Revija Slovenskega društva učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika Journal of the Slovene Association of LSP Teachers ISSN: 1854-2042 2024 Letnik XIX, številka 2 Volume XIX, Number 2 Scripta Manent Revija Slovenskega društva učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika Journal of the Slovene Association of LSP Teachers Letnik XIX, številka 2/Volume XIX, Number 2 Založnik/Published by: Založba Univerze v Ljubljani/University of Ljubljana Press Slovensko društvo učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika/The Slovene Association of LSP Teachers Za založnika/For the Publisher: Gregor Majdič, rektor Univerze v Ljubljani / the Rector of the University of Ljubljana & Mateja Dostal, predsednica Slovenskega društva učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika / Chair of the Slovene Association of LSP Teachers Izdajatelj/Issued by: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete UL/Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of Arts Za izdajatelja/For the Issuer: Mojca Schlamberger Brezar, dekanja Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani/Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Glavna in odgovorna urednica/Editor in Chief: Violeta Jurković, Fakulteta za pomorstvo in promet, Univerza v Ljubljani/Faculty of Maritime Studies and Transport, University of Ljubljana Uredniški odbor/Advisory Editorial Board: Simon Borg, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences; Vesna Cigan, University of Zagreb, Croatia; Alejandro Blas Curado Fuentes, University of Extremadura, Spain; Danijela Djorović, University of Belgrade, Serbia; Jan Engberg, University of Aarhus, Denmark; Peter Franklin, Konstanz University of Applied Sciences, Germany; Pedro A. Fuertes Olivera, University of Valladolid, Spain; Nataša Gajšt, University of Maribor, Slovenia; Julio C. Gimenez, University of Westminster, United Kingdom; Ken Hyland, University of East Anglia, United Kingdom; Vita Kilar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Melita Koletnik, University of Maribor, Slovenia; Jaroslaw Krajka, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Poland; Sara Laviosa, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Italy; Rachel Lindner, TU Dortmund University, Germany; Saša Podgoršek, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; Mary E. Risner, University of Florida, USA; Michele Sala, University of Bergamo, Italy Naslov uredništva/Editorial Office Address: Scripta Manent Društvo učiteljev tujega strokovnega jezika (Slovene Association of LSP Teachers) Aškerčeva 2 SI-1000 Ljubljana Slovenia Publication is free of charge. ISSN: 1854-2042 Elektronska revija/Online https://journals.uni-lj.si/scriptamanent This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (except photographs). / To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva-Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca (izjema so fotografije). VSEBINA/CONTENTS EDITORIAL Violeta Jurkovič 1 Plenarno predavanje/Keynote Speech LSP COURSES AS STRATEGIC SITES FOR INTERCULTURALISATION AT HOME: EXPLORING OPPORTUNITIES AND FACING CHALLENGES Ana Bocanegra-Valle 3 Izvirni znanstveni članek/Research Paper ESONIMI COME ELEMENTI DELLA TERMINOLOGIA SPECIALISTICA E COME SFIDA PER L’APPRENDIMENTO Saša Bjelobaba, Sandra Mardešić 19 Strokovni članek/Teaching Report THE TASK AS THE CENTRAL UNIT OF PLANNING AND INSTRUCTION IN THE EAP SYLLABUS DESIGN Marijana Birtić Vučić, Anamarija Štulina 56 Recenzija knjige/Book Review Joanna Kic-Drgas & Violeta Jurkovič: PATHS OF PURPOSE: A JOURNEY INTO LSP TEACHER DEVELOPMENT Yasemin Kirkgöz 69 1 Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024) DOI: 10.4312/SM.19.2.1-2 EDITORIAL In today’s increasingly interconnected world, where intercultural exchange has become a daily norm rather than an exception, the need to integrate intercultural competence into ac- ademic and professional spheres has never been stronger. Equally important is the ongoing emphasis on student-centred learning and the design of Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP) courses that are tailored to the specific needs of students, ensuring that educational practices in LSP classrooms are authentic, relevant, and impactful. The collection of papers in this issue of Scripta Manent, complemented by an insightful book review, highlight innovative approaches to fostering cultural understanding and addressing the challenges of learning different languages for specific purposes in academic settings, thus meeting the evolving demands of today’s students. In her keynote paper, “LSP Courses as Strategic Sites for Interculturalisation at Home”, Ana Bo- canegra-Valle explores the transformative potential of interculturalisation within LSP cours- es. Highlighting the initiative encouraged in the European Higher Education Area, she empha- sises the role of LSP classrooms in our home environments as “strategic sites for intercultural learning”, offers practical examples, including activities integrating international students, and real-world case studies. Bocanegra-Valle highlights the current state of LSP textbooks in fostering and supporting intercultural awareness, and calls for approaches that integrate both visible and nuanced cultural elements. Her compelling argument positions LSP educa- tors as pivotal “intercultural brokers” in their own classrooms, preparing students for cul- turally diverse professional environments, advocating for tailored training and curriculum design to meet these goals. Building on the theme of specialised learning, the research paper titled “Exonyms as Elements of LSP Terminology and as a Learning Challenge” by Bjelobaba and Mardešić on exonyms ex- amines their integral role in professional terminologies and intercultural communication. Through empirical research with Croatian students of the Italian language and of political sciences at the University of Zagreb, the authors reveal the complexities of mastering exo- nyms (names for places, groups of people, or languages) as geographically coloured lexical items. They advocate for explicit instruction to overcome morphological and syntactic bar- riers, especially given the differing structures in Croatian, Italian, and English. This research not only highlights the pedagogical challenges but also emphasises the importance of these terms - which might be understood as belonging to general language vocabulary - in diploma- cy, translation, and international relations . Vučić Birtić and Štulina’s teaching report titled “The Task as the Central Unit of Planning and In- struction in the EAP Syllabus Design” shifts the focus to syllabus design for English for Academic 2 Jurkovič / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 1–2 Purposes (EAP). By adopting a Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) framework, the authors address the dual goals of fostering communicative competence and aligning language in- struction with academic realities. Their approach demonstrates how tasks, ranging from pod- cast analyses to structured discussions, can bridge the gap between theory and practice, enhancing both oral and written skills. Their approach highlights the importance of flexible and student-focused teaching in higher education. Adding depth to these three papers is Yasemin Kirkgöz’s review of a volume titled “Paths of Purpose: A journey into LSP Teacher Development” by Joanna Kic-Drgas and Violeta Jurkovič. The book offers a comparative analysis of the educational systems in Poland and Slovenia, focusing on the roles, competencies, and career trajectories of LSP teachers. It delves into es- sential aspects of LSP teaching, including needs analysis, curriculum development, materials design, and assessment methods. The authors’ empirical research and reflections on teacher education projects provide invaluable insights into the professional development of LSP ed- ucators, both pre-service and in-service. These contributions emphasise that effective language teaching, along with the responsi- bilities and required competences of LSP teachers, should focus on equipping students to successfully navigate the cultural, personal, professional, and academic challenges of today’s world, especially by helping them adapt to new realities and fostering intercultural dialogue. Violeta Jurkovič Editor 3 Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024) Keynote Speech Paper received: 23.05.2024 Paper revised: 26.07.2024 Paper accepted: 03.09.2024 Paper published: 24.12.2024 DOI: 10.4312/SM.19.2.3-18 Ana Bocanegra-Valle University of Cádiz, Spain LSP COURSES AS STRATEGIC SITES FOR INTERCULTURALISATION AT HOME: EXPLORING OPPORTUNITIES AND FACING CHALLENGES Abstract This article focuses on the internationalisation of higher education and explores the opportunities and challenges faced by LSP teachers when attempting to integrate interculturality in LSP courses and their everyday teaching – that is, when they aim at interculturalisation at home (Jones, 2020). It examines, among others, the instruments developed within the European Higher Education Area to introduce the intercultural component into education across Europe, the role of LSP textbooks in fostering and supporting intercultural language learning, the benefits of interculturalised syllabi and activities in LSP courses, and the contribution of LSP teachers to the interculturalisation of LSP classrooms. These issues are addressed from a pragmatic standpoint in an attempt to spark conversation and provide clear pointers for further advancement in the field. Keywords: Languages for Specific Purposes, interculturalisation, intercultural brokers, intercultural learning, internationalisation, higher education 4 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 Introduction Since the turn of the century universities around the world have invested numerous efforts in internationalising their education programmes and research offerings. Progress has been particularly significant across the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), where modern internationalised programmes have been developed and internationalisation strategies have been promoted – all of them with a view to improving the quality of education, research and administration services, and, most importantly, to providing students with the competences and skills they need to compete and prosper in a global job market. Within the discussions of internationalisation-related issues, student mobility ranks as a priority (De Wit et al., 2015; EAIE, 2018; Kim, 2014; Macedo Mendes, 2023); however, internationalisation encompasses other concerns beyond mobility programmes such as the use of a common language as a medium of instruction (Englishisation of higher education), multiculturality and intercultural competence development, or researchers’ cooperation and collaboration in view of research quality and professional development. These are all issues that concern the field of Languag- es for Specific Purposes (LSP). This article addresses the intercultural dimension of internationalised universities and its relation with LSP programmes and teaching practices through interculturalisation at home. In particular, it attempts to answer the following questions: • What are the instruments developed within the EHEA to incorporate the intercultural component into education across Europe? • Why are intercultural learning and intercultural competence relevant to LSP courses? • Do LSP textbooks promote intercultural learning and intercultural skills? • And lastly, how can LSP courses benefit from interculturalised syllabi and activities? Conclusions highlight the role of LSP teachers as intercultural brokers and the potential of LSP classrooms as strategic sites for intercultural learning. The intercultural dimension of internationalised universities Internationalisation has emerged as a critical component of the agenda for higher education in many parts of the world, but especially across the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) (De Wit et al., 2015; EUA, 2013). The intercultural dimension of higher education emerges from the European Parliament in 2015 with a definition of internationalisation as: The intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimen- sion into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff, and to make a meaningful contribution to society. (De Wit et al., 2015, p. 29) The internationalisation drive of higher education institutions is a complex issue with many national and institutional players involved (Robson & Wihlborg, 2019; Tight, 2022). In most cases, and not exclusively, it involves students in different ways: attracting international stu- dents helps to build an international campus by creating cultural diversity and promoting 5 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 intercultural communication; student mobility helps to improve language and intercultural skills as well as to gain those soft skills which are highly valued by future employers; also, the number of courses offering content-and-language-integrated-learning and English-medium instruction has flourished in the last two decades, playing a significant role in the internation- alisation of higher education. All these facts are elaborated below. The main purpose of international student recruitment is to generate revenues for the insti- tution (Rhoades, 2016); however, it also helps to build an international campus by creating cultural diversity and promoting intercultural communication. Student mobility is a different strategy and implies spending a time period of study abroad. Students are offered the oppor- tunity to work or study abroad while they are pursuing their degree, master’s or doctorate programme; however, nowadays there are other formats of mobility which are on the rise, like field trips, internships or volunteering opportunities. Among the challenges that study abroad brings for students is the need for adaptation to a new environment and a new cul- ture over a period of time, with demonstrated gains in self-awareness, sensitivity to other cultures or ability to connect with others (Kelleher, 2013). It also brings benefits for language learning, like building intercultural awareness and developing language skills (Kang, 2014; Kinginger, 2011; Mocanu, 2023). The connection between internationalisation and employability has attracted the atten- tion of recent literature (e.g., Bocanegra-Valle, 2020), mainly because the internationalisa- tion of higher education is partly viewed as “a response to work environments which are increasingly globally inte grated” (Gribble & Coelen, 2020, p. 1). Numerous factors contrib- ute to making a student globally employable; however, the international expe rience (Jones, 2013) significantly enhances graduates’ acquisition of the transferable skills required in today’s job market (Pennington, 2020; Wiwczaroski & Czellér, 2020). As recently reported in different contexts around the world (see Coelen & Gribble, 2020), international experi- ences of all kinds (i.e., transna tional education, internationalisation at home, intra-degree mobility or learning abroad, and full degree mobility) contribute to aligning gradu ates’ transversal skills with those skills sought and valued by employers. Moreover, by studying abroad, graduates can improve their communication, language and intercultural skills, at the same time they can gain those soft skills that are highly rated in the labour market. In 2014 and 2019 the European Commission investigated the effects of Erasmus mobility programmes upon students’ skills and employability, and gathered 78,891 responses to a number of surveys distributed among higher education institutions and employ ers across 34 countries (see Brandenburg et al., 2014; European Commission, 2019). The Commis- sion’s main finding revealed that “Erasmus students are in better position to find their first job and to enhance their career development” (Brandenburg et al., 2014, p. 14). Data also showed that the mobility experience was beneficial or highly beneficial for finding their first job (72% respondents) and for their overall career development (82% respondents). This report estimated that, on average, students who participated in mobility programmes possessed better employability skills after a stay-abroad period than 70% of all students. Additionally, 81% of Erasmus students reported an improvement in their trans versal skills upon return; 64% of employers considered an international experience as important for recruitment, and 92% sought candidates with transversal skills developed through such experience. 6 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 Lastly, internationalisation of the curriculum (IoC) and internationalisation at home (IaH) are two terms in internationalisation-related bibliography. IoC is defined as “the incorporation of an international and intercultural dimension into the content of the curriculum as well as the teaching and learning arrangements and support devices of a program of study” (Leask, 2009, p. 209). Among the initiatives to address this university-wide strategy, the use of the English language for the teaching of a particular subject-matter or discipline stands out as a crucial component. In this regard, English-medium instruction (EMI) courses and content and language integrated learning (CLIL) courses have grown exponentially in recent years to make an important contribution to the internationalisation of higher education (Bowles & Murphy, 2020; Dafouz & Smit, 2020). IaH has been identified as one of the two streams in interna- tionalisation together with mobility programmes or internationalisation abroad (Knight, 2012) and refers to “the purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions into the formal and informal curriculum for all students within domestic learning environments” (Beelen & Jones, 2015, p. 69). This definition emphasises, on the one hand, the intentional inclusion of international and intercultural aspects into curricula and, on the other, the role of IaH for all students in all programmes. IaH is significant for internationalised universities because “it aims to develop international and intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes for all students, regardless of whether they also take part in mobility opportunities” (Beelen & Jones, 2015, p. 70). In a later work Jones (2020, p. 143) merged both notions, IoC and IaH, to claim that “Internationalisation of the curriculum at home has the potential to challenge cultural assumptions, extend knowledge and adjust mindsets by valuing the role of cultural diversity within a broader internationalisation framework”. Jones therefore suggests that the adjustment or transformation of mindsets can also occur without travelling to other coun- tries if the international experience is embedded locally – that is, if interculturalisation at home (Jones, 2020) is taking place. The following sections delve into the connection between LSP teaching practices and the process of interculturalisation at home. What are the instruments developed within the EHEA to incorporate the intercultural component into education across Europe? The EHEA has set the framework for the integration and promotion of multicultural and in- tercultural awareness in current European educational systems through various instruments like the Bologna Declaration, the European Language Portfolio, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, or The White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue. Under the framework of a common space for higher education, the Bologna Declaration constantly emphasises the need to take full respect of the diversity and plurality of cultures (Council for Cultural Cooperation, 1999). As an illustration, the Council of Cultural Coopera- tion’s Recommendation No. R98(6) contains a preamble that encourages state governments: • “To promote mutual understanding and tolerance, respect for identities and cultural diversity through more effective international communication”. • “To maintain and further develop the richness and diversity of European cultural life through greater mutual knowledge of national and regional languages, including those less widely taught”. 7 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 • To meet the needs of a multilingual and multicultural Europe “by appreciably devel- oping the ability of Europeans to communicate with each other across linguistic and cultural boundaries” (Council of Europe, 1998, p. 33). This Recommendation aligns with the European Language Portfolio (ELP), which provides a means of fostering language learning, intercultural competence, and understanding through- out life (Council for Cultural Cooperation, 2000). As part of its educational mission, the ELP explores respect and understanding amongst European people; safeguards and encourag- es multilingualism and linguistic and cultural diversity; and advances lifelong language and intercultural learning, intercultural competence, and intercultural awareness. It is predicat- ed on the idea that successful second- and foreign-language learners will gradually develop awareness of and respect for the other and the otherness. Learners are encouraged to con- sider cultural commonalities and differences by using two tools from the ELP: the language passport, which “describes language competencies and significant language and intercultural learning experiences”, and the language biography, which contains “information on linguistic, cultural and learning experiences gained in and outside formal education contexts” (Council for Cultural Cooperation, 2000, p. 9). