Handbook for Writing and Editing Texts at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor Editor Maja Turnšek November 2021 Title Handbook for Writing and Editing Texts at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor Editor Maja Turnšek (University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism) Authors Maja Turnšek, Mitja Gorenak, Andreja Trdina, Tomi Špindler, Boris Prevolšek, Tjaša Alegro, Marko Koščak, Barbara Pavlakovič, Vita Petek & Nejc Pozvek Language editing Teja Bačar (Lekteja) Technical editor Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover designer Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover graphics Green background, author: Chabtel eCeeCee, Pixabay.com (CC0) Graphic material Avtorji in urednica Published by University of Maribor University Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://press.um.si, zalozba@um.si Issued by University of Maribor Faculty of Tourism Cesta prvih borcev 36, 8250 Brežice, Slovenia https://www.ft.um.si, ft@um.si Edition 2nd edition Published at Maribor, Slovenia, November 2021 Publication type E-book Available at https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/629 CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji © University of Maribor, University Press Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor / Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba 001.89:003.052(035)(0.034.2) Text © Authors & Turnšek, 2021 HANDBOOK for writing and editing texts at the This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. / To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva – Nekomercialno 4.0 Mednarodna. [Elektronski vir] / editor Maja Turnšek ; [authors Maja Turnšek ... et al.]. - 2nd ed. - E-knjiga. - This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon Maribor : University of Maribor, University Press, the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license do not allows commercial use. 2021 Any third-party material in this book is published under the book’s Način dostopa (URL): Creative Commons licence unless indicated otherwise in the credit line https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/629 to the material. If you would like to reuse any third-party material not ISBN 978-961-286-545-0 (PDF) covered by the book’s Creative Commons licence, you wil need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. doi: 10.18690/978-961-286-545-0 COBISS.SI-ID 85516547 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ISBN 978-961-286-545-0 (pdf) DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-545-0 Price Free copy For publisher prof. dr. Zdravko Kačič, rector of University of Maribor Citiranje Turnšek, M. (ed.). (2021). Handbook for Writing and Editing Texts of the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor. Attribution Maribor: University Press. doi: 10.18690/978-961-286-545-0 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: The Foundation of Quality in Research: Peer Review ................................................ 3 Chapter 2: Introduction to Scientific Thinking and Writing ....................................................... 11 Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process .................................................................................... 17 3.1 Selection of topic/research area (and review of the literature) ...................................................... 18 3.2 Definition of the research problem (and its relevance) .................................................................. 20 3.3 Purpose .................................................................................................................................................. 21 3.4 Objectives .............................................................................................................................................. 22 3.5 Analysis and interpretation of data .................................................................................................... 33 3.6 Discussion and findings ....................................................................................................................... 33 Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative ..............35 4.1 Definition of qualitative research methods and data collection .................................................... 39 4.1.1 Interview ................................................................................................................................................ 39 4.1.2 Observation with participation ........................................................................................................... 40 4.1.3 Focus groups ......................................................................................................................................... 41 4.1.4 Discursive analysis of content ............................................................................................................ 42 4.2 Analysis of qualitative data .................................................................................................................. 43 4.3 Definition of quantitative research methods and data collection .................................................. 47 4.3.1 Survey ..................................................................................................................................................... 48 4.4 Use of qualitative and quantitative methods .................................................................................... 50 4.5 Discussion and findings ....................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 5: Personal relations in scientific writing .......................................................................55 5.1 Mentorship ............................................................................................................................................ 55 5.2 Building a positive relationship between student and mentor ....................................................... 57 5.2.1 Preparation of the final thesis ............................................................................................................. 59 5.2.2 Selection of mentor for preparation of the diploma thesis ............................................................ 59 5.3.3 Selection of co-mentor for preparation of the diploma thesis....................................................... 60 5.3.4 Communication between student and mentor ................................................................................. 61 5.3.5 Cooperation of student and mentor .................................................................................................. 61 5.3.6 Steps in preparation of the diploma thesis ........................................................................................ 62 5.3.7 Duration of the process and number of interactions with the mentor ........................................ 64 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter 6: Language and Writing Style .......................................................................................65 6.1 General characteristics of scientific writing ...................................................................................... 65 6.2 Punctuation marks ................................................................................................................................ 68 6.3 Upper and lower case initial letters .................................................................................................... 69 6.4 Numbers ................................................................................................................................................ 71 6.5 Special characters in the text ............................................................................................................... 71 Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources ..............................................................................73 7.1 General instructions ............................................................................................................................. 76 7.2 Citation within text ............................................................................................................................... 78 7.3 Referencing sources in a list of references and sources .................................................................. 79 7.3.1 Use of italics .......................................................................................................................................... 79 7.3.2 Sequence for citing sources and authors ........................................................................................... 79 7.4 Examples of citing sources for individual type of material ............................................................ 80 Chapter 8: Text Formatting ..........................................................................................................93 8.1 Structuring of text ................................................................................................................................. 93 8.2 Technical editing of text ...................................................................................................................... 95 8.2.1 General rules for formatting/editing texts........................................................................................ 96 8.2.2 Special elements in formatting the final thesis ............................................................................... 103 8.3 By way of a conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 105 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Introduction MLADEN KNEŽEVIĆ editor of the first edition A student’s written work in the university academic environment is not just a task in the learning process (which of course it is), but also a culture sui generis, 1 or to put it more precisely, a part of the culture. This assertion that it is also a part of the culture refers not just to the cultural forms of the individual writing their work; it also involves an expansion and deepening of the cultural approach of the academic institution where this work is being completed. The teaching staff is therefore grateful to the students for all their efforts during the course of their studies. This monograph is not just a set of instructions for students on how to prepare a written work or just a reminder for the mentors regarding certain perhaps somewhat forgotten elements of the structure of the written work in the academic advancement of their candidates. It is a joint contribution to the common culture. In my opinion, cultural tourism does not represent some kind of special category. This is not because there are no clear distinctions between cultural and other forms of tourism. This category does not exist because tourism is a culture on its own, and not just a part of an already existing, more or less local or localised culture. It is a culture of its own. It is from the perspective of tourism as a culture that we provide this handbook: not only as a set of instructions on how to prepare a written work, but also as a cal to mentors and students to participate in expanding the cultural horizons of the tourism industry in Slovenian society. Each 1 From Latin: referring to something special, i.e. in this context an original culture, one of its kind. 2 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. written work you produce is a new contribution to the culture. It is also a test of whether and how well the faculty performs its mission for the development and refinement of the Slovenian cultural area. Since culture signifies primarily development, the present monograph does not play any role in the establishment of criteria or rules. It is a companion on the path of development and advancement of both students and teaching staff. Development never halts at a certain reference point; it is a continuous journey into the future. The compilation of this monograph involved numerous contributors. Not just the authors credited below individual articles, but also their mentors and authors whose works were eagerly read and included in the very foundations of their academic advancement. This is precisely the characteristic of the culture – continuous development and reliance on predecessors. And much more: reliance on predecessors and their desire and ability to take certain ideas into infinity. This is exactly what the teaching staff expects from students: to take into the future of this culture the knowledge, desires, opportunities and abilities of our generation of academic inhabitants of this small part of the world called Slovenia. The publication of this monograph was contributed to by Mitja Gorenak PhD, Borut Vojinovič PhD, Marko Koščak PhD, Andreja Trdina PhD, Boris Prevolšek, Maja Rosi, Barbara Pavlakovič and Nejc Pozvek. I thank them all most sincerely for their investment in this joint material. I must make special mention of Mitja Gorenak PhD, whose work brought to light the idea of this monograph, who constantly nurtured its creation and brought it to its final appearance, now provided to our students and educational colleagues teaching at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 1 The Foundation of Quality in Research: Peer Review MAJA TURNŠEK Tourism studies are a relatively young research discipline. They date back to the 1960’s, and it was only just over a decade ago that the discipline achieved its first mark of maturity (Aiery, 2008). In this period the study of tourism was subjected to much criticism that, due to its interdisciplinary nature and its orientation towards a specific industry, it lacked its own identity and paradigm, and as such was considered highly questionable in terms of whether it could even be regarded as a discipline (Tribe, 2001). In the past century, the teaching of tourism was principal y in the domain of post-secondary and higher education, and it was only relatively recently that it became a field for university-level academic, master’s and doctoral studies. We can cite as an example the relative youth of university programmes both at the Faculty of Tourism in Maribor and at its older sister institution at the University of Primorska’s Faculty of Tourism Studies (Turistica). In the context of this relative youth of the field it should be understood why the quality of the research process is al the more important for tourism education and research: these are relatively young programmes within what is globally a relatively young discipline, which for this reason shows a need for even greater validation. According to Rangus and Brumen (2016) this validation is secured principal y through scholarly publications in the field and 4 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. through the existence of scholarly journals and monographs specialising in the field of tourism studies. To make matters worse, it is not just that tourism studies experience a kind of complex due to their youth and the need for validation in the scientific sphere, the same is true of tourism as an industry, according to Higgins - Desbiolles (2006). As Leiper notes (1995, pp. 97–99 in Higgins - Desbiol es, 2006, pp. 1197–1198), both tourism companies and tourism organisations (such as the UNWTO) had the need to find affirmation relative to other branches of the economy. Historically tourism was perceived as something fun, not serious and not productive. In the 1960’s the discourse battled over the recognition of tourism as an industry with serious, i.e. economic consequences. What was in the beginning supposedly just a metaphor that emphasised the ‘seriousness’ and importance of tourism, became the main focus on tourism and thereby the confinement of tourism merely to an industry and not a social force. At this point we take the position that tourism studies are a scientific discipline distinguished not just by a primary applicability to the specific field of tourism and business knowledge, but one that also includes broader social and humanistic approaches for instance by including critical tourism studies (Turnšek, 2015). Such an understanding defines tourism not just as an industry but more broadly as a social force, covering the promotion of people’s wellbeing, maintaining and identifying cultural heritage, in the case of environmentally aware tourism the preservation of the natural heritage and no less importantly the promotion of cultural links and the understanding of others (Higgins-Desbiol es, 2006). Morgan (2004) identifies two main approaches in tourism studies. The first, more common one is called the manager ideology of education, where the central value is the commercial success of tourism and education is intended for the application of practical knowledge and offering business skil s. The other is the humanist approach, where the central value is the personal development of the student and involves wider knowledge (for instance geography, psychology, sociology) and critical perspectives. The UM Faculty of Tourism for the most part pursues this second approach. Tribe (2001, 2002) and Dredge et al. (2012) maintain that the tourism curriculum must develop a tourist society not just as a society of entrepreneurship, but as a society of all important stakeholders. The principal competences which in this respect higher education should Chapter 1: The Foundation of Quality in Research: Peer Review 5. develop are the competences of critical reflection and ethical development of society. We therefore assume that high-quality research is vitally important for: − the further development of tourism as a social force; − the recognition of tourism studies as an equal element of the circle of scholarly disciplines; − the personal development of students into critically thinking individuals; − and thereby the further ethical development of society. In this context, the final thesis composed by the student is one of the main indicators of success of higher education aimed at achieving the above-stated objectives. For students, the final thesis is a maturity exam – an indication that through their studies they have taken a step ahead in their personal development as critically thinking individuals, who under supervision are capable of: − finding and substantiating a socially relevant issue for research; − determining the purpose and aims of research, describing logically what we wish to achieve through this research; − reviewing in detail and systematically global knowledge to date in the selected field and in this way ‘standing on the shoulders of giants’; − setting out a research plan and understanding its assumptions and limitations; − conducting research, understanding the results and presenting them logical y; − offering conclusions on the applicability of the research findings for tourism as a social force and for further research in tourism studies; − writing al this in a style appropriate for scholarly writing (including the proper use of language and adherence to the rules of citing sources). Here the student is subjected to the same method of assessing the quality of research as scientists in general – the procedure of review by experts in the selected field. In scientific disciplines this form of expert assessment retains its original significance in the term ‘peer review’. Indeed what is to date the only established method of ensuring the quality of research is a review by other scholars or ‘peers’ of the author. 6 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. The work of reviewers and editors is the main way of determining whether a scientific work is sufficiently good for publication, whether it is intended for a scientific journal, a monograph or as a student’s thesis. Reviewers and students must be aided by clear instructions or criteria for assessing the quality of work. In the 2019/2020 academic year the Diploma Committee of the UM Faculty of Tourism updated these criteria and set out more clearly the differences between the requirements for fulfilling the conditions in the final thesis for undergraduates and master’s degree students. Table 1 and Table 2 provide matrices for assessment as an aid in assessing final theses at FT UM. Table 1: Assessment matrix for undergraduate studies at the UM Faculty of Tourism Content/field of assessment Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Excellent 1 Substantiation of Unclear and inadequately Good overview of Good overview of the research explained. current situation; current situation. problem The candidate does not arguments in Important arguments (Reply to the demonstrate a knowledge of favour of the in favour of question: Why the current situation in the research are researching the should the selected selected field and has no presented, but not problem have been problem be convincing arguments as to in sufficient depth presented in a researched?) why the topic would be suitable for research. and/or number. convincing way. Theoretical framework defined A wel -presented field at an average level of theoretical 2 Theoretical Poorly defined theoretical with satisfactory knowledge. framework framework; insufficient sources used. use of sources, but Appropriate more cogent and explanations for the coherent wording literature used. is recommended. 