; 
p = .979), distrust in GMOs (r
s
 = -.11; p = .029), and denial of 
climate change (r
s
 = -.13; p = .01).
Figure 1. Diagram of the statistically 
significant correlations (p < .05) 
between the variables: Interest 
in science subjects (ISS), self-as-
sessed biology knowledge (SBK), 
distrust in vaccination (V), denial 
of climate change (CC), distrust of 
GMOs (GMO), Denial of evolution-
ary theory (E), average final grade 
in biology in primary school (AGB) 
and average final grade in science 
subjects in primary school (AGS). 
Slika 1. Diagram statistično sig-
nifikantnih korelacij (p < .05) med 
spremenljivkami zanimanje za 
naravoslovne predmete (ISS), ocena 
znanja o biologiji (SKB), nezaupanje 
v cepljenje (V), zanikanje podnebnih 
sprememb (CC), nezaupanje v GSO 
(GMO), zanikanje evolucijske teorije 
(E), povprečje zaključenih ocen pri 
biologiji v OŠ (AGB) in povprečje 
zaključenih ocen pri naravoslovnih 
predmetih v OŠ (AGS). 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
Students from different secondary  
school programmes and their belief in 
biological myths
Statistically significant differences were found in students' 
opinions towards vaccination (χ²(3, N = 376) = 7.81; p = .050; 
η2 = .013), genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (χ²(3, 
N = 376) = 7.55; p = .056: η2 = .012), climate change (χ²(3, 
N = 376) = 38.87; p < .001; η2 = .096) and evolutionary 
theory (χ²(3, N = 376) = 23.06; p < .001; η2 = .055) across 
different secondary school programmes. The effect size for 
climate change and evolution subscales is medium, while 
for vaccination and GMOs it is low.
No statistically significant differences were observed 
between students from vocational and lower vocational pro-
grams regarding beliefs in biological myths. Students from 
lower vocational secondary schools expressed significantly 
stronger agreement with myths about the theory of evolution 
(Z = -2.15; p = .032; η2 = .498), with a high effect size, than stu-
dents from technical secondary schools. Compared to gen-
eral secondary school students, lower vocational secondary 
school students were significantly more likely to endorse 
myths related to climate change (Z = -3.68; p < .001; η
2
 = -.40) 
and the theory of evolution (Z = -2.80; p = .005; η
2
 = -.40), with 
a high effect size for both. Students attending vocational sec-
ondary schools were more likely to believe myths concern-
ing vaccination (Z = -2.57; p = .010; η
2
 = -.586), climate change 
(Z = -5.20; p < .001; η
2
 = .587), GMOs (Z = -2.59; p = .010; 
η
2
= .586) and the theory of evolution (Z = -3.31; p < .001; η
2
= 
.586) than students attending technical secondary schools, 
with a high effect size for all subscales. Furthermore, when 
compared to general secondary school students, vocational 
secondary school students showed a significantly greater 
belief in myths about vaccinations (Z = -2.57; p = .010; η
2
 = 
.487), climate change (Z = -5.82; p < .001;  η
2
= -.487), GMOs 
(Z = -2.32; p = .020; η
2
 = .486) and the theory of evolution 
(Z = -4.39; p < .001;  η
2
 = .487), with high effect sizes for all 
the mentioned subscales. A comparison between technical 
secondary school students and general secondary school 
students revealed that the latter were significantly less likely 
to believe in myths about climate change (Z = -2.68; p = .007; 
η
2
 = .487), and the effect size is large.
Discussion
The results show that, on average, students are the most 
sceptical about genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and 
vaccinations. This can be partly explained by the analysis 
of national curriculum documents, which reveal that topics 
such as climate change and evolution are covered more 
systematically in primary and lower secondary science 
education, Primary School Programme. Getting to know the 
environment. Curriculum, 2011; Primary School Programme. 
Science and Technology. Curriculum, 2011; Primary School 
Programme. Science. Curriculum, 2011; Primary School 
Programme. Biology. Curriculum, 2011). On this basis, we 
hypothesise that students in these subjects form stronger 
evidence-based attitudes and have higher perceived 
self-efficacy. Perceived self-efficacy plays an important role 
in the way students engage with and apply scientific knowl-
edge (Živković et al., 2023). Those with higher self-efficacy 
are more likely to rely on knowledge acquired in formal 
biology classes when interpreting natural phenomena. In 
contrast, students with lower self-efficacy tend to accept 
cognitively simpler, alternative explanations that often lack 
scientific validity (Carroll et al., 2024). If students have not 
internalised the necessary scientific knowledge at school, 
or have internalised it insufficiently, they are more likely 
to seek information from informal or external sources. 
Attitudes towards controversial biological topics are also 
shaped by external influences, including media narratives, 
religious and cultural beliefs, public opinion and broader 
worldviews (Janže, 2016; Happer & Philo, 2016). These 
sources often offer simplistic, emotionally appealing expla-
nations that may not align with the scientific consensus. 
As a result, misconceptions and pseudoscientific myths 
persist and spread among the young population. In this 
context, the role of formal education becomes particularly 
critical. Schools are expected to provide students with a 
science-based framework that supports the development 
of informed, critical and reasoned viewpoints on complex 
socio-scientific issues (Colucci-Grey et al., 2006).