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is, very probably, the instrument that most accurately expresses the Council of Europe’s concerns with the pres- ervation of linguistic and cultural diversity as well as with the promotion of cross-cultural learning and intercultural awareness in order to produce citizens who are able to navigate multiculturalism (Council of Europe, 2001). The CEFR emphasizes the importance of intercul- tural competence and awareness, which is one of the main ways that interculturality is woven throughout the document. It also integrates the intercultural dimension into language learn- ing and instruction. The CEFR defines intercultural competence as embodying a collection of abilities known as intercultural competences, which consist of the following: • the ability to bring the culture of origin and the foreign culture into relation with each other; • cultural sensitivity and the ability to identify and use a variety of strategies for contact with those from other cultures; • the capacity to fulfil the role of cultural intermediary between one’s own culture and the foreign culture and to deal effectively with intercultural misunderstanding and conflict situations; • the ability to overcome stereotyped relationships. (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 104-105) Lastly, the Council of Europe Ministers of Foreign Affairs introduced The White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue during their 118th Ministerial session and defined intercultural dia- logue as: … an open and respectful exchange of views between individuals, groups with differ- ent ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds and heritage on the basis of mutual understanding and respect. (Council of Europe, 2008, pp. 10-11) According to The White Paper, the difficulty in communicating in several languages stands out as one of the main obstacles to intercultural dialogue and to conducting intercultural 8 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 conversations. Intercultural dialogue is supported by the development of language-related competences on the understanding that these “are not automatically acquired” but “need to be learned, practised and maintained throughout life” (Council of Europe, 2008, p. 29). The White Paper also notes that language classrooms can serve as “spaces for intercultural dialogue” (Council of Europe, 2008, p. 46), while learning materials can act as tools that raise intercultural awareness and strengthen the intercultural dialogue in a global society and in culturally diverse professions. Why are intercultural learning and intercultural competence relevant to LSP courses? English for Specific Purposes is characterized as “an ‘interface’ discipline” (Basturkmen, 2013, p. 2) that encompasses three areas of enquiry: teaching, discourse and culture. Given the close interrelationship among teaching, discourse, and culture, it is evident that the field of LSP also encompasses these domains, each area informing and reinforcing the others. In light of this holistic approach, it is crucial to recognize that proficiency in a foreign language alone does not guarantee success in an international professional and academic context (Aguilar, 2018). Mastery of a language must be complemented by a nuanced understanding of its specific applications within professional and academic settings, as well as an awareness of cultural dynamics. Therefore, LSP classrooms serve as strategic sites for raising intercultur- al awareness and attaining intercultural learning while learning a language and the discourse of a discipline. As discussed above, for the Council of Europe culture and language are intertwined and closely connected concepts. So how important is culture in learning a language? Does learn- ing a language mean learning a culture? As Hua (2014, p. 4) explains, culture and language are intrinsically linked to each other: Learning another language inevitably exposes the learner to facts and practices of a society or community where the target language is used. For many language learn- ers, learning about the cultural traditions and practices of other people is the pri- mary motivation for learning their language. For others, language learning provides an opportunity to interact with the people whose language they are learning and to understand their culture and traditions. Language and culture, then, become intrin- sically linked to each other in this specific context. Hence, if learning a language means learning a culture: How can we introduce interculturality in the language classroom? How can language courses be helpful for intercultural learning? Following current literature (e.g. Chen & Starosta, 2000) an interculturally sensitive individual is portrayed by three elements: (i) the understanding of cultural behaviours; (ii) open-mind- edness towards cultural differences; and (iii) behavioural flexibility in host culture. I believe that LSP courses are prepared and well-positioned to mainly address understanding and open-mindedness ((i) and (ii) above), because behavioural flexibility, however, often requires more direct interaction with host cultures. In my maritime English courses, I present a real-life example to encourage group discussion and raise intercultural awareness. This authentic case reports the shipping accident of MV 9 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 Cosco Busan, a container ship which collided with the Delta Tower of the San Francisco Oak- land Bay Bridge, hitting the ship’s port side, breaching a couple of tanks and spilling 53,000 gallons of bunker oil into San Francisco Bay. Both the pilot on board and the ship’s master were blamed for the accident. The ship’s radar failed in conditions of heavy fog and, conse- quently, the American pilot and the Chinese master had to rely solely on speech to manoeu- vre the ship. The investigation concluded with a list of errors that had led to the disaster; among them, poor communication in English between pilot and master, and cultural differ- ences in the navigational bridge that made the Chinese master reluctant to assert authority over the American pilot. Using this real-world example in class together with a study on intercultural competence on board by Olesya Lutsenko and Hannie Stok-Knol (2008), I invite my students to consider how the values of European and non-European nations, as well as those of the east and west, differ. They are encouraged to discuss the importance of deference to authority and pow- er distance (that is, the relationship between higher-ranking and lower-ranking individuals) and the ways in which people in lower positions respond to those in higher positions. Some cultures are said to exhibit a high-power distance, accept an unequal distribution of power, and are very deferential to figures of authority, but, conversely, people in other cultures are said to exhibit a low-power distance, distribute power equally, and encourage participation in decisions that concern them. This indeed has an impact on the workplace. This was the case of the Chinese master who felt reluctant to assert authority over the American pilot and did not question or challenge the pilot’s competence, therefore contributing to the fatal accident. The idea of communication is another illustration. People in eastern cultures may view direct and assertive speech as unfriendly, confrontational, or rude, despite the fact that this is the norm in western cultures. Conversely, in western cultures, being passive, inactive, misbehav- ing, weak, uncaring, or even lazy is interpreted as a lack of assertiveness or indirect assertive- ness. But respect and courtesy, harmony, and avoiding conflict are what people in eastern cultures have in mind. This leads to Hall’s (1976) context theory, which holds that while some cultures communicate implicitly (high-context culture), other communicate overtly (low-con- text culture). The MV Cosco Busan example has demonstrated that LSP classrooms are, as the title of this article suggests, strategic sites to raise awareness on the importance of intercultural knowl- edge, not only for successful communication and understanding but also for successful job performance in today’s global world. It has also shown that the portion of culture that is visi- ble is only a small percentage of a much larger whole – refer to Hall’s (1976) iceberg metaphor – and, hence, it has become clear that if LSP courses aim at addressing the real dimension of the concept of culture, not only visible cultural manifestations (like food, music, arts), but also the invisible forms of culture (like non-verbal cues or contextual nuances) should be addressed in the classroom because “they are the origin of culturally specific communication patterns”, and hence, “equally determinant in foreign language learning” (Alonso et al., 2022, p. 39). Understanding these patterns can significantly impact students’ ability to communi- cate effectively and appropriately in a foreign language and, particularly, in professional set- tings where specific communication patterns influence how negotiations, presentations or meetings are conducted. 10 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 Do LSP textbooks promote intercultural learning and intercultural skills? According to relevant research (e.g., Aguilar, 2018; Basturkmen, 2013; Bocanegra-Valle, 2015a, 2015b, 2017), LSP pedagogy typically fails to cater for intercultural competence, and learning materials appear inadequate for the job because they tend to place a greater focus on other issues like grammatical accuracy rather than on the incorporation of the cultural dimension and the development of intercultural skills. Language classrooms can function as “spaces for intercultural dialogue” (Council of Europe, 2008, p. 46) and learning materials can serve as tools that raise intercultural awareness and strengthen the intercultural dialogue in a global society and in culturally diverse professions. Learning materials in general, and textbooks in particular, can be very helpful for teachers when aiming to promote the intercultural dimension and integrate interculturality into the language classroom. The intercultural component has gradually increased in LSP textbooks and learning materials over the last decades. Lario de Oñate and Vázquez-Amador (2013) reported a raising trend towards the incorporation of intercultural components in the field of Business English, from no books in the 1960s to 45% in the 1980s and 75% in the 1990s. By the late 2000s around 85% of the most recent textbooks contained intercultural activi- ties, and most of these were designed to improve students’ reading, listening and discus- sion skills. Building on these findings, it is essential to evaluate how cultural dimensions impact lan- guage learning materials. Several authors have proposed criteria, guidelines, descriptors, and checklists for the evaluation of cultural issues and interculturality in textbooks (e.g., Lario de Oñate & Vázquez-Amador, 2013; Li et al., 2020; Liu, 2016; Nakayama & Kurihara, 2015; Sob- kowiak, 2015). The appendix in this article contains a personal proposal of guidelines for the evaluation of intercultural competence in LSP textbooks which I developed in an earlier study that looked into the ways ESP textbooks served as providers of intercultural awareness and creators of space for intercultural dialogue (Bocanegra-Valle, 2015a). These guidelines were developed following a comprehensive work written in Spanish by Villa and Poblete (2008) that deals with competence-based learning and the assessment of generic competences within the EHEA. Villa and Poblete list 15 competence indicators for the assessment of diversity and interculturality in higher education settings and categorize them into three mastery levels, each containing a number of descriptors. Ten textbooks published by prestigious publishers (like Cambridge, Oxford, or Garnett) from a number of ESP areas (health, business, engineer- ing, marketing, ICTs, tourism or maritime industry) were examined against the three levels and the 15 indicators for the evaluation of intercultural competence (see Appendix for the full phrasing of these indicators and levels). The main results showed that: • The majority of textbooks contained intercultural elements at the basic level (namely, Level I), demonstrating that social and cultural diversity is portrayed in textbooks as a human phenomenon and that people interact one another with respect. • Level 1 indicators that prevailed in the textbooks under analysis were: (i) Assimilates the diversity of the human condition; (ii) Establishes relationships with no different social and cultural treatments; (iii) Uses relationships with different people for own 11 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 development; (iv) Does not discriminate people because of different social or cultural reasons; and (v) Understands coexistence as the result of different people interaction. • Except for three books (Hospital English, New Insights into Business, and English for the Maritime Industry), which also contained intercultural elements at a more intermediate and advanced levels, most textbooks remained at a basic level. • Two of these ten books did not contain any intercultural element at all (Medical IELTS and English for ICT Studies). This was a striking finding given that professionals in these disciplines would be expected to often face intercultural encounters and intercultural communication events at the workplace. On the basis of these findings, it is reasonable to suggest that LSP teachers should be ready to explore the textbooks and learning materials that are used, examine to what extent these include activities that aim at intercultural learning, and think about ways course materials can be enhanced in view of successful intercultural learning. How can LSP courses benefit from interculturalised syllabi and activities? There is plenty of literature that discusses the need to teach intercultural awareness (e.g., Baker, 2015; Byram et al., 2002; Liu, 2015; Moroz & Demanianenko, 2022) but there are few publications (e.g., Corbett, 2010) that show the means to teach intercultural awareness. What follows is, therefore, a summary of a practical activity concerned with the first intercultural skill stated by the Council of Europe (2001, p. 104): “the ability to bring the culture of origin and the foreign culture into relation with each other”, and which I presented in full in a previ- ous study (Bocanegra-Valle, 2015b). This activity incorporated interculturality into an LSP course, specifically with regard to “Ship- ping Business English”. Despite its narrow focus on a particular subject-specific domain, this activity may be of interest to those teachers that wish to incorporate the intercultural com- ponent into their LSP courses. The development of this activity incorporated four phases which conform to Holmes and O’Neill’s (2012) PEER model, namely: • P – Prepare: Students get ready for the intercultural experience by identifying any as- sumptions held about their cultural other. • E – Engage: Students are given a list of guiding topics they could use as a basis for con- versation, but they are also encouraged to find their own ways of engaging with their cultural other. • E – Evaluate: Students observe and take notes. • R – Reflect: Students reflect critically on their experience and notes by voicing their ex- pectations and preconceptions with the cultural other. The main objective was that students developed and delivered a 10-minute oral presentation focusing on a particular maritime commercial port in their country (describing port location, port facilities, port terminals, handling equipment, port management organization, etc.) and 12 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 preceded by an introduction on their country and culture. The connection with the official syllabus was a revision session to Unit 1 (“Port facilities and services”) and Unit 2 (“Port man- agement and organization”). The general aim of this activity was to take advantage of mobility students and bring foreign and home cultures together into this particular LSP course. The students taking part in this activity were 30 home students at their fourth year, who acted as audience and assessors, and 10 international exchange students, who acted as speakers and presenters. The particu- lar aims of this activity were: • to embed the intercultural dimension into the language teaching/learning process; • to raise awareness of intercultural communication within the profession; • to explore home and foreign cultures; • to gain an understanding of the otherness; • to reflect on one’s own culture for mutual understanding; • to promote curiosity and openness about other cultures; • to revise port services and management (units 1 & 2 of the course syllabus) as they exist around the world. This activity complied with the requirements of IaH laid down by the European Association for International Education (EAIE, 2018) in three ways: • It was learner oriented and made purposeful use of cultural diversity in the classroom for integrating experiences and knowledge of both internationally mobile students and local students from diverse backgrounds. • It created opportunities for student engagement with cultural others in local society. • It motivated students to seek the intercultural as well as the international. The activity was developed in seven stages, namely: (i) Briefing; (ii) Draft submission and revi- sion; (iii) Final text submission; (iv) Oral presentation; (v) Class group discussion; (vi) Individual work; and (vii) Further practice. To my understanding, significant outcomes were the following: Firstly, the oral presentations served to provide authentic material as a baseline for oral discussion during class time and, once added to Moodle, they supplemented course activities with additional materials for auton- omous work. Here, Shipping Business English learners are intercultural learners because they “use language to explore different cultures” (Corbett, 2010, p. 1) and “the class will itself be mul- ticultural, providing an arena for intercultural exchange and discussion” (Corbett, 2010, p. 2). Secondly, international cultures were compared with each student’s home culture. Home students lost their established institutional focus and were decentred in favour of visiting students, and both home and visiting students were encouraged to conduct introspective analyses of the foreign cultures in comparison to their own. It should be highlighted that the group of international students was naturally heterogeneous due to the fact that it included a variety of nationalities, they therefore contributed a range of foreign languages and cultural backgrounds to the classroom. The home students, on the other hand, were a homogenous 13 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 group of native Spanish speakers. While Spanish students were learning about Polish culture, for instance, students from Russia, Belgium, Latvia or The Netherlands were also becoming familiar with it. To put it briefly, intercultural classrooms helped overcome home students’ initial reluctance to engage socially with foreign students, both inside and outside the class- room, while also offering opportunities to develop international awareness through the use of English as the means of communication. Lastly, the English-native standard was also challenged in light of an international English model, which resembles real workplaces today and uses English as a language for intercultur- al and international communication – also named English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Concluding remarks A crucial element of the internationalisation strategy in higher education is intercultural learning. Through a number of instruments, including the CEFR, the Council of Europe has established the framework for the introduction and advancement of intercultural awareness in education in the EHEA. Thus, policy makers, language programme directors and admin- istrators, and teachers are adhering to the educational standards established by European institutions by incorporating interculturality into LSP curricula and classrooms. Learning a language means learning a culture, and LSP classrooms are strategic sites for in- tercultural learning and spaces for intercultural dialogue. In the same vein, LSP courses that (i) foster intercultural awareness, (ii) integrate the intercultural component in the curriculum, (iii) promote an intercultural dialogue, and (iv) engage students with cultural others while learning a foreign language are courses that embrace the principles and goals of intercultur- alisation at home (Jones, 2020). Following Jezewski’s (1995, p. 14) notion of cultural brokering – that is, “the act of bridging, linking or mediating between groups or persons of differing cultural backgrounds for the pur- pose of reducing conflict or producing change” – LSP teachers have a key role to play in inter- cultural classrooms by adopting an intermediary role between learning materials and cours- es on the one hand, and between groups of students of differing cultural backgrounds on the other. By becoming intercultural teachers (Byram et al., 2002) or intercultural brokers (Bo- canegra-Valle, 2015a), LSP teachers can promote intercultural knowledge and understanding in the short term, and potentially reduce cultural misunderstandings in the long run in the context of healthy multicultural workplace environments. As Byram et al. (2002, p. 13) put it, “[t]he role of the language teacher is therefore to develop skills, attitudes and awareness of values just as much as to develop a knowledge of a particular culture or country”. Never- theless, intercultural LSP teachers require training opportunities because, as the European Association for International Education (2018, n.p.) claims, “[i]nternationalising a curriculum is impossible without engaging the lecturers”. These training opportunities are necessary for intercultural LSP teachers to: (i) develop appropriate methodologies that support them in implementing intercultural skills and engaging students with cultural others while learning the foreign language; (ii) evaluate current textbooks and learning materials for intercultural learning; and (iii) raise awareness and gain further knowledge of the intercultural dimension within the disciplines and professions. 14 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 References Aguilar, M. (2018). Integrating intercultural competence in ESP and EMI: From theory to practice. ESP Today, 6(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.18485/esptoday.2018.6.1.2 Alonso, I., Criado, R., Luque, G., & Torres, L. (2022). Perspectives and Good Practices in English Language Teacher Training. Síntesis. Baker, W. (2015). Research into practice: cultural and intercultural awareness. Language Teaching, 48(1), 130–141. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444814000287 Basturkmen, H. 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A Proposal for the Assessment of Generic Competence]. Ediciones Mensajero. Wiwczaroski, T. B., & Czellér, M. (2020). Disparities between foreign language skills taught in high- er education and job market needs. In Bocanegra-Valle, A. (Ed.), Applied Linguistics and Knowl- edge Transfer. Internationalisation, Employability and Social Challenges (pp. 245–264). Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/b16992 17 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 Appendix Table 1: Guidelines for the evaluation of intercultural competence in LSP textbooks*. TEXTBOOKS (ordered by publication date) H os pi ta l E ng lis h M ed ic al IE LT S N ew In si gh ts in to Bu si ne ss Pr of es si on al En gl is h: L aw En gl is h fo r G lo ba l In du st ri es En gl is h fo r M ar ke tin g En gl is h fo r IC T st ud ie s En gl is h fo r th e M ar iti m e In d. En gi ne er in g En gl is h fo r In t. To ur is m Level I: Understands social and cultural diversity as a human phenomenon and interacts on the basis of respect towards the others In di ca to rs Assimilates the diversity of human condition X X X X X Establishes relationships with no different social and cultural treatment X X X Uses relationships with different people for own development X X X X X X Does not discriminate people because of different social or cultural reasons X X X X X Understands coexistence as the result of different people interaction X X X X X X X X Level II: Accepts and understands cultural and social affiliations as structural, voluntary and reasonable as pertaining to human condition In di ca to rs Analyses cultural and social diversity as a product of human interaction X X X Aims at elucidating the reasons underlying the customs and social behaviour of different people X X X Understands interaction with people from other cultures and social condition as a process of personal improvement X X Argues that people make social and cultural realities X X Understands that diversity is inherent to human beings Level III: Is certain that cultural diversity is consubstantial to human coexistence and generates cohesion and social inclusion In di ca to rs Understands that human coexistence supports social and/or cultural integration X X Understands that one’s social and cultural context is embedded in transcultural connections X X X X X Investigates how to generate transcultural connections X Uses relativism in an even-tempered manner X Facilitates inclusive contexts for the establishing relationships with different people X X X * anonymised 18 Bocanegra-Valle / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 3–18 Izvleček Pouk tujega jezika stroke kot strateški prostor za razvijanje medkulturnosti v domačem okolju: iskanje priložnosti in soočanje z izzivi Prispevek obravnava internacionalizacijo visokošolskega izobraževanja ter raziskuje priložnosti in iz- zive, s katerimi se soočajo učitelji tujih jezikov stroke pri vključevanju medkulturnosti v svoje vsako- dnevno poučevanje – ko si torej prizadevajo medkulturnost razvijati v svojem domačem okolju (Jones, 2020). Prispevek med drugim preučuje orodja, razvita v okviru evropskega visokošolskega prostora, za uvajanje medkulturne komponente v izobraževanje po Evropi, vlogo učbenikov za tuje jezike stroke pri spodbujanju in podpiranju medkulturnega učenja, prednosti medkulturnih učnih načrtov in dejavno- sti pri pouku tujih jezikov stroke ter prispevek učiteljev tujih jezikov stroke k razvoju medkulturnosti v svojih učilnicah. Avtorica ta vprašanja obravnava s pragmatičnega vidika, da bi spodbudila razpravo in zagotovila jasne smernice za nadaljnji razvoj tega področja. Ključne besede: tuji jeziki stroke, medkulturnost, medkulturni posredniki, medkulturno učenje, inter- nacionalizacija, visoko šolstvo 19 Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024) Paper received: 18.11.2024 Paper revised: 09.12.2024 Paper accepted: 13.12.2024 Paper published: 24.12.2024 Research Paper DOI: 10.4312/SM.19.2.19-55 Saša Bjelobaba Università di Zagabria, Croazia Sandra Mardešić Università di Zagabria, Croazia ESONIMI COME ELEMENTI DELLA TERMINOLOGIA SPECIALISTICA E COME SFIDA PER L’APPRENDIMENTO Sommario In questo articolo gli autori trattano la questione dello status e della rilevanza degli esonimi all’interno delle lingue standard italiana e inglese. Nello specifico, i nomi dei Paesi e i demotici relativi alle nazioni internazionalmente riconosciute vengono analizzati come parti integranti delle rispettive terminologie professionali pertinenti al settore delle relazioni internazionali e della diplomazia nonché ad altri setto- ri professionali le cui attività si svolgono a livello internazionale o quelli che sono indissolubili dalla co- municazione interculturale in