3 Research Clearly and questions and/or Unclear. Not linked to the specifically set out, Clear, specific, wel - hypotheses research method. Too general. appropriate for the defined and reasoned. research method. Appropriately explained and substantiated on Unsystematic, not tied to the the basis of literature, not suitable for the appropriate 4 Research research questions or literature – Well-explained, based methodology hypotheses. Limited reasoning description of the on the latest literature. not substantiated in the method from literature. relevant literature and demonstration of the use of this method in similar research. Chapter 1: The Foundation of Quality in Research: Peer Review 7. Content/field of assessment Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Excellent Good use of specialised and scholarly Good use of scholarly 5 Scholarly level of Does not use or uses only to a terminology. and specialised writing style limited extent scientific/expert Writing style is terminology and/or style. appropriate to the terminology is clearly registers of visible. specialised and scholarly writing. Good use of grammar and 6 Grammar and proper usages. Excel ent usages, correct usages Poor usages, needs revision. Nevertheless we flawless grammar and recommend language. greater attention in further writing. Citations comply with FT rules; 7 Appropriate Not appropriately cited. minor errors in Citations comply with citation of sources Consistent errors in citations. citations. We FT rules; no errors in recommend citations. greater attention in the future. Table 2: Assessment matrix for master’s degree studies at the UM Faculty of Tourism Content/field of assessment Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Excellent Good overview of the Excel ent and original: current situation, good the candidate arguments presented in demonstrates an 1 Substantiation Unclear and inadequately favour of researching outstanding knowledge of the research explained. The candidate the problem, but the of the current situation in problem does not demonstrate a research offers no the selected field, the (Reply to the knowledge of the current originality or candidate substantiates question: Why situation in the selected contribution to the problem extremely should the field and has no scholarship (involves wel , the selected selected problem convincing arguments as for instance the problem is original and be researched?) to why the topic would be suitable for research. application of an wil contribute to already known case progress in tourism now in a different studies and the study). profession. 8 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Content/field of assessment Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Excellent Excel ent and clear presentation, definitions based on the works of Clearly defined, important authors, use of 2 Theoretical Poorly defined; appropriate an original conceptual framework insufficient sources used. explanations for the framework, potentially literature used. suitable for publication (in a journal, at a conference or as a public presentation at a stakeholder). 3 Research Understandable, but not Clear, specific, very wel - questions and/or technically correct or Clear, specific, wel - defined, reasoned and hypotheses otherwise deficient in defined and reasoned. presentation. original. Appropriately In-depth and critical explanation and Unsystematic, not tied to explained and evaluation of various the literature, not suitable substantiated on the basis of appropriate possible research 4 Research for the research literature – description methods. Excel ent methodology questions or hypotheses. demonstration of Limited reasoning not of the method from understanding of the substantiated in the relevant literature and methodology and very literature. demonstration of the use of this method in good substantiation of similar research. the selected methodology for this assignment. Does not use or uses Good use of scholarly Excel ent use of scholarly 5 Scholarly level only to a limited extent and specialised and specialised of writing style scientific/expert terminology is clearly terminology, writing at terminology and/or style. visible. the level of a scientific article. Good use of grammar and proper usages. 6 Grammar and Poor usages, needs Nevertheless we Excel ent, flawless correct usages revision. recommend greater grammar and language. attention in further writing. Citations comply with 7 Appropriate Not appropriately cited. FT rules; minor errors Citations comply with citation of Consistent errors in in citations. We FT rules; no errors in sources citations. recommend greater citations. attention in the future. As can be seen from the two matrices, on the undergraduate level a demonstration of knowledge of basic research and a good grasp of the field are expected. Since both the academic and professional higher education streams of study offer the same level of educational qualification, the criteria of difficulty for both programmes are the same. It turns out in practice, however, that tasks tied to resolving specific issues of an organisation Chapter 1: The Foundation of Quality in Research: Peer Review 9. or destination arise somewhat more frequently at the professional higher education level. In the academic stream we encounter more frequently tasks that include research issues with broader questions and not necessarily a direct application to a specific case. But these are just small differences and first and foremost it depends on the students and mentors what research problem they will select. In the master’s degree courses the level of difficulty increases in terms of greater originality and contribution to scholarship (which is then in turn further increased at the doctoral level). On the undergraduate level, therefore, students are expected to be able to apply what is already known in tourism studies, for instance research applied to a specific, new example in Slovenia, but using models and theories that have already been developed. On the master’s degree level an excellent thesis is expected to show greater originality in research and thereby a greater contribution to scholarship in tourism studies. In this way the student offers some new piece to add to the global puzzle of knowledge attained thus far on a given issue. On the master’s level an outstanding thesis is also expected to be potential y suitable for publication in a scholarly or expert journal, for presentation at a conference or in the form of a public presentation at a company, organisation or destination. References Airey, D. (2008). Tourism education: Life begins at 40. Téoros. Revue de recherche en tourisme, 27 (27-1), 27–32. Dredge, D., Benckendorff, P., Day, M., Gross, M. J., Walo, M., Weeks, P. and Whitelaw, P. A. (2014). The philosophical practitioner and the curriculum space. In D. Dredge, D. Airey and M. J. Gross (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Tourism and Hospitality Education (pp. 87–104). London: Routledge. Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2006). More than an “industry”: The forgotten power of tourism as a social force. Tourism Management, 27 (6), 1192–1208. Morgan, M. (2004). From production line to drama school: Higher education for the future of tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16 (2), 91–99. Rangus, M. and Brumen, B. (2016). Development of Tourism Research. Teorija in praksa, 53 (4), 929–941. Tribe, J. (2001). Research paradigms and the tourism curriculum. Journal of Travel Research, 39 (4), 442–448. Tribe, J. (2002). The Philosophic Practitioner. Annals of Tourism Research, 29 (2), 338–357. Turnšek, M. (2015). Turizem, kritična misel in novi mediji: poskus razreševanja kognitivne disonance. Časopis za kritiko znanosti, 43 (259), 154–163. 10 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 2 Introduction to Scientific Thinking and Writing MITJA GORENAK Just as in al other scientific disciplines, research in the field of tourism is constantly evolving. Unfortunately, we must note that tourism is nevertheless stil not recognised as an independent scientific discipline. The multidisciplinary nature of research in tourism and also the very diverse interests in both scholarship and practice are, to a large extent, the reason why tourism has not yet been established as an independent scientific discipline, because (too) many people quite simplistically consider it a sub-category of some other existing scientific discipline. It is exactly in this context that we need to emphasize that research in the field of tourism must follow the established principles of scientific thinking and writing because they can help us attain the level of quality of scientific research in the field of tourism and consequently establish tourism as an independent scientific discipline. Scientific text is complex; in order for an individual to write it, this individual must first devote a considerable amount of time to scientific thinking. It should be clearly stated here that scientific thinking is actually a matter of the approach to thinking which is independent from the research area; the field of tourism as well as any other scientific discipline requires in-depth scientific thinking. We must first define the purpose of the research itself, since this is the guideline that accompanies us throughout the research 12 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. process. We will talk more about the purpose of research in the following sections, but the very purpose of the research basically divides scientific research into two large groups; basic research on one hand, and applied research on the other. Basic research once represented the major part of research and was extremely important for the development of human civilization, since basic research spurs the development of theories. The aim of basic research is perfectly clear – new discoveries (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe, 2007). Here, we must make it clear that discoveries are infrequent and can in particular be completely unpredictable or, to a certain extent, expected in view of previous research. But we can speak of a discovery when the research results in a change of mindset, some new explanation that changes the previously existing thinking about a certain topic. Nevertheless, discoveries represent only one of the numerous possible conclusions of basic research – the conclusion that every researcher finds the sweetest. When basic scientific work results in a new treatment of the same problem, perhaps a new technological approach, we can talk about an invention (ibid.). This is the other form of conclusion in basic scientific research. Basic research can also lead to a third possible result which is less popular – reflection. When the researcher concludes the basic research with a definition of the application of the existing theory or technique in some completely different context of application in the organisational and social field, we can talk about reflection on the application of the theory or technique (ibid.). Applied research is focused on solving real problems (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe, 2007). It focuses on the identification of specific problems of an organisation or identification of certain practical problems in the everyday environment (ibid.). The characteristic feature of applied research is that it is based on knowledge acquired through basic research, and that it is focused on achieving a certain practical or applicable objective. Applied research therefore develops the ideas of the basic research into an applicable form. We can thus say that it is development oriented and strongly integrated into the development of the economy (Lorber, 2003). The relationship between basic and applied research is constantly changing; if basic research once represented the major part of research, we can now see a more balanced situation. While research institutions and countries continue to a large extent to support basic research, applied research receives greater support from the business sphere, which is expected and understandable given the nature of the research. Chapter 2: Introduction to Scientific Thinking and Writing 13. Values are the element that should in no way be overlooked in scientific thinking and writing. Over time, what is called the neutral ideal (Lacey, 2005) prevailed in science. It emphasised and favoured objectivity in science. In this context, the assertions we make could only be true or false; it all depends on the evidence presented by the scientist or researcher, and nothing depends on the set of values held by the scientist or researcher (Weber in Kirn, 1988). This therefore assumes that science only states the observed facts without any values involved, and that all further decisions related to the researched facts are not in the domain of the scientist or researcher, but simply left to those that deal with the consequences of these findings. Such an approach to science, which excludes the scientist’s or researcher’s value identification, is somewhat differently set out and understood in today’s research world. Lacey (2005) says that impartiality is coming to the fore, which is without doubt the most important factor in scientific work. Here, the question arises whether the scientist or researcher can be impartial if their decisions include their own values. Douglas (2000) is completely clear regarding the aforementioned question and points out that values play their role even before the start of a given research project. She divides values into those with direct and those with indirect impacts. In this way the scientist or researcher gives their own definition of the research problem and selects the methodology (Douglas, 2000). Here, we should point out an idea offered by Longino (1990), who says that especially applied research, often ordered by companies that define the subject of the research (and also fund the research), on one hand, and the scientists or researchers on the other hand, often depend on such financial support in the modern world. Because research in the field of tourism often depends on funding from the business sphere, it is not immune to the problem of the gap between values. Moreover, cases can arise where accommodating the values of the client funding the project can lead to scientific falsifications with irreversible damage for the research. Douglas (2000) emphasizes that the values of the researcher and the client do not always match. Therefore, the values of the researcher do play a very important role when accepting (or refusing) the project. Equally values, that is their ethical component, play a decisive role in the selection of the research methodology. As pointed out by Douglas (ibid.), the ethical acceptability of the selected methodology directly impacts all further work of the scientist or researcher, because ethical values play a legitimate role in the evaluation of the selected methodology, especially where the research includes people or other living beings. 14 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. In her further work, Douglas (2009) emphasized that the direct role of values is not always acceptable, since even though they have a direct influence on the selection of the methodology, they should not have any influence on the determination of the methodology because it is tied to the definition of the problem that was set at the beginning and is independent from the values. We can therefore say that values should not determine scientific methods. We can also add another idea addressed by Longino (1990) and Douglas (2009), who say that science, if guided exclusively by values, would reflect too many prejudices, desires and needs and would become incapable of presenting a real and reliable understanding of the phenomena and consequently the surrounding world. In the context of the debate regarding the inclusion of values in scientific research it is also appropriate to discuss an issue that lately often fal s in this area – the problem of plagiarism. In line with the dictionary definition, plagiarism is text that is transcribed or copied from elsewhere and published, and presented as one’s own. The very definition clearly states what plagiarism is, but it is also important to understand the problem of plagiarism in the context of scientific research work. Every scientist or researcher aspires to provide the world with their own new findings, to share them with the world and to contribute to the further development of science and indirectly the world. It is therefore completely intolerable and unacceptable to claim a certain content as one’s own if it is a part of the content produced by some other author. The task of the scientist or researcher is to upgrade the existing findings on the basis of appropriately identified sources that must be clearly indicated. In order to avoid plagiarism, numerous institutions across the world (including the University of Maribor) have established systems of checking the authenticity of an individual’s texts. Nevertheless, the fact remains that we (stil ) do not have a perfect verification system; it is still the responsibility of each individual scientist or researcher to act in accordance with the moral and ethical principles. References Douglas, H. (2000). Inductive risk and values in science. Philosophy of science, 67 (4), 559–579. Douglas, H. (2009). Science, policy, and the value-free ideal. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. and Lowe, A. (2007). Raziskovanje v managementu [translation of Management Research] . Koper: University of Primorska, Faculty of Management, Koper. Lacey, H. (2005). Is science value free?: Values and scientific understanding. London; New York: Routledge. Longino, H. E. (1990). Science as social knowledge: Values and objectivity in scientific inquiry. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Lorber, L. (2003). Prenos znanja in tehnologij kot spodbujevalec regionalnega razvoja. Podravina: časopis za multidisciplinarna istraživanja, 2(3), 76–89. Chapter 2: Introduction to Scientific Thinking and Writing 15. Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika (2016). Plagiat. (Plagiarism) Retrieved from http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_testa&expression=ge%3Dplagiat*&hs=1, 12. 11. 2016. Weber, M. (1988). Smisel vrednotne nevtralnosti socioloških in ekonomskih znanosti. V A. Kirn (ed.), Znanost v družbeno vrednotnem svetu (pp. 58–103). Ljubljana: Delavska enotnost. 16 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 3 Steps of the Research Process ANDREJA TRDINA & TOMI ŠPINDLER The basic characteristic specific to scientific activity is that it involves systematic, organised and controlled cognitive effort. This involves efforts that seek to contribute to our understanding of the phenomena they are dealing with. We can describe scientific research as a “rational experiential activity where the researcher acquires new knowledge in an organized, systematic, controlled and planned manner” (Toš and Hafner Fink, 1998, p. IV). Research is therefore an organised and systematic process where an important role is played by planning. This is where scientific research significantly differs from everyday curiosity or the solving of problems in everyday situations. The distinction2 between them lies not necessarily so much in the subject of research, but in the actual method. Methodology deals with general rules or procedures of scientific research (ibid., p. 13). In each research process and in al types of scientific research it is essential to follow methodological principles, because they guarantee the objectivity of the entire research process and its results. 2 Distinction, from Latin (distinctio) – distinction, distinguishing, difference. 18 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. In al types of research, applied as wel as basic, the research idea represents the fundamental preliminary step in the research process. The research idea can arise from the researcher’s own interest or from the need of the client ordering the research. The research process basical y includes the following steps: conceptualisation, operationalisation and implementation of the research (Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 16): 1) Conceptualisation relates to the selection and definition of the research problem, definition of the purpose and objectives of the research, and the formulation of hypotheses or research questions. 2) Operationalisation includes a definition of the research plan, variables and methods for the collection of data. 3) Implementation of the research includes the actual collection of data (primary or secondary) and the analysis and interpretation of data. As an organised and systematic process, research is therefore a highly complex process. How and where to start the research often presents a dilemma, especially for novice researchers. In the following sections we will identify individual steps of the research process, hoping that they will help students as novice researchers in the preparation of their final papers. 3.1 Selection of topic/research area (and review of the literature) Because tourism is an interdisciplinary field addressed by various scientific disciplines, it is vital to clearly place research work in a specific disciplinary area within the framework of which it will be implemented. A given subject of study can indeed be researched from very diverse disciplinary angles (for instance the tourism development of a specific destination can be studied through various lenses: through the issue of the capacity of the tourist destination, linking together stakeholders in the local community, through the attitude of the local community to tourists, the environmental, social and economic impacts on the hospitality community, organisation of the work of tourism providers or the economic indicators of tourism activity, and so on). Research starts with the selection of the framework topic, where we place our interest in a specific research area (e.g. economy or marketing, event management, destination management, sociology of tourism, psychology in tourism, cultural heritage and tourism, etc.) thereby determining the conceptual apparatus that will be used. Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 19. When we determine the broader research area we have to define the core problem to be researched within the framework of this area (destination image, stereotypes in tourism, etc.). We cannot study the entire area, and we must clearly limit our focus. Narrowing the focus represents a major chal enge. We need to find an appropriate balance in the relationship between the general and the specific. Very general topics are inappropriate for empirical research. We have to focus on the analysis of a certain concrete research problem and place it in the framework of the existing findings that serve us as a theoretical framework. At the same time we should point out that, at least at this level of research, the majority of students’ final papers for the most part actual y involve a reverse process where the author (student) first decides on some very specific problem or subject of the research which they then place in a broader context with the aim of establishing a theoretically and methodologically acceptable framework. A review of the literature, where we familiarise ourselves with the key theories and concepts in our research area and with the existing studies and findings of various authors, represents a highly important step in the research process and in the attempt at narrowing down our focus. This offers a good insight into the current trends when studying the topic and an estimate as to which areas have already been more or less studied. An accurate and reasoned definition of our problem therefore requires a thorough study of the literature. When selecting the literature, students should orient their approach using the following criteria: - First and foremost they should look for scholarly work (monographs, collections of papers, journal articles) and professional literature should be of secondary importance. - The literature should include older, classical or canonical works that represent the milestones in the development of a certain area and are often cited, as well as more modern works which include more recent findings in the area. - In selecting and studying the literature, students should already take into consideration that the citation of secondary literature (double citation) should only be the exception. If certain literature is unavailable to the student, this literature should only be referenced through a secondary author. Otherwise the student is expected to find the original literature. - The student is expected to be familiar with articles by relevant authors in the field, domestic as well as foreign. 20 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. 3.2 Definition of the research problem (and its relevance) A definition of the problem or subject of the research is, as previously mentioned, the first step in the research process. “A problem that is taken as the subject of specific research work is most commonly a problem that poses difficulties in the resolving of everyday work tasks, as wel as in the understanding or application of some theory. Solving of this problem leads to progress in a certain work process, or progress in the theoretical understanding in a certain area” (Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 17). It is essential for our research problem to be well reasoned and for its relevance to be explained. We must ask ourselves why the problem or the subject of research is important and why it should even be studied at all. In other words, we need to substantiate why it is socially and scientifically relevant to address the selected problem. The answer to this question can be given on the basis of a review of the literature and already performed studies in the area under consideration, as wel as by means of a description of the socio-historical context for the subject of research. Research problems are most often brought to prominence by theoretical and methodological predicaments or socio-historical circumstances (or the context of the problem and from which we can explain the need for research). The selected research problem can therefore be based on the discrepancy between theory and practice, a research gap (fil ing in blind spots and voids not yet reflected upon) or disagreement between authors. In the case of applied projects, their relevance is additionally reinforced by the practical interests of the economic or other operators. The relevance and importance of the research problem are shown through its placement in a current theoretical framework or through its practical or social relevance. If the first phase involved the selection of the topic and area of research by focusing on finding and reviewing large volumes of literature, this point should include a thorough and critical study of literature and theories that relate specifically to our research problem or the subject of research. It is vital to critical y assess what is important and what is not. In this way we can selectively and cogently formulate a theoretical or conceptual framework for the research. Due to the importance of this phase of the research process, some consider the narrowing of the focus and the selection of the specific research problem as the most creative part of the research process itself (Vujević in Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 19). The importance of an unambiguous and clear definition of the research problem is neatly illustrated by the idea from Einstein that the formulation of the problem is often more Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 21. important than the solution itself. The problem actualy guides the researcher through the research process from the beginning to the end, which is why it must be clearly set out and its relevance precisely defined and reasoned. Even the most painstaking later corrections or enhanced procedures in the later stages of research that was in its inception erroneous, cannot erase the initial errors. “the more explicit the researcher’s initial ideas (or ‘analytical framework’), the more clearly they are guided towards what needs to be researched and what is safe to disregard in terms of the infinity of information offered by each situation or case,” notes Ragin (2007, p. 19). 3.3 Purpose Each piece of research has its purpose, which answers the question what wil the results of the research serve. With regard to the purpose, in essence we distinguish between basic scientific research and applied research (for more information see Chapter 1). Basic research is experimental or theoretical work by means of which we seek principally to acquire new knowledge about phenomena without predicting any particular application of such knowledge. Basic research therefore predominantly deals with the construction, review and improvement of basic knowledge and theories in a certain scientific area. The results of such research are usual y not intended for sale, but are published in scientific literature or forwarded to other interested experts. However, applied research is directly and primarily focused first and foremost on a certain practical objective or purpose. By means of applied research we seek to determine how to apply the results of basic research or to define new methods or ways to achieve practical objectives that were determined in advance (Miklič Milek, 2012, pp. 113–114). Research work or its results can therefore be intended to spread scientific findings or to improve theoretical knowledge (by supporting, supplementing or even rejecting a certain part of previous theoretical knowledge), or, on the other hand, to solve a certain completely practical problem in tourism activities (e.g. management of a tourism organization). The purpose of research is therefore defined outside the project. It arises from the motivational factors of those that are most interested in the findings of a certain piece of research. A clear and explicit definition of the purpose of research is important because it represents a step towards defining the objectives of research (as cited in Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 19). It is important that once the purpose is defined, it is also explained. 22 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Example: “The purpose of the diploma thesis is, by applying the viewpoints and proposals of tourism stakeholders in the public sector in the area of Radgonske Gorice, to determine priorities in the development of sustainable tourism and by means of the proposed sustainable product to contribute to a higher level of tourism services.” (Senekovič, 2019) Example: “The purpose of the master’s thesis is to offer the hayrack museum and all other tourist products and destinations in Slovenia an insight into the new approach to measuring product success, and thereby to enable further research of this kind and contribute to the development of the tourism profession based on the theory of an experiential economy.” (Turnšek, 2019). 3.4 Objectives Based on the decision as to what the research will serve, the objectives of the research need to be defined. These objectives are tied to the nature of the subject of research and arise from the purpose of research (set by the researcher or the client ordering the research work). The objectives convey what actually needs to be done in order to achieve the purpose of the research (for instance ‘analyse’, ‘study’, ‘present’ and so forth). It is recommended that for greater transparency and clarity the objectives be set out in indents. At least three and a maximum of eight brief and concise objectives should be stated (in one sentence, without complicated sub-clauses, with each sentence comprising one objective). For each objective, several sub-objectives can also be stated. Each objective must also be explained. We can ask ourselves questions – what needs to be explained, determined, analysed, etc. – to attain the defined objective. The purpose and objectives should be addressed separately in the text, possibly each in its own subsection, or at least in its own paragraph. We distinguish between three possible objectives of the research process: 1) description, 2) explanation and 3) evaluation, which are cited in the following sections from Knežević and Bizjak (2009, pp. 20–22): 1. Description The research can have an entirely descriptive objective as a way of researching certain phenomena, social conditions and relations or behaviour of certain subjects. Descriptive research allows us to describe the area which is the subject of the research. In the field of tourism, such research is most often performed for three reasons: Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 23. a) the area is relatively new, particularly in the case of scientific research work, b) the area is very dynamic and there are frequent changes, and c) the results of the descriptive type of research can be relatively quickly applied in the industry. Example: The subject of description in the research process can be various aspects of tourism activity or tourist behaviour, e.g. to describe how much money tourists on average spend at a certain destination, how they arrive at the destination, which are the elements of the destination that attracted the tourists, etc. Example: “The objective of this thesis is a description of the various persuasive techniques and their use on the website Booking.com, partly through theory and partly through the findings of our research.” (Božičnik, 2018) Example: “In the master’s thesis we seek to achieve the following objectives: Describe the purpose and importance of interpreting cultural heritage; Describe the function of humour and use of humour in the interpretation of heritage; Describe the stories that form the basis for interpreting the heritage of Bela Krajina in the tourism product.” (Zupančič, 2018) 2. Explanation The explanatory objective reveals a certain causality in the interrelation between factors that are active in a certain area. The function of such objective is explanatory. It explains the operation of variables in a certain specific environment and their interrelations. The interconditionality (causality) between the variables is a general precondition for the understanding of certain processes, especially for the prediction of further trends in this area which can represent a most important step in the tourism industry, whether we are talking only about theoretical work, or a certain analysis that will contribute to the practical decisions taken by managers. Example: The objective of the research is, for example, to explain why tourists find a certain destination increasingly attractive; explain the reasons for a negative attitude of the local population towards tourists in a certain destination; explain the influence of satisfaction at work on the motivation of tourism workers; explain the impact of the media on the formation of destination image. Example: “Explain the impact of visiting thermal spas on the process of shaping healthy 24 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. habits.” (Kokot, 2018) Example: “Explanation of the effect of cognitive and affective images of a tourist destination on loyalty to the destination.” (Marinković, 2017) 3. Evaluation Evaluation is an objective which scientists or practitioners set when they want to evaluate the performance of a certain programme or policy in the field of tourism. Evaluation as the objective of a certain piece of research is a very complex and multi-layer procedure. It includes several phases, each of which can actual y represent an independent research project: d) evaluation of needs (definition and evaluation of needs as the motivation for a certain process), e) analysis of the actual process of the programme (including evaluation of the evaluability of the process – whether the programme is conceptualised and operationalised in a manner that al ows reliable and valid evaluation), f) analysis of the results (outputs) or performance of the programme (e.g. cost-benefit analysis, i.e. analysis from the perspective of the cost rationality of the programme), and g) phase of observation and monitoring of the programme. Example: The objective of the research can be an evaluation of the performance of a certain programme/project in the field of tourism. In such research we have to set and clearly define certain criteria which will be used to evaluate the execution or the results of the activity of a certain programme/project in a certain time/geographical/work area. Example: “study product catalogues and the website Land of Hayracks and via the theory of experiential economy determine to what extent and in what way they address potential visitors regarding the importance of cultural heritage in the museum.” (Turnšek, 2019) Difference between the purpose and objective of research Understanding the purpose and objectives and the mutual relations is very important. Without the presence of these two elements, there is no directed and organised operation. Appropriate objectives can only be determined on the basis of a thorough reflection and a definition of why something needs to be researched and what benefit will come of it (Rozman, 2008). The purpose conveys why the research is important, what benefit it might Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 25. have for a commercial company, the profession, scholarship, the individual, or how the student wishes to contribute through this work. On the other hand the objective conveys what specifically the student wishes in the work to achieve, present, develop, formulate, etc. Example of purpose: “The purpose of the research is to determine the views of vine growers and vintners regarding horizontal linking and wine tourism, and based on these results and a review of the literature to present the possibilities for the effective sustainable development of wine tourism in the area of Ljutomersko-Ormoške gorice. Destination management can make use of the results of the research to create new tourist products or partnerships that will to a greater degree satisfy the needs and wishes of providers and thereby contribute to the satisfaction of providers and greater recognition for the destination.” (Špindler, 2017) Example of objectives: “Describe the viewpoints of vine growers and vintners regarding horizontal linking; Describe the viewpoints of vine growers and vintners regarding wine tourism; Define proposals for the effective sustainable development of wine tourism in the area of Ljutomersko-Ormoške gorice.” (Špindler, 2017) Formulating research questions, hypotheses or theses Posing research questions, or setting out hypotheses or theses is extremely important for the preparation of the research. The entire research depends on the clarity of the formulation and precise determination of the research question, hypotheses or theses because hypotheses/theses/research questions represent the concretisation of the research problem, which directs the researcher towards certain actions. We have to take care that hypotheses and research questions are noted down clearly and unambiguously. Regardless of whether we are researching with the help of research questions or hypotheses, we must take care that they are probable and substantiated. Quantitative research involves the establishment of hypotheses, whilst qualitative research involves the establishment of research questions; in the case of theoretical work that does not include empirical research, we talk about theses (more information on all of these is given below). The research question helps us precisely define the cognitive objectives of research work. Here it is not essential for the research question to be formulated as a question; it can be 26 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. expressed affirmatively (for instance we may ask: What are the motives for visiting destination X, or we can say: We wil research the motives for visiting destination X). The research question can therefore be a question or a claim that is not directly subjected to the process of scientific demonstration or verification, but primarily limits the research area and consequently directs our research. The research question must be clearly formulated and free of any complicated clauses. If it involves a complex problem, this can be addressed by posing several sub-questions. General research questions are usually made more specific with a few sub-questions when we are more thoroughly familiarized with the subject of research (as cited in Hafner Fink and Škerlep, n.d.). If the formulation of research questions requires care and precision, the establishment of hypotheses requires even more care because it demands empirical verification. Hypotheses are “scientific assumptions which the researcher believes can help him explain a certain phenomenon or set of phenomena” (Toš and Hafner Fink, 1998, p. 58). A hypothesis is established in such manner that it formulates specific characteristics or interrelations between phenomena and in such manner that these characteristics or interrelations can be verified. Hypotheses must include only claims that can be empirically checked. A good hypothesis is a specific claim that leads to new findings about the phenomena we intend to study. However, it nevertheless has to be logically placed in the theoretical framework of the research. We distinguish between descriptive and relational hypotheses: - Descriptive hypotheses presume a certain characteristic, state or the course of the phenomena. This means hypotheses that reflect the claim about the existence of the phenomenon, frequency of the phenomenon, intensity of the phenomenon or the duration or formation of a certain phenomenon (Toš and Hafner Fink, 1998, pp. 59, 69–70) (e.g. the level of motivation amongst employees of the hotel chain X is high./The majority of respondents have a negative image of destination X.). - Relational hypotheses are richer in content because they reflect relations or interrelations between the phenomena. They are directed only to the connection or correlation between the phenomena, or even to cause and effect interrelations between them (Toš and Hafner Fink, 1998, p. 59, 71) (e.g. the higher the number of tourists at destination X, the higher the level of dissatisfaction of residents of the destination with tourism.). Establishment of hypotheses enables the control of the research process and direction of our work towards the problem that is determined as the subject of research. This is why Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 27. hypotheses must include the following characteristics (as cited in Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 19): 1. They must be established in accordance with the problem. 2. They must be set out clearly, unambiguously and precisely enough (they should not be formed in a way that allows several explanations; they must reflect the nature of a certain phenomenon, and its relation with other phenomena). 3. The manner of establishment must al ow their falsification (their formation must be exclusive, for only this allows the verification of their content; hypotheses “there will be rain here tomorrow or not” cannot be empirically disproved). 4. They need to be formed in a manner that allows experiential (empirical) verification (a hypothesis claiming that the reduction of the number of tourists is caused by an unusual phenomenon cannot be empirically verified). 5. Hypotheses must be probable and reasoned from the very beginning (research based on improbable and unreasoned hypotheses is a waste of time). 6. Hypotheses must have the highest explanatory and predictive power possible, i.e. they need to be as productive as possible (the more productive they are, the more it is possible to use them to explain a broader area of the phenomenon which is the subject of research). 7. Hypotheses must comply with already established and verified hypotheses that relate to the subject of research (in cases where this is not possible due to the insufficient breakdown of the research area, we must come as close as possible to this ideal). 8. Hypotheses should be as simple as possible (when choosing between two hypotheses we should select the simpler one. This selection also must take into account the reality because the simpler hypothesis occasionally does not cover a sufficient area of meaning). According to the degree of generality we can define hypotheses as general, special and individual (Toš and Hafner Fink, 1998, p. 67): - general hypotheses are established from the broadest perspective possible and cover the phenomenon in its entirety; - special hypotheses relate to narrower parts of reality – depending on the claims included in the general hypothesis; - individual hypotheses only include the narrowest segments or parts of the included phenomenon and often relate to particular situations and events. 