A significantly higher prevalence of myths is observed 
in subject areas that are less thoroughly covered in the Slo-
venian education system or that inherently require a more 
complex conceptual understanding. In order to critically 
evaluate the overwhelming flood of information, students 
need to gain the ability to evaluate sources and think 
critically (Wilson, 2018). This again emphasises the central 
role of education in fostering these competencies (Şahin et 
al., 2015). Students' attitudes are strongly influenced by the 
perspectives of their teachers. However, research suggests 
that some teachers themselves exhibit uncertainty about 

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Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
certain science topics, may deliberately avoid addressing 
certain topics in the classroom, and sometimes fail to take 
an objective, science-based approach when teaching con-
troversial topics (Ambrožič Dolinšek & Šorgo, 2009). This 
reluctance can be attributed in part to the rapid advances 
in scientific knowledge and constant updates to curriculum 
content, for which teachers may not be adequately trained. 
Therefore, it is crucial that teachers receive continuous 
professional development and that institutional support for 
teacher training is ensured.
The main aim of this study was to investigate whether 
and how students' knowledge influences their opinions 
towards certain biological myths. The results indicate that 
students have a solid foundation of biological and scientific 
knowledge after completing primary and lower secondary 
school, an assessment that is confirmed by both objective 
measures and students' self-evaluations. The extent 
to which students are susceptible to biological myths 
appears to be directly related to the quantity, quality and 
extent of their knowledge in specific domains (Lindeman & 
Svedholm‐Häkkinen, 2016). This is also supported by the 
observed correlations between students' attitudes towards 
biological myths and the type of upper secondary school 
programme they attend (Aarnio & Lindeman, 2005).
Students with lower average final grades in science 
and biology in lower secondary school tend to agree more 
strongly with myths related to climate change, genetically 
modified organisms (GMOs) and the theory of evolution than 
students with higher average grades. Similar trends can be 
observed when comparing students attending different 
types of secondary school programmes and their beliefs 
regarding myths. Climate change and evolution are topics 
that are covered more extensively in primary and lower 
secondary school curricula, suggesting that students form 
their attitudes towards these topics predominantly in the 
school context based on information acquired in formal edu-
cation. These topics also contribute more to the final grade 
in science subjects, making academic performance a more 
reliable indicator of students' understanding in these areas. 
In addition, students' grades may influence the type of sec-
ondary school they attend, which in turn reflects their level 
of cognitive engagement with these topics. Consequently, 
students' attitudes toward climate change and evolution are 
related to academic indicators such as grades and the aca-
demic rigour of their secondary school programme. On the 
other hand, topics that are underrepresented in the formal 
curriculum, such as GMOs and vaccines, are less likely to 
have their conceptual understanding captured by school 
assessment parameters. These topics are therefore more 
susceptible to the influence of external sources and may be 
less reliably assessed by school performance indicators.
Conclusions
Emphasising the relevance of biology to global issues, 
such as climate change, public health, and biodiversity 
loss, can help students connect classroom learning with 
societal needs and foster the development of scientifically 
informed citizens capable of evaluating complex problems.
Findings show that biology knowledge acquired at 
school can shape students' opinions toward socio-scien-
tific issues. Students were more sceptical of GMOs and 
vaccinations, and less sceptical of evolution and climate 
change. Higher levels of biological knowledge reduced 
the likelihood of rejecting climate change and evolution. In 
contrast, no association was observed for attitudes toward 
vaccinations or GMOs, likely due to their limited coverage 
in standard curricula.
Providing high-quality biology education at all school 
levels is therefore essential. Teachers should actively 
monitor and address students' misconceptions, and 
ongoing professional development is crucial to maintain 
well-founded, scientifically grounded attitudes. In addition, 
since school is not the only source of information, students 
need to develop critical thinking skills and the ability to 
identify and use reliable sources. 
Future research should examine additional factors 
influencing students' understanding, particularly the role of 
social media in spreading myths and conspiracy theories, 
as well as teachers' attitudes toward biological misconcep-
tions. Students obtain information from diverse sources, 
but research often lacks a systematic assessment of how 
these sources interact with formal education.
Limitations related to sample representativeness 
include that the study was conducted in only four second-
ary schools and that different school types, as well as sci-
ence- and non-science-oriented programs, were unevenly 
represented, which may limit the generalizability of findings. 
It is also important to acknowledge that studies like the 
present one often rely on self-report measures, which may 
underestimate or oversimplify the complexity of students' 
conceptual frameworks. Moreover, while the importance of 
biology in addressing societal challenges is emphasised, 

10
Acta Biologica Slovenica, 2025, 69 (1)
current research may not fully account for sociocultural 
factors, such as values, beliefs, and trust in science, which 
shape students' engagement with scientific information.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, K.B.; Investigation, K.B.; Visualization, 
K.B.; Writing – original draft, K.B.; Formal analysis, G.T.; 
Supervision, G.T.; Validation, G.T.; Writing – review & edit-
ing, G.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published 
version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Data Availability
The research data are available at Zenodo (https://doi.
org/10.5281/zenodo.17822365).
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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