generale. Vengono presentati i risultati di una ricerca empirica svolta con gli studenti di Italianistica e gli studenti di Scienze Politiche presso l’Università di Zagabria che hanno raggiunto il livello B2 in italiano / in inglese. La ricerca comprendeva una verifica della padronanza del- le forme degli esonimi nella lingua madre degli studenti, ovvero il croato, nonché in italiano / in inglese e un’ulteriore verifica della padronanza degli esonimi in italiano / in inglese condotta dopo il periodo di un mese assegnato agli studenti per l’apprendimento autonomo. Inoltre, gli autori si erano prefissi lo scopo di stabilire quale fosse la percezione degli studenti sull’importanza degli esonimi per la loro futura competenza linguistica/professionale. I risultati della ricerca dimostrano che la padronanza ini- ziale degli esonimi da parte degli apprendenti di inglese era decisamente superiore a quella degli apprendenti di italiano, mentre maggiori progressi tramite il processo dell’apprendimento autonomo sono stati ottenuti da parte degli apprendenti di italiano. Nonostante il fatto che gli studenti abbiano attribuito un livello elevato di importanza all’acquisizione degli esonimi, i risultati della ricerca fanno capire che la motivazione sottostante non è effettivamente intrinseca; per questo motivo l’apprendi- mento andrebbe maggiormente articolato e guidato, mentre i suoi esiti andrebbero preferibilmente sottoposti a una valutazione formale accademica. Parole chiave: apprendimento autonomo, esonimi, inglese, italiano, strategie di apprendimento, terminologia Abstract Exonyms as elements of LSP terminology and as a learning challenge In this paper, the authors address the issue of the status and relevance of exonyms within standard English and Italian. Specifically, country names and demonyms of internationally recognized nations are analysed as integral parts of the respective professional terminologies pertinent to the field of international relations and diplomacy as well as to other professional fields whose activities take place 20 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 at the international level or those that are inseparable from intercultural communication in general. Furthermore, the results of an empirical research carried out with students of Italian Studies and Polit- ical Science at the University of Zagreb, who have reached the B2 level in Italian/English, are present- ed. The research included a test of students’ command of exonyms in their native language, namely Croatian, as well as in Italian/English, while another test of students’ command of exonyms in Italian/ English was conducted after the one-month period assigned for autonomous learning. Moreover, the authors aimed to establish the students’ perception of the importance of exonyms for their future linguistic/professional competence. The results of the research show that the initial command of exo- nyms by English learners was significantly higher than that of Italian learners, while greater progress through the autonomous learning process was achieved by Italian learners. Despite the fact that stu- dents attributed a high level of importance to the acquisition of exonyms, the results of the research suggest that the underlying motivation is not actually intrinsic; for this reason, learning should be more structured and guided, while its outcomes should preferably be subjected to a formal academic assessment. Keywords: autonomous learning, English, exonyms, Italian, learning strategies, terminology 1 Introduzione Pare che nel terzo decennio del ventunesimo secolo il concetto di ‘villaggio globale’, origina- riamente elaborato da McLuhan (1964), si stia manifestando in maniera tale da superare per- sino le previsioni più avanguardiste dello studioso canadese. Lo sviluppo tecnologico della comunicazione umana ha fatto sì che il mondo di oggi non venga solo percepito, ma in realtà funzioni come una comunità unica, piuttosto consolidata. Alcune sfere delle attività comuni su cui si basa l’esistenza di questo conglomerato globale sono tra di loro ormai indissolubil- mente legate e in grande misura interdipendenti. Vale a dire che oltre ai settori culturali e scientifici, si manifesta in modo sempre più evidente un’interdipendenza politica ed econo- mica. È in un tale ambiente che si impongono proprio i professionisti del campo delle relazio- ni internazionali, nello specifico della diplomazia, nonché tutti quei professionisti che sono coinvolti nelle attività di mediazione interculturale nel senso più vasto (inclusi i traduttori, gli interpreti, i docenti di lingue, ecc.). In realtà, si tratta delle categorie di professionisti a cui occorre una competenza linguistica settoriale elevata come parte integrante e fondamentale della propria competenza professionale. Considerata l’importanza di tale competenza linguistica, emerge l’ipotesi che il repertorio ter- minologico dei suddetti linguaggi specialistici non può essere privo di esonimi come termini che forniscono ai Paesi del mondo e ai loro cittadini degli identificatori univoci. Tuttavia, vi è una notevole scarsità di ricerche precedenti dedicate a questa categoria lessicale1, mentre gli studi relativi al problema dell’acquisizione degli esonimi in una lingua straniera risultano inesistenti. Proprio per tale motivo abbiamo deciso di svolgere una ricerca sulle percezioni 1 Inoltre, la nostra ricerca bibliografica ha rivelato che gli studi scientifici precedenti sugli esonimi non tratta- no mai questa categoria lessicale esclusivamente dal punto di vista dei nomi dei Paesi e dei loro cittadini, ma si focalizzano prevalentemente sulla semantica dei demotici in generale, inclusi quelli relativi alle città e alle regioni (es. Roberts, 2017), e sui nomi geografici e/o sul problema della loro standardizzazione (es. Toniolo, 1986; 2005; Woodman, 2003, Bianchi & Malvasi, 2022). 21 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 degli apprendenti universitari di lingue straniere dell’importanza di questa categoria lessicale e terminologica per la propria competenza professionale e di verificare l’attuale padronanza di questi termini. Con lo scopo di avere una prospettiva più larga, non ci siamo limitati alla lingua inglese la quale, per certi aspetti, gode dello status di seconda lingua (L2) nel caso dei membri della generazione Z croata, in particolare i nati negli anni duemila, ma abbiamo deciso di includere nella nostra ricerca anche la lingua italiana che può essere considerata una lingua straniera (LS) a tutti gli effetti. Tale approccio rende possibile un confronto tra il processo dell’apprendimento degli esonimi in due lingue straniere che hanno status diversi nella stessa comunità linguistica.2 2 Esonimi come elementi della terminologia specifica Gli esonimi, ovvero i nomi dati in una lingua alle popolazioni e alle entità attribuite ad esse o ai luoghi, costituiscono un campo semantico i cui elementi sono connessi a livello prevalente- mente paradigmatico. Quando questo campo semantico viene ulteriormente ristretto solo ai nomi dei Paesi internazionalmente riconosciuti e ai rispettivi demotici nazionali, si profila un sottoinsieme strutturato del lessico estremamente nitido e facile da concettualizzare da par- te dei parlanti. Le conoscenze geografiche e geopolitiche, per quanto possano essere carenti o al limite incomplete, non ostacolano la costruzione dei significati almeno schematici. Una tale costruzione del significato si basa sul presupposto che un sostantivo denota il concetto di un certo Paese, mentre l’altro sostantivo (un aggettivo sostantivato o meno) denota i cit- tadini del Paese dal cui nome la forma è derivata. In ogni caso, gli esonimi, in virtù di essere i nomi dei Paesi e delle nazioni, sono fondamentali per la comunicazione internazionale. Tut- tavia, nonostante il fatto che conoscere il nome di un’entità non significa capirla, possiamo concludere che il processo dell’apprendimento di questi termini non dipende esclusivamente dal sapere extralinguistico. Si presume intanto che il processo possa essere coadiuvato o consolidato da un tale approfondimento. In sostanza, nel caso di questa categoria lessicale e terminologica, è lecito ipotizzare il fatto che la mera acquisizione delle forme (livello morfo- logico) non sarà un processo privo di concettualizzazione, per quanto possa risultare vago il significato (livello semantico). 2.1 Delimitazione del corpus terminologico Alla luce di questo ragionamento, e tenendo presente il fatto che il corpus terminologico usato in questa ricerca va nettamente delimitato, sorge la questione del concetto di nazione come iperonimo dei significati dei termini individuali costituenti questa categoria terminolo- gica e lessicale. Il termine nazione (ing. nation) in realtà risulta polisemico, il che implica che i significati sottostanti non vanno dati per scontati. Come stabilito da Heywood (2007, p. 110), il concetto di nazione può essere definito dai vari punti di vista, nello specifico (i) quello cul- turale (basato sui fattori coesivi quali la lingua, la religione, la storia e le tradizioni), (ii) quello 2 Va messo in evidenza il fatto che nel sistema scolastico croato, la lingua inglese viene insegnata come materia obbligatoria a partire dal primo anno delle scuole elementari e che vi è una notevole esposizione mediatica all’inglese. D’altra parte, la lingua italiana viene insegnata normalmente come seconda o terza lingua straniera negli anni più avanzati della scolarizzazione e il suo apprendimento risulta prevalente- mente limitato all’ambiente scolastico/accademico. La composizione del nostro campione di ricerca viene descritta nella sezione 4.2. 22 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 psicologico (basato sul sentimento collettivo di fedeltà e affetto, ovvero il patriottismo), e infine (iii) quello politico (più strettamente condizionato dalla statualità, ovvero dalla lealtà civile verso la comunità politica che è internazionalmente riconosciuta come uno Stato so- vrano o aspira a un tale status). Se si prende in considerazione il fatto che a livello globale gli Stati nazionali risultano essere i soggetti principali, seppur non esclusivi visto che come tali possono essere individuate anche le entità come organizzazioni, movimenti e corporazioni internazionali, va da sé che il punto di vista (iii), individuato da Heywood (2007), risulta essere il più idoneo come criterio per la delimitazione del nostro corpus terminologico. Inoltre, va ribadito che l’identificazione dei termini nazione e nazionale con i concetti di etnia ed etnico/a in molte comunità linguistiche e culturali dell’Europa centrale e dei Balcani non coincide con la concettualizzazione politica popolare più tipica del mondo anglosassone e anche dell’Italia. A tal scopo ci siamo avvalsi della lista degli esonimi compresi dal dizionario Hrvatski egzoni- mi 1 (Crljenko, 2016), la quale comprende i nomi dei 198 Paesi e i relativi demotici nazionali in croato. Il criterio su cui si è basata la compilazione di questa lista risulta a questo punto assolutamente compatibile con il punto di vista delle nazioni come comunità politiche per cui abbiamo optato. 2.2 Lo status degli esonimi come elementi della terminologia specialistica (LSP) Gli esonimi definiti in tal modo possono essere osservati tanto come elementi del lessico generale di una lingua standard, nello specifico dell’italiano e dell’inglese, quanto come ele- menti della terminologia specialistica delle relazioni internazionali, ovvero della diplomazia in senso stretto. A questo punto va messo in rilievo il ragionamento di Đorović (2022, p. 20), la quale, avendo constatato che i confini tra la lingua generale e quella settoriale non sono netti e vi sono considerevoli sovrapposizioni tra le due categorie, conclude che la lingua set- toriale non dispone di alcuni mezzi che siano estranei alla lingua generale. Secondo l’autrice, la lingua settoriale adopera perciò gli elementi pertinenti alla lingua generale impiegandoli in modi diversi e con scopi diversi. Questa conclusione è in armonia con l’idea generale di Cortelazzo (1994), il quale, pur attribuendo al lessico il ruolo di uno dei tratti distintivi princi- pali di una lingua speciale, non nega il fatto che le origini della terminologia sono nel lessico generale. Per di più l’autore stabilisce che il contatto tra una lingua speciale e quella comune è bidirezionale, il che implica che l’influsso è reciproco. Il processo opposto all’attingimento dal lessico generale è la determinologizzazione in cui i termini specialistici si diffondono nel lessi- co generale (cfr. Bertaccini, Lecci & Bono, 2008; Nová, 2018; Žagar Karer & Ledinek, 2021). Il seguente diagramma illustra la vaghezza dei confini tra l’appartenenza degli esonimi relativi alle nazioni in questi due sottoinsiemi lessicali e/o terminologici: Come si può evincere dalla Figura 1, solo a una porzione della categoria lessicale degli eso- nimi – in questo caso demotici nazionali usati a titolo illustrativo – può essere assegnato lo status degli elementi del lessico generale a pieno titolo, mentre la maggior parte di questa categoria lessicale va osservata come facente parte della terminologia specifica (LSP). Il cri- terio con cui si stabilisce il confine, per quanto flessibile e vago, tra le due sottocategorie degli esonimi è la frequenza d’uso e/o la disponibilità. Sta di fatto che i parlanti di una lingua normalmente hanno la padronanza degli esonimi relativi alle nazioni vicine e rilevanti per le loro vite. La rilevanza di una nazione per la vita di una persona e di una comunità linguistica 23 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 è altamente soggettiva e dipendente dalle esperienze individuali di un parlante e dalle sue percezioni della rilevanza di un concetto per la vita della comunità sociale in cui vive. La fre- quenza d’uso pertanto non coincide invariabilmente con la sensazione che hanno i parlanti dell’importanza di un concetto che va lessicalizzato, e perciò la disponibilità va inclusa come criterio alla pari dell’effettiva frequenza d’uso. In ultima analisi, va notato che la porosità del confine tra il sottoinsieme degli esonimi facenti parte del lessico generale e quelli che appar- tengono solo a quella onnicomprensiva che racchiude tutti gli esonimi, non influisce sullo status terminologico di tutti i membri della categoria lessicale sotto esame. 2.3 I tratti morfosintattici specifici degli esonimi: l’italiano e l’inglese a confronto La categoria lessicale e terminologica in questione svolge le stesse funzioni sia nella lingua italiana che in quella inglese. Tuttavia, a livello della morfologia e della sintassi si manifestano alcune differenze non trascurabili, le quali possono esercitare un’influenza notevole sul pro- cesso dell’apprendimento da parte degli apprendenti d’italiano e di quelli d’inglese. A livello morfosintattico in entrambe le lingue si pone il problema dell’uso dell’articolo davanti ai nomi dei Paesi. Tuttavia, in inglese l’uso dell’articolo determinativo davanti a quel gruppo di toponimi è limitato ai pochi casi e la maggioranza di queste eccezioni si presta facilmente alle spiegazioni tramite le categorie della grammatica tradizionale. In tal modo i nomi composti da più parole che sono effettivamente sintagmi nominali esigono l’uso dell’articolo determi- nativo come primo modificatore se la testa del sintagma è un nome comune, es. the Czech Re- public, the United Kingdom, the United States of America. Gli altri casi, non altrettanto numerosi, sono interpretabili dal punto di vista semantico, es. i Paesi arcipelago quali the Seychelles, the Maldives; o derivanti dai nomi dei fiumi quali the Gambia, the Congo, e poche altre eccezioni. In italiano invece l’uso dell’articolo davanti ai toponimi che denotano i Paesi riguarda la grande maggioranza dei casi, mentre l’omissione dell’articolo può essere percepita come eccezione, Figura 1 Lo status della categoria lessicale all’interno delle lingue standard 24 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 es. Cipro, Malta, Cuba, Monaco, Israele, i casi che in ultima conseguenza possono essere spie- gati dal punto di vista semantico.3 D’altra parte, all’interno dei sintagmi preposizionali l’arti- colo determinativo si omette se il sintagma è retto dalla preposizione in e il nome del Paese è di genere femminile. Per di più, la concettualizzazione di alcuni Paesi isole come puntiformi ha come conseguenza l’uso della preposizione a anziché in nei sintagmi preposizionali quali a Cipro, a Malta, a Cuba a differenza di in Israele (Salvi & Vanelli, 2004; Bjelobaba, 2022). In italiano si manifesta inoltre il problema del genere che si riflette anche sull’uso dell’articolo, es. il Canada/Canadà, il Kenya, il Sahara Occidentale, ma anche il problema del numero, dal momento che l’uso dell’articolo determinativo è obbligatorio davanti ai nomi dei Paesi al plu- rale a prescindere dal genere, anche quando si tratta della preposizione in, es. nei Paesi Bassi, negli Stati Uniti di America, nelle Filippine, nelle Maldive. Va ribadito a questo punto che la pre- posizione semplice in non viene articolata davanti ai nomi dei Paesi al femminile, ma le altre preposizioni invece vengono articolate o seguite dall’articolo la/l’, es. in Italia ↔ dall’Italia; in Slovenia ↔ con la Slovenia. Tutto ciò fa capire che le regole riguardanti l’uso degli esonimi a li- vello della frase risulta considerevolmente più complesso per la lingua italiana che per quella inglese. Alla complessità delineata in questo paragrafo va aggiunto il fatto che gli apprendenti di italiano all’estero sono in linea di massima meno esposti alle fonti di lingua italiana fuori dall’ambiente accademico, il che ostacola ulteriormente l’acquisizione spontanea dell’uso de- gli esonimi a livello sintattico, e impone la necessità ai docenti di insegnare queste regole in modo esplicito, preferibilmente facendo ricorso alle razionalizzazioni semantiche. Sul versante della morfologia derivazionale, invece, in entrambe le lingue sono individuabili le desinenze maggiormente frequenti nella formazione dei demotici e/o dei rispettivi agget- tivi quali -(i)ano/-(i)ana; -ese o -ino/-ina in italiano, e –(i)an; -ese o -i in inglese. Inoltre, tanto in italiano quanto in inglese esistono dei casi che possono essere osservati come sui generis, per esempio kenyota o vietnamita in italiano, o Seychellois e Filipino/Filipina in inglese. Ciò no- nostante, le regolarità morfologiche individuate rendono possibile la creazione delle classifi- cazioni formali, le quali dovrebbero facilitare l’acquisizione di queste forme agli studenti. Qui va notato il fatto che i sistemi degli esonimi in italiano e in inglese non sono del tutto paralleli per quanto riguarda il criterio morfosemantico. A differenza di quello italiano in cui tutti i demotici nazionali vengono lessicalizzati sotto la forma dell’aggettivo sostantivato, nel siste- ma inglese esistono alcuni casi in cui la forma aggettivale si distingue da quella sostantivata (es. Spanish ≠ a Spaniard; Finnish ≠ a Finn; Icelandic ≠ an Icelander). Inoltre, la formazione del plurale dei demotici in inglese risulta essere più complessa che in italiano, in cui le forme al plurale sono del tutto prevedibili dal punto di vista della morfologia flessiva. In inglese invece entrano in gioco i fattori fonetici. Così le forme che finiscono per alcune consonanti fricative sibilanti o affricate, ovvero /s/, /z/, /ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/e /tʒ/ formano il plurale in modo sintattico e non morfologico (es. the Swiss, the Chinese, the Dutch), ovvero premettendo l’articolo determinati- vo alla forma aggettivale senza che venga aggiunta la desinenza plurale inglese –(e)s.4 Questo fenomeno va osservato come una sorta di aggravante per l’apprendimento degli esonimi che si impone agli apprendenti d’inglese a differenza di quelli d’italiano. 3 Si tratta di alcuni Paesi insulari che vengono concettualizzati come puntiformi, alcune città-Stato nonché Israele il cui nome deriva da un nome di persona. Si può supporre che l’uso di Israele senza articolo in italia- no sia stato consolidato dall’uso biblico. 4 Va notato il fatto che nelle grammatiche di uso pratico questa complessità morfosintattica in inglese non viene trattata nella sua interezza e spesso solo in misura marginale (cfr. Thomson & Martinet, 1986; Swan, 2005). 25 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Le suddette osservazioni rivelano certi limiti della nostra ricerca, che si prefigge come uno degli obiettivi il confronto della padronanza preliminare degli esonimi da parte degli appren- denti delle due lingue, nonché la loro disponibilità e la motivazione di apprendere questa ca- tegoria lessicale e terminologica nella loro interezza. Perciò, gli aspetti specifici di una lingua verranno osservati solo individualmente, mentre il confronto verrà eseguito solo sul versante morfologico derivazionale, per di più ristretto alle forme degli aggettivi sostantivati. Questo approccio viene assunto affinché la ricerca non venga contaminata dai tratti morfosintattici specifici, a volte idiosincratici di una delle due lingue. 3 Esonimi come sfida per l’apprendimento Poiché gli esonimi relativi a tutti gli Stati internazionalmente riconosciuti non vengono inse- gnati esplicitamente né nelle lezioni d’inglese come lingua settoriale in Scienze Politiche, né in quelle universitarie di Italianistica5, ci siamo prefissi lo scopo di indagare la loro attuale padronanza da parte di entrambi i gruppi di studenti e la loro disponibilità ad apprenderli autonomamente. Inoltre, con la presente ricerca si intende verificare l’importanza che gli studenti attribuiscono a questa categoria terminologica. In altri termini, ci concentreremo su questa specifica componente lessicale nelle interlingue degli studenti. In questa ricerca ci siamo avvalsi della definizione dell’interlingua di Pallotti (2006, p.13): “La varietà di lingua d’arrivo parlata da un apprendente: si tratta di un vero e proprio sistema linguistico, caratterizzato da regole che in parte coincidono con quelle della L2, in parte sono riconducibili alla L1 e in parte sono indipendenti da entrambe.” In realtà, l’interlingua manife- sta “le regolarità che esprimono le strategie di costruzione degli enunciati [degli apprendenti] e delle ipotesi su come funziona la L2” (Pallotti 2020, p. 194). Dato che la presente ricerca è concentrata sulla conoscenza degli elementi lessicali isolati, si è cercato di esaminare anche le strategie compensative usate dagli studenti nei casi di insicurezza sulla forma esatta di un dato esonimo. Le ricerche precedenti (Letica Krevelj, 2013) svolte nel contesto universitario croato con stu- denti d’inglese e d’italiano hanno dimostrato un uso elevato delle strategie linguistiche nella compensazione delle lacune lessicali nella produzione orale in lingua straniera. Per tale mo- tivo abbiamo tenuto conto della stessa tassonomia delle strategie compensative, quella pro- posta da Nijmegen Group (Poulisse, 1990). Le strategie sono divise in due categorie: quelle concettuali, quali circonlocuzione e approssimazione, e quelle linguistiche, ovvero, traduzio- ne letterale, code switching, forestierizzazione, coniazione delle parole nuove. La letteratura glottodidattica (Mezzadri, 2015) propone varie tecniche per l’insegnamento del lessico, quali insiemistiche, spydergram, individuazione dell’intruso, sinonimi e contrari, abbinamento parola definizione; tuttavia, non fornisce esempi per il campo lessicale degli esonimi. Poiché nella presente ricerca si pretende che gli studenti acquisiscano gli elementi lessicali isolati dal loro contesto, le suddette strategie vengono considerate solo parzialmen- te, ovvero applicate esclusivamente a livello morfologico. A questo punto è doveroso men- zionare la tassonomia più frequentemente applicata nelle ricerche sull’acquisizione di una 5 Nel corso delle lezioni iniziali si insegnano solamente alcune eccezioni, quali belga, tedesco, austriaco ecc. ed eccezioni nell’uso dell’articolo come il Canada e Israele. 26 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 lingua seconda/straniera, di Rebecca Oxford (1990) che le classifica in due macrocategorie: strategie dirette (memorizzazione, cognitive e compensative) e strategie indirette (metaco- gnitive, affettive e sociali). 4 Metodologia 4.1 Scopo e domande di ricerca Lo scopo della presente ricerca è di indagare sulla conoscenza degli esonimi come compo- nente fondamentale del linguaggio settoriale dei futuri politologi e dei traduttori d’italiano, nonché un’individuazione approssimativa delle strategie del loro apprendimento da parte dei partecipanti. A tale scopo ci siamo posti le seguenti domande di ricerca: DR1: Qual è il livello di padronanza degli esonimi da parte dei futuri traduttori e interpreti (in italiano) e da parte degli studenti di Scienze Politiche (in inglese)? DR2: Esiste un eventuale effetto sperimentale dell’apprendimento autonomo sui progressi nella padronanza degli esonimi? DR3: Quale importanza attribuiscono gli studenti agli esonimi come parte del lessico specia- listico (in inglese e in italiano)? DR4: Quali strategie di apprendimento scelgono gli studenti per imparare gli esonimi nelle loro rispettive lingue settoriali (LSP)? 