28 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Generally, the first part of the research process includes the establishment of the general hypothesis that includes the subject of research in its entirety. The subject of research can be further covered with several special hypotheses, where each hypothesis covers its own perspective of the subject of research or part of the research problem to be explained. Figure 1 shows the ratio of special hypotheses that jointly cover the entire circle that represents the subject of research. Only a system of hypotheses that allows perfect coverage of the subject of research can lead to accurate results. In other words, the more complex the subject of research, the more complex is the system of hypotheses required for its explanation (as cited in Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 30). Figure 1: Relationship of hypotheses and the subject of research Source: Adapted from Knežević and Bizjak, 2009, p. 30 If the hypothesis represents a characteristic of empirical research, we generally talk about a thesis in the framework of theoretical work. A thesis is a theoretical claim which, as a theory, is “verified” whereby the consistency of the thesis is verified in the context of a concrete theory, theoretical model or at the level of the relationship between different theories. The formulation of a thesis requires similar requirements to those in the formulation of a hypothesis: clarity, simplicity, logic, verifiability (this time at the theory level), non-triviality, etc. (as cited in Hafner Fink and Škerlep, n.d.). Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 29. Examples of good and bad hypotheses and research questions Hypothesis 1: Poor working conditions are the most frequent reason for employee dissatisfaction. Hypothesis 1 is an example of a wel -established hypothesis. Provided that we perform the measurements appropriately, this hypothesis can be empirically verified. It clearly defines the interactions yet is completely simple. Hypothesis 2: Older employees have longer length of service than younger employees. At first sight, hypothesis 2 can be seen as perfectly good, but verification of such hypothesis proves something completely logical and self-evident. While it is verifiable, it lacks explanatory value because its verification does not prove anything new. This is an example known as a “trivial hypothesis” in methodology, which in the context of the discussed topic represents a self-evident general finding or just a definition of the concept placed in the centre of the research. Research question 1: What knowledge does a good manager require? Research question 1 is widely formed, but with the presumption that we are studying a certain case (e.g. in an organisation), we can use this research question to come to conclusions about which knowledge the manager will require to perform his job well. Research question 2: Can we raise the reputation of the organisation? At first sight, research question 2 seems quite appropriate. However, with this type of question we would throughout the research only be answering the first word of this question, i.e. “can”. The word “can” presumes a binary answer; it can only be answered with “yes” or “no”, which is not sufficient for serious research. The mere replacement of the question word (e.g. with “how”) changes this question and transforms it into a completely appropriate and well-formed question. 30 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Research plan: selection of method and colection of data The answer to the question which method to use depends on the research problem and what interests us regarding this problem, the depth and scope of the problem, and which information is required for its solution (Trunk Širca, Jošt and Skrbinjek, 2012, p. 39). An important part of the methodological plan is therefore the decision regarding which research paradigm the research wil fal within – whether we will have a qualitative approach (e.g. in-depth interviews, observation with participation, discourse analysis, etc.) or a quantitative approach (e.g. survey research, content analysis, etc.). The quantitative approach focuses on the connections between the small number of characteristics in the case of a large number of cases/units, whilst the qualitative approach deals with the connections between a large number of characteristics within the framework of a relatively small number of cases/units (Ragin, 2007, p. 12). Quantitative research is guided by a tendency towards generalisation, while qualitative research is guided by in-depth understanding of the subject of research. For a more thorough distinction between the paradigm of qualitative approach and the paradigm of quantitative approach see chapter 4. The differences between quantitative and qualitative methodologies are presented in Table 3. Table 3: Quantitative and qualitative methodology Quantitative Qualitative Role of researcher View from outside Participation in the environment Progress of the research Deduction Induction Data col ection Standardisation Adaptation to the environment Number of observed units High Low Number of observed characteristics Low High Source: As cited in Toš and Hafner Fink (in Trunk Širca, Jošt and Skrbinjek, 2012, p. 36) Selection of the qualitative or quantitative methodology depends primarily on our problem. The decision on the appropriate method/technique of data collection is taken depending on the definition of the research problem. a) Quantitative research should be selected when we detect a large number of “objects” or analysis units in the research and when the findings relate to the population of these analysis units. In this case we usually talk about a classical model of testing hypotheses about the connections between the variables, i.e. connections between the characteristics Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 31. of the observed units. Survey research is a typical quantitative research. It includes a sufficiently large number of respondents which al ows us to perform statistical analysis of the collected data. Content analysis is also classed as quantitative research. Here, the subject of research represents a large number of “objects” (texts or messages, such as newspaper articles or advertising messages in a certain time period, etc.). In all cases we talk about approaches that al ow somewhat more general findings (as cited in Hafner Fink and Škerlep, n.d.). b) We can talk about qualitative research when we are observing a small number of objects referred to by the findings of the research. Qualitative research includes interviews (structured, semi-structured, biographical), focus groups or guided group conversations, and also observation with participation (it requires the researcher to participate in the research environment and is usual y a combination of several qualitative methods: ethnographic method, in-depth interview). In case of text analysis we are faced with a semiotic (character analysis) or discursive analysis (discourse analysis). Within qualitative research we could also include historical comparative studies, where the researcher deals specifically with the analysis of a certain historical process or event usually on the basis of primary (documents and participants’ testimonies) and secondary sources (studies and discussions by other authors) (as cited in Hafner Fink and Škerlep, n.d.). c) We should not ignore the option of combining these methods, i.e. a combination of the qualitative and quantitative approach. The combined application of qualitative and quantitative methods is becoming an increasingly frequently used research plan in the applied as well as basic scientific area (e.g. see Lobe, 2006, about triangulation and the various types of complementarity of qualitative and quantitative methods). Depending on the nature of the research problem it very often makes sense to appropriately combine the qualitative and quantitative approach, even though they are basically completely different research paradigms (on one hand positivist research, and interpretive research on the other; for more information see Table 1). Case study, also called the intensive study of a single case, which enables an in-depth understanding of a certain phenomenon/unit can therefore combine different methods of data collection (Johansson, 2003). Within the framework of a case study of a certain tourist company we can therefore combine a survey among employees of the studied company, semi-structured interviews with members of the management board, statistical data about the company, analysis of documentation and observation with participation in meetings at the company. In the combination of methods, qualitative and quantitative methods can have equal value. The research can also be primarily quantitative, whilst the qualitative methods play a complementary role, and 32 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. vice versa. It is quite often possible to detect two-phase research plans where the qualitative and quantitative research follow each other in any sequence. Qualitative research is usually performed as the preparation or explanation of the results of quantitative research (qualitative method (interviews) can serve as the explorative method in the preparation of the quantitative measuring instrument (survey questionnaire) or for explanation of the quantitative results after the quantitative research is performed). In the empirical research of final theses at the UM Faculty of Tourism, quantitative and qualitative methodological approaches are for the most part used separately. Data collection methods involve to the greatest extent survey questionnaires and interviews. In certain cases discursive analysis and content analysis are also used (e.g. Perušek, 2019; Jelenovec, 2018; Mlakar, 2018). In the research plan we should also define whether we will collect data ourselves or whether we will use already collected data. We must clearly indicate whether the research is independent (primary) empirical research where the researcher collects data himself using various methods, or a secondary data analysis that includes processing of available data that was already collected in various forms for other purposes (statistical databases, administrative sources, publications, articles, documents). If we decide to use primary (own) research we have to prepare a clear plan for the acquisition (collection) of data: a definition of the method (observation, survey, semi-structured interview, content analysis, etc.), population and (if necessary) the sampling method, data col ection time frame, etc. A decision to use primary collection of data is usually based on a knowledge and review of secondary studies, i.e. already performed studies. When considering the type of research it is always desirable to have prior insight into secondary sources. Due to the higher reliability of data, drawing upon secondary data can sometimes be more valuable than primary collection of a narrow segment of data. Because of the generally higher quality sampling, secondary data also enable more in-depth explanations and generalization of the results than primary research that rarely meets such criteria. What we want to emphasise is that the analysis of secondary data is certainly no less important than the collection and analysis of primary data. It often guarantees a higher level of reliability and validity of the findings (provided the data are of proper quality, of course). This applies especial y for conducting a survey on a general population, because a methodologically appropriate conducting of general sociological survey research (formulation of the questionnaire, sample, data collection) is very demanding and time consuming for an individual, if not actually impossible due to the financial and time constraints. It often occurs that the same research process can logical y combine both Chapter 3: Steps of the Research Process 33. approaches: when using the existing statistical data we can perform independent semi-structured interviews. Examples of primary and secondary data are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Data col ection methods PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA Data we acquire ourselves using various methods Already col ected and available data (articles, (survey questionnaire, interview, observation books, statistical databases, statistical publications, with participation, focus group, experiment, official reports, legal acts, administrative sources, etc.). documents, etc.). 3.5 Analysis and interpretation of data Data should be transparently arranged, analysed and interpreted. The results of analysis are presented in the light of research objectives and in line with the purpose of the research. We must always give meaning to the acquired data in accordance with the determined research problem – what can it tell us and what conclusions can we draw from it. We should not present the data in a merely descriptive manner. The results should not be presented dully (shares/frequency of answers) but always interpreted in the light of our research problem. At this point we should also present any potential unexpected results and reflect on what they mean in relation to the solution of the research problem. In the analysis and interpretation of data we can make use of various available data processing software tools (e.g. Microsoft Office Excel, SPSS, R-Commander, ATLAS.ti). 3.6 Discussion and findings In the discussion we should connect the objectives of the research with the results obtained in the course of the research procedure. In other words, in the findings we evaluate the results of the analysis according to the established hypotheses/research questions. Through the discussion we should combine the analysed and interpreted data in logical content sets and switch from the specific back to the general. Our findings are reincorporated into the theoretical framework by connecting and comparing them with the already known findings and previous research evidence. In the conclusion, we should summarize the key findings of the research and specifically highlight the potential research limitations – we should try to critically evaluate the research work and the results. At the same time the researcher normally reflects on the contribution of the results to the theory and the opening of new innovative paths in the 34 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. research of this problem, and outlines additional perspectives opened up by the research and presents the potential new research paths in this problem area. Finally, we should add that the stated phases in research practice do not necessarily always take place successively. 3 Given the actual nature of the research problem, they often end up interweaving: the researcher for instance usually studies the literature in the field continuously right up to the end of the research; equal y it is possible that analysis of some data is carried out even before certain other data are gathered, and at the same time during the interpretation of data the analysis can be elaborated in greater detail and thereby enhanced. References Božičnik, B. (2018). Prepričevalne tehnike spletnih strani za rezervacije. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Hafner Fink, M. in Škerlep, A. (b. d.). Napotki za prijavo magistrskega dela FDV. Pridobljeno iz http://www.fdv.uni-lj.si/docs/o-fdv/napotki-za-prijavo-teme-mag-dela.docx, 10. 12. 2016. Jelenovec, M. (2018). Vesoljski turizem v resničnosti in v znanstveni fantastiki: od analize del Arthurja Charlesa Clarka do dejanskih turističnih produktov. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Johansson, R. (2003). Case Study Methodology. International Conference “Methodologies in Housing Research”, Stockholm, 22– 24 September 2003. Pridobljeno iz http://psyking.net/HTMLobj-3839/Case_Study_Methodology-_Rolf_Johansson_ver_2.pdf, 4. 12. 2016. Knežević, M. in Bizjak, B. (2009). Merjenja in nekateri merski instrumenti v turističnih raziskavah. Portorož: Turistica. Kokot, K. (2018). Vpliv obiska termalnih zdravilišč na oblikovanje zdravih navad. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Lobe, B. (2006). Združevanje kvalitativnih in kvantitativnih metod – stara praksa v novi preobleki? Družboslovne razprave, XXII(53), 55–73. Marinković, S. (2017). Podoba Slovenije kot turistične destinacije in lojalnost na primeru mednarodnih študentov. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Miklič Milek, D. (2012). Družbeno odgovorno ravnanje in raziskovalna odličnost. 24. forum odličnosti in mojstrstva, Otočec 2012. Mlakar, N. (2018). Vloga prve dame Združenih držav Amerike pri medijski reprezentaciji in razvoju turizma občine Sevnica. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Perušek, K. (2019). Reprezentacija vesoljskega turizma v literaturi: analiza knjige traveler's guide to space: for one-way set lers and round-trip tourists. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Ragin, C. C. (2007). Družboslovno raziskovanje: Enotnost in raznolikost metode. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede. Rozman, R. (2008). Namen in cilji projekta. Projektna mreža Slovenije, 11(2), 4–9. Senekovič, M. (2019). Vloga in pomen naravne in kulturne dediščine pri razvoju trajnostnega turizma na širšem območju Radgonskih goric. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Špindler, T. (2017). Trajnostni razvoj vinskega turizma na območju Ljutomersko-Ormoških goric. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Toš, N. in Hafner Fink, M. (1998). Metode družboslovnega raziskovanja. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede. Trunk Širca, N., Jošt, V. in Skrbinjek, V. (2012). Pisna dela v visokem šolstvu in osnove raziskovanja. Celje: Mednarodna fakulteta za družbene in poslovne študije. Turnšek, B. (2019). Izkustvena ekonomija na primeru dediščinskega turističnega produkta Dežela kozolcev na Dolenjskem. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Zupančič, T. (2018). Interpretacija zgodbe v turističnem produktu Osnovna šola Brihtna glava. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. 3 Successively, gradual y. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 4 Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative BORIS PREVOLŠEK & TJAŠA ALEGRO The purpose of the research, whether qualitative or quantitative, is to discover new findings that contribute to the existing knowledge and encourage researchers to undertake further research. For the purpose of the acquisition of new knowledge, the researcher may resort to qualitative or quantitative research as two very different techniques for the col ection and processing of data. In the past, quantitative research took prominence, while today there is growing use of qualitative methods, which also in the process of triangulation attempt to capture the essence of al possible points of view. As part of their research, students must clearly define their research problem and precisely and clearly define the research objectives. Based on a review of the literature, the researcher has to assess whether there are any research gaps that it makes sense to research. The student’s research model must draw on certain philosophical assumptions and also they must decide which research and data collection and analysis methods to use. 36 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. The selection of the research method should include an assessment of whether the method is appropriate for the set research question, whether the method will bring the desired results, what are the conditions and limitations of the use of this method, which methods are also appropriate, what knowledge is required for the proper use of the method, is it possible to simultaneously use various methods, and whether these methods are compatible. The selection of the research method is followed by the decision regarding the method of data collection. Data collection methods can be used separately or in coordination with each other. Selection of the data collection method depends on the research topic, the selected research methods and on the availability of data. Availability of data has a significant impact on the result of the research, since answers to the questions posed can only be obtained on the basis of a sufficient amount of col ected data. Especially in quantitative research we must take special care over the breadth of the sample (number of units included in the research) in order to guarantee the representativeness of the sample, based on which it is possible to generalise the acquired results to the entire population of the studied units. Quantitative research often requires appropriate sampling of units because entire populations are too large to study and it is technically impossible to include them in the research (example: local population in the research of their attitude towards tourists). Where the population of the studied units is smal er (e.g. directors of Slovenian natural spas) sampling is not required because the research can include the entire population. In qualitative research, where the focus is on studying of a smaller number of units or only an individual unit (person, organisation, event, group), which we try to study as comprehensively as possible, we should rather talk about selection than sampling. This does not mean that the method of selection of units to be studied is not important in qualitative research. It is of key importance that the sample is appropriate or relevant for the research, meaning that the selected units will help us acquire the desired information to answer our research questions or appropriately address the research objectives (Vogrinc, 2008). Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 37. Collection of data is followed by data analysis which includes various approaches, such as hermeneutic, semiotic, content analysis, etc. Despite the aforementioned sequence of steps, the research process includes constant interaction; the researcher keeps returning to the initial steps in order to perfect the established research problem or to establish a more appropriate one. Qualitative research, the term derives from the Latin word “qualitas” (quality, value, distinction, ability, etc.), is a research approach that uses experiential word of mouth and pictorial material in the collection and analysis of data. The emphasis is on the description of the studied situations and on the understanding of the context where these situations occur (Vogrinc, 2008). It highlights the research of the individual’s subjective experiences. Qualitative research takes place in natural conditions and maintains the complexity of everyday situations, and allows the researcher to acquire more realistic findings (Sagadin, 2001). Qualitative research methods are designed to help the researcher understand the participants, and especially what they say and do, with consideration of the social and cultural environment (Myers, 2009). The researcher and those being researched are thus inseparably connected, with a constant interaction between them where the emphasis is on inductive generalisation – from individual to general. Quantitative research derives from the Latin word “quantitas” (how much, quantity, volume). Its characteristic is finding cause-effect connections between the researched phenomena (Sagadin, 2001). Quantitative research is characterised by statistical procedures, reduction of information with numerical data, positivist philosophy, result orientation and emphasis on reliability (Mužić, 2004). Positivist philosophy is characterised by the view of the world in accordance with modern science, rejection of religion, metaphysics and prejudice, and emphasis on the description and explanation of empirical facts (Vogrinc, 2008, pp. 9–10). Al wood (2012, p. 1422) states that the same method can general y be used for the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data, they just need to be adjusted. For instance questionnaires can contain both open questions (qualitative) and numerical scales (quantitative), while interview questions can relate to quantitative (numerical) aspects (e.g. the frequency of museum visits) and qualitative (substantive) aspect (e.g. a guest’s feeling in a particular hotel). It also needs to be taken into account that numbers can be representative content, not just in their primary quantitative aspect. For this reason it might happen that for various reasons the data collection methods are not clearly quantitative or qualitative. 38 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. We can generally say that qualitative approach is more appropriate for more demanding studies that are more complex and include a smaller sample and are based on descriptive variables, while a quantitative research approach is based on numerical variables. Qualitative research in tourism is used to study: − dimensions; − concept forms; − breadth diversity – values (e.g. what people do, their behaviour); − tourist behaviour; − it includes question words, such as why. − Quantitative research in tourism is used to study: − relation, prediction and connection between points of view; − it includes question words, such as how much. Most commonly in the use of quantitative methods of research we establish hypotheses, which given the numerical data can also be statistically verified. In the case of qualitative research methods, we establish research questions, which can be answered by means of a larger selection of acquired substantive data. Just as the data collection methods are not always necessarily strictly quantitative or qualitative, due to the nature of the research the researcher might decide that despite the quantitative method they will establish research questions or in a qualitative method, hypotheses. The student should fol ow the mentor’s guidelines here. QUANTITATIVE METHODS + HYPOTHESES QUALITATIVE METHODS + RESEARCH QUESTIONS In research we use primary and secondary data. All data that are the result of research are primary data. Secondary data are obtained from other research already conducted. Qualitative research provides primary data which can represent the basis for further research. In this manner, we can directly acquire data by means of the appropriate methods, and simultaneously guarantee the validity, objectivity and reliability of the acquired data (Radonjič and Iršič, 2006). Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 39. Presented below are the two methods of researching, the qualitative and quantitative, and actual examples of research topics that students of the University of Maribor Faculty of Tourism addressed in their final theses. 4.1 Definition of qualitative research methods and data colection Qualitative research can be defined as sequential research based on a plan of research actions sequentially following one another in a short period of time, followed by analysis of the collected empirical material (Mesec, 1997). Questions asked by researchers in qualitative research (Myers, 2009): What is happening? Why is it happening? How did this arise? When did it happen? In order to carry out qualitative research it is important for the researcher to take account of its characteristics, in other words both the suitability of using a specific research method and technique of collecting and analysing data, and ethical principles. Qualitative techniques are interpretive techniques which the researcher uses to try to describe, decode, translate or in another way discover the meaning of certain, more or less, natural phenomena in the social world (Van Maanen, 1983). Below we present the most common qualitative methods of data collection and explain them using concrete examples. 4.1.1 Interview Interviews are important techniques for gathering data in the area of business sciences, and are used in positivist, interpretive and also critical research. Basically, we distinguish between structured, semi-structured and non-structured interviews. An in-depth interview is a technique involving the creation of a live picture of the angle of the interviewee regarding the topic of research. The researcher poses the interviewee questions in a neutral manner, without suggesting an answer or expressing approval or disapproval of the answer, and simply listens attentively and poses further questions based on the information already given, in this way steering the conversation (Mack et al., 2005). An in-depth interview helps to gather rich data from people in various roles and situations (Myers, 2009, p. 121). 40 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. An in-depth interview is usually held in person, although it can also be done over the telephone. With the permission of the interviewee, the interview is recorded, so that later a transcript of the conversation can be added as an annex to the research (verbatim text), serving for subsequent analysis. An in-depth interview lasts on average one to two hours and is conducted individually with several people who are familiar with the research topic but come from different fields (Mack et al., 2005). In his final thesis Marketing authenticity: medieval performance tourism, the student Hojnik (2015) used the methods of in-depth interview and open-type survey, whereby he obtained all the necessary information to be able to answer the previously posed research questions. His sample of interviewees comprised three experts in authenticity who have years of experience in this field and numerous achievements in the area of staging events. He conducted interviews with each person separately, in person and also recorded them on video. He added the transcripts of the interviews as an annex to the final thesis. In the analysis he condensed the interview responses into conclusions pertaining to specific questions in the interview. In her final thesis on the Role and importance of natural and cultural heritage in the development of sustainable tourism in the wider area of Radgonske Gorice, the student Senekovič (2019) used as her research method semi-structured interviews and answered the posed research questions. She conducted nine interviews with tourism stakeholders in the public sector in the area under study. She chose the public sector because it is the main decision-maker regarding tourism. She condensed the results by various fields, whereby she was able to answer the posed research questions. 4.1.2 Observation with participation The observation method derives from traditional ethnographic research, which helps the researcher gather data on the perspective of the studied population. Observation with participation always proceeds in the community setting, at locations where it is surmised that they are significant for the posed research questions. The researcher comes right up close to or enters the environment of the participant in the research. The researcher observes the research participant and tries to gather as much data as possible about their behaviour, while at the same time remaining an objective outside observer. Throughout the period of observation the observer or researcher careful y notes down al observations and possible remarks for later analysis. Equally, informal interaction of the researcher with members or participants of the research, in this case observed people who must be Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 41. recorded, is also important. The data obtained by observing participants serve to verify the subjective reporting of participants regarding what they believe in and how they behave. The method is also useful for understanding the physical, social, cultural and economic context in which the study participants live. Using this method we can also study relations between people, different ideas, norms, events, behaviour and activities of people – what they do, how often and with whom (Mack et al., 2005). An example of research using the observation method is the apparent shopping or “mystery shopper” method. Kotler et al. (1996) identifies mystery shopping as one of the methods whereby we can generate an image of buyer satisfaction, using hired people to pretend to be potential buyers, and then they can report feedback on positive or negative experiences of shopping for products made by our own company or the competition. For the purposes of carrying out mystery shopping, we first draw up an evaluation sheet with various categories to be evaluated, and alongside this we can also use various different measuring scales for evaluation. In the end we also record an analysis or interpretation of the results and offer possible suggestions for improvements. 4.1.3 Focus groups Focus groups are a form of research method whereby we obtain qualitative data from a group of people, usual y by means of semi-structured questions (Creswell, 2016). Krueger and Casey (2009) take the view that the optimal number of participants is between 8 and 10. In the literature this number varies from 5 to 12 participants. Focus groups are led by the researcher and last up to two hours (Sekaran in Daniels, Hil man and Radel, 2018). Focus groups can provide in-depth information on various topics that the researcher is studying (Stone, 2008). Focus group participants are always selected relative to the topic, so that they know it well (Sekaran in Daniels, Hillman and Radel, 2018). A rule of conducting a focus group is that the researcher should be open regarding the answers received and should not judge the opinions the participants give regarding the topic in question. Equal y it is important for the discussion in a focus group to proceed in what is a pleasant environment for the participants, where they can talk in a relaxed way about the selected topic (Krueger and Casey, 2009). 42 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Focus forms are most appropriate as a research methodology in tourism when we seek to obtain information on opinions and responses of consumers regarding a new product or service offered by the tourist industry (Rodgers, 2001). A focus group enables us to determine the kind of perception and feelings regarding specific challenges that arise, services or opportunities (Krueger and Casey, 2000). As a research method, focus groups have both advantages and weaknesses. Delahaye (in Daniels, Hil man and Radel, 2018) cites the following advantages: often more effective than interviews, they promote the process of externalising knowledge, they enable the immediate synthesis of various opinions and views of a topic, and focus groups can serve for researching multiple challenges that arise. The authors (ibid.) also summarise the following weaknesses of focus groups: the organisational logistics of a meeting of al the participants and preparation of the appropriate technical equipment, the opinion of one individual can dominate the entire discussion, individuals are less wil ing to speak about topics that are sensitive for them, and the final highlighted weakness is the subjective analysis of the data obtained. Krueger and Casey (2009) state that a focus group can be used to obtain information necessary for final decisions and information that can be handed over to a product development group, for instance before major investment decisions. Focus groups offer an insight into organisational problems, such as customer satisfaction, organisational development or understanding employees. Equal y, focus groups are suitable for obtaining information that helps in planning and setting out objectives. Conducting a focus group requires thorough preparation. Before it is conducted, a plan is drawn up involving a protocol for the progress of questions, thematic sets of questions are noted down and how much available time is determined for the individual set, then a note is made of some sub-questions which wil help us stay on topic. We prepare the space and equipment (recording device, consent to participate in the focus group, sheets with questions). 4.1.4 Discursive analysis of content Discourse analysis is a well-established qualitative research method that is used in various disciplines. There are various approaches regarding how discursive analysis should be tackled. Despite the fact that approaches vary, they are all founded on the importance of linguistic structuring, with the aim of systematically and quantitatively describing the content we are seeking to provide (Feltham-King and Macleod, 2016. p. 1). Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 43. Discourse analysis therefore focuses on the structure of a certain text, taking into consideration the social context where the text was created. Discourse analysis focuses on language that people use in everyday conversation or in writing (Myers, 2009). It seeks to identify why a certain text was written as it was and not in some other way and why specific words are used in a specific word order (Johnstone, 2001). There are various approaches to discourse analysis. The most commonly used is what is called critical discourse analysis, which is paradigmatically linked to what are called critical approaches in tourism studies. This therefore differs for instance from qualitative thematic analysis of content in that its primary purpose is to identify hidden, at first glance unnoticed, patterns in communication, which reveal relations of power in society (such as power in class, racial, gender or historical colonialist differentiation). An example of the use of discourse analysis in Slovenian is the paper by Vezovnik (2007), who analyses through what discourses magazines present what is cal ed new fatherhood and how stereotypical images of fatherhood are still present in these discourses. 4.2 Analysis of qualitative data Titling of the research topic or problem and the selection of the appropriate research methods and data collection techniques are followed by the analysis and interpretation of qualitative data. The major part of the analysis and interpretation of data is performed at the end of the research when the researcher tries to identify the most important information from a large volume of data. The researcher tries to arrange the data into an appropriate form that al ows them to focus on the important aspects of their research. In this way data is transformed into important conclusions that al ow a better understanding of the research area and contribute new knowledge to the already existing theories or knowledge (Myers, 2009). In analysing the data, the researcher uses various approaches and harmonises them together appropriately. Here we encounter various approaches which we will present below. Coding of data is most certainly the simplest means of data analysis. It involves the use of various codes to describe or summarise a certain sentence, paragraph or even large volumes of text. Miles et al. (1994) define codes as markings that we use to give a certain meaning to the collected data during research. Analysis therefore begins with the formation of codes used for the arrangement of a large volume of data into categories that thereby reduce this volume, and to enable better organisation of this data and faster data analysis. According to Ryan and Bernard (2000), coding should fol ow six steps, i.e. 44 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. sampling, identification of topics, formation of the list of codes, connection of codes with the text, and formation and verification of models. The framework of sampling includes identification of the text under analysis, exposure of key topics and preparation of the list of possible codes and their definitions. Certain codes are attributed the text applicable to them. This is followed by the establishment of a model for checking how the topics, concepts, beliefs and behaviours are interconnected. The established model is then verified by means of empirical data. Notes are often used as an accessory in data analysis. They represent the researcher’s personal notes about what is happening during the course of the research or about the way the researcher undertook the research. Such notes include the researcher’s thinking and, at the same time, his feelings and actions during the course of the research. Esterberg (2002) recognises two types of notes – procedural and analytical. Procedural notes are focused on the course of the research and record how the researcher undertook the research and how they performed it. Such notes provide a rich insight into the actual progress of the research. Analytical notes focus on the research topic, i.e. collected data, and on the potential meaning of such data. These notes represent the first step in the establishment of final findings. Analytical induction is a type of data analysis where we develop explanations about a certain phenomenon on the basis of a single or several examples. Ryan and Bernard (2002) explain that we should first define the phenomenon to be explained and the purpose of this explanation. This should be followed by verification of the explanation of a certain phenomenon with a large number of examples. During the course of verification, our explanation is supplemented with new knowledge provided by specific cases. This procedure continues until we develop a certain general explanation of the phenomenon that applies to al studied cases. Analysis of qualitative data can also take place on the basis of a set of events that can be arranged in a chronological order. Depending on certain common characteristics, these events can be arranged in categories; this might be events that occurred in the same time period, or events with a different aspect of interconnection. The events can be described in the form of a narrative or they can be summarised in the form of tables or time charts (Miles et al., 1994). Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 45. Critical incident is an analysis of qualitative data which places at the core of the research the opinions of people regarding certain events or incidents (Miles et al., 1994). Such analysis is a somewhat shortened form of the set of events, because this approach al ows systematic collection of important data related to certain events, analyses certain samples and enables the reader to identify key conclusions. Many different incidents are often studied together in order to identify possible common characteristics. Although critical incident techniques arise from the positivist approach they can also be used as part of an interpretive approach (Kain, 2004). Content analysis is focused on identification of the meaning of written or visual sources, such as newspapers or advertisements, by breaking down their content into categories (Payne and Payne, 2004). McNabb (2002) emphasises that the essential advantage of such data analysis is that it provides the researcher with a structured method based on which they can analyse the content of the text in a simple, clear and reproducible manner. The main weakness of such data analysis is that it often takes certain information out of context, which often causes a loss of meaning of the entire text or makes it difficult to summarise such meaning. This is exactly why content analysis is only appropriate when the meaning of a certain text is strongly or clearly emphasised (McNabb, 2002). Content analysis is appropriate for searching repeated words and the way these words change through time, therefore it is often used for the analysis of historical trends or interview texts. Practical principles for thematic analysis are as follows (Radel and Hillman, 2018): - Counting (seeking replicated things, events that repeat). - Observation of topics and samples (seeking links between things that appear). - We formulate metaphors, diagrams, analogies, diagrams of the course of events, thought folders, socio-grams or symbols for things that appear. - We check what stands apart, is different and events or phenomena that appear very often. - We link specific events or phenomena to those that are frequent. - We observe discrepancies and similarities. - We observe creation, linking or intervention differences. - We observe whether the repetitions in data are similar to theories or concepts. 