4.2 Partecipanti I partecipanti della presente ricerca erano studenti della Facoltà di Scienze Politiche e studen- ti d’Italianistica della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell’Università di Zagabria, tutti di madre lingua croata. In totale hanno partecipato 102 studenti: 43 studenti del primo e secondo anno del corso di studio della laurea magistrale in Italianistica (gruppo A) e 59 del primo anno di studi di Scienze Politiche del corso di laurea triennale, iscritti al corso obbligatorio di inglese LSP (gruppo B). Il livello di competenza linguistica in inglese era B2, come previsto dal programma ministeriale croato per le scuole superiori, e dello stesso livello era anche la competenza in lingua italiana, come previsto dal programma del corso di studi della laurea magistrale in Italianistica. La partecipazione era volontaria e anonima. 4.3 Strumenti e procedimento Dato che dalla letteratura disponibile non risultava alcuno strumento adatto al nostro scopo, a questo proposito sono state create due liste di esonimi – una per l’italiano (v. Allegato 1) e l’altra per l’inglese (v. Allegato 2). Le liste contengono i nomi dei 198 Paesi, inclusi in Crljenko (2016), nello specifico i 195 Stati nazionali internazionalmente (parzialmente) riconosciuti, insieme alla Palestina, a Taiwan e al Sahara Occidentale, nonché i nomi dei rispettivi cittadini. Le liste fornite agli studenti, dopo la compilazione del pre-test, come stimoli all’apprendimento autonomo, 27 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 erano dotate di traduzioni in italiano o in inglese rispetto alla lingua di studio.6 In base alla lista delle suddette denominazioni, abbiamo classificato gli esonimi secondo le caratteristiche mor- fologiche della loro derivazione in italiano e in inglese. Le classificazioni sono state usate perché nei questionari venissero incluse le forme che rappresentano varie categorie individuate, in linea di massima in proporzione alle occorrenze nell’intero corpus di esonimi. Oltre alle liste degli esonimi come stimolo all’apprendimento, sono state preparate due cop- pie di questionari, l’una destinata al gruppo A (italianisti), e l’altra al gruppo B (politologi). I primi questionari comprendevano i pre-test che consistevano delle tabelle con tre colonne da compilare. Gli stimoli erano nella prima colonna in cui erano scritti i nomi dei Paesi in croato, e gli studenti dovevano inserire la forma del demotico relativo in croato, il nome del Paese in italiano/inglese nonché il demotico in italiano/inglese nelle colonne restanti (v. Al- legato 3). Il pre-test per il gruppo B (inglese) aveva un’altra colonna per i casi in cui la forma aggettivale differisce da quella sostantivale. I nomi dei Paesi in croato erano disposti in ordine alfabetico. Oltre, alle caselle da compilare mirate alla verifica della padronanza degli esonimi, è stata aggiunta una domanda in cui si chiedeva ai partecipanti di valutare l’importanza della conoscenza degli esonimi per la loro futura professione con una scala Likert a 5 punti (1 – non è importante affatto, 2 – è poco importante; 3 – non è né importante né poco importante; 4 – è ab- bastanza importante; 5 – è estremamente importante), e una domanda a risposta aperta sulle strategie di apprendimento che i partecipanti applicherebbero per imparare gli esonimi nelle loro rispettive lingue di studio. I test sono stati somministrati dai ricercatori durante le lezioni universitarie e la compilazione dei test da parte degli studenti è durata approssimativamente 25–35 minuti. Va notato che i ricercatori hanno chiesto ai partecipanti di cercare di rispon- dere ad ogni quesito anche nel caso di insicurezza sulla parola giusta, applicando qualsiasi strategia compensativa. Dato che il pre-test è stato somministrato prima al gruppo di studenti di Italianistica (A), e si è verificato che la sua compilazione è durata troppo a lungo, il pre-test per il gruppo di stu- denti di Scienze Politiche (B), per la lingua inglese, è stato ridotto a soli 30 Paesi. Tuttavia, nel questionario inglese è stata aggiunta la colonna che riguardava il sostantivo relativo al nome dei cittadini, oltre alla forma aggettivale. Dopo la compilazione del pre-test è stata consegnata a tutti i partecipanti la lista completa contenente tutti i 198 esonimi in croato e i loro equivalenti in italiano/inglese. Ai partecipanti è stato richiesto di cercare di imparare gli esonimi entro un mese, applicando le strategie di apprendimento secondo le loro preferenze. A questo punto, è importante notare il fatto che gli studenti sapevano che i risultati del loro apprendimento autonomo non sarebbero stati valutati con un voto dai loro docenti, ma che sarebbero stati usati esclusivamente per motivi di ricerca. Il post-test conteneva gli esonimi relativi ai 30 Paesi e ai loro cittadini sia per l’italiano che per l’inglese, stavolta senza gli equivalenti in croato. Gli esonimi inclusi nel post-test sono stati selezionati in linea di massima in proporzione alle occorrenze dei suffissi nell’intero corpus di esonimi. Gli esercizi del post-test erano accompagnati da una domanda a risposta aperta che 6 Le liste destinate agli apprendenti d’italiano contengono le traduzioni italiane dei nomi dei Paesi e i rispet- tivi demotici (v. Allegato 1), mentre quelle destinate agli apprendenti d’italiano contengono le traduzioni inglesi dei nomi dei Paesi e i rispettivi demotici tanto nella forma sostantivale quanto in quella aggettivale (v. Allegato 2). 28 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 si riferiva all’esperienza dell’apprendimento autonomo degli studenti e alle eventuali strate- gie da loro applicate.7 5 Risultati e discussione In questa sezione analizziamo i risultati ottenuti tramite i questionari 1 e 2 all’interno dei quali erano contenuti i pre-test e i post-test. La nostra analisi risulta eterogenea non solo per il fatto che combina il metodo qualitativo con quello quantitativo, ma anche perché solo in un segmento si stabilisce il confronto dei risultati ottenuti con due campioni diversi (il gruppo A e il gruppo B). Questa sezione si articola perciò in quattro parti. Nella prima ci focalizziamo sui risultati ottenuti tramite il test della varianza che valuta le differenze tra le medie del gruppo A e del gruppo B (5.1), mentre nelle due parti successive sono presentate le percentuali di errori per tipologia per l’italiano (5.2) e per l’inglese (5.3). Infine, i risultati vengono commentati sotto il prisma dei risultati delle risposte degli studenti riguardanti la motivazione e quelle a risposta aperta che concernono le loro idee sulle strategie dell’apprendimento da applicare (5.4). 5.1 Gli errori morfologici – il confronto dei risultati del gruppo A e del gruppo B Per i motivi esposti nella sezione 2.3, riteniamo opportuno limitare il confronto tra i due gruppi solo a una categoria di errori. Qui va messo in evidenza il fatto che per classificare i tipi di errori ci siamo avvalsi in buona parte della classificazione adoperata da Kenda (2019) per svolge- re un’analisi contrastiva di errori su un corpus di scritti di studenti universitari slovenofoni di italiano. Tra le categorie individuate dalla studiosa slovena, quella degli errori morfologici si è dimostrata l’unica idonea per il confronto dei risultati dei nostri due gruppi che erano diverse quanto alla rispettiva lingua target, ovvero l’italiano/l’inglese. Per assicurare un netto paralleli- smo dei due campioni, oltre all’eliminazione dall’analisi degli errori ortografici e morfosintattici, nell’analisi sono state incluse solo le prime 30 unità del pre-test e del post-test.8 Tabella 1. ANOVA – numero di errori morfologici – confronto pre-test e post-test Somma dei quadrati df M F p pre-test e post- test 46.9 1 46.9 1.88 0.172 italiano o inglese 1159.3 1 1159.3 46.61 < .001 pre-test e post-test (Italiano o inglese) 270.6 1 270.6 10.88 0.001 Innanzitutto, come dimostra la Tabella 1, va constatato il fatto che l’analisi multidirezio- nale della varianza per campioni indipendenti non ha dimostrato alcun effetto principale 7 In questo caso abbiamo optato per una domanda a risposta aperta anziché fornire una lista di strategie da cui selezionare quella con cui gli studenti si identificano, affinché le risposte non venissero condizionate da concetti glottodidattici o dal rispettivo metalinguaggio. Lo scopo era sollecitare le risposte spontanee e autentiche degli apprendenti. 8 Le altre categorie degli errori verranno comunque usate nell’analisi dei risultati del gruppo A e del gruppo B separatamente, in linea con i tratti specifici di ognuna delle lingue (v. 5.2 e 5.3). 29 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 statisticamente significativo del tempo di analisi (F = 1,88; p > 0,05). In altre parole, gli stu- denti hanno commesso approssimativamente lo stesso numero di errori nel pre-test e nel post-test se l’intero campione (30 parole) viene osservato nel complesso, ovvero a prescin- dere dalla lingua. D’altra parte, l’effetto principale della lingua si è dimostrato statisticamente significativo (F = 46,61; p < ,001). Nel pre-test, gli studenti di Italianistica hanno commesso il numero di errori morfologici significativamente più elevato rispetto agli studenti di Scienze Politiche che studiano inglese (F = 10,88, p = 0,001) (v. Figura 2). Questa differenza può essere attribuita a un’esposizione minore dei partecipanti italiani alle fonti linguistiche di italiano al di fuori dell’ambito accademico. A differenza degli apprendenti d’inglese che potevano ap- poggiarsi alle proprie conoscenze pregresse, dovute al fatto che vivono in un ambiente in cui dominano fonti mediatiche anglosassoni, l’esposizione alla lingua italiana è per la maggior parte limitata all’ambito accademico e alle fonti provenienti dall’area filologica. Va notato anche che la lingua inglese oggigiorno è usata ormai come lingua franca nel campo delle relazioni internazionali e che la stessa lingua viene quasi invariabilmente usata come mezzo di comunicazione in altre sfere in cui si stabiliscono contatti internazionali e in cui vengono usati gli esonimi, incluse quelle che sono maggiormente di interesse dei giovani (sport, mu- sica, tecnologia informatica, ecc.) (cfr. Bowles & Cogo, 2015; Jenkins, Baker & Dewey, 2018). Figura 2 Il numero di errori morfologici – confronto pre-test e post-test a seconda della lingua 6 8 10 12 italiano inglese lingua nu m er o di e rro ri m or fo lo gi ci Infine, l’interazione tra tempo del test (il periodo di un mese trascorso tra il pre-test e il post- test) e lingua (italiano/inglese) risulta statisticamente significativa (F = 10,88, p = 0,001) (v. Tabella 1). Gli studenti differiscono nel numero di errori nel pre-test e nel post-test a seconda della lingua. Come si può evincere dalla Figura 3, per gli studenti di Scienze Politiche non si osserva alcuna variazione nel numero di errori morfologici, mentre nel caso degli studenti di Italianistica il numero di errori morfologici è diminuito nel post-test rispetto al pre-test. Va notato che entrambi i gruppi hanno avuto lo stesso periodo di tempo per l’apprendimento autonomo e disponevano di un materiale di apprendimento del tutto analogo (le liste alfabe- tiche degli esonimi croati con le forme equivalenti nella lingua target). 30 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Figura 3 Interazione tra tempo del test e lingua I test post-hoc dimostrano che nel pre-test gli studenti di Italianistica hanno commesso più errori morfologici rispetto agli studenti di Scienze Politiche che studiano inglese (t = 6,87, df = 188, p < .001). La stessa differenza è significativa nel post-test, anche se in misura marginale (t = 2,61, df = 188, p = 0,048). La diminuzione del numero di errori tra gli studenti d’italiano nel post-test rispetto al pre-test è statisticamente significativa (t = 2,98, df = 188, p = .017), mentre la differenza nel numero di errori commessi dagli studenti di Scienze Politiche nel post-test rispetto al pre-test non è statisticamente significativa (t=-1.55, df=188, p=.409). In questo caso un relativo progresso raggiunto dagli studenti di Italianistica rispetto a quelli di Scienze Politiche può essere interpretato tenendo conto dei due fattori che hanno concorso a questo esito. Il primo consiste nel presupposto che i problemi maggiori con cui gli studenti di Italianistica hanno affrontato gli esercizi del pre-test possono avere avuto un effetto mo- tivazionale positivo sulla loro decisione di verificare e (parzialmente) imparare le forme degli esonimi italiani, consultando la lista che è stata somministrata loro dopo il pre-test. D’altra parte, una relativa facilità con cui gli studenti di Scienze Politiche hanno eseguito lo stesso compito non ha dato luogo a questo tipo di consapevolezza, il che è risultato nella mancata motivazione di servirsi dell’analoga lista di esonimi inglesi per apprendere le nuove forme autonomamente. L’altro fattore che non va trascurato nella nostra interpretazione dei ri- sultati riguarda il periodo dell’anno accademico in cui è stato condotto il post-test. Questo fattore obiettivo può aver esercitato un certo influsso su entrambi i gruppi. Sta di fatto che la circostanza obiettiva dell’aumento del carico di lavoro accademico degli studenti di Scienze Politiche nella settimana del pre-test può aver ostacolato la loro preparazione per il post-test su base volontaria. Dunque, non va esclusa la possibilità che questo fattore obiettivo abbia contaminato il confronto riguardante l’interazione tempo e lingua, aumentando in tal modo l’impressione che la motivazione intrinseca degli studenti di Italianistica abbia esercitato una maggiore influenza sull’esito finale di quanto sia avvenuto in realtà. 31 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Oltre all’analisi della varianza (ANOVA), abbiamo eseguito il t-test usando gli stessi dati pur di verificare la validità dei risultati ottenuti. Il t-test ha corroborato quanto stabilito tramite l’ANOVA, ovvero il fatto che era avvenuto un calo statisticamente significativo nel numero di errori morfologici commessi dagli studenti di Italianistica nel post-test rispetto a quello del pre-test (t= 3.20; df= 73.0; p= 0,031). Analogamente al test ANOVA, il t-test eseguito sul campione di studenti di Scienze Politiche ha confermato il fatto che non si era verificata una differenza statisticamente significativa quanto al numero di errori morfologici commessi nel pre-test e nel post-test (t= 0,121; df= 190; p= 0,904). 5.2 Padronanza degli esonimi in italiano 5.2.1 Pre-test – gruppo A (studenti di Italianistica) Il pre-test per il gruppo A (italianisti) prevedeva 4800 risposte possibili in totale per l’intero campione, di cui 3200 in italiano. Il resto delle risposte possibili si riferiva alle forme degli esonimi croati e perciò non sono state prese in considerazione per questa parte della ricerca. Nonostante l’istruzione dei ricercatori di applicare le strategie compensative, 459 risposte sono state omesse da parte degli studenti e l’analisi degli errori è stata calcolata solamente per 2741 risposte. Gli errori, in totale 1009, il 21% del totale delle possibili risposte, sono stati analizzati e classificati nel modo seguente: a) errore morfologico (es. *turchese, *la Ceccia, *danimarco) b) errore ortografico (es. *l’Andora, *Bosnia e Herzegovina, *Korea) c) errato uso dell’articolo (es. *la Canada, *la Cuba, *l’Israele, *i Filippini) I risultati dell’analisi degli errori sono presentati nella Figura 4. Figura 4 Tipologia degli errori del pre-test – gruppo A (studenti di Italianistica) Per quanto riguarda la padronanza delle forme degli esonimi italiani, sorprende la mancata co- noscenza di quelli che riguardano i Paesi confinanti con la Croazia (es. *serbiaco, *erzegovinese, 32 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 *ungarese, *sloveniano), in particolar modo per il fatto che queste forme sono state usate all’interno delle esercitazioni di traduzione svolte indipendentemente da questa ricerca. Analizzando le strategie compensative adoperate nel pre-test del gruppo A sono state riscon- trate alcune occorrenze del transfer dall’inglese con la forestierizzazione (Mardešić & Čupić, 2019), *la Cambodia, *la Polanda, e dal croato *la Kenia, *la Latvia, *il Cipar. Sono state notate anche alcune occorrenze che testimoniano l’impiego della strategia dell’approssimazione, ad esempio, per l’abitante degli Stati Uniti alcuni partecipanti hanno scritto americano e non statunitense, il che è accettabile seppur meno preciso, e alcuni si sono riferiti erroneamente al cittadino del Regno Unito con la forma inglese. 5.2.2 Post-test – gruppo A (studenti di Italianistica) L’analisi del post-test del gruppo A (italianisti) calcolata su 2580 risposte possibili, ha presentato i seguenti risultati: 340 riposte ommesse, e un totale di 616 errori, ovvero il 23% di tutte le pos- sibili riposte. La classificazione della tipologia degli errori è presentata nella Figura 5. Figura 5 Tipologia degli errori del post-test – gruppo A (studenti di Italianistica) Gli errori sono stati analizzati e classificati nello stesso modo del pre-test: a) errore morfologico (es. *Belgia anziché il Belgio, *belgico anziché belga, *australo anzi- ché australiano, *dannaro anziché danese) b) errore ortografico (es. *il Peru, *Maccedonia, *l’Ungeria) c) errato uso dell’articolo (es. *Brasile, *Giamaica, *Il San Marino) Analizzando le strategie compensative adoperate nel post-test del gruppo A abbiamo riscon- trato alcune occorrenze del transfer dall’inglese con la forestierizzazione, *la Denmarca, *mexi- cano, la Bellorussia, ma anche alcune traduzioni letterali dal croato, *Biancorussia. Inoltre, va notato che i risultati del pre-test e del post-test del gruppo A (italianisti) sono paragonabili ai risultati della ricerca sulle strategie traduttive dei testi brevi dal croato in italiano svolta con 33 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 studenti di Italianistica della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia di Zagabria dello stesso livello di studi (Mardešić & Čupić, 2019). Gli studenti adoperavano le stesse strategie (es. approssima- zione, analogia, coniazione delle parole nuove) anche nella formazione degli esonimi. 5.3 Padronanza degli esonimi in inglese 5.3.1 Pre-test – gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche) Il pre-test per il gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche) prevedeva 7080 risposte possibili in totale per l’intero campione, di cui 5310 che si riferivano alle forme degli esonimi in inglese. Il resto delle risposte possibili si riferiva alle forme degli esonimi croati e perciò non sono state prese in considerazione in questa parte della ricerca. La differenza rispetto al pre-test del gruppo A è dovuta al fatto che la versione per il gruppo B è stata accorciata a trenta unità e per il fatto che per la lingua inglese è stata aggiunta un’altra colonna che riguardava la forma sostantivale del demotico, oltre a quella aggettivale. Nonostante l’istruzione dei ricercatori di applicare le strategie compensative, 331 risposte sono state omesse da parte degli studenti e l’analisi degli errori è stata calcolata solamente per 4979 risposte. Gli errori, in totale 1170, ovvero il 23,5% del totale delle risposte, sono stati classificati nelle seguenti due categorie: d) errore morfologico (es.*Cyprian, *Montenegrian, *Yemenese, l’aggettivo *Spanish anzi- ché il sostantivo Spaniard) e) errore ortografico (es. *Andora, *Philipino, *Chetzh) I risultati dell’analisi degli errori sono presentati nella Figura 6. Figura 6 Tipologia degli errori del post-test – gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche) A giudicare dalla Figura 6 la maggioranza degli errori commessi dagli studenti di Scienze Po- litiche nel post-test è di tipo morfologico. D’altra parte, la bassa percentuale degli errori orto- grafici può sorprendere se si tiene conto della famosa imprevedibilità dell’ortografia inglese. Tuttavia, va notato che le risposte che contenevano sia gli errori morfologici che gli errori 34 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 ortografici sono state assegnate alla categoria degli errori morfologici che riteniamo primari visto che riflettono un uso erroneo anche nella produzione orale, non solo in quella scritta. A differenza dei test destinati agli studenti di Italianistica, per i motivi spiegati nella sezione 2.3, abbiamo tralasciato l’uso dell’articolo dall’analisi. Per quanto riguarda l’analisi qualitativa degli errori morfologici, tra le strategie compensa- tive identificate risulta che gli studenti fanno più spesso ricorso alla coniazione delle forme aggettivali e sostantivali del tutto nuove e non esistenti nel lessico inglese. In realtà, non co- noscendo la forma corretta richiesta, gli studenti tendono ad aggiungere un suffisso esisten- te nel sistema morfologico inglese alla radice che conoscono e di cui dispongono, di solito avendolo estratto dal nome del rispettivo Paese. La desinenza a cui maggiormente fanno ricorso è –(i)an, come in *Andorrian, *Iraqian o *Montenegrian. Questo fenomeno non può es- sere attribuito al transfer dal croato o da un’altra lingua, ma alla consapevolezza che questo suffisso è frequentemente attivato nella derivazione degli aggettivi (cfr. Allegato 2) in inglese e all’erronea intuizione che venga usato per la formazione di quasi tutti i demotici nazionali tanto nella loro forma sostantivale quanto in quella aggettivale. 5.3.2 Post-test – gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche) L’analisi del post-test del gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche) calcolata su 5220 risposte possibili, ha presentato i seguenti risultati: 115 riposte ommesse, e un totale di 1602 errori (tra cui 1264 errori morfologici e 338 quelli ortografici), ovvero il 23% di tutte le riposte. La classificazione della tipologia degli errori è presentata nella Figura 7. Figura 7 Tipologia degli errori del post-test – gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche) Gli errori sono stati analizzati e classificati nello stesso modo del pre-test: a) errore morfologico (es. *Moldavian, *Beninian, *Icelandian, l’aggettivo *Finnish anziché il sostantivo Finn) b) errore ortografico (es. *Costa-Rica, *Iraque) 35 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Nel post-test gli errori ortografici risultano ancora meno numerosi che nel pre-test, addirittu- ra più di quanto suggerisca la percentuale. In realtà, nel pre-test gli studenti hanno commes- so un maggior numero di errori ortografici, ma questi ricorrevano nelle risposte che erano qualificate come sbagliate dal punto di vista morfologico. Quanto agli errori morfologici, anche in questo test si è verificata la tendenza alla coniazione erronea delle forme aggettivali e sostantivali con l’uso dei suffissi inglesi percepiti come più frequenti, ma anche la tendenza di usare la forma aggettivale al posto di quella sostantivale nei casi in cui queste due forme sono diverse. Questo tipo di errore va attribuito alla natura asimmetrica del sistema morfo-semantico all’interno della categoria degli esonimi in inglese. In sostanza, nella lingua inglese esistono pochi casi in cui la forma sostantivale del demotico (es. a Spaniard, a Finn, a Dane, a Filipino/a, ecc.) differisce da quella aggettivale (es. Spanish, Finnish, Danish, Philippine, ecc.), mentre nella grande maggioranza dei casi la forma aggetti- vale e quella sostantivale riferita ai cittadini sono identiche. Visto che la suddetta distinzione nella lingua madre degli studenti si estende a tutti i casi e non solo alcuni, possiamo consta- tare con certezza che il transfer positivo dal croato non è avvenuto, bensì è prevalsa la ten- denza verso l’analogia con il modello morfologico dominante nella lingua target. 5.4 Analisi finale dei risultati Nelle sezioni 5.1 – 5.3 sono stati presentati i risultati dei nostri test sulla padronanza degli esonimi in italiano e in inglese da parte degli studenti a distanza di un mese l’uno dall’altro (DR1). Tuttavia, con lo scopo di sondare lo sfondo linguistico su cui si fonda in buona parte l’acquisizione di questi elementi lessicali e terminologici nelle lingue target, nei pre-test per entrambi i gruppi abbiamo incluso le domande mirate alle forme dei demotici delle nazioni in croato. I risultati sono stati calcolati cumulativamente per entrambi i gruppi. Il numero delle risposte possibili ammontava a 3470. Nell’analisi abbiamo identificato il 7,92% di erro- ri morfologici, ovvero 252 esonimi croati coniati in modo erroneo. Questo numero elevato di errori nella lingua madre implica che i demotici nella loro forma sostantivale hanno una bassa frequenza d’uso in croato. Si può suppore che i partecipanti adoperino le parafrasi, es. stanovnik/državljanin Čilea (it. abitante/cittadino del Cile), invece del sostantivo Čileanac (it. cileno). Questo risultato corrobora ulteriormente l’ipotesi che si tratta di una categoria ter- minologica che viene usata primariamente per scopi specifici. Il risultato del 7,92% di errori morfologici nella formazione dei demotici nella lingua madre dà un’altra luce ai nostri risul- tati. Gli apprendenti d’inglese hanno dimostrato un livello superiore di conoscenze pregres- se rispetto agli apprendenti di italiano. Tuttavia, gli studenti di Italianistica hanno fatto più progressi durante un mese di apprendimento autonomo. Perciò, la risposta alla DR2 che si riferiva a un eventuale effetto della sperimentazione è parzialmente affermativa. Quanto al livello di padronanza degli esonimi nelle due lingue target, i risultati vanno osservati anche sotto il prisma della padronanza degli equivalenti nella lingua madre. Rispetto a quel risulta- to, le conoscenze pregresse in inglese, nonché i progressi ottenuti in italiano possono essere qualificati come soddisfacenti. In realtà, dal punto di vista comunicativo, è lecito supporre che la maggior parte delle forme errate prodotte dagli studenti non comprometterebbero la comprensione e la trasmissione del messaggio come obiettivi principali di ogni atto comuni- cativo. Questa conclusione è complementare alla risposta alla DR1 espressa tramite l’analisi dei risultati dei due test nelle sezioni 5.1 – 5.3. 36 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 In merito alla DR3 sull’importanza della conoscenza degli esonimi per la futura professione, i risultati indicano che entrambi i gruppi la ritengono estremamente o molto importante: il 74% (N=32) dei membri del gruppo A (studenti di Italianistica) e l’89% (N=59) dei membri del gruppo B (studenti di Scienze Politiche). Le percentuali con cui i partecipanti hanno optato per il punto 5 della scala Likert indicano un alto livello di importanza che attribui- scono all’acquisizione di questa categoria terminologica. Riguardo alla DR4 sulle strategie di apprendimento che i partecipanti applicherebbero nello studio degli esonimi, la mag- gior parte delle riposte in entrambi i gruppi ha indicato la memorizzazione delle parole dalla lista in ordine alfabetico. Un numero minore di studenti ha citato l’uso dei materiali autentici, cartacei o i media, e solo una decina l’uso delle risorse digitali, vari quiz e simili. Solo due partecipanti hanno infine proposto la classificazione in base alla derivazione mor- fologica, ovvero ai suffissi. Quindi, si conclude che i partecipanti percepiscono soprattutto le strategie metacognitive, nello specifico quella mnemonica che viene adoperata per la memorizzazione delle forme fornite sulle liste, come adatte per l’acquisizione degli esoni- mi. Queste risposte indicano in modo indiretto il fatto che per agevolare il processo dell’ac- quisizione degli esonimi, sarebbe opportuno elevare la competenza strategica (cfr. Casani, 2021) per l’apprendimento degli esonimi e/o creare appositi materiali di apprendimento che inducano gli apprendenti ad avvalersi delle strategie più efficienti, seppur in modo meno consapevole. Conclusioni Nel mondo odierno caratterizzato da rapporti politici, economici, scientifici e culturali inter- connessi a livello globale, diventa sempre più evidente il fatto che per svolgere le attività professionali negli ambiti delle relazioni internazionali e dell’intermediazione culturale oc- corrono competenze linguistiche elevate, capaci di rendere la comunicazione chiara ed ef- ficiente. I rapporti internazionali di oggi, proprio per la loro indole globale e nello stesso tempo poliedrica, risultano molto complessi, e si prestano pertanto a diverse interpretazioni e diversi approcci. È in queste circostanze che l’impiego della terminologia priva di ambiguità può esercitare effetti benefici e assicurare che il funzionamento degli affari internazionali non venga ostacolato da una comunicazione linguistica non sufficientemente precisa. Abbiamo argomentato lo status degli esonimi – sia i toponimi dei Paesi internazionalmente (semi)riconosciuti che i demotici relativi ai rispettivi cittadini, e con lo scopo di indagare il livello di padronanza di questi termini nonché la percezione della loro importanza per le vite professionali future degli studenti, abbiamo intrapreso una ricerca condotta su due popola- zioni paragonabili ma diverse per quanto riguarda la lingua target: gli studenti di Italianistica e gli studenti di Scienze Politiche che studiano la lingua inglese, tutti dell’Università di Zaga- bria. La scarsità degli studi esistenti dedicati al tema degli esonimi, nonché una lacuna totale che abbiamo riscontrato in merito all’aspetto glottodidattico di questa categoria lessicale e terminologica, ha fatto sì che la nostra ricerca venisse impostata come un sondaggio prelimi- nare limitato all’apprendimento autonomo da parte degli studenti con l’aiuto delle apposite liste degli esonimi che abbiamo creato specificamente per questo scopo. In questo modo si è voluto tastare il terreno per le future ricerche mirate ai metodi di insegnamento e di appren- dimento più articolati. 37 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 I futuri professionisti in Italianistica e in Scienze Politiche hanno ampiamente corroborato la nostra tesi iniziale sull’importanza di questa categoria lessicale e terminologica. D’altro canto, il loro consenso pressappoco unanime non è stato provato nella stessa misura dai risultati ottenuti nei post-test con cui abbiamo verificato il livello dell’acquisizione degli esonimi a distanza di un mese dal pre-test e dalla somministrazione delle liste di esonimi in italiano e in inglese come stimolo all’apprendimento. L’effetto sperimentale che è stato identificato nel caso degli studenti di Italianistica indica che vi possa essere una correlazione tra la consape- volezza di una padronanza relativamente scarsa e l’aumento della motivazione. A nostro avvi- so, questi progressi, seppur superiori a quelli fatti dagli apprendenti di inglese, non sono stati sufficienti per farci constatare che l’apprendimento degli esonimi nella lingua straniera possa fondarsi solamente sulla motivazione intrinseca. D’altra parte, se l’obiettivo è raggiungere la padronanza dell’intera categoria degli esonimi, riteniamo che sia indispensabile imporre una motivazione estrinseca, ad esempio l’inclusione di esercizi sugli esonimi in una verifica soggetta a valutazione. Inoltre, abbiamo identificato le strategie compensative dominanti che impiegano gli studenti nei casi in cui non conoscono la forma di un esonimo: la coniazione delle forme nuove (corret- te o errate) usando la radice estrapolata dal nome del Paese e un suffisso che percepiscono come frequente nel sistema della morfologia derivazionale nella lingua target, e in certi casi il transfer da altre lingue, che nel caso del transfer dalla lingua madre viene accompagnato con la forestierizzazione. Quest’ultimo fenomeno si è verificato maggiormente per l’italiano, il che si può spiegare con il fatto che gli apprendenti d’italiano fuori dall’ambiente italofo- no sono considerevolmente meno esposti a fonti linguistiche nella lingua target rispetto a quelli che nelle stesse circostanze studiano la lingua inglese. Anche se la maggioranza degli studenti ha indicato le strategie metacognitive, per di più quella su cui abbiamo impostato l’apprendimento autonomo nella nostra ricerca, ovvero la memorizzazione delle forme dalla lista, alla luce dei risultati ottenuti, riteniamo che l’insegnamento degli esonimi vada svolto in modo più sistematico, preferibilmente tramite un’istruzione esplicita. Tenendo presente la propensione degli studenti per le strategie metacognitive, per facilitare l’apprendimento andrebbero prese in considerazione altre tecniche di insegnamento includendo anche le at- tività ludiche e quelle di gruppo, come riportato dai partecipanti. Inoltre, tenendo conto che la suffissazione sia il processo fondamentale per la formazione dei demotici, riteniamo che la creazione dei materiali didattici vada basata anche sui criteri formali, ovvero sulla classifica- zione delle forme a seconda dei suffissi. A questo punto è doveroso soffermarsi anche sui limiti della presente ricerca. Per quanto riguarda la lunghezza dei test, riteniamo che andrebbe usato un numero minore di esempi con lo scopo di prevenire un eccessivo numero di omissioni a causa della stanchezza, ovvero di spazi vuoti nelle tabelle da compilare sui questionari. In tal modo queste omissioni potreb- bero essere attribuite agli errori con maggiore sicurezza. Inoltre, crediamo che nelle future ricerche sarebbe opportuno includere un campione eterogeneo anche riguardo alla lingua madre degli studenti. 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Med terminologijo in splošno leksiko: determinologizacija in z njo povezane slovaropisne ter uporabniške dileme. Slovenski jezik – Slovene linguistic studies, 13, 41–60. https://doi.org/10.3986/sjsls.13.1.03 40 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Izvleček Eksonimi kot elementi strokovne terminologije in kot učni izziv V prispevku avtorja obravnavata vprašanje statusa in pomena eksonimov v standardni angleščini in italijanščini. Imena držav in njihovih prebivalcev analizirata kot sestavni del strokovne terminologije za področji mednarodnih odnosov in diplomacije ter drugih strokovnih področij, katerih dejavnosti potekajo na mednarodni ravni ali so neločljivo povezane z medkulturno komunikacijo. Prispevek pred- stavlja tudi rezultate empirične raziskave, opravljene s študenti italijanistike in politologije na ravni B2 sporazumevalne zmožnosti v italijanščini oziroma angleščini na Univerzi v Zagrebu. Raziskava je vklju- čevala preverjanje znanja eksonimov pri študentih v njihovem maternem jeziku (hrvaščini) in v italijan- ščini oziroma angleščini. Drugo preverjanje znanja eksonimov v italijanščini oziroma angleščini je bilo izvedeno po enomesečnem obdobju, ki je bilo namenjeno za samostojno učenje študentov. Avtorja sta želela ugotoviti, kako študentje dojemajo pomen eksonimov kot del svoje prihodnje jezikovne in poklicne kompetence. Rezultati kažejo, da je bilo začetno poznavanje eksonimov v angleškem jeziku bi- stveno boljše kot v italijanskem jeziku, vendar pa so študentje italijanistike skozi proces samostojnega učenja dosegli večji napredek. Kljub temu, da so študentje pridobivanju znanja eksonimov pripisovali velik pomen, rezultati kažejo, da njihova temeljna motivacija ni bila notranja. To nakazuje, da bi mo- ralo biti učenje eksonimov bolj strukturirano in vodeno, dosežki pa vključeni v formalno vrednotenje znanja. Ključne besede: samostojno učenje, eksonimi, angleščina, italijanščina, učne strategije, terminologija 41 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Allegato 1 Lista degli esonimi italiani HRVATSKI HRVATSKI HRVATSKI ITALIANO ITALIANO DRŽAVA STANOVNIK ODNOSNI PRIDJEV STATO NAZIONALE AGGETTIVO / SOSTANTIVO 1 Afganistan Afganistanac afganistanski l’Afg(h)anistan afgano/a o afghano/a 2 Albanija Albanac albanski l’Albania albanese 3 Alžir Alžirac alžirski l’Algeria algerino/a 4 Andora Andorac andorski Andorra andorrano/a 5 Angola Angolac angolski l’Angola angolano/a 6 Antigva i Barbuda stanovnik Antigve i Barbude -// koji se odnosi na Antigvu i Barbudu Antigua e Barbuda antinguo-barbudano/a 7 Argentina Argentinac argentinski l’Argentina argentino/a 8 Armenija Armenac armenski l’Armenia armeno/a 9 Australija Australac australski l’Australia australiano/a 10 Austrija Austrijanac austrijski l’Austria austriaco/a 11 Azerbajdžan Azerbajdžanac azerbajdžanski l’Azerbaigian azero/a o azerbaigiano/a 12 Bahami Bahamac bahamski le Bahamas bahamense 13 Bahrein Bahreinac bahreinski il Bahrein (il Bahrain) bahreinita o bahrainita 14 Bangladeš Bangladešanin bangladeški Il Bangladesh bangladese o bengalese 15 Barbados Barbadošanin barbadoški le Barbados barbadiano/a 16 Belgija Belgijac belgijski il Belgio belga 17 Belize Beližanin beliški il Belize beliziano/a o belisiano/a 18 Benin Beninac beninski Il Benin beninese 19 Bjelokosna Obala Bjelokošćanin bjelokosni la Costa d’Avorio ivoriano/a 20 Bjelorusija Bjelorus bjeloruski la Bielorussia bielorusso/a 21 Bocvana Bocvanac bocvanski il Botswana botswano/a o botswaniano/a 22 Bolivija Bolivijac bolivijski la Bolivia boliviano/a 23 Bosna i Hercegovina -// stanovnik Bosne i Hercegovine bosanskohercegovački la Bosnia ed Erzegovina bosniaco-erzegovese 24 Brazil Brazilac brazilski il Brasile brasiliano/a 25 Brunej Brunejac brunejski il Brunei bruneiano/a 26 Bugarska Bugarin bugarski la Bulgaria bulgaro/a 27 Burkina Faso -// stanovnik Burkine Faso -// koji se odnosi na Burkinu Faso il Burkina Faso burkinabé o burkinese 28 Burundi Burundijac burundski il Burundi burundese 29 Butan Butanac butanski Il B(h)utan b(h)utanese 30 Cipar Cipranin ciparski Cipro cipriota 31 Crna Gora Crnogorac crnogorski il Montenegro montenegrino/a 32 Čad Čađanin čadski il Ciad ciadiano/a 33 Češka Čeh češki la Repubblica Ceca ceco/a 34 Čile Čileanac čileanski il Cile cileno/a 35 Danska Danac danski la Danimarca danese 42 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 HRVATSKI HRVATSKI HRVATSKI ITALIANO ITALIANO DRŽAVA STANOVNIK ODNOSNI PRIDJEV STATO NAZIONALE AGGETTIVO / SOSTANTIVO 36 Demokratska Republika Kongo Kongoanac kongoanski la Repubblica Democratica del Congo congolese 37 Dominika Dominičanin dominički la Dominica dominicense 38 Dominikanska Republika Dominikanac dominikanski la Repubblica Dominicana dominicano/a 39 Džibuti Džibućanin džibutski il Gibuti gibutiano/a 40 Egipat Egipćanin egipatski l’Egitto egiziano/a 41 Ekvador Ekvadorac ekvadorski L’Ecuador ecuadoriano/a 42 Ekvatorska Gvineja -// stanovnik Ekvatorske Gvineje -// koji se odnosi na Ekvatorsku Gvineju la Guinea Equatoriale equatoguineano/a 43 Eritreja Eritrejac eritrejski l’Eritreia eritreo/a 44 Estonija Estonac estonski l’Estonia estone 45 Esvatini (Svazi) Svazijac svazijski l’eSwatini (lo Swaziland) swati 46 Etiopija Etiopljanin etiopski l’Etiopia etiope 47 Fidži Fidžijac fidžijski le Figi figiano/a 48 Filipini Filipinac filipinski le Filippine filippino/a 49 Finska Finac finski la Finlandia finlandese 50 Francuska Francuz francuski la Francia francese 51 Gabon Gabonac gabonski il Gabon gabonese 52 Gambija Gambijac gambijski il Gambia gambiano/a 53 Gana Ganac ganski il Ghana (il Gana) ghanese o ganese 54 Grčka Grk grčki la Grecia greco/a 55 Grenada Grenađanin grenadski Grenada grenadino/a 56 Gruzija Gruzijac gruzijski la Georgia georgiano/a 57 Gvajana Gvajanac gvajanski la Guyana guyanese 58 Gvatemala Gvatemalac gvatemalski il Guatemala guatemalteco/a 59 Gvineja Gvinejac gvinejski la Guinea guineano/a 60 Gvineja Bisau -// stanovnik Gvineje Bisau -// koji se odnosi na Gvineju Bisau la Guinea-Bissau guineense 61 Haiti Haićanin haitski/haićanski Haiti haitiano/a 62 Honduras Hondurašanin honduraški l’Honduras honduregno/a 63 Hrvatska Hrvat hrvatski la Croazia croato/a 64 Indija Indijac indijski l’India indiano/a 65 Indonezija Indonežanin indoneški l’Indonesia indonesiano/a 66 Irak Iračanin irački l’Iraq iracheno/a 67 Iran Iranac iranski l’Iran iraniano/a 68 Irska Irac irski l’Irlanda irlandese 69 Island Islanđanin islandski l’Islanda islandese 70 Istočni Timor -// stanovnik Istočnoga Timora istočnotimorski Timor Est est-timorese 71 Italija Talijan talijanski l’Italia italiano/a 72 Izrael Izraelac izraelski Israele israeliano/a 73 Jamajka Jamajčanin jamajački la Giamaica giamaicano/a 74 Japan Japanac japanski Il Giappone giapponese 75 Jemen Jemenac jemenski lo Yemen yemenita 43 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 HRVATSKI HRVATSKI HRVATSKI ITALIANO ITALIANO DRŽAVA STANOVNIK ODNOSNI PRIDJEV STATO NAZIONALE AGGETTIVO / SOSTANTIVO 76 Jordan Jordanac jordanski la Giordania giordano/a 77 Južna Koreja / Republika Koreja Južnokorejac južnokorejski la Corea del Sud sudcoreano/a 78 Južni Sudan Južnosudanac južnosudanski Il Sudan del Sud (il Sud Sudan o il Sudan Meridionale) sudsudanese 79 Južnoafrička Republika Južnoafrikanac južnoafrički il Sudafrica sudafricano/a 80 Kambodža Kambodžanin kambodžanski la Cambogia cambogiano/a 81 Kamerun Kamerunac kamerunski il Camerun camerunese o camerunense 82 Kanada Kanađanin kanadski il Canada (il Canadà) canadese 83 Katar Katarac/Kataranin katarski il Qatar qatariota (anche qatariano/a o qatarino/a) 84 Kazahstan Kazahstanac kazahstanski il Kazakistan kazako/a (anche cazako/a, casaco/a, kasaco/a), 85 Kenija Kenijac kenijski il Kenya keniota o kenyota 86 Kina Kinez kineski la Cina cinese 87 Kirgistan Kirgistanac kirgistanski Il Kirghizistan kirghiso/a (anche chirghiso/a) 88 Kiribati Kiribaćanin kiribatski le Kiribati gilbertese 89 Kolumbija Kolumbijac kolumbijski la Colombia colombiano/a 90 Komori Komorčanin komorski le Comore comoriano/a 91 Kongo Kongoanac kongoanski il Congo congolese 92 Kosovo Kosovljanin kosovski il Kosovo (il Kossovo; il Cossovo) kosovaro/a (kossovaro/a; cossovaro/a) 93 Kostarika Kostarikanac kostarikanski la Costa Rica (il Costarica) costaricano/a 94 Kuba Kubanac kubanski Cuba cubano/a 95 Kuvajt Kuvajćanin kuvajtski il Kuwait kuwaitiano/a 96 Laos Laošanin laoski il Laos laotiano/a (anche lao) 97 Latvija/Letonija Latvijac/Letonac latvijski/letonski la Lettonia lettone 98 Lesoto Lesoćanin lesotski Il Lesotho lesothiano/a 99 Libanon Libanonac libanonski il Libano libanese 100 Liberija Liberijac liberijski la Liberia liberiano/a 101 Libija Libijac libijski la Libia libico/a 102 Lihtenštajn Lihtenštajnac lihtenštajnski il Liechtenstein liechtensteiniano/a 103 Litva Litvanac litavski la Lituania lituano/a 104 Luksemburg Luksemburžanin luksemburški il Lussemburgo lussemburghese 105 Madagaskar Madagaskarac madagaskarski il Madagascar malgascio/a 106 Mađarska Mađar mađarski l’Ungheria ungherese 107 Malavi Malavijac malavski Il Malawi malawiano/a 108 Maldivi Maldivac maldivski le Maldive maldiviano/a 109 Malezija Malezijac malezijski la Malesia malese 110 Mali Malijac malijski il Mali maliano/a 111 Malta Maltežanin malteški/maltski Malta maltese 44 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 HRVATSKI HRVATSKI HRVATSKI ITALIANO ITALIANO DRŽAVA STANOVNIK ODNOSNI PRIDJEV STATO NAZIONALE AGGETTIVO / SOSTANTIVO 112 Maroko Marokanac marokanski il Marocco marocchino/a 113 Maršalovi Otoci Maršalac maršalski le Isole Marshall marshallese 114 Mauricijus Mauricijac mauricijski Mauritius mauriziano/a 115 Mauritanija Mauritanac mauritanski 116 Meksiko Meksikanac meksički il Messico messicano/a 117 Mikronezija Mikronežanin mikronezijski la Micronesia micronesiano/a 118 Mjanmar Mjanmarac mjanmarski il Myanmar (la Birmania) birmano/a 119 Moldavija Moldavac moldavski la Moldavia moldavo/a 120 Monako Monegažanin monegaški/monački Monaco monegasco/a 121 Mongolija Mongol mongolski la Mongolia mongolo/a 122 Mozambik Mozambičanin mozambički il Mozambico mozambicano/a 123 Namibija Namibijac namibijski la Namibia namibiano/a 124 Nauru Nauranac nauranski Nauru nauruano/a 125 Nepal Nepalac nepalski il Nepal nepalese 126 Niger Nigerac nigerski il Niger nigerino/a 127 Nigerija Nigerijac nigerijski la Nigeria nigeriano/a 128 Nikaragva Nikaragvanac nikaragvanski il Nicaragua nicaraguense 129 Nizozemska Nizozemac nizozemski i Paesi Bassi (l’Olanda) olandese (neerlandese o nederlandese) 130 Norveška Norvežanin norveški la Norvegia norvegese 131 Novi Zeland Novozelanđanin novozelandski la Nuova Zelanda neozelandese 132 Njemačka Nijemac njemački la Germania tedesco/a 133 Oman Omanac omanski l’Oman omanita 134 Pakistan Pakistanac pakistanski il Pakistan (il Pachistan) pakistano/a o pachistano/a 135 Palau Palauanac palauanski Palau palauano/a 136 Palestina Palestinac palestinski la Palestina palestinese 137 Panama Panamac panamski Panama panamense 138 Papuanska Nova Gvineja Papuanac papuanski la Papua Nuova Guinea papuano/a 139 Paragvaj Paragvajac paragvajski il Paraguay (il Paraguai) paraguaiano/a 140 Peru Peruanac peruanski il Perù peruviano/a 141 Poljska Poljak poljski la Polonia polacco/a 142 Portugal Portugalac portugalski il Portogallo portoghese 143 Ruanda Ruanđanin ruandski il Ruanda ruandese 144 Rumunjska Rumunj rumunjski la Romania rumeno/a o romeno/a 145 Rusija Rus ruski la Russia russo/a 146 Salomonovi Otoci Salomonac salomonski le Isole Salomone salomonese 147 Salvador Salvadorac salvadorski El Salvador salvadoregno/a 148 Samoa Samoanac samoanski le Samoa samoano/a 149 San Marino Sanmarinac sanmarinski San Marino sammarinese 150 Saudijska Arabija Saudijac saudijski l’Arabia Saudita saudita 151 Sejšeli Sejšelac sejšelski le Seychelles (le Seicelle) seychellese o seicellese 152 Senegal Senegalac senegalski il Senegal senegalese 45 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 HRVATSKI HRVATSKI HRVATSKI ITALIANO ITALIANO DRŽAVA STANOVNIK ODNOSNI PRIDJEV STATO NAZIONALE AGGETTIVO / SOSTANTIVO 153 Sijera Leone Sijeraleonac sijeraleonski la Sierra Leone sierraleonese 154 Singapur Singapurac singapurski Singapore singaporiano/a 155 Sirija Sirijac sirijski la Siria siriano/a 156 Sjedinjene Američke Države Amerikanac američki gli Stati Uniti d’America statunitense 157 Sjeverna Koreja / Demokratska Republika Koreja Sjevernokorejac sjevernokorejski la Corea del Nord nordcoreano/a 158 Sjeverna Makedonija Makedonac makedonski la Macedonia del Nord macedone 159 Slovačka Slovak slovački la Slovacchia slovacco/a 160 Slovenija Slovenac slovenski la Slovenia sloveno/a 161 Somalija Somalac somalski la Somalia somalo/a 162 Srbija Srbin srpski la Serbia serbo/a 163 Srednjoafrička Republika Srednjoafrikanac srednjoafrički la Repubblica Centrafricana centrafricano/a 164 Sudan Sudanac sudanski il Sudan sudanese 165 Surinam Surinamac surinamski il Suriname surinamese 166 Sveta Lucija -// stanovnik Svete Lucije -// koji se odnosi na Svetu Luciju Saint Lucia (Santa Lucia) santaluciano/a 167 Sveti Kristofor i Nevis -// stanovnik Svetoga Kristofora i Nevisa -// koji se odnosi na Sveti Kristofor i Nevis Saint Kitts e Nevis (San Cristoforo e Nevis) nevisiano/a 168 Sveti Toma i Princ -// stanovnik Svetoga Tome i Princa -// koji se odnosi na Sveti Toma i Princ São Tomé e Príncipe saotomense 169 Sveti Vincent i Grenadini -// stanovnik Svetoga Vincenta i Grenadina -// koji se odnosi na Sveti Vincent i Grenadini Saint Vincent e Grenadine (San Vincenzo e Grenadine) sanvicentino/a 170 Španjolska Španjolac španjolski la Spagna spagnolo/a 171 Šri Lanka Šrilančanin šrilanski lo Sri Lanka srilankese o singalese 172 Švedska Šveđanin švedski la Svezia svedese 173 Švicarska Švicarac švicarski la Svizzera svizzero/a 174 Tadžikistan Tadžikistanac tadžikistanski il Tagikistan tagiko/a (tagico/a o tagicco/a) 175 Tajland Tajlanđanin tajlandski la T(h)ailandia t(h)ailandese 176 Tajvan Tajvanac tajvanski Taiwan taiwanese 177 Tanzanija Tanzanac tanzanski la Tanzania tanzaniano/a 178 Togo Togoanac togoanski il Togo togolese 179 Tonga Tonganac tonganski Tonga tongano/a 180 Trinidad i Tobago -// stanovnik Trinidada i Tobaga -// koji se odnosi na Trinidad i Tobago Trinidad e Tobago trinidadiano/a 181 Tunis Tunišanin tuniški la Tunisia tunisino/a 182 Turkmenistan Turkmenistanac turkmenski il Turkmenistan turkmeno/a o turcomanno/a 183 Turska Turčin turski la Turchia turco/a 184 Tuvalu Tuvaluanac tuvaluanski Tuvalu tuvaluano/a 185 Uganda Uganđanin ugandski l’Uganda ugandese 186 Ujedinjeni Arapski Emirati Emiračanin emiratski gli Emirati Arabi Uniti emiratino/a o emiratense 187 Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo Britanac britanski il Regno Unito britannico/a 46 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 HRVATSKI HRVATSKI HRVATSKI ITALIANO ITALIANO DRŽAVA STANOVNIK ODNOSNI PRIDJEV STATO NAZIONALE AGGETTIVO / SOSTANTIVO 188 Ukrajina Ukrajinac ukrajinski l’Ucraina ucraino/a 189 Urugvaj Urugvajac urugvajski l’Uruguay uruguaiano/a 190 Uzbekistan Uzbekistanac uzbekistanski l’Uzbekistan (l’Uzbechistan) uzbeko/a (uzbeco/a; usbeco/a( 191 Vanuatu Vanuaćanin vanuatski Vanuatu vanuatiano/a 192 Vatikan Vatikanac vatikanski il Vaticano vaticano/a 193 Venezuela Venezuelac venezuelski il Venezuela venezuelano/a 194 Vijetnam Vijetnamac vijetnamski il Vietnam vietnamita 195 Zambija Zambijac zambijski lo Zambia zambiano/a 196 Zapadna Sahara -// stanovnik Zapadne Sahare zapadnosaharski il Sahara Occidentale saharaiano/a occidentale o sah(a) rawi 197 Zelenortski Otoci Zelenorćanin zelenortski Capo Verde capoverdiano/a 198 Zimbabve Zimbabveanac zimbabveanski lo Zimbabwe zimbabwese 