46 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. In her final thesis Creating stories in tourism promotion in health spa municipalities, student Haramija (2016) ventured to a small extent into the use of qualitative in-depth analysis of websites. She wished to analyse the use of stories that health spa municipalities use on their official websites, so she posed several research questions. She undertook the method of qualitative analysis by analysing 14 websites of health spa municipalities. First she analysed whether the websites mention tourism. Websites that mentioned tourism were then analysed for units of stories. A story unit would appear most commonly as a brief description on the website, while some descriptions included a picture of the attraction in question. She then went on to enhance her analysis and study the elements of story-telling in the descriptions. She noted down the results of this analysis in tables, whereby she was able to answer the posed research questions. Conversation analysis addresses language as a human activity. Unlike written sources, oral sources are unofficial, non-structured and often grammatically incorrect. The topic of conversation often changes, leaving previous topics not completely discussed (Myers, 2009). Metaphor analysis enables systematic reflection on metaphors whereby and through which we can perceive, talk, think and function. The first step in metaphor analysis is detection of metaphors in the text. Metaphors occur when the background of the meaning of words or phrases hides a certain deeper meaning and when their meaning arises from a certain, often abstract, psychological or cultural experience (Schmitt, 2005). Hermeneutics is studying the explanation, interpretation and understanding of a certain text, symbol or sign. In qualitative research, such as a case study or ethnography, the researcher collects a large volume of data, such as notes, interviews, documents, field notes, sound recordings, descriptions of events, etc. The researcher must then arrange, interpret and explain the collected data. This is where hermeneutics comes in handy because it enables analysis through which the researcher is able to interpret and understand the meaning of texts. Hermeneutics prioritises the understanding of people. It therefore seeks to comprehend what people talk about, do and why they do it (Myers, 2009). It enables in-depth analysis of social and organisational situations in business and is used also to study qualitative data in business (i.e. information systems) and marketing (Myers, 2009). Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 47. One of the important advantages of semiotic analysis, compared to content analysis, is that the researcher is not satisfied with superficial understanding of a certain text, but tries to use his analysis to penetrate and transcend the obvious observations. It is important to note that researchers always interpret signs or symbols differently, therefore it is often necessary to resort to an arbitrarily defined understanding of the problem (Bryman, 2004, as cited in Vogrinc, 2008). An advantage of semiotics that Myers (2009) points out is the encouragement of the researcher to use various categories of data, whether in the form of text, pictures or sound recordings, because semiotics encourages the researcher to decode the hidden meanings of signs and symbols. The author sees its disadvantage as the excessive focus on the importance of symbols and signs and attributing a passive role to people. Semiotics also requires a considerable level of creativity in the researcher. Narrative theory assumes that people form and live their lives through the narration of a story. Many theorists have pointed out that people are without a doubt creatures that narrate stories (homo narrans). Stories are therefore a special form of interpersonal communication in a certain social context (Sremec, 2009). Narrative analysis can also be used for the analysis of data collected on the basis of interviews, where it is important that interviewees provide information that narrates the story, and that the analysis is open and encourages the interviewee to discuss new topics (Chase, 2005, as cited in Myers, 2009). 4.3 Definition of quantitative research methods and data colection Quantitative research emphasises numbers attributed with a value and which represent the basis for the establishment of their theoretical construct and scientific substantiation of the functioning of the studied case. Examples of quantitative research (Myers, 2009): - surveys; - laboratory experiments; - simulation; - mathematical modelling; - statistical analysis; - econometrics. 48 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Quantitative research alows generalisation for the population with the help of an appropriate statistical sample and methods, therefore it is often used when we wish to research a certain topic with a large number of people or an organisation. This research is intended to find the patterns of behaviour that occur in different situations. A weakness of quantitative research is that a lot of information is lost during the course of the research because a large part of social and cultural aspects is ignored due to generalisation (Myers, 2009). 4.3.1 Survey Surveys are a commonly used method of research in tourism studies. Surveys are used to gather information from individuals through a previously prepared form with questions – a questionnaire. There are six types of survey: household surveys (participants are selected based on where they live and are surveyed at home), street survey (surveying random passers-by), telephone survey (respondents are surveyed in a telephone conversation), postal survey (the questionnaire is sent out to respondents who return the completed form via the postal service), e-mail survey (the questionnaire is sent out by e-mail and is returned via the same channel), and surveys completed by tourists at the destination itself (the tourist or user of some tourist service or infrastructure or the destination representative is surveyed at the actual destination) (Veal, 2017). In formulating questions, the purpose of the research needs to be kept in mind continuously. It frequently happens that the researcher formulates questions too quickly. A survey should only include questions that offer responses to the research questions/hypotheses. In formulating a questionnaire, the researcher must search through as many pieces of research and questionnaires as possible that dealt with the topic being studied, so that the result obtained can have a basis of comparability, since only in this way will data be collected in a similar way. Questions from already conducted research thus become part of the input in formulating the researcher’s survey questions (Veal, 2017). In a generalised way, the information we seek through a survey questionnaire can be divided into two groups (Veal, 2017): - characteristics of respondents (who? – gender, age, economic status, social status, etc.); Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 49. - activities and behaviour of respondents (what? – activities where they are/at the destination, frequency of visits, time spent at destination, information related to travel, etc.); - behaviour and motivators of respondents (why? – reason for choosing destination, importance of something, satisfaction/evaluation of experience, future intentions/wishes, etc.). In formulating the wording of questions, researchers should (Veal, 2017): - avoid the use of jargon; - simplify questions/words where possible; - avoid ambiguous questions; - avoid questions that hint at the desired answer; - pose just one question at a time. Surveys involve open, semi-open and closed types of question. Answers to questions can be measured using various scales, for instance category scales, the Thurston scale, Likert scale, semantic differential, Stapel scale, graphic scales, ranking scales, comparative scales and more. In his final thesis entitled Sustainable development of wine tourism in the area of Ljutomersko – Ormoške gorice, student Špindler (2017) used the method of online survey, whereby he sought transport verify the views of vine growers and vintners of that area. The survey was accessible online for around one month, and the student sent out e-mail invitations in advance to vine growers and vintners to complete the survey. Due to the low level of responses, invitations to complete the survey were sent out again and twice more later on. The survey made use of nominal measuring with a simple scale and a Likert scale. The latter was used to assess the attitude to the topic under study through a graded level of importance of the individual statement. Responses were given a numerical value that served to calculate the average value of scores given in all survey questionnaires. The student Turnšek (2019) also used a survey as a method of gathering data for his thesis Experiential economy in the case of the heritage tourism product Land of Hayracks in Dolenjska. The survey was posted online from April to November and at the entrance to the museum in physical form. First the student obtained permission to conduct the survey in the chosen museum, to which he sent a letter with his request. The survey questionnaire is composed of an introductory message, a link to the online version of the survey and a QR code for 50 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. easier linking to the survey using a mobile device. The response rate for completing the hard copy survey was low. In the end a total of 117 surveys were fully completed in hard copy and electronic form. The results of the questionnaire are interpreted by means of graphs and tables and statistical analysis, which was performed using the SPSS programme. Through this analysis the student confirmed or rejected the established hypotheses. The letter requesting the survey and the entire survey questionnaire are added as an annex to the final thesis. The survey questionnaire is an example of well-posed questions. 4.4 Use of qualitative and quantitative methods Qualitative and quantitative research use different approaches, but can complement each other during the course of the study because it is possible to combine the two techniques in order to get a comprehensive picture about a certain phenomenon (Neuman, 2003). Myers (2009) agrees with Neuman’s opinion and also believes that research should include qualitative and quantitative methods and that both types of research can be outstanding from the scientific point of view. Neuman (2013) defines qualitative and quantitative research as the process (triangulation) where a certain problem is viewed from different perspectives. In the triangulation of methods, qualitative methods are mixed and complemented with quantitative methods and vice versa. This therefore involves two different approaches where one of them follows natural science methods, whilst the other uses methods that are characteristic of humanistic methods and cultural studies (Mesec, 1997). Triangulation supports the principle that the research should comprise several different research methods, whether for collection of data or their analysis. The use of various sources is very widespread; researchers acquire information on the basis of the review of literature or through questionnaires and interviews. Simultaneous use of different research methods for analysis in a single research project is a lot more demanding because these methods differ significantly and require the researcher to have a wider knowledge of qualitative as well as quantitative research methods (Myers, 2009). In research we can therefore use both the qualitative and quantitative method, and in so doing we set up either research questions or hypotheses. For instance, the students Alegro (2018) and Turnšek (2019) produced final theses in which they first used the method of qualitative content analysis, and in the second half quantitative content analysis, thereby arriving at answers to the posed research questions and hypotheses. Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 51. In her final thesis Marketing destinations on YouTube – branding and story-teling, student Alegro (2018) explored in the first part the typology of stories, so she posed the research question: “What is the basic typology of promotional videos entered in the UNWTO competition?” In order to respond to the posed question, she used inductive qualitative analysis of the content of the videos. In the second part she employed the method of quantitative analysis of the video content using a code book, which involved the counting of specific content she had previously determined in the code book. In the second part of the analysis she was also able to answer the other research questions, which related to the number of elements of story-tel ing in an individual video, support of the destination brand and recording the response of users to the published video. The student Turnšek (2019) posed both a research question and hypotheses in his thesis Experiential economy in the case of the heritage tourism product Land of Hayracks in Dolenjska. First he asked: “What elements of experiential economy can be traced in product catalogues and on the Land of Hayracks (Dežela kozolcev) website?” He answered this research question using the qualitative method of content analysis. The content data he obtained by analysing the Land of Hayracks website and catalogues for the tourist product in question were arranged in a system of categorisation that al ows for the possibility of renewed analysis and reconstruction of findings, which in this type of analysis are usual y subjective (Mayring, 2014 in Turnšek, 2019). He then went on to use the quantitative method of surveying, whereby he was able to confirm or reject the posed hypotheses. There is no difference between quantitative and qualitative approach in terms of their contribution to the spreading of knowledge about a certain problem or area. The difference is that in the quantitative approach we believe that an individual study adds only a small part to the bigger picture assembled on the basis of a large number of time-limited linear ongoing studies, while in the qualitative approach we believe that we can, within the framework of a single study composed of several small studies, gradually expand the range of findings to the extent where we can create an applicable theory (Mesec, 1997). 4.5 Discussion and findings The selection of the method and data col ection techniques depends on the selected research method, topic of research and the available data. When selecting the method it is important that the researcher is familiar with it. Only a good knowledge of the techniques can guarantee their proper use. In addition to a knowledge of research techniques, the researcher also needs to be aware of the limitations of a particular method, and with this 52 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. in mind select the most appropriate one. For instance in using the quantitative method (survey), a sufficiently high response rate must be ensured, and therefore a willingness to complete the survey. In qualitative research it is the researchers themselves and their knowledge that are the fundamental standards. Extremely important in this method is reconceptualisation, for which reason the qualitative method is also identified as complex, since the researcher makes their own decision on the standard. Reconceptualisation is actually performed by the researcher: if something they predicted or envisioned is not going according to plan, they can change and re-establish the concept. This task can only be performed by a researcher who is an excel ent methodologist, which is why methodological education is very important for qualitative research. Besides the limited availability of sources and time, in research we also have to deal with the restrictions of established ethical principles. During research we are often faced with moral issues when we try to protect the participants of the research on one hand and conclude the research with openly published findings on the other. In their research, the researcher must abide by numerous ethical principles, such as the golden rule, honesty, avoidance of plagiarism and acquisition of consent and permission for the publication of the results (Myers, 2009). The purpose of each research project is not just the preparation of the article, but also its publication, whether in the form of an article, book or a paper at a conference. In such manner, our knowledge and experiences acquired in the research contribute to the awareness of other researchers that can use our research as a good basis for their own research. References Alegro, T. (2018). Marketing destinacij na YouTubu – znamčenje in zgodbarjenje. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Allwood, C. M. (2012). The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research methods is problematic. Quality & Quantity, 46(5), 1417–1429. Bryman, A. (2004). Social Research Methods. New York: Oxford University. Chase, S. E. (2005). Narrative inquiry: multiple lenses, approaches, voices. V N. K. Denzin in Y. S. Lincoln (ur.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, (3rd Ed.), (str. 651–79). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2016). 30 essential skil s for the qualitative researcher. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Daniels, C., Hillman, W. in Radel, K. (2018). Qualitative Tourism Research: Focus Groups. V W. Hillman in K. Radel (ur.), Qualitative Methods in Tourism Research: Theory and Practice, (str. 184–199). UK: Channel View Publications. Esterberg, K. G. (2002). Qualitative methods in social research. Boston: McGraw-Hil Education. Feltham-King, T. in Macleod, C. (2016). How content analysis may complement and extend the insights of discourse analysis: An example of research on constructions of abortion in South African newspapers 1978–2005. International journal of qualitative methods, 15(1), 1–9. Chapter 4: Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 53. Haramija, M. (2016). Oblikovanje zgodb v turistični promociji v zdraviliških občinah. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Hojnik, S. (2015). Trženje avtentičnosti: srednjeveški uprizoritveni turizem. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Johnstone, B. (2001). Discourse Analysis and Narrative. V D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, H. E. Hamilton (ur.), The handbook of discourse analysis, (str. 635–649). Malden: Blackwel Publishers. Kain, J. S. (2004). The Kain–Fritsch convective parameterization: an update. Journal of applied meteorology, 43(1), 170–181. Kotler, P., Česen, N., Žnideršič, M., Česen, T., Finžgar, E., Umek, A. in Zupančič, B. (1996). Marketing management-trženjsko upravljanje: analiza, načrtovanje, izvajanje in nadzor. Ljubljana: Slovenska knjiga. Krueger, R. A. in Casey, M. A. (2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (3rd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Krueger, R. A. in Casey, M. A. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (4th Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Maanen, J. V. (1983). Qualitative methodology. Beverly Hills: Sage. Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K., Guest, G. in Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative research methods: A data col ector’s field guide. Research Triangle Park, NC: Family Health International. McNabb, D. E. (2002). Research methods in public administration and nonprofit management. New York: 3A.E. Sharpe. Mesec, B. (1997). Kvalitativna metodologija: izhodišča in načela. V Uvod v kvalitativno raziskovanje v socialnem delu. Pridobljeno iz https:// sites. google. com/site/kvalitativnametodologija/kvalitativnametodologija/uvod-v-kvalitativno-raziskovanje-v-socialnem-delu-knjiga-1, 7. 1. 2017. Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., Huberman, M. A. in Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. London: Sage. Mužić, V. (2004). Uvod u metodologiju istraživanja odgoja i obrazovanja. Zagreb: Educa. Myers, D. M. (2009). Qualitative research in Business & Management. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC: Sage. Neuman, W. (2003). Social research methods: qualitative and quantitative approaches. Boston: Al yn and Bacon. Von Neumann, J. (2013). Mathematische grundlagen der quantenmechanik (Vol. 38). Springer-Verlag. Payne, G. in Payne, J. (2004). Key concepts in social research. London: Sage. Radel, K. in Hil man, W., (2018). A Grounded Theory Approach to Tourism. V W. Hil man in K. Radel (ur.), Qualitative Methods in Tourism Research: Theory and Practice, (str. 29–49). UK: Channel View Publications. Radonjič, D. in Iršič, M. (2006). Raziskava marketinga. Ljubljana: GV založba. Rodgers, J. (2001). Travel and tourism. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers. Ryan, G. W. in Bernard, H. R. (2000). Techniques to identify themes in qualitative data. Handbook of Qualitative Research. (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sagadin, J. (2001). Pregledno o kvalitativnem empiričnem pedagoškem raziskovanju. Sodobna pedagogika. Pridobljeno iz http://www.sodobnapedagogika.net/?option=com_content&task=view&id=1501&Itemid=22, 6. 1. 2017. Senekovič, M. (2019). Vloga in pomen naravne in kulturne dediščine pri razvoju trajnostnega turizma na širšem območju Radgonskih goric. (Diplomsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Schmitt, R. (2005). Systematic metaphor analysis as a method of qualitative research. The qualitative report, 10(2), 358–394. Sremac, S. (2009). Integrativni pristup praktičnoj teologiji: Socijalna konstrukcija konverzije-primer narativne analize svedočanstva konverzije kod bivših zavisnika. Kairos: Evanđeoski teološki časopis, 3(2), 339–364. Stone, R. J., (2008). Managing human resources. (2nd Ed.). Milton, Old: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd. Špindler, T. (2017). Trajnostni razvoj vinskega turizma na območju Ljutomersko-Ormoških goric. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. 54 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Turnšek, B. (2019). Izkustvena ekonomija na primeru dediščinskega turističnega produkta Dežela kozolcev na Dolenjskem. (Magistrsko delo). Fakulteta za turizem, Univerza v Mariboru, Brežice. Veal, A. J. (2017). Research methods for leisure and tourism. UK: Pearson. Vogrinc, J. (2008). Kvalitativno raziskovanje na pedagoškem področju. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 5 Personal relations in scientific writing MARKO KOŠČAK To learn how to learn is nowadays one of the fundamental human competences. The complex capacity for mastering personal learning includes the ability of decision-making, criticism and self-criticism, developed thought processes, maintained curiosity, general knowledge, a rich conceptual world and satisfactory level of previous personal knowledge. The capacity for independent learning is these days joined by digital ability. This allows the student to independently decide, to look for new paths towards knowledge (book, newspaper article, telephone conversation with an acquaintance, direct observation of a person possessing certain knowledge, archives, encyclopaedias, internet, consultation, trial and error, etc.). Some people still have not developed all of these abilities and characteristics, and require the help of a mentor to stay on their individual path of education (Krajnc, 2012). 5.1 Mentorship The word mentor derives from the Greek legend of an old and experienced man called Mentor, who was a friend of Odysseus. When he was departing for the Trojan war, Odysseus entrusted him to take care of his home and to raise his son Telemachus. Mentor was Odysseus’s counsel or and educator. The word mentor therefore stands for a leader, teacher, educator, counsel or of a young person who has less experience of life in society. 56 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Mentorship is stil one of the very frequent forms of education. The period of study is when a student starts encountering the subject matter they will face in their career in one way or another, the period when the student becomes acquainted with or even studies this subject matter in a more in-depth and practical manner. The diploma thesis as the conclusion of an extensive piece of study therefore represents the peak of a student’s activities, which should represent a professional chal enge through which they are usual y guided and directed by the selected mentor. The level of quality of the diploma thesis therefore also partly depends on the relationship between the student and the mentor. In order for this relationship to be as successful and as effective as possible, we believe that the development of a positive relationship between the student and the mentor is the most important thing. Successful mentorship requires appropriate initial conditions: - In principle, the mentor should not turn down any mentorship, unless there is a limit on how many mentorships an individual mentor may accept. - The mentor should be convinced that learning wil be successful, and should have unconditional confidence in the student’s abilities. - The mentor and student need to be personal y compatible, at least in the sense that they share a professional affinity. - There needs to be mutual trust between them, for this is the prerequisite for open communication. The mentor should be able to get close to the student and identify with the student, and should get to know them in order to be able to draw out the student’s latent gifts and potentials and release all of their unexpressed personal capacities. There is usually a relationship of positive sensitivity between the mentor and student. In a mentoring relationship, freedom of expression, progress in the student’s knowledge on one hand and suggestions from the mentor on the other hand, and also the boundaries of knowledge being set should be in an optimal balance. According to a Chinese saying, the greatest happiness a person can experience is to meet an appropriate mentor, because this guarantees the student’s personal development and progress. Education in a relationship with the mentor is the most individualised path to knowledge and ranks as one of the most rational and effective forms of education. Mentorship is a dynamic social relationship. Tasks divided between the mentor and the student lead to the same goal: the student’s knowledge. In this relationship the mentor should adapt to the student and vice versa. The mentor makes the path to the goal shorter and compensates for certain characteristic the student lacks. It often occurs that the student is not able to Chapter 5: Personal relations in scientific writing 57. reach the end on their own because of their inability to make all the decisions, such as selection of sources, setting of criteria for a satisfactory level of knowledge, error detection, etc., no matter whether we are talking about a 15, 30 or 70 year-old student. The student needs a mentor to help navigate to the finish. The mentor connects and coordinates various sources of knowledge and helps the student to discover new sources. He or she closely monitors what the student already knows and what the subsequent learning tasks are. The mentor therefore provides the student with a safe environment (Krajnc, 2012). 5.2 Building a positive relationship between student and mentor There are many ways to establish a positive relationship between the student and the mentor, and this contributes to the general positive atmosphere at the faculty and to the success of its students. A positive relationship is likely to lead to effective consideration of the clearly defined parameters set for the preparation of the diploma thesis. Students are humans and as such find it important for the mentor to take them seriously, encourage them and acknowledge their achievements. The development of constructive relationships with students is an uninterrupted process that includes everyday interactions between the student and the mentor. Important parts of such relationship: - communicating positive expectations; - constructive correction of student’s work; - building professional confidence; - expression of interest in the student and their work; - prevention and limitation of own frustrations and stress on the part of the mentor. a) Communicating positive expectations to the student: High-level expectations and the positive communication of expectations regarding the results of the student’s work will sooner or later lead to the fulfilment of these expectations. It is therefore a good thing that the mentor, in interacting with the student, pays enough attention to the communication of high-level expectations in the academic field as well as more widely, because these expectations are of key importance for the transformation of the student into an independently thinking expert who will in the future work in expert circles outside the faculty, where they will draw from knowledge acquired at the faculty. It is also important that high-level expectations are communicated to al students, and not just to 58 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. the most successful members of the student population. This process already begins when addressing students during lectures and practicals. b) Constructive correction of student’s work; The purpose of correcting a student’s work and the formulation of recommendations and suggestions is to make the student reflect on the performed task, determine the reasons for its necessity and to understand its content in a way that such corrections and suggestions will no longer be required in the future. The suggestion of amendments should be professional and in no way impugn the student’s dignity. It is appropriate for the discussion on this to take place in a place where the mentor and student can talk privately without an unnecessary audience. The mentor should provide the student with mentorship they would wish for their own child. It is important that the discussion is always calm and constructive and that the mentor and student do not surrender to frustrations. c) Building professional confidence: Professional confidence is quite underestimated given its influence in terms of a successful and effective relationship between the student and mentor. Every student’s goal is or should be to achieve high-level results in their area of expertise, which consequently contribute to the formation of their professional and wider personal identity. The mentor’s task is to promote professional confidence and to establish this on the basis of the professional achievements of the individual student or even group of students during practicals, in the year group and so forth. Acknowledgement of a student’s achievements can, for example, be shown with a display of their work, oral praise during lectures, spreading of information about their achievement to other students and professors, and also through praise of the student’s progress and not only their outstanding achievement. d) Expression of interest in the student and their work: Expression of interest is one of the most effective ways of establishing a positive relationship between the student and mentor. The mentor should greet the student, sincerely listen to them and show understanding of their perception of the set tasks and work. Such an approach contributes to the disciplined performance of the set tasks and adherence to the established methodology. e) Prevention and limitation of own frustrations and stress on the part of the mentor: Frustration and stress are inevitable occurrences in the professor’s or mentor’s career. The question is therefore not whether the mentor will get frustrated and stressed, but when and how they will respond to this. The signs include being on edge and a tendency Chapter 5: Personal relations in scientific writing 59. to make irrational decisions. The mentor should first be able to recognise the signals in them in order to be able to successfully manage them. The techniques for the prevention of frustration and limitation of stress should be appropriate for each individual, because a certain technique that works for one professor does not necessarily work for another. It is also important for the mentor to react appropriately to the expressions of tendencies a student might have towards them. In any event, the mentor should consistently analyse the student’s work and not their attitude to the mentor. 5.2.1 Preparation of the final thesis This topic was discussed in detail by Vasja Vehovar of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana, which is why some of the views and considerations will be quite similar to what he had to say about this topic. The diploma thesis candidate usually waits for the faculty where he studies to publish the call for diploma thesis topics. Student self-initiative is of course possible and even desired, which in this case means that the student visits the mentor with an already established suggestion regarding the topic of their diploma thesis even before the formal call for topics by the faculty or the potential mentor. In any case, the student should contact the professor and select a topic or have the professor/mentor confirm the available and selected topic. The student should select the professor or the topic on the basis of a certain subjective criterion of the appeal of the topic and perhaps the professor. It is in any case good sense for the student to make haste in selecting a good topic and desired mentor while they are still available. 5.2.2 Selection of mentor for preparation of the diploma thesis For a diploma thesis with serious content, the topic is certainly more important than the mentor. It is especially important that the student finds pleasure and interest in the selected content. Nevertheless, it is recommendable that the student takes into consideration the following factors: - The student should ask older students/graduates about how the desired professor guides the process of preparing the diploma thesis, although this information should be taken with some reservation, since it will be very subjective. The student should check this information personal y in direct communication with the mentor, and should then form their own opinion, which is more important than that of 60 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. others. It is even more important that the student finds the topic truly interesting and that they have a good feeling during the initial communication with the professor. There are of course differences in the level of an individual professor’s engagement in the student’s topic and how much time they will reserve for the discussion. A higher level of engagement by the professor is valuable and positive, but can sometimes involve excessively formalistic demands. The biggest differences can perhaps be found in terms of the promptness of a response, for instance how quickly the professor responds to an e-mail and how quickly they read the draft thesis. This is an important point for the student, who should take it into consideration in the final decision about selection of the mentor. Prior to the final selection of the mentor (and topic) it is advisable to review previous topics by the potential mentor and diploma theses in the student’s field of interest. The student can thereby create their own impression and picture of how the diploma thesis should look. At the same time they will also get an idea of the field they would like to study in their work (Vehovar, 2008). - Younger mentors, who have not yet been in the role of mentor many times, are for the most part more enthusiastic and wil probably pay a lot more attention to the student, have more time and will be available more often. At the same time they might be more precise and more demanding. It is also possible that they will lack a certain breadth and experience (and perhaps understanding and generosity) that come with years and are especially valuable in the event of any complications. 5.3.3 Selection of co-mentor for preparation of the diploma thesis In the case of diploma theses with specific content that demand narrow professional knowledge, the student cannot expect the professor to master multiple professional fields (e.g. a professor in the field of marketing might not entirely master the field of branding, and so forth). Similarly, certain topics are so complex that their high-quality treatment requires the collaboration of two specialists. The candidate can in principle leave the final judgement to the mentor, and not be burdened with this. If the mentor takes the view that they are unable to cover the selected field, out of professional and ethical responsibility they will opt for co-mentorship and also propose an appropriate colleague. Especially proactive students will perhaps propose co-mentorship themselves, which is sometimes very useful. The student should be aware that co-mentorship can make the entire process somewhat more complicated, and can possibly even prolong the preparation of the diploma thesis. On the other hand co-mentorship in most cases raises the level of quality of the diploma thesis and enriches the student’s experience. Chapter 5: Personal relations in scientific writing 61. 5.3.4 Communication between student and mentor The first meeting is in most cases extremely important because it defines the relationship, motivation (right or wrong), topic, etc. From the perspective of the student, during the first meeting it is advisable to clarify especial y the following: - It is useful to ask the professor at the outset: how long wil the entire process take, how many personal interviews will it take or are usually necessary, what problems does the professor most frequently encounter, what is the telephone, electronic, personal or written communication like and what is the professor’s response time (what can the student expect, information regarding holidays, absence, and how should the student act in case of the professor’s unresponsiveness)? - The student should review previous diploma theses mentored by this professor and find out which are particularly good. It most certainly does not hurt if the student takes into consideration the form of such diploma thesis and uses it as an example, especially in terms of formality. It is wise to get the professor’s reflection on this diploma thesis, e.g. their evaluation of it, did it require a lot of work, is its level of quality adequate to serve as a model, how could it be upgraded, etc. Individual professors themselves usual y suggest to the candidate the examples of diploma theses and examples of good practice from their previous mentorships. In any case, the student should as soon as possible – if possible at the very beginning – be able to clearly articulate to the professor in a single sentence the main purpose of the diploma thesis, what they would like to achieve and how they would like to approach the thesis (Vehovar, 2008). 5.3.5 Cooperation of student and mentor As already mentioned, the initial meeting with the mentor is a key step in the preparation of the diploma thesis. Identification of the topic and formulation of the application often requires quite a few meetings or interactions. A mature and well-considered topic is then set out on the application or proposal, which requires advance formal confirmation by the mentor. It often occurs that 2–3 interactions are needed before the finalisation of the application. This is usual y done or can be arranged also via e-mail. In certain cases – when issues have not yet been entirely and fully settled – the application itself requires several personal talks and coordination. 62 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. After the work is planned out (not necessarily also registered), the student starts dealing with the theory and then with the empirical aspects. In this context there is sometimes a need for interaction with the mentor, whether via e-mail, telephone (more practical and effective and often ignored) or in person, depending on the complexity of the issues and the way the mentor works. The basic rule is as follows: as soon as any problems, confusion or changes in plan arise – even more important, as soon as the student starts to think whether they should perhaps contact the mentor – this is the sign that the student should contact their mentor immediately. It can happen that the student heads off in the wrong direction, which causes them to lose a lot of time. 5.3.6 Steps in preparation of the diploma thesis The number of interventions/interactions with the mentor can vary widely during this phase. Approximately half of the diploma theses actually require very few or even no interventions/interactions, while some theses require much more. This process usual y includes at least three milestones that require the mentor’s feedback: 1. When a substantial part of the theory or empirical work have been worked through (e.g. a few dozen hours) it is advisable to prepare a working draft on a couple of pages as soon as possible: - working draft (1–2 pages with the description of the content, of course only if it was significantly changed in relation to the application or proposal, or if there was no application at al – otherwise all of this is unnecessary because it is included in the application); - first draft of the introduction (at least one or two pages to show the student’s style of writing; in exceptional circumstances – only by agreement – longer text can be written, e.g. the entire theory); - table of contents and references, which can be the same as in the application or proposal if there is one and if this was accepted by the mentor. The mentor then reviews al of this and provides a response. If there are no complications, a special (personal) reaction by the mentor is not necessary at this point. E-mail confirmation is enough to confirm that there are no complications and that the student should continue with their work. Chapter 5: Personal relations in scientific writing 63. 2. The next key step is approx. 10–30 pages of text which should be written as soon as the student works through enough of the theory or empirical work and when it is clear that more in-depth work will not significantly change this introductory part of the thesis. In the case of strong independence, mutual knowledge and trust and good experience with the first point, the student can also write the entire diploma thesis (this rarely happens and is in principle discouraged by many mentors). This text is important because the student’s style of writing is final y evident. The mentor can now assess the analytical nature and breadth and the potential substantive issues in the diploma thesis (depending on the level of independence, maturity, level of articulation and complexity of the topic). The student can then prepare the entire draft without any additional interactions, while the professor can, in this process, assess and suggest that possibly in-depth interactions, electronic or personal, will be required. On this basis, several partial drafts can be exchanged until the final text is attained. In the event of more complex issues that require interaction, by far the most effective approach is to review and comment on the drafts in person. Personal conversation can further serve to clarify the arguments of one or the other side and makes the final decision about how to proceed more coordinated and based on a consensus between the student and mentor. More extensive commenting on the diploma thesis (e.g. using ‘track changes’) is usual y not ideal for making comments about the content (it is appropriate mainly for making comments about form and language) because there is no interaction. The mentor therefore occasional y spends twice as much time, first to read and mark, and then to make comments or for interpretation in a personal interaction. If everything is planned wel , the mentor should, at this point, have no significant comments (Vehovar, 2008). 3. The final draft can be prepared on the basis of a single feedback interaction regarding the initial draft (2), but may – as indicated above – also require interim interactions (electronic, telephone, personal). If the topic is well defined and if the student is independent and has a lot of work experience, the process does not require or requires only a minimum amount of interim interactions. In any case, the final draft should be systematically reviewed by the mentor. Where there is a minimum amount of comments regarding language, comments in the text might be enough, while in case of complex issues with the content it makes sense to perform the review in person. For simple issues, an experienced mentor can read through the text in the presence of the student, otherwise the mentor should read it through in advance and provide comments during the meeting. If there is a smal amount or no comments, the process of writing is concluded, otherwise additional interactions are required until the mentor approves the work (Vehovar, 2008). 64 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. 5.3.7 Duration of the process and number of interactions with the mentor The duration of the process and the number of interactions with the mentor depend on several factors: the selected topic, available professional literature, the student’s quality and consistency in heeding the instructions provided by the mentor, quality and depth of corrections by the mentor, available time, etc. In the aspect of the duration it is advisable to also get familiar with the official provision of the Faculty of Tourism rules regarding the time by which the mentor must review the text of the diploma thesis and provide comments. It is of course always better to discuss the issues and to mutual y agree upon reasonable deadlines that al ow optimal performance of the set work. In principle, the mentor can (with written substantiation) also reject cooperation for other reasons. In the process of graduation, the student is also entitled to a single termination of cooperation with a mentor and to file their application with another mentor. References Krajnc, A. (1979). Metode izobraževanja odraslih. Ljubljana: Delavska enotnost. Krajnc, A. (2006). Kdo so bili moji mentorji? Kdo mi je lahko mentor? Andragoška spoznanja, 13(4), 31– 39. Krajnc, A. (2012). Individualizacija izobraževanja vodi v mentorsko gibanje Znaš, nauči drugega. Andragoška spoznanja, 18(2), 19–28. Vehovar, V. (2008). Priporočila za diplomsko delo. Pridobljeno iz http://vasja.ris.org/c/374/Priporocila_za_pisanje/?preid=2, 23. 