47 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 A lle ga to 2 Li st a de gl i e so ni m i i ng le si H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 1 Af ga ni st an Af ga ni st an ac af ga ni st an sk i Af gh an is ta n an A fg ha n Af gh an 2 Al ba ni ja Al ba na c al ba ns ki Al ba ni a an A lb an ia n Al ba ni an 3 Al ži r Al ži ra c al ži rs ki Al ge ri a an A lg er ia n Al ge ri an 4 An do ra An do ra c an do rs ki An do rr a an A nd or ra n An do rr an 5 An go la An go la c an go ls ki An go la an A ng ol an An go la n 6 An tig va i Ba rb ud a st an ov ni k An tig ve i Ba rb ud e -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a An tig vu i B ar bu du An tig ua a nd B ar bu da an A nt ig ua n an d Ba rb ud an (a n An tig ua n; a B ar bu da n) An tig ua n an d Ba rb ud an (A nt ig ua n; B ar bu da n) 7 Ar ge nt in a Ar ge nt in ac ar ge nt in sk i Ar ge nt in a an A rg en tin ia n or a n Ar ge nt in e Ar ge nt in ia n or A rg en tin e 8 Ar m en ija Ar m en ac ar m en sk i Ar m en ia an A rm en ia n Ar m en ia n 9 Au st ra lij a Au st ra la c au st ra ls ki Au st ra lia an A us tr al ia n Au st ra lia n 10 Au st ri ja Au st ri ja na c au st ri js ki Au st ri a an A us tr ia n Au st ri an 11 Az er ba jd ža n Az er ba jd ža na c az er ba jd ža ns ki Az er ba ija n an A ze rb ai ja ni (a n Az er i) Az er ba ija ni (A ze ri ) 12 Ba ha m i Ba ha m ac ba ha m sk i th e Ba ha m as a Ba ha m ia n Ba ha m ia n 13 Ba hr ei n Ba hr ei na c ba hr ei ns ki Ba hr ai n a Ba hr ai ni Ba hr ai ni 14 Ba ng la de š Ba ng la de ša ni n ba ng la de šk i Ba ng la de sh a Ba ng la de sh i Ba ng la de sh i 15 Ba rb ad os Ba rb ad oš an in ba rb ad oš ki Ba rb ad os a Ba rb ad ia n Ba rb ad ia n 16 Be lg ija Be lg ija c be lg ijs ki Be lg iu m a Be lg ia n Be lg ia n 17 Be liz e Be liž an in be liš ki Be liz e a Be liz ea n Be liz ea n 18 Be ni n Be ni na c be ni ns ki Be ni n a Be ni ne se Be ni ne se 19 Bj el ok os na O ba la Bj el ok oš ća ni n bj el ok os ni Iv or y Co as t ( Cô te d ’Iv oi re ) an Iv or ia n Iv or ia n 20 Bj el or us ija Bj el or us bj el or us ki Be la ru s a Be la ru si an Be la ru si an 21 Bo cv an a Bo cv an ac bo cv an sk i Bo ts w an a a Ts w an a (o r a M ot sw an a, s g. > Ba ts w an a, p l.) Bo ts w an an 22 Bo liv ija Bo liv ija c bo liv ijs ki Bo liv ia a Bo liv ia n Bo liv ia n 23 Bo sn a i H er ce go vi na -/ / s ta no vn ik B os ne i H er ce go vi ne bo sa ns ko he rc eg ov ač ki Bo sn ia a nd H er ze go vi na a Bo sn ia n; a H er ze go vi ni an Bo sn ia n; H er ze go vi ni an 24 Br az il Br az ila c br az ils ki Br az il a Br az ili an Br az ili an 48 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 25 Br un ej Br un ej ac br un ej sk i Br un ei (B ru ne i D ar us sa la m ) a Br un ei an Br un ei an 26 Bu ga rs ka Bu ga ri n bu ga rs ki Bu lg ar ia a Bu lg ar ia n Bu lg ar ia n 27 Bu rk in a Fa so -/ / s ta no vn ik B ur ki ne Fa so -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Bu rk in u Fa so Bu rk in a Fa so a Bu rk in ab é Bu rk in ab é 28 Bu ru nd i Bu ru nd ija c bu ru nd sk i Bu ru nd i a Bu ru nd ia n Bu ru nd ia n 29 Bu ta n Bu ta na c bu ta ns ki Bh ut an a Bh ut an es e Bh ut an es e 30 Ci pa r Ci pr an in ci pa rs ki Cy pr us a Cy pr io t Cy pr io t 31 Cr na G or a Cr no go ra c cr no go rs ki M on te ne gr o a M on te ne gr in M on te ne gr in 32 Ča d Ča đa ni n ča ds ki Ch ad a Ch ad ia n Ch ad ia n 33 Če šk a Če h če šk i th e Cz ec h Re pu bl ic (C ze ch ia ) a Cz ec h Cz ec h 34 Či le Či le an ac či le an sk i Ch ile a Ch ile an Ch ile an 35 D an sk a D an ac da ns ki D en m ar k a D an e D an is h 36 D em ok ra ts ka Re pu bl ik a Ko ng o Ko ng oa na c ko ng oa ns ki th e D em oc ra tic R ep ub lic of th e Co ng o a Co ng ol es e Co ng ol es e 37 D om in ik a D om in ič an in do m in ič ki D om in ic a a D om in ic an /ˌ dɒ m ɪˈn iːk ən / D om in ic an /ˌ dɒ m ɪˈn iːk ən / 38 D om in ik an sk a Re pu bl ik a D om in ik an ac do m in ik an sk i th e D om in ic an R ep ub lic a D om in ic an /d əˈ m ɪn ɪk ən /  D om in ic an /d əˈ m ɪn ɪk ən /  39 D ži bu ti D ži bu ća ni n dž ib ut sk i D jib ou ti a D jib ou tia n D jib ou tia n 40 Eg ip at Eg ip ća ni n eg ip at sk i Eg yp t an E gy pt ia n Eg yp tia n 41 Ek va do r Ek va do ra c ek va do rs ki Ec ua do r an E cu ad or ia n Ec ua do ri an 42 Ek va to rs ka G vi ne ja -/ / s ta no vn ik Ek va to rs ke G vi ne je -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Ek va to rs ku G vi ne ju Eq ua to ri al G ui ne a an E qu at or ia l G ui ne an o r an E qu at og ui ne an Eq ua to ri al G ui ne an o r Eq ua to gu in ea n 43 Er itr ej a Er itr ej ac er itr ej sk i Er itr ea an E ri tr ea n Er itr ea n 44 Es to ni ja Es to na c es to ns ki Es to ni a an E st on ia n Es to ni an 45 Es va tin i ( Sv az i) Sv az ija c sv az ijs ki Es w at in i, eS w at in i (fo rm er ly S w az ila nd ) a Sw az i ( a Sw at i) Sw az i; Sw at i 46 Et io pi ja Et io pl ja ni n et io ps ki Et hi op ia an E th io pi an Et hi op ia n 47 Fi dž i Fi dž ija c fid ži js ki Fi ji a Fi jia n Fi jia n 48 Fi lip in i Fi lip in ac fil ip in sk i th e Ph ili pp in es a Fi lip in o (m ); a Fi lip in a (f) Ph ili pp in e 49 Fi ns ka Fi na c fin sk i Fi nl an d a Fi nn Fi nn is h 49 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 50 Fr an cu sk a Fr an cu z fr an cu sk i Fr an ce a Fr en ch m an (m ); a Fr en ch w om an (f ) Fr en ch 51 G ab on G ab on ac ga bo ns ki G ab on a G ab on es e G ab on es e 52 G am bi ja G am bi ja c ga m bi js ki th e G am bi a a G am bi an G am bi an 53 G an a G an ac ga ns ki G ha na a G ha na ia n G ha na ia n 54 G rč ka G rk gr čk i G re ec e a G re ek G re ek 55 G re na da G re na đa ni n gr en ad sk i G re na da a G re na di an G re na di an 56 G ru zi ja G ru zi ja c gr uz ijs ki G eo rg ia a G eo rg ia n G eo rg ia n 57 G va ja na G va ja na c gv aj an sk i G uy an a a G uy an es e G uy an es e 58 G va te m al a G va te m al ac gv at em al sk i G ua te m al a a G ua te m al an G ua te m al an 59 G vi ne ja G vi ne ja c gv in ej sk i G ui ne a a G ui ne an G ui ne an 60 G vi ne ja B is au -/ / s ta no vn ik G vi ne je Bi sa u -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a G vi ne ju Bi sa u G ui ne a- Bi ss au a Bi ss au -G ui ne an (a G ui ne a- Bi ss au an ) Bi ss au -G ui ne an (G ui ne a- Bi ss au an ) 61 H ai ti H ai ća ni n ha its ki /h ai ća ns ki H ai ti a H ai tia n H ai tia n 62 H on du ra s H on du ra ša ni n ho nd ur aš ki H on du ra s a H on du ra n H on du ra n 63 H rv at sk a H rv at hr va ts ki Cr oa tia a Cr oa tia n, a C ro at Cr oa tia n, C ro at 64 In di ja In di ja c in di js ki In di a an In di an In di an 65 In do ne zi ja In do ne ža ni n in do ne šk i In do ne si a an In do ne si an In do ne si an 66 Ir ak Ir ač an in ir ač ki Ir aq an Ir aq i Ir aq i 67 Ir an Ir an ac ir an sk i Ir an an Ir an ia n Ir an ia n 68 Ir sk a Ir ac ir sk i Ir el an d an Ir is hm an (m ); an Ir is hw om an (f ) Ir is h 69 Is la nd Is la nđ an in is la nd sk i Ic el an d an Ic el an de r Ic el an di c 70 Is to čn i T im or -/ / s ta no vn ik Is to čn og a Ti m or a is to čn ot im or sk i Ea st T im or (T im or -L es te ) an E as t T im or es e (a T im or es e) Ea st T im or es e (T im or es e) 71 Ita lij a Ta lij an ta lij an sk i Ita ly an It al ia n Ita lia n 72 Iz ra el Iz ra el ac iz ra el sk i Is ra el an Is ra el i Is ra el i 73 Ja m aj ka Ja m aj ča ni n ja m aj ač ki Ja m ai ca a Ja m ai ca n Ja m ai ca n 74 Ja pa n Ja pa na c ja pa ns ki Ja pa n a Ja pa ne se Ja pa ne se 75 Je m en Je m en ac je m en sk i Ye m en a Ye m en i Ye m en i 76 Jo rd an Jo rd an ac jo rd an sk i Jo rd an a Jo rd an ia n Jo rd an ia n 50 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 77 Ju žn a Ko re ja / Re pu bl ik a Ko re ja Ju žn ok or ej ac ju žn ok or ej sk i So ut h Ko re a (th e Re pu bl ic o f K or ea ) a So ut h Ko re an (K or ea n) So ut h Ko re an (K or ea n) 78 Ju žn i S ud an Ju žn os ud an ac ju žn os ud an sk i So ut h Su da n a So ut h Su da ne se So ut h Su da ne se 79 Ju žn oa fr ič ka Re pu bl ik a Ju žn oa fr ik an ac ju žn oa fr ič ki So ut h Af ri ca a So ut h Af ri ca n So ut h Af ri ca n 80 Ka m bo dž a Ka m bo dž an in ka m bo dž an sk i Ca m bo di a a Ca m bo di an Ca m bo di an 81 Ka m er un Ka m er un ac ka m er un sk i Ca m er oo n a Ca m er oo ni an Ca m er oo ni an 82 Ka na da Ka na đa ni n ka na ds ki Ca na da a Ca na di an Ca na di an 83 Ka ta r Ka ta ra c/ Ka ta ra ni n ka ta rs ki Q at ar a Q at ar i Q at ar i 84 Ka za hs ta n Ka za hs ta na c ka za hs ta ns ki Ka za kh st an a Ka za kh (a K az ak hs ta ni ) Ka za kh (K az ak hs ta ni ) 85 Ke ni ja Ke ni ja c ke ni js ki Ke ny a a Ke ny an Ke ny an 86 Ki na Ki ne z ki ne sk i Ch in a a Ch in es e Ch in es e 87 Ki rg is ta n Ki rg is ta na c ki rg is ta ns ki Ky rg yz st an a Ky rg yz Ky rg yz 88 Ki ri ba ti Ki ri ba ća ni n ki ri ba ts ki Ki ri ba ti An I- Ki ri ba ti Ki ri ba ti 89 Ko lu m bi ja Ko lu m bi ja c ko lu m bi js ki Co lo m bi a a Co lo m bi an Co lo m bi an 90 Ko m or i Ko m or ča ni n ko m or sk i th e Co m or os a Co m or ia n Co m or ia n 91 Ko ng o Ko ng oa na c ko ng oa ns ki th e Co ng o (th e Re pu bl ic of ) a Co ng ol es e Co ng ol es e 92 Ko so vo Ko so vl ja ni n ko so vs ki Ko so vo a Ko so va r; a Ko so va n Ko so va r; Ko so va n 93 Ko st ar ik a Ko st ar ik an ac ko st ar ik an sk i Co st a Ri ca a Co st a Ri ca n Co st a Ri ca n 94 Ku ba Ku ba na c ku ba ns ki Cu ba a Cu ba n Cu ba n 95 Ku va jt Ku va jć an in ku va jts ki Ku w ai t a Ku w ai ti Ku w ai ti 96 La os La oš an in la os ki La os (t he L ao P eo pl e’ s D em oc ra tic R ep ub lic ) a La ot ia n; a L ao La ot ia n; L ao 97 La tv ija /L et on ija La tv ija c/ Le to na c la tv ijs ki /le to ns ki La tv ia a La tv ia n La tv ia n 98 Le so to Le so ća ni n le so ts ki Le so th o a So th o (a M os ot ho , s g. > Ba so th o, p l.) So th o, B as ot ho 99 Li ba no n Li ba no na c lib an on sk i Le ba no n a Le ba ne se Le ba ne se 10 0 Li be ri ja Li be ri ja c lib er ijs ki Li be ri a a Li be ri an Li be ri an 10 1 Li bi ja Li bi ja c lib ijs ki Li by a a Li by an Li by an 10 2 Li ht en št aj n Li ht en št aj na c lih te nš ta jn sk i Li ec ht en st ei n a Li ec ht en st ei ne r Li ec ht en st ei n 51 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 10 3 Li tv a Li tv an ac lit av sk i Li th ua ni a a Li th ua ni an Li th ua ni an 10 4 Lu ks em bu rg Lu ks em bu rž an in lu ks em bu rš ki Lu xe m bo ur g a Lu xe m bo ur ge r Lu xe m bo ur g 10 5 M ad ag as ka r M ad ag as ka ra c m ad ag as ka rs ki M ad ag as ca r a M al ag as y M al ag as y (M ad ag as ca n) 10 6 M ađ ar sk a M ađ ar m ađ ar sk i H un ga ry a H un ga ri an H un ga ri an 10 7 M al av i M al av ija c m al av sk i M al aw i a M al aw ia n M al aw ia n 10 8 M al di vi M al di va c m al di vs ki (th e) M al di ve s a M al di vi an M al di vi an 10 9 M al ez ija M al ez ija c m al ez ijs ki M al ay si a a M al ay si an M al ay si an 11 0 M al i M al ija c m al ijs ki M al i a M al ia n M al ia n 11 1 M al ta M al te ža ni n m al te šk i/m al ts ki M al ta a M al te se M al te se 11 2 M ar ok o M ar ok an ac m ar ok an sk i M or oc co a M or oc ca n M or oc ca n 11 3 M ar ša lo vi O to ci M ar ša la c m ar ša ls ki th e M ar sh al l I sl an ds A M ar sh al le se M ar sh al le se 11 4 M au ri ci ju s M au ri ci ja c m au ri ci js ki M au ri tiu s a M au ri tia n M au ri tia n 11 5 M au ri ta ni ja M au ri ta na c m au ri ta ns ki M au ri ta ni a a M au ri ta ni an M au ri ta ni an 11 6 M ek si ko M ek si ka na c m ek si čk i M ex ic o a M ex ic an M ex ic an 11 7 M ik ro ne zi ja M ik ro ne ža ni n m ik ro ne zi js ki M ic ro ne si a (th e Fe de ra te d St at es o f) a M ic ro ne si an M ic ro ne si an 11 8 M ja nm ar M ja nm ar ac m ja nm ar sk i M ya nm ar (f or m er ly Bu rm a) a Bu rm es e a M ya nm a Bu rm es e M ya nm a( r) 11 9 M ol da vi ja M ol da va c m ol da vs ki M ol do va a M ol do va n M ol do va n 12 0 M on ak o M on eg až an in m on eg aš ki /m on ač ki M on ac o a M on ég as qu e a M on ac an M on ég as qu e M on ac an 12 1 M on go lij a M on go l m on go ls ki M on go lia a M on go lia n M on go lia n 12 2 M oz am bi k M oz am bi ča ni n m oz am bi čk i M oz am bi qu e a M oz am bi ca n M oz am bi ca n 12 3 N am ib ija N am ib ija c na m ib ijs ki N am ib ia a N am ib ia n N am ib ia n 12 4 N au ru N au ra na c na ur an sk i N au ru a N au ru an N au ru an 12 5 N ep al N ep al ac ne pa ls ki N ep al a N ep al i; a N ep al es e N ep al i; N ep al es e 12 6 N ig er N ig er ac ni ge rs ki N ig er /n iːˈ ʒe ər / B .E . /ˈn aɪ .d ʒɚ / A .E . a N ig er ie n  /n iːˈ ʒe ə. ri .ə n/ B .E . /ˈn aɪ .d ʒe r. i.ə n/ A .E . N ig er ie n  /n iːˈ ʒe ə. ri .ə n/ B .E . /ˈn aɪ .d ʒe r. i.ə n/ A .E . 12 7 N ig er ija N ig er ija c ni ge ri js ki N ig er ia /n aɪ ˈd ʒɪ ə. ri .ə / B .E . /n aɪ ˈd ʒɪ r. i.ə / A .E . a N ig er ia n /n aɪ ˈd ʒɪ ə. ri .ə n/ B .E . /n aɪ ˈd ʒɪ r. i.ə n/ A .E . N ig er ia n /n aɪ ˈd ʒɪ ə. ri .ə n/ B .E . /n aɪ ˈd ʒɪ r. i.ə n/ A .E . 12 8 N ik ar ag va N ik ar ag va na c ni ka ra gv an sk i N ic ar ag ua a N ic ar ag ua n N ic ar ag ua n 52 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 12 9 N iz oz em sk a N iz oz em ac ni zo ze m sk i th e N et he rl an ds a D ut ch m an (m ); a D ut ch w om an (f ); or a N et he rl an de r D ut ch 13 0 N or ve šk a N or ve ža ni n no rv eš ki N or w ay a N or w eg ia n N or w eg ia n 13 1 N ov i Z el an d N ov oz el an đa ni n no vo ze la nd sk i N ew Z ea la nd a N ew Z ea la nd er N ew Z ea la nd (u se d at tr ib ut iv el y on ly ) 13 2 N je m ač ka N ije m ac nj em ač ki G er m an y a G er m an G er m an 13 3 O m an O m an ac om an sk i O m an an O m an i O m an i 13 4 Pa ki st an Pa ki st an ac pa ki st an sk i Pa ki st an a Pa ki st an i Pa ki st an i 13 5 Pa la u Pa la ua na c pa la ua ns ki Pa la u a Pa la ua n Pa la ua n 13 6 Pa le st in a Pa le st in ac pa le st in sk i Pa le st in e (th e St at e of Pa le st in e) a Pa le st in ia n Pa le st in ia n 13 7 Pa na m a Pa na m ac pa na m sk i Pa na m a a Pa na m an ia n Pa na m an ia n 13 8 Pa pu an sk a N ov a G vi ne ja Pa pu an ac pa pu an sk i Pa pu a N ew G ui ne a a Pa pu a N ew G ui ne an a Pa pu an Pa pu a N ew G ui ne an Pa pu an 13 9 Pa ra gv aj Pa ra gv aj ac pa ra gv aj sk i Pa ra gu ay a Pa ra gu ay an Pa ra gu ay an 14 0 Pe ru Pe ru an ac pe ru an sk i Pe ru a Pe ru vi an Pe ru vi an 14 1 Po ljs ka Po lja k po ljs ki Po la nd a Po le Po lis h 14 2 Po rt ug al Po rt ug al ac po rt ug al sk i Po rt ug al a Po rt ug ue se Po rt ug ue se 14 3 Ru an da Ru an đa ni n ru an ds ki Rw an da a Rw an da n (a R w an de se ) Rw an da n, R w an de se 14 4 Ru m un js ka Ru m un j ru m un js ki Ro m an ia a Ro m an ia n Ro m an ia n 14 5 Ru si ja Ru s ru sk i Ru ss ia (t he R us si an Fe de ra tio n) a Ru ss ia n Ru ss ia n 14 6 Sa lo m on ov i O to ci Sa lo m on ac sa lo m on sk i (th e) S ol om on Is la nd s a So lo m on Is la nd er -/ / ( So lo m on Is la nd , u se d at tr ib ut iv el y on ly ) 14 7 Sa lv ad or Sa lv ad or ac sa lv ad or sk i El S al va do r a Sa lv ad or an (a ls o ac ce pt ed a Sa lv ad or ea n/ Sa lv ad or ea n) Sa lv ad or an (a ls o ac ce pt ed Sa lv ad or ea n/ Sa lv ad or ea n) 14 8 Sa m oa Sa m oa na c sa m oa ns ki Sa m oa a Sa m oa n Sa m oa n 14 9 Sa n M ar in o Sa nm ar in ac sa nm ar in sk i Sa n M ar in o a Sa m m ar in es e Sa m m ar in es e 15 0 Sa ud ijs ka A ra bi ja Sa ud ija c sa ud ijs ki Sa ud i A ra bi a a Sa ud i ( a Sa ud i A ra bi an ) Sa ud i ( Sa ud i A ra bi an ) 15 1 Se jš el i Se jš el ac se jš el sk i th e Se yc he lle s a Se yc he llo is (e ) Se yc he llo is 15 2 Se ne ga l Se ne ga la c se ne ga ls ki Se ne ga l a Se ne ga le se Se ne ga le se 15 3 Si je ra L eo ne Si je ra le on ac si je ra le on sk i Si er ra L eo ne a Si er ra L eo ne an Si er ra L eo ne an 15 4 Si ng ap ur Si ng ap ur ac si ng ap ur sk i Si ng ap or e a Si ng ap or ea n Si ng ap or ea n 53 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 15 5 Si ri ja Si ri ja c si ri js ki Sy ri a (th e Sy ri an A ra b Re pu bl ic ) a Sy ri an Sy ri an 15 6 Sj ed in je ne A m er ič ke D rž av e Am er ik an ac am er ič ki th e U ni te d St at es o f Am er ic a (th e U ni te d St at es ) an A m er ic an a U S ci tiz en Am er ic an (U S, u se d at tr ib ut iv el y on ly ) 15 7 Sj ev er na K or ej a / D em ok ra ts ka Re pu bl ik a Ko re ja Sj ev er no ko re ja c sj ev er no ko re js ki N or th K or ea (t he D em oc ra tic P eo pl e’ s Re pu bl ic o f K or ea ) a N or th K or ea n (K or ea n) N or th K or ea n (K or ea n) 15 8 Sj ev er na M ak ed on ija M ak ed on ac m ak ed on sk i N or th M ac ed on ia a M ac ed on ia n M ac ed on ia n 15 9 Sl ov ač ka Sl ov ak sl ov ač ki Sl ov ak ia a Sl ov ak Sl ov ak 16 0 Sl ov en ija Sl ov en ac sl ov en sk i Sl ov en ia a Sl ov en e a Sl ov en ia n Sl ov en e Sl ov en ia n 16 1 So m al ija So m al ac so m al sk i So m al ia a So m al i So m al i 16 2 Sr bi ja Sr bi n sr ps ki Se rb ia a Se rb ia n a Se rb Se rb ia n Se rb 16 3 Sr ed nj oa fr ič ka Re pu bl ik a Sr ed nj oa fr ik an ac sr ed nj oa fr ič ki th e Ce nt ra l A fr ic an Re pu bl ic a Ce nt ra l A fr ic an Ce nt ra l A fr ic an 16 4 Su da n Su da na c su da ns ki (th e) S ud an a Su da ne se Su da ne se 16 5 Su ri na m Su ri na m ac su ri na m sk i Su ri na m e a Su ri na m es e Su ri na m es e 16 6 Sv et a Lu ci ja -/ / s ta no vn ik S ve te Lu ci je -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Sv et u Lu ci ju Sa in t L uc ia a Sa in t L uc ia n a Sa in t L uc ia n 16 7 Sv et i K ri st of or i N ev is -/ / s ta no vn ik S ve to ga Kr is to fo ra i N ev is a -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Sv et i Kr is to fo r i N ev is Sa in t K itt s an d N ev is (S ai nt C hr is to ph er a nd N ev is ) a Ki tt ia n a N ev is ia n Ki tt ia n N ev is ia n 16 8 Sv et i T om a i P ri nc -/ / s ta no vn ik S ve to ga To m e i P ri nc a -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Sv et i To m a i P ri nc Sã o To m é an d Pr ín ci pe a Sã o To m éa n (a S ao T om ea n or a Sa nt om ea n) Sã o To m éa n (S ao T om ea n or Sa nt om ea n) 16 9 Sv et i V in ce nt i G re na di ni -/ / s ta no vn ik S ve to ga Vi nc en ta i G re na di na -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Sv et i Vi nc en t i G re na di ni Sa in t V in ce nt a nd th e G re na di ne s a Vi nc en tia n (a nd G re na di ni an ) Vi nc en tia n (a nd G re na di ni an ) 17 0 Šp an jo ls ka Šp an jo la c šp an jo ls ki Sp ai n a Sp an ia rd Sp an is h 17 1 Šr i L an ka Šr ila nč an in šr ila ns ki Sr i L an ka a Sr i L an ka n Sr i L an ka n 17 2 Šv ed sk a Šv eđ an in šv ed sk i Sw ed en a Sw ed e Sw ed is h 17 3 Šv ic ar sk a Šv ic ar ac šv ic ar sk i Sw itz er la nd a Sw is s Sw is s 17 4 Ta dž ik is ta n Ta dž ik is ta na c ta dž ik is ta ns ki Ta jik is ta n a Ta jik is ta ni a Ta jik Ta jik is ta ni Ta jik 17 5 Ta jla nd Ta jla nđ an in ta jla nd sk i Th ai la nd a Th ai Th ai 54 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I H RV AT SK I EN G LI SH EN G LI SH EN G LI SH D RŽ AV A ST AN O VN IK O D N O SN I P RI D JE V N AT IO N -S TA TE N O U N AD JE CT IV E 17 6 Ta jv an Ta jv an ac ta jv an sk i Ta iw an a Ta iw an es e Ta iw an es e 17 7 Ta nz an ija Ta nz an ac ta nz an sk i Ta nz an ia a Ta nz an ia n Ta nz an ia n 17 8 To go To go an ac to go an sk i To go a To go le se To go le se 17 9 To ng a To ng an ac to ng an sk i To ng a a To ng an To ng an 18 0 Tr in id ad i To ba go -/ / s ta no vn ik T ri ni da da i T ob ag a -/ / k oj i s e od no si n a Tr in id ad i T ob ag o Tr in id ad a nd T ob ag o a Tr in id ad ia n an d To ba go ni an Tr in id ad ia n an d To ba go ni an 18 1 Tu ni s Tu ni ša ni n tu ni šk i Tu ni si a a Tu ni si an Tu ni si an 18 2 Tu rk m en is ta n Tu rk m en is ta na c tu rk m en sk i Tu rk m en is ta n a Tu rk m en Tu rk m en (T ur km en is ta ni , Tu rk m en ia n) 18 3 Tu rs ka Tu rč in tu rs ki Tu rk ey a Tu rk Tu rk is h 18 4 Tu va lu Tu va lu an ac tu va lu an sk i Tu va lu a Tu va lu an Tu va lu an 18 5 U ga nd a U ga nđ an in ug an ds ki U ga nd a a U ga nd an U ga nd an 18 6 U je di nj en i A ra ps ki Em ir at i Em ir ać an in em ir at sk i th e U ni te d Ar ab E m ir at es an E m ir at i Em ir at i (U AE , u se d at tr ib ut iv el y on ly ) 18 7 U je di nj en o Kr al je vs tv o Br ita na c br ita ns ki Th e U ni te d Ki ng do m (o f G re at B ri ta in a nd N or th er n Ir el an d) a Br ito n Br iti sh (U K, u se d at tr ib ut iv el y on ly ) 18 8 U kr aj in a U kr aj in ac uk ra jin sk i U kr ai ne a U kr ai ni an U kr ai ni an 18 9 U ru gv aj U ru gv aj ac ur ug va js ki U ru gu ay a U ru gu ay an U ru gu ay an 19 0 U zb ek is ta n U zb ek is ta na c uz be ki st an sk i U zb ek is ta n an U zb ek ; a n U zb ek is ta ni U zb ek ; U zb ek is ta ni 19 1 Va nu at u Va nu ać an in va nu at sk i Va nu at u a Va nu at ua n; a N i-V an ua tu Va nu at ua n, N i-V an ua tu 19 2 Va tik an Va tik an ac va tik an sk i Th e H ol y Se e / t he V at ic an Ci ty S ta te a Va tic an ia n, a V at ic an o (u no ffi ci al ly ) Va tic an ia n Pa pa l, Po nt ifi ca l 19 3 Ve ne zu el a Ve ne zu el ac ve ne zu el sk i Ve ne zu el a a Ve ne zu el an Ve ne zu el an 19 4 Vi je tn am Vi je tn am ac vi je tn am sk i Vi et na m (o r V ie t N am ) a Vi et na m es e Vi et na m es e 19 5 Za m bi ja Za m bi ja c za m bi js ki Za m bi a a Za m bi an Za m bi an 19 6 Za pa dn a Sa ha ra -/ / s ta no vn ik Z ap ad ne Sa ha re za pa dn os ah ar sk i W es te rn S ah ar a a W es te rn S ah ar an ; a Sa hr aw i; a Sa ha ra w i W es te rn S ah ar an ; S ah ra w i; Sa ha ra w i 19 7 Ze le no rt sk i O to ci Ze le no rć an in ze le no rt sk i Ca pe V er de (o r C ab o Ve rd e) a Ca pe V er de an a Ca bo V er de an Ca pe V er de an ; Ca bo V er de an 19 8 Zi m ba bv e Zi m ba bv ea na c zi m ba bv ea ns ki Zi m ba bw e a Zi m ba bw ea n Zi m ba bw ea n 55 Bjelobaba, Mardešić / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 19–55 Allegato 3 Esempio della struttura del questionario Br. Naziv države na hrvatskom Naziv stanovnika na hrvatskom Naziv države na talijanskom Naziv stanovnika na talijanskom Komentar Hrvatska Hrvat La Croazia croato 1. Andora 2. Argentina 3. Austrija Br. Naziv države na hrvatskom Naziv stanovnika na hrvatskom Odnosni pridjev Naziv države na engleskom Naziv stanovnika na engleskom Odnosni pridjev Engleska Englez engleski England Englishman; Englishwoman English Hrvatska Hrvat hrvatski Croatia Croat/Croatian Croat/ Croatian 1. Andora 2. Argentina 3. Austrija 56 Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024) Teaching Report DOI: 10.4312/SM.19.2.56-68 Paper received: 06.02.2024 Paper revised: 25.03.2024 Paper accepted: 01.04.2024 Paper published: 24.12.2024 Marijana Birtić Vučić Centre for Foreign Languages, University of Zadar, Croatia Anamarija Štulina Centre for Foreign Languages, University of Zadar, Croatia THE TASK AS THE CENTRAL UNIT OF PLANNING AND INSTRUCTION IN THE EAP SYLLABUS DESIGN Abstract Informed by the knowledge, practical experience and challenges encountered during designing syllabi for English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 1 and 2 courses, this teaching report outlines the design of the syllabi for the continuing EAP 3 and EAP 4 courses. Targeted at second-year undergraduate students in the Humanities and Social Sciences programmes at the University of Zadar, Croatia, these courses ne- cessitate tailored approaches to language instruction that address students’ specific academic needs. The needs-based approach to the design process aimed to facilitate students’ overall communicative competence, address their reluctance towards oral participation, and foster proficiency in academic language skills relevant to their disciplines. To achieve these objectives, the syllabi integrate the princi- ples of task-based language teaching (TBLT), specifically utilizing tasks as the central unit for planning and instruction. Task selection and design emphasized real-world academic scenarios, ensuring the chosen tasks reflect authentic language use that students will encounter in their studies. By incorpo- rating TBLT principles, this report offers a framework for enhancing language learning in EAP courses. This framework promotes authentic language use and ultimately supports students’ academic success within their chosen fields. Pedagogical implications include the utilization of TBLT principles to tailor language instruction for EAP courses, focusing on academic scenarios to enhance students’ commu- nicative competence and academic language proficiency. Keywords: task, task-based language teaching (TBLT), English for Academic Purposes (EAP), syllabus design 57 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 1 Introduction In this teaching report, we reflect on our undertaking the syllabus design for the two courses, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 3 and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 4, intended for our second-year undergraduate Humanities and Social Sciences students at the Univer- sity of Zadar, Croatia. We address the employment of a task as the central unit of planning and instruction in our syllabus design, and provide a rationale for our choice of tasks as well as the structuring and implementation of a task in our pedagogy. However, it is first neces- sary to provide the background and the rationale for us once again embarking on a syllabus design journey. In our article Challenges in syllabus design for ESP courses I / II (for students of Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of Zadar) (Birtić Vučić & Štulina, 2020), we addressed the chal- lenges in designing the syllabi and demonstrated how the perceived challenges concern- ing the needs analysis process, the inadequacy of commercial textbooks, mixed-disciplines groups, mixed-ability groups, and the (de)motivation of students were tackled to satisfy our student’s language and learning needs, and have thus provided the rationale for placing writ- ing skills at the centre stage (Birtić Vučić & Štulina, 2020). Three years post-implementation, positive feedback from students, garnered through informal end-of-term questionnaires and classroom discussions, attests to the efficacy of the ESP 1 and 2 syllabi. Yet, the support- ing materials remain the subject of ongoing accommodation to the changing needs of our students. Furthermore, the theoretical and experiential knowledge gained throughout the syllabus design process has significantly influenced our pedagogical approaches and has motivated our commitment to undertaking the design of syllabi and accompanying materials for our second-year undergraduate English courses. Our decision has been further impacted by the substantial managerial changes in our workplace, at the Centre for Foreign Languages, which resulted in the 2021 Reform. In brief, the Reform distinguished language programs into two Modules, the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Module, and the Foreign Languages (FL) Module (for languages other than English). The new management rebranded the ESP courses for Humanities and Social Sciences (ESP) 1, 2, 3, and 4 into English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 1, 2, 3, and 4, placing our courses under the English for Specific Purposes Module. However, this, for what seems a minor cosmetic change, not only alleviated previous chal- lenges (particularly regarding mixed disciplines and mixed-ability groups) but also enabled a justification of a more general approach to English for General Academic Purposes instruc- tion (EGAP). It also enabled us to target our instruction to study skills and focus on the de- velopment of academic English such as addressing formal language features, cultivating aca- demic writing conventions (paraphrasing, use of citations, and referencing), and developing academic reading strategies (Birtić Vučić & Štulina, 2020). The new syllabus design round (EAP 3 and 4) is built upon our approach to the needs anal- ysis process of our previous EAP 1 and EAP 2 courses (Birtić Vučić & Štulina, 2020), which followed the same principles of a wide–angle approach to the needs analysis process (Bas- turkmen, 2010), and “linguistic, academic, and acculturation needs of our students” (Stoller, 2001, p. 209). This needs-based approach suggested the need for developing reading and 58 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 writing skills as the most relevant skills for our students in the initial EAP courses. However, unlike in EAP 1 and EAP 2, which could be characterised as mostly writing courses, in EAP 3 and EAP 4, we focused on facilitating our students’ communicative competence, and attend to their reluctance to perform English orally in classroom activities by integrating listening and speaking skills, the insufficiently attended skills in 1 and 2 courses. The EAP 3 and EAP 4 courses cater to second-year undergraduate students pursuing their ma- jors in Humanities and Social Sciences, encompassing disciplines such as History, Geography, Information Science, and Archaeology. Each academic year, approximately twenty students participate in EAP 3 and EAP 4. All of them take EAP 1 and EAP 2 courses as required, and for most, except for Geography students, EAP 3 and EAP 4 are still mandatory. In the context of our foreign-language classroom, we aimed to replicate academic scenarios in which our stu- dents would likely engage during their studies, and which would necessitate the employment of academic English for communicative purposes, such as delivering presentations, sharing ideas, and/or discussing arguments. Reasons provided, we have recognized the task, the central unit of the task-based teaching approach, as a concept that we could explore and build our syllabi and materials around. The tasks as pedagogical tools could provide the framework within which our students would be able to rely on their existing language knowledge, and develop fluency and confidence, but also to expand and build on the existing knowledge during the process of task completion (Ellis, 2013). Therefore, the aim of this report is twofold: first, to provide the rationale behind the adoption of the task as a backdrop for our EAP syllabi design and a good fit for our circumstances and context; and second, to highlight our selection of tasks, the design of tasks, and their imple- mentation into our teaching practice. We now turn to briefly describing the task-based language teaching approach (TBLT) and delineating the task as its central concept and as the central unit of planning and instruction in our context of teaching. 2 Task-based language teaching approach  Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is an approach to second/foreign language teaching which has gained significant prominence in the realm of language education owing to its emphasis on authentic language use, facilitation of communication skills, and promotion of learner engagement (Ellis, 2003a, 2003b, 2009, 2013; Ellis & Shintani, 2013; Ellis et al., 2019; Skehan, 2003; Van den Branden, 2006; Willis, 1996). It is often contrasted with tra- ditional methods such as grammar translation, the audiolingual method, or present-prac- tice-produce (Ellis & Shintani, 2013). Having originated from the research on communica- tive language teaching (CLT) and Second Language Acquisition (SLA), it has initially served as a source of inspiration for language educators who opted for the effective integration of CLT into their practices as the focus has been shifted from the language structure to the expression of meaning (Skehan, 2003). Over time, TBLT has evolved into a comprehensive framework for guiding methodology, assessment, and syllabus design (Ellis et al., 2019). Through the years, numerous conceptualizations of TBLT approaches have shown their 59 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 differences (Ellis, 2003a; Long, 1991; Richards & Rogers, 2010; Skehan, 1996), but have underscored its relevance as a pedagogical model to develop the type of knowledge which enables learners to participate easily and naturally in communicative interactions. TBLT is thus primarily motivated by a theory of learning rather than a theory of language (Richards & Rogers, 2010). As students engage in completing the tasks, they improve their language and enhance their skills driven by the motivation to utilize and expand their linguistic ca- pabilities (Ellis, 2003a; Richards & Rogers, 2010). In that respect, language is conceived as a tool for communicating and not as an object to be studied. In contrast, learning occurs when learners invest in understanding and expressing themselves to achieve a commu- nicative goal, which also resonates with the SLA’s theoretical underpinnings of language learning (Ellis & Shintani, 2013). However, some authors have been quite critical of TBLT, especially for its developing fluency over accuracy (Skehan, 1996), the absence of a clear definition of a task altogether (Widowson, 2003 as cited in Ellis et al., 2009), and the very enactment of TBLT (East, 2017).1 Nevertheless, according to Ellis (2009), there is no singular method for implementing TBLT, which is the main reason we find it suitable for EAP teaching in general, and for our context of EAP teaching in particular. In our case, TBLT serves as a conceptual framework within which we explore and utilize the value of a task, both the central concept of TBLT and the central unit of planning and instruction in our EAP syllabi. By designing tasks, our main aim was to provide opportunities for speaking in the classroom but also to practice other study skills. We wanted the tasks to resemble students’ academic realities in order to raise their interest and motivation, also recognized as a teaching challenge we discussed earlier. We believe that by focusing on meaning without hindering attention to form, incidental learning occurs as a result of task performance (Ellis, 2009). We now turn to the task as a theoretical concept and demonstrate our adaptation of the task in order to meet the specific needs of our students. 2.1 The task and task design The task is the central component of TBLT pedagogy. It sets the stage for learning as it creates opportunities for learners to use the language similarly as they would in situations outside the classroom. As the students work towards completing the task, they learn the language and develop skills, which further motivates them to expand on their existing language knowl- edge. Defining a task is not straightforward, and it has engendered substantial scholarly de- bate within the TBLT domain. Given the divergent approaches and perspectives inherent in TBLT scholarship, various definitions of tasks have been posited by authoritative figures, including Prabhu (1987), Nunan (1989), Willis (1996), Bygate et al. (2001), and Ellis (2003a).2 Notwithstanding various definitions, a common understanding of a task is that it is “an activ- ity or goal that is carried out using language” (Richards & Rogers, 2010, p. 224). Our conception of the task mostly derives from Ellis’s definition of a task as a language-learn- ing tool (2013). For a language-teaching activity to be considered a task and distinguished 1 For more criticism of TBLT, see Ellis et al. (2019). 2 For an extensive compilation of various definitions, see Van den Branden (2006). 60 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 from an activity, a drill or any other form of eliciting learner language more typical for tra- ditional language classrooms, Ellis (2003a) proposes, and Ellis and Shintani (2013) further elaborate the four criteria that must be met, as presented below: 1. a primary focus should be on meaning, i.e., it is important to understand the message without focusing on the form; 2. there should be some kind of a ‘gap’, i.e., there is a need to convey a message, express an opinion, or grasp implied meanings; 3. learners should largely depend on their own resources in order to complete the activity, i.e., the language is merely a tool to achieve the goal; students are not explicitly taught the language necessary for the task; 4. there is a clearly defined outcome other than the use of language, i.e., language functions as a tool for communicating the desired outcome. (p. 135) Ellis (2009) explains that criteria 1 and 4 are considered the key criteria for an activity to be task-like as they cannot be satisfied by a situational grammar exercise, unlike criteria 2 and 3. As our rationale for the use of tasks is to create opportunities for our students to use and practice academic English, improve their academic English skills, and boost their commu- nicative competence, our conceptualization of a task involves the adaptation of criteria 3, specifically the aspect stating that students are not explicitly taught the language required for the task. Although the students rely on their linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge, we find it necessary to provide the students with relevant linguistic items, as well as to encourage the use of pertinent sources, a common practice for any academic context. This also aligns with the dual purpose of the tasks. On the one hand, the tasks enable the students to rely on their existing language knowledge and develop fluency and confidence, whereas, on the other hand, the tasks can be used to expand and build on the existing language knowledge (Ellis, 2013). Our inclination towards selecting the task as the foundational element of the syllabus design is further substantiated by its inherent characteristics (or different types of tasks) which per- mit the design of tasks to be aligned with our main aim of the syllabus design. In it, we aimed to attend to our students’ reluctance to perform orally by creating opportunities for the em- ployment of academic English for communicative purposes in the form of ‘real’ academic events such as delivering presentations, sharing ideas, and group discussions in which our students are likely to participate in the course of their studies. The tasks are thus characterised as focused and unfocused in which the former is structured to encourage the use and practice of specific language elements during communication (which is of particular relevance to our aims and the nature of EAP instruction), as opposed to the latter, which create opportunities for using language in general (Ellis, 2009). Another charac- teristic of a task which is recognised as beneficial for our aims and the needs of our students is the possibility of a task providing opportunities for engagement in any of the four language skills. In other words, tasks can be characterised as input and output-providing tasks in which input-based tasks engage learners in listening and reading whereas output-based engage learners in speaking and writing, and thus require production on the part of the student (El- lis, 2009). In the same vein, Willis (1996) distinguishes between closed or open tasks or highly structured tasks with a specific goal (closed tasks) and loosely structured ones with a less 61 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 specific goal (open tasks). However, as Ellis (2009) claims, most of the tasks are integrative as they are often a combination of different characteristics mentioned above. All things consid- ered, the tasks within our syllabus can be understood as pedagogical tasks as they represent what the learners do in the instructional setting or the classroom to activate and develop their language skills, created in a way to correspond to real-world tasks (Nunan, 2010), or in our case, to academic context tasks. We now turn to our second aim as we provide the rationale for our modular syllabus de- sign, including task selection, structuring of the tasks, and implementation into our teaching practice. 3 Syllabus design and selection of tasks As EAP instruction calls for tailored instruction, and the TBLT approach offers a variety of possibilities, we have decided to manipulate the tasks in such a way that they suit our spe- cific context and the specific needs of our students. In line with Ellis’ rationale for combining task-based units with traditional structural units, we organised the syllabus into modules with tasks at their centres in combination with task-supported and task-based lessons, i.e., lessons with or/and without linguistic specifications (Ellis, 2013). More specifically, the task is placed as the outcome of each module and the module is further organised into pre-task and post-task activities, which are a combination of lessons with the inclusion of academic English forms based on our students’ needs. The aim of these lessons is to prepare students for their performance of the task and provide additional support. In other words, in order to express the meaning upon which the focus of the task is placed, the students are able to apply the existing language knowledge but also expand it with the specified language items coming from the academic English language pool. The selection of tasks which were integrated within the EAP syllabus design was primarily conditioned by their relevance within the academic context, as well as the potential they offered in terms of pre-task and post-task lessons to be developed. Thus, special attention was placed on specific language and structures to be acquired, skills to be developed, as well as student engagement and motivation. Finally, each task design integrates a variety of input-based and output-based activities, but in this overview, we are going to highlight the most important features of each task design within the academic context. 3.1 Podcasts for promoting listening skills and collaboration The choice of using podcasts in our EAP course was made primarily to place more atten- tion on listening skills which are clearly important in an academic context (Rafique, 2019). In choosing appropriate listening tasks, podcasts appeared to offer diverse authentic content and have shown to be suitable (and available) teaching material. Podcasts are generally high- ly beneficial for many different language learning purposes as they can be a good resource for developing listening skills, extending vocabulary, improving pronunciation, as well as (and as far as) developing self-directed learning (Liu, 2023). In the EAP context, one distinct benefit of podcasts is that they offer a variety of academic and non-academic topics and thus offer students the possibility to acquire academic and discipline-specific vocabulary. In addition, 62 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 using podcasts in teaching EAP is expected to increase student motivation (Phillips, 2017), especially as students are free to choose the podcast topic of their interest for their final graded assignment. In the first module of the EAP 3 course, which comprises 4 lessons, students listen to 2 pod- casts whose topics serve as the basis for a discussion as part of the pre-task. For example, one of the podcasts was “Primary Source Literacy: The Impact of Digitization” (Choice Media, 2023) which was a convenient topic to cater to the needs of history, geography, and infor- mation science students who were attending the EAP 4 class at the same time. In this type of activity, students practice note-taking skills and summary writing, which is supported with explanations and resources as well as with peer feedback. In the final task of this module, students are asked to independently find a podcast on the topic of their own choice, but in connection to their field of study. The task requires them to summarise the podcast and submit it for grading. In the post-task phase, students need to prepare a short presenta- tion of the podcast and perform it in class with the use of visual aids. At the end of the oral presentation, questions are encouraged by other students. In this way, students have the opportunity to experience a mock conference presentation. Finally, students are assessed both for summary writing and oral presentation according to the criteria checklist previously explained to students. In addition, since the format of podcasts has gained attention in the popularization of science to address the speed of scientific communication in the new information era (Ye, 2021), it was decided to use the podcast task again in the EAP 4 course as a task that could promote collaboration among students (see section 3.4.). In the final module of this course, students are offered several groupwork projects. One of the offered projects is creating a podcast episode. As part of this project, students need to develop the topic of a podcast series (with 3 to 4 podcast episodes planned) but only record one episode. The task is divided into sev- eral lessons as a pre-task phase, during which students collaborate in small groups (3 to 4 students) by exchanging ideas and opinions and agreeing on individual assignments to be carried out through research and writing activities outside the classroom. Students are also provided with general written instructions regarding creating and recording a podcast epi- sode. The main task includes recording the podcast episode for which each student records his or her part individually and one group member compiles it into a complete episode. In the post-task phase, students share their work with the rest of the class. Finally, students are assessed on their participation in class group work sessions, as well as in their performance in the podcast. 3.2 Critical review and debate for promoting critical thinking skills As critical thinking skills have been recognised as essential by many researchers and edu- cators in higher education (Davies, 2011), it has been decided to integrate such skills into the task design of our EAP courses. Critical thinking skills can be defined “as intellectually engaged, skilful and responsible thinking that facilitates good judgment” (Behar-Horenstein & Niu, 2011, p. 26) and in order to promote such skills among students the task design was paired with the formats that were recognised as relevant for the academic context: a critical review and a debate, which are going to be presented in this section. 63 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 In the academic context, a review is frequent within academic writing as a type of scientific research, as part of an academic paper integrated as a literature review, and it can be found in academic journals in the format of a book review. All of these mentioned formats were clearly overly demanding for the EAP course and it was necessary to tailor the task in line with the possibilities. Adaptations were made in terms of workload (in line with ECTS credit demand), difficulty, the subject of the review, and its length. Finally, the task was shaped as a critical review of a documentary. The documentary has been chosen as the subject of the review for several reasons. Documentaries are a fruitful format in terms of language teaching as they pro- vide an opportunity for learners to acquire general as well as specific field-related vocabulary. Especially important in this regard is the combination of imagery and its aural presentations which increases the chances of vocabulary learning (Vuković-Stamatović, 2022). Lastly, it was expected that this format would present a novelty in our EAP instruction and increase student motivation. Once the final objective of the task was determined, the pre-task phase was ma- nipulated to assist students in their performance of the task. The pre-task phase, therefore, consists of several lessons in which students are provided with specific language structures to assist them in writing the critical review, they are provided with instruction on the critical review format and feedback activity on the critical review example. Students also participate in discussions on the topic of critical thinking in various disciplines and education. The central focus and the main task is the written assignment in which students are required to write their critical review of a chosen documentary (e.g. from a History Channel) as a home project with the use of literature to support their opinion in connection to critical analysis. The assign- ments are to be submitted via the e-course platform for grading and pass Turnitin originality analysis. A post-task phase is also introduced on the platform of the e-course where students participate in the activity of peer feedback. All students need to upload their reviews into a designated place on the platform and the system automatically assigns each student a peer review for providing comments. The process is anonymised and the assessment criteria that are used in peer feedback are familiar to students as they were previously used in the pre-task phase. Students are also given the possibility to edit their reviews after they receive student comments, before final grading. In the assessment of the students’ performances of this task, both critical review and participation in peer feedback activity are taken into consideration. In addition to critical review, a debate was recognised as a rather fruitful activity for improving students’ language fluency and cultivating critical thinking skills (Birtić Vučić & Štulina, 2011; Želježić, 2017). Particularly important for the latter is developing sound arguments which is an integral element of the debating process. However, argumentation performance can be rather challenging for L2 students (Majidi et al., 2021), which justifies the choice of a tailored, in-class debate format for task design within the EAP context. A pre-task phase, therefore, integrates practice on developing arguments, rebuttal practice, as well as focus on language (expressing stance in the academic context). As part of the preparation, students are divided into debating groups, and they need to negotiate the topic of the debate as well as conduct short research and write their speeches. The central outcome of the module is the students’ participation in the in-class debate and students are assessed in connection to their oral performance, level of preparation (referring to content and development of arguments), as well as participation in the rebuttal part which has proven to be the most difficult part in each generation. In the post-task phase, students are asked to write a summary of their group’s debate, and evaluate the quality of the arguments, i.e., judge the winner of the debate. 64 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 3.3 Group discussions for promoting conversational skills Even though short discussions as interactional activities are integrated into each task design, it has been noticed that spoken fluency is the least developed skill among our students. Here, we are not referring to the rehearsed oral presentation performance which students usually master successfully. Rather, we are referring to dialogic competence that is often in short discussions done in L1 instead of L2 as instructed. Whenever students are grouped and left unsupervised to discuss an issue, the switch from L2 to L1 occurs. However, as developing di- alogic competence in L2 is especially important in the academic context (Basturkmen, 2016) it was decided to find an optimal format for classroom group discussions that would encour- age students to discuss certain topics exclusively in L2. With this aim, a series of three group discussions were organised throughout the course, each comprising the entire lesson of 90 minutes. The sessions were held as preparations within other task designs (in pre-task phas- es), but here are treated as separate tasks, since there is an identifiable aim, performance, as well as assessment of the task. Therefore, the main aim of the activity was to encourage students to communicate entirely in L2 for the entire duration of the discussion, which was the most challenging part of the task design. To enable this, it was necessary to create the right conditions which included dividing students into small groups of 3 to 4 students, seating them in circles around their desks, carefully designing handouts that would provide students with the content, the discussion questions, and prompts, and creating the ambient with back- ground music to minimise students’ reticence while talking (Cunningham, 2014). The topics were carefully selected to accompany other tasks within the course. Therefore, the topic of the first discussion was critical thinking while in the second discussion, the selected topic was AI in higher education. In the pre-task phase, each student within the group was assigned designated reading sections of various academic papers (e.g. in sessions 1 “Improving the Critical Thinking Skills of Students in Geography” by Lane (2007)) and newspaper articles or blogs (e.g. in session 2 “AI and all that jazz” by Thompson (2023)). In session 3 students need- ed to come prepared with their research on a particular topic as this discussion was related to their collaborative work on a project (see section 4). Handout material additionally includ- ed prompts and questions for students to use while talking, focusing primarily on the topic, but at the same time encouraging them to ask for clarifications and questions, agree and disagree, and respond to comments which are part of dialogic interaction skills (Basturkmen, 2016). In the post-task phase, students were asked to complete a questionnaire with ques- tions regarding their own and other students’ participation in the discussion which assisted the teacher in assessing whether students successfully completed the task. For the purpose of motivation, the assessment was reduced to one criterion, and it was active participation which implied only speaking in English, regardless of the quality. During the discussions, the teacher was covertly keeping track of students’ active participation. The questionnaire also revealed the students’ overall satisfaction with this task which was generally positive. 3.4 Projects for promoting student collaboration As the final assignment at the end of the EAP 4 course, students are offered a choice of sev- eral different tasks they can collaboratively work on. The choice of the tasks is dependent on the study programmes students are coming from so as to offer students the possibility 65 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 of collaborating on a task that is most relevant to their respective fields. In previous years, students had the options of recording a podcast episode (already described in section 4.1.), conducting a short survey and writing a report, and preparing a mock conference proposal for a real-life event (an undergraduate conference that is held annually). In the future, ad- ditional projects might be included if the need arises. In addition to choosing the preferred project to work on, students were free to choose group members as well. The main focus of the suggested projects is peer collaborative writing, which is reported as a beneficial skill for improving writing performance as well as language socialization (Bhowmik, et al., 2019). The possibility to independently select many different aspects of this task (project type, topic, as well as group members) and work collaboratively is expected to create a positive effect on student motivation and performance (Neumann & McDonough, 2014). The pre-task phase includes several in-class sessions in which students collaborate either in discussions regarding the topics, working on the writing plan, or negotiating content and distributing assignments. Each in-class lesson is preceded by students’ independent research and preparation at home. Parallel to in-class sessions, students collaborate on the Microsoft Office platform One Drive, sharing a document in which each member has to add their week- ly contributions. This enables the teacher to trace each student’s work and progress. The central outcome of this module refers to students’ independent work in the final writing of their section (or recording in the case of the podcast episode). The post-task phase includes students’ presentations of their projects to other classmates. Finally, students are continu- ously assessed, individually and as a group. Individually, they are assessed on active partici- pation in in-class sessions, on the writing performance of their section, as well as in the oral presentation. As a group, they share a grade on the overall success of the project. 4 Conclusion This teaching report has examined the ongoing practice and necessity of designing syllabi for EAP courses at the University of Zadar, with a specific focus on EAP 3 and EAP 4. The adop- tion and adaptation of the central concept of TBLT, the task, as a pedagogical framework has played a crucial role in shaping the syllabus design. Tasks were conceptualized to align with the academic context and students’ specific needs and implemented across various modules to enhance specific language skills. The report provides an overview of each task, detailing its rationale, design, and phases (pre-task and post-task activities). These tasks, the outcomes of specific modules, aim to enhance various language skills, such as listening and summarizing in podcasts, critical thinking through critical reviews and debates, and peer collaboration in a survey report, conference proposal project, and podcast episode. This overview ensures the practical application of language skills within real-world academic contexts. On the one hand, this pedagogical shift represents a responsive and effective approach to language instruc- tion, providing students with a holistic language learning experience that extends beyond proficiency to encompass vital academic skills. On the other hand, exploring the task and the TBLT approach in designing EAP syllabi offers inspiration and potential directions for con- ducting additional studies across different academic contexts. In our upcoming investigation, we aim to explore the students’ perceptions regarding the TBLT within the framework of their academic English learning, and to evaluate the effectiveness of selected tasks concerning the learning outcomes of the two EAP courses in question. 66 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 References Basturkmen, H. (2010). Developing Courses in English for Specific Purposes. Palgrave Macmillan. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0889-4906(01)00024-2 Basturkmen, H. (2016). Dialogic interaction. In K. Hyland & P. 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Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 53, 101025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2021.101025 Želježić, M. (2017). Debate in the EFL Classroom. ELOPE: English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries, 14(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.4312/elope.14.1.39–54. 68 Birtić Vučić, Štulina / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 56–68 Izvleček Opravilo kot osrednja enota načrtovanja in poučevanja pri snovanju učnega načrta za angleščino za študijske namene Na podlagi znanja, praktičnih izkušenj in izzivov, ki so se pojavili pri snovanju učnih načrtov za pred- meta Angleščina za študijske namene 1 in 2, avtorici v prispevku opisujeta zasnovo učnih načrtov za nadaljevalna predmeta Angleščina za študijske namene 3 in 4. Predmeta sta namenjena študentom drugega letnika prvostopenjskega študija na humanističnih in družboslovnih programih Univerze v Zadru na Hrvaškem in zahtevata pristope k jezikovnemu poučevanju, prilagojene učnim in študijskim potrebam teh skupin študentov. Cilj zasnove učnih načrtov, ki temeljijo na učnih potrebah študen- tov, je bil omogočiti razvoj splošne sporazumevalne zmožnosti študentov, zmanjšati njihov odpor do ustnega sodelovanja ter razvijati specifične zmožnosti na ravni angleščine za študijske namene. Na novo zasnovana učna načrta tako temeljita na načelih opravilno zasnovanega učenja in uporabi opravil kot osrednjih enot za načrtovanje in izvedbo pouka. Izbira in zasnova opravil poustvarjata avtentične scenarije iz študijskega okolja, kar zagotavlja, da izbrana opravila odražajo tisto rabo jezika, s katero se študentje srečujejo pri svojem študiju. Prispevek na podlagi načel opravilno zasnovanega učenja pred- laga okvir za izboljšanje poučevanje tujih jezikov za študijske namene, saj predstavljeni okvir spodbuja avtentično rabo angleščine kot tujega jezika v akademskem okolju in podpira razvoj študentov na nji- hovih študijskih področjih. Ključne besede: opravilo, opravilno zasnovano učenje, angleščina za študijske namene, snovanje uč- nega načrta 69 Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024) DOI: 10.4312/SM.19.2.69-73 Book Review Paper received: 17.10.2024 Paper revised: 20.10.2024 Paper accepted: 03.11.2024 Paper published: 24.12.2024 Yasemin Kirkgöz Çukurova University, Türkiye JOANNA KIC-DRGAS & VIOLETA JURKOVIČ: PATHS OF PURPOSE: A JOURNEY INTO LSP TEACHER DEVELOPMENT Brill, 2024. Abstract This volume, authored by Joanna Kic-Drgas and Violeta Jurkovič, offers a comprehensive exploration of the educational and professional development of teachers specializing in languages for specific purposes (LSP). It provides a comparative analysis of the educational systems in Poland and Slovenia, highlighting the roles, competencies, and career trajectories of LSP teachers. The book opens with a preface, which outlines the main objectives, followed by five chapters, each divided into subsections, and concludes with a synthesis section, where the authors summarize the key points of each chapter. It delves into various critical aspects of LSP teaching, including needs analysis, curriculum develop- ment, materials design, and assessment methods. The authors present their involvement in relevant projects, and share findings from their empirical research with language teacher educators; as such, the book offers valuable insights into both pre-service and in-service professional development for LSP teachers. Keywords: Languages for specific purposes (LSP), teacher development 70 Kirkgöz / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 69–73 Review Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to the volume, divided into two parts that examine the LSP teaching contexts in Poland and Slovenia. It provides a comprehensive overview of each country, including geographical features, population, official languages, and historical backgrounds. The chapter highlights the current landscape for LSP teachers, discussing their legal status, curriculum, and professional development programs amid recent educational reforms. The authors note that LSP teacher education and professional development are evolving dynamically in both nations through conferences, international collaborations, and relevant publications. A strong commitment to foreign language learning exists, with English taught as the first foreign language starting at age seven. Despite these similarities, Poland and Slovenia exhibit significant differences in size, de- mographics, geography, geopolitics, and history, which influence their educational frame- works, linguistic contexts, and language policies. In Poland, LSP teaching is a mandatory part of foreign language teacher education, whereas, in Slovenia, LSP courses are elective, allowing teachers to enter the profession without specific LSP training, although degree programs provide some linguistic and methodological preparation. The Bologna Reform had varied impacts: Poland increased the number of compulsory LSP courses, while Slo- venia converted some compulsory LSP courses to elective status and reduced teaching hours. The chapter concludes that, despite political parallels, the distinctions in education- al systems, linguistic environments, and language policies in both countries could signifi- cantly affect the training, professional development, status, and working conditions of LSP teachers. Chapter 2 introduces the field of LSP, focusing on critical aspects of its pedagogy through recent literature. LSP is defined in contrast to related concepts and underpinned by key com- ponents including needs analysis, curriculum and syllabus design, materials development, teaching methodologies, and assessment. Drawing on Anthony’s (2018) framework, which emphasizes needs analysis, learning objectives, materials and methods, and evaluation, the chapter highlights the importance of tailoring language instruction to learners’ specific ac- ademic, workplace, or professional contexts. A comprehensive needs analysis is presented as the cornerstone of effective LSP instruction, informing the development of curricula and syllabuses aligned with learners’ professional and communicative demands. The chapter ex- plores distinctions between syllabuses designed for LSP and General Language Proficien- cy (LGP), as well as curriculum approaches such as subject-centered, learner-centered, and problem-centered, shaped by factors such as educational policies, industry collaboration, and student needs. The discussion connects LSP teaching to English Medium Instruction (EMI) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), examining the transferability of LSP principles while addressing the unique requirements of EMI learners. Challenges in LSP material development, such as limited resources and slow adaptation to market demands, are also considered. In terms of methodology, the chapter evaluates Project-based Learning (PjBL), Task-based Learning (TBL), and Problem-based Learning (PBL), emphasizing their ca- pacity for learner engagement and contextual flexibility while delineating their differences in focus and task specificity. Finally, it examines the distinctive features of LSP assessment, em- phasizing contextual and situational relevance alongside considerations of reliability, validity, 71 Kirkgöz / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 69–73 authenticity, and practicality, with a focus on integrating disciplinary knowledge and profes- sional contexts into language evaluation. Chapter 3 examines LSP teachers, starting with a statement from Richards, who noted, “sur- prisingly little is known about the professional lives and beliefs of ESP teachers around the world” (1997, p. 51). The authors address the misconception that LSP teaching is routine and view LSP teachers merely as technicians. They emphasize the dynamic and multifaceted na- ture of LSP teaching, particularly as classroom contexts evolve due to technological advance- ments and increasing multiculturalism. The discussion then shifts to the various competen- cies required for effective LSP teaching, advocating for a well-researched competence frame- work specifically designed for this field. Examples include the Erasmus+ Catapult project’s LSP Teacher Common Competence Framework and BALEAP’s Competency Framework for Teachers of English for Academic Purposes, both of which serve as valuable resources. A flex- ible framework is needed to accommodate diverse disciplines, educational levels, language proficiencies, and transversal skills. The chapter briefly explores LSP teacher identity, focus- ing on how these educators perceive themselves in relation to their roles, competencies, and the broader educational community. The authors acknowledge both the overlaps and distinctions between LSP teachers and those who teach general language programs (LGP) or other specific language programs. Common challenges faced by LSP teachers include the in- tegration of authentic disciplinary materials, adaptation to evolving technological landscapes, and addressing the diverse needs of students. The authors point out that many challenges today mirror those experienced by LSP teachers four decades ago, highlighting a persistent lack of attention to LSP teacher education and professional development. Finally, the chapter emphasizes the importance of LSP communities of practice as essential networks that sup- port professional development. These communities enable LSP teachers to engage through participation in associations, conferences, and journals, providing particularly valuable sup- port for those teaching less widely taught LSPs or disciplines. Chapter 4 delves into teacher professional development projects in LSP, focusing on three pivotal initiatives: TRAILs, Catapult, and LSP-TEOC-Pro. These innovative efforts aim to bridge the gap between the qualifications of aspiring LSP teachers and the demands of the field, ad- dressing the growing need for well-trained LSP educators across Europe. The TRAILS project identifies shortcomings in LSP teacher education by comparing teachers’ needs with existing programs. Despite a surge in interest in LSP teaching, opportunities for professional devel- opment remain limited. Interviews with in-service teachers highlighted various gaps, includ- ing course design, lesson planning, genre-specific knowledge, teaching methods, assessment strategies, and essential soft skills. Additionally, a lack of standardization across more than a thousand institutions was noted. The Catapult project focused on the competencies required for effective LSP teaching, particularly emphasizing the importance of ICT skills. It uncov- ered a disconnect between the skill development offered in higher education and the actual needs of LSP teachers, such as specialized knowledge and institutional support. In response, Catapult developed a MOOC designed to enhance the competencies identified through its research. The LSP-TEOC-Pro project further extends these efforts, concentrating on online education and professional development for both experienced and pre-service LSP teachers. It offers a multilingual course comprising eight modules that address essential aspects of LSP teaching. This course features innovative certification options and personalized pathways for teachers at various levels of expertise. The authors argue that the research and resources 72 Kirkgöz / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 69–73 generated by these projects significantly enhance LSP education and professional develop- ment at the EU level, marking a meaningful step toward equipping educators to meet the challenges of this specialized field. Chapter 5 explores LSP teacher education and professional development through insights from foreign language teacher educators regarding both pre-service and in-service training for LSP teachers. The authors argue that the professional development needs of LSP teach- ers have been historically neglected as previous studies primarily relied on LSP teachers as respondents, thereby overlooking crucial stakeholders in the teacher education process, par- ticularly pre-service teacher educators who are vital in preparing future foreign language teachers. To address this gap, the authors conduct qualitative research to gather perspec- tives from foreign language teacher educators on the professional development needs of LSP teachers. Both groups recognize the importance of a general language teaching methodology course for LSP and General Language Proficiency (LGP) teachers, but they also agree that LSP teachers require additional competencies. These include genre analysis, standardization, and disciplinary awareness along with essential soft skills such as flexibility, self-directed learning, intercultural competence, and collaboration. The authors highlight that existing pre-service LSP teacher education programs in the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) lack stand- ardization, and emphasize the role of policymakers in shaping LSP education. The study in- dicates a growing demand for qualified LSP teachers and underscores the importance of foreign language teacher educators in fostering collaboration throughout an LSP teacher’s career, particularly in supporting novice teachers. The authors call for international networks and resources to support LSP teachers, especially those in less widely taught languages. Concluding Remarks This book offers a thorough analysis of LSP for both pre-service and in-service teachers across two EU countries. By linking LSP theory with practical applications in various aspects of LSP, including needs analysis, course and syllabus design, and the professional requirements of LSP teachers, it provides insights relevant to diverse LSP contexts. I highly recommend this volume to pre-service and in-service LSP teachers, language teacher educators, policymak- ers, LSP curriculum designers, and researchers interested in the field of LSP education. As the significance of LSP continues to grow globally, this book encourages exploration of new avenues for personal and professional development in teaching, research, and project initia- tives within this dynamic field. Reference Richards, K. (1997). Teachers for specific purposes. In R. Howard & G. Brown (Eds.), Teacher Education for Languages for Specific Purposes (pp. 115–126). Multilingual Matters. 73 Kirkgöz / Scripta Manent XIX/2 (2024), 69–73 Izvleček Joanna Kic-Drgas & Violeta Jurkovič: Paths of Purpose: A Journey into LSP Teacher Development. Brill, 2024. Monografija avtoric Joanne Kic-Drgas in Violete Jurkovič, napisana v angleškem jeziku, ponuja celovit pregled izobraževalnega in strokovnega razvoja učiteljev tujih jezikov stroke. Monografija se začne s predgovorom, kjer avtorici predstavita glavne cilje publikacije, nato pa sledi pet temeljnih poglavij, ki se dalje členijo na podpoglavja. V njej je najprej predstavljena analiza izobraževalnih sistemov na Poljskem in v Sloveniji, s poudarkom na vlogah, kompetencah ter poklicnih poteh te skupine učite- ljev. Monografija se zaključi z zadnjim poglavjem, v katerem avtorici povzameta ključne točke vseh prejšnjih poglavij. V delu so obravnavani različni ključni vidiki področja tujih jezikov stroke, vključno z analizo potreb, snovanjem učnih načrtov in gradiv ter načini vrednotenja znanja. Avtorici predstavita tudi zasnovo in rezultate treh evropskih projektov, ki so razvili izobraževalne vsebine za ciljno skupino učiteljev tujih jezikov stroke. Ključni znanstveni prispevek monografije so rezultati kvalitativne empi- rične raziskave, izvedene z izobraževalci bodočih učiteljev tujih jezikov. Monografija ponuja dragocen vpogled tako v strokovni razvoj učiteljev tujih jezikov stroke, ki šele začenjajo svojo poklicno pot, kot tudi vseživljenjski razvoj izkušenih učiteljev na tem področju. Ključne besede: tuji jeziki stroke (TJS), izobraževanje in usposabljanje učiteljev TJS