11. 2016. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 6 Language and Writing Style BARBARA PAVLAKOVIČ The chapter about language and writing style primarily discusses what is linguistically appropriate, wel -presented and good in scientific writing in the field of tourism. The linguist Jože Toporišič (2008, p. 23) said that a message is good when the “[…] real or imaginary reality has found its most perfect wording, i.e. when the reality has been captured through linguistic means in its most perfect typicalness […]”. This means that a message is most effective when the recipient of the message is able to recognise the true purpose of communication. Preparation of such text, therefore, requires some practice and a wel -developed sense of language. Toporišič (ibid.) describes this as a subconscious management of the criteria and rules governing the use of linguistic means. The following sections include some of the guidelines about the proper use of language for scientific communication in the field of tourism. 6.1 General characteristics of scientific writing According to the type of text, seminar and final papers are regarded as professional texts (Gomboc, 2009, p. 148). What they have in common with other professional texts is that they are intended for recipients who are interested in the presented content or who deal with the discussed topic themselves. Another characteristic is that these texts are prepared by experts in a certain field who use a lot of technical expressions and terms in their 66 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. communication. This means that the recipient requires some previous knowledge to understand such texts. Professional texts can be divided into scientific and popular science texts (ibid., p. 150). Seminar and final papers are included among professional scientific texts. As is characteristic of scientific texts, the preparation of seminar and final papers includes more complex expressions, definitions and professional terminology. Such writing is also characterised by verbless expression, use of the passive voice, use of the past tense (we almost always use the past tense) and precise and unambiguous description of findings. The objective position of the author is very important for such writing. The objectivity of a text is also expressed through the use of the appropriate verb form (the verb as a word that names the action, situation, occurrence, perception, existence) (ibid., p. 93). In order to ensure objectivity, the paper should be written in the first person plural, and the summary should be written using the passive voice. An example of the passive voice is: “it was determined”. An example of all persons and verb conjugation forms is shown in Table 5. Table 5: Persons and verb number forms Person/number Singular Plural 1st person I conclude. We conclude. (present/past) I concluded. We concluded. 2nd person You conclude. You conclude. (present/past) You concluded. You concluded. 3rd person He/she/it concludes. They conclude. (present/past) He/she/it concluded. They concluded. Seminar (term) and final papers should be written in the Slovenian language. Exceptions, where they can be written in a foreign language, are defined in the Pravilnik o postopku priprave in zagovora diplomskega dela (Rules on the procedure of preparation and defence of the Diploma thesis) for undergraduate study programmes at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor; and in the Pravilnik o postopku priprave in zagovora magistrskega dela (Rules on the procedure of preparation and defence of the Master’s thesis) for postgraduate study programmes at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor). Chapetr 6: Language and Writing Style 67. Given that there is a wide range of employees with different education working in the field of tourism, it is extremely important that we ensure education also in the field of development of intellectual knowledge. A step towards such development is learning scientific writing and the consequent spreading of knowledge in the field of tourism. Scientific writing in the field of tourism follows three basic instructions about writing. Written work should be (Sternad, Boršič and Tominc, 2013, p. 55): - clear (the central theme of the text should flow smoothly and logically from beginning to end); - concise (text should be concisely written without the repetition of already written wording and without unnecessary, substantively unimportant additions); - coherent (the content of the text should be written in a coherent manner, where the paragraphs and chapters logical y follow one another and continue the presented thought, and should not include non-coherent paragraphs). The text should be written in a reasoned manner and reinforced with citations. The mere citing of authors is not acceptable – linking elements in the text should represent our thoughts, linking text and reflection. The text should be divided into chapters and sub-chapters that represent logical y complete units of several paragraphs (paragraphs are logically complete units of several sentences). An individual chapter can include several sub-chapters with texts that take up at least one half of an A4 page. In the case of shorter chapters, we should consider whether a new chapter is really required or can we include this content in a different chapter. The text should follow the development of the presented idea; therefore, the chapter's content should correspond with the title of the chapter. Seminar (term) and final papers are public works. This means that they are intended and available to a wider public. We can find final papers in the faculty library, while seminar (term) papers are often prepared in cooperation with an organisation that would like to get a view of its work by students. Because written works are available to the public, we should take care to make them linguistically correct. This means that we should follow the orthography rules and language style when writing papers. Some of the most common orthographic challenges will be presented in the following sections. 68 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. 6.2 Punctuation marks Punctuation marks are an important part of the language because they connect words, phrases, parts of sentences or sentences, indicate the text flow and mark the significance of the end of what has been stated (Gomboc, 2009, p. 120). Punctuation marks are divided into final and non-final. Final punctuation marks include full stops or periods (.), exclamation marks (!), question marks (?) and el ipses (…) which are not separated with a space between the punctuation mark and the word on the left (no space between the word and the punctuation mark). In scientific writing, we should avoid exclamation marks and ellipses because they are associated with an emotional connotation or indicate an unfinished thought, which we should avoid to ensure objectivity. Example: - FULL STOP: Tourism is an important branch of the economy. - EXCLAMATION MARK: Greetings! - QUESTION MARK: How would you explain the connection between the two variables? - ELLIPSIS: We were not able to find that out … Non-final punctuation marks include two-part punctuation marks, such as dashes (–), quotation marks (“ ”) and brackets ( ). The group of one-part non-final punctuation marks includes commas (,), semicolons (;), colons (:), dashes (–) and hyphens (-). Quotation marks and brackets are written without a space between the punctuation mark and the word (first part in contact with the word on the left and the second part in contact with the word on the right). Commas, semicolons and colons follow the preceding word without a space. A semicolon is especial y useful in scientific writing since it breaks up long sentences that we often use to explain a specific phenomenon. Dashes are non-contact punctuation marks. The exception in the dash case (ibid., p. 125) is its use instead of the words 'from' and 'to', where the dash becomes a punctuation mark that is not separated from the words on both sides. The other exception is its use as the mathematical minus when the dash becomes a punctuation mark that is not separated from the word on the right. There are no spaces in hyphenated words. The exception in spacing for these punctuation marks is the numbering of chapters and sub-chapters, where there is no space following the full stop. See chapter 8. Chapetr 6: Language and Writing Style 69. Example: QUOTATION MARK AND BRACKETS: As the definition of tourism states: “Tourism is the aggregate of relations and phenomena that come into existence due to the travelling and accommodation of people where the place of accommodation is not their main or permanent residence nor place of employment” (Mihalič, 1998, p. 14). COMMA: According to statistical data, the highest number of overnight stays in 2015 was recorded in the municipalities of Ljubljana, Piran, Bled, Kranjska Gora, and Brežice. COLON AND SEMICOLON: In order for the diet to be healthy, it should be: - balanced and include an optimal quantity of nutrients; - safe and not cause any poisoning of the organism; - protective, in order to protect against civilisation diseases. Instantaneous photographs and newspaper enterprise have invaded the sacred precincts of private and domestic life; numerous mechanical devices threaten to make good the prediction that “what is whispered in the closet shall be proclaimed from the house-tops”. DASH: If we knew – but we were ignorant at the time – we would decide to go away. Our municipality has a vibrant history – the very beginnings of tourism can be detected back in the 18th century. This museum has long opening hours since it is open 8 a.m.–8 p.m. Winters in Finland are very cold, with the usual temperature falling to –20°C. HYPHEN: In Slovenia, the railway network was developed during the Austro-Hungarian Empire. We visited the German spa town of Baden-Baden. 6.3 Upper and lower case initial letters In principle, all words are written with lower case letters, while upper case initials are reserved for the following (the most frequently used) cases (Gomboc, 2009, p. 72): The first word of the sentence: The tourism industry is growing. 70 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. The beginning of a quoted sentence or direct speech: As the definition of tourism states: “Tourism is the aggregate of relations and phenomena that come into existence due to the travel ing and accommodation of people where the place of accommodation is not their main or permanent residence nor place of employment” (Mihalič, 1998, p. 14). Proper nouns and names of beings: David Novak, Tina, Slovenia, Earthling. Possessive adjectives derived from proper nouns: David’s, Tina’s, the Slovenian’s. Proper nouns may be personal names, names of things and geographical names. Personal names include names of people and animals, surnames and nicknames (David Novak, Fifi the dog, Red Riding Hood), names of mythological beings (God, Al ah, Apol o) and names of residents (Slovenian, Asian). Names of things are used to name companies, institutions, groups, books, artwork, premises, vehicles, trademarks, etc. (Gomboc, 2009, p. 74). Names of things are written with an upper case first letter, whilst propositions are written with small initials. Names of things also include names of tourist facilities, such as hotels, holiday homes, museum facilities and their branches (Dobrovoljc and Jakop, 2011, p. 77). In scientific writing, we often use the title of our texts. The title's nouns and other meaningful words are written with upper case first letters, while propositions and not meaningful words are written with small initials. Example: Slovenian Tourism Organization, British Museum, Cottage by the Triglav Lakes, Grand Hotel Bernardin, Republic of Slovenia, Edinburgh International Book Festival, journal Tourism Management, book The Darker Side of Travel: The Theory and Practice of Dark Tourism, etc. Geographical proper nouns are written with upper case first letters; only propositions are written with small initials. Example: Ljubljana, Murska Sobota, San Francisco, Canada, Indian Ocean, South America, Stratford-upon-Avon, Isle of Man, etc. Chapetr 6: Language and Writing Style 71. 6.4 Numbers The writing of numbers should also follow grammatical rules. Numerals under 100 are written together with a hyphen, while other numerals are written apart. Ordinal, collective and multiplicative numerals are also written apart. If these numerals are written with numbers, we should use a hyphen (Gomboc, 2009, p. 70). We should also take care when writing the date. The most precise way to write a date is by writing the name of the month. The other way is to use a slash punctuation mark between the numbers. Numbers under 10 should include a zero. Example: - seventy-eight, three hundred and two, - one hundred and twelfth, - 18-year-old student, - 16 June 2016, - 09/08/2017 (in the UK, this date represents the month of August). 6.5 Special characters in the text Scientific texts often also include other written signs or non-character signs. Such signs include the percentage (%) and per mil (‰) signs which follow the preceding word without a space. On the other hand, signs for monetary units (€, £) are written before the numbers without a space. When writing more significant numbers, we can use a colon to separate thousands and a full stop to separate decimal numbers. Example: The study showed that 35% of respondents receive a higher gross salary than €1500. Nevertheless, only 1% has a higher gross salary than €1,500,000. With a quick review of the style of scientific writing in the field of tourism, we would like to promote the language culture of students and future workers in the field of tourism. Language culture is defined as adhering to the language rules (narrow meaning) and caring for and developing the standardised written language (wider meaning) (Kalin-Golob, 1996, p. 40). Our aim is to establish a well-developed and cared for language in the field of tourism. 72 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. References Gomboc, M. (2009). Mala slovnica slovenskega jezika: priročnik za šolo in vsakdanjo rabo. Ljubljana: DZS. Dobrovoljc, H. in Jakop, N. (2011). Sodobni pravopisni priročnik med normo in predpisom. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC. Sternad, S., Boršič, D. in Tominc, P. (2013). Navodila za izdelavo pisnih del na Ekonomsko-poslovni fakulteti. Maribor: Ekonomsko-poslovna fakulteta. Toporišič, J. (2008). Stilnost in zvrstnost. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU. Kalin-Golob, M. (1996). Jezikovna kultura in jezikovni kotički. Ljubljana: Jutro. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 7 Citation of Literature and Sources TJAŠA ALEGRO & VITA PETEK The purpose of referencing and citing literature and sources is on the one hand to acknowledge the intellectual property of the authors who previously dealt with the topic in question, and on the other hand to enable the reader to find the citation as easily as possible in the cited text. By referencing we steer the reader to the source, which might offer more information related to their topic, and acknowledge the conceptual authorship for some idea pertaining to the person that wrote it. If we do not cite the source, our work is plagiarism. In scientific and professional circles there are several methods of citing or referencing literature and sources (Palčič et al., 2016). Why do we need to cite sources appropriately? Through correct citation of sources: - we show how thoroughly we have researched other sources in conducting our own research; - we offer readers help understanding the context of our assertions and help in finding sources where they have a similar interest; - we avoid undesired plagiarism. 74 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Citations and references of literature differ by: - the type of source being cited; - the standard of citation required by the institution, publisher or editors of scientific journals. Different standards of citation apply to different fields in scholarship. Social sciences are governed by the APA, APSA and ASA standards, the humanities by the Chicago, Harvard, MHRA and MLA standards, law by the ALWD, Bluebook and Oxford standards and natural sciences, mathematics, medicine and technology by the ACS, AIP, AMA, AMS, IEEE and Vancouver standards (Maribor University Library (UKM), 2019). The American Psychological Association or APA (APA Style, n.d.) is an organisation that formulates style standards used and understood by academics across the globe, and the frequency of use of these standards depends on the discipline (there are several standards that differ from discipline to discipline). As its name suggests, the APA Style is intended primarily for the field of psychology, but it is also one of the more frequently used style guides in social sciences. APA Style is the expected standard in higher education and research articles, ensuring the correct citation of sources. The purpose of higher education is to develop new ideas, and a familiarity with APA Style enables us to participate in it, for it regulates two things: page design practice and the use of sources (Spicer, 2019). APA Style applies to all final theses at the University of Maribor Faculty of Tourism, as wel as for papers submitted by individual subject, such as reports, seminar papers and articles. The guidelines are taken from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association – 6th edition, 2010, and adapted for writing various types of papers at the Faculty. If in preparing seminar and final papers we encounter a case not defined in that manual, in referencing we abide by the general APA standards. Scientific and professional texts that are based on research are distinguished from other texts by consistent referencing of the relevant sources (internet, book, journal, proceedings, newspaper, etc.). Cited sources are those where the authors are quoted verbatim or where specific information or the author’s methods, results or conclusions are used from some source. If we wish to use some source as a cited source, it must be viewed in its primary form. Indirect methods of citation are only used in exceptional cases. For instance when citing authors such as Aristotle and Plato. Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 75. In order to be able to cite an individual source, we need to know information such as: - The author: who is the author of the text? - Date: when was the work published? - Title: what is the title of the work? - Source: where can the source be found or obtained? What does plagiarism mean? Plagiarism is defined as the taking and publishing of someone else’s work under your own name, and it is classed as a prohibited and punishable offence. An improper attitude to intellectual property and its appropriation, be it deliberate theft or negligent due to a lack of familiarity or to superficiality, is a major problem (Palčič et al., 2018). Plagiarism signifies a violation of the copyright pertaining to the author. Copyright can be divided into material, moral and other rights of the author (Tominc et al., 2012). In the document drawn up by the University of Maribor, plagiarism is deemed to be (Tominc et al., 2012): - appropriation and presentation of thoughts, ideas and words of other authors as one’s own; - theft and communication of ideas and words of someone else as one’s own; - use of someone else’s work without citing the source; - literary theft; - presentation of an existing idea, thought or product, which is listed in the existing source as one’s own, without crediting the true author. Article 223 of the Statute of the University of Maribor defines serious breaches, which include plagiarism. Plagiarism is dealt with as a serious breach in seminar papers, diploma theses, programmes and other written pieces. Article 225 of the Statute of the University of Maribor lays down that a serious breach of duty, which includes plagiarism, may incur a reprimand or expulsion (University of Maribor (UM), 2019). Article 169a of the UM Statute states that the professional or academic title of a graduate will be revoked if after the defence of their thesis it is found that it is not the result of the graduate’s own work or if it is plagiarised. Article 169b then states that a motion to strip the graduate of their professional or academic title may be submitted by any adult natural 76 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. person or legal entity. If the Senate of the University member faculty at which the thesis was defended determines that the motion is well-founded, the procedure for revoking the title is initiated. The Senate of the University member faculty appoints an authorised person to conduct the procedure and before issuing a decision appoints a commission (UM, 2019). Plagiarism, especially in final theses, is automatically checked at UM by means of a plagiarism detector. The programme produces a report that lists al the paragraphs and sentences whose occurrence values are the same in several different documents (Tominc et al., 2012). 7.1 General instructions - On 3 October 2019 the FT UM Diploma Committee adopted a decision whereby the recommended minimum number of sources in a final thesis for a higher education study programme is 30, for an academic study programme 40 and for a master’s programme 50. Moreover for quality reasons it recommends that at least a third of sources should be foreign, a third published in the last 10 years and a third should be from scientific articles or works. - Sources are cited in the text and in the list of references according to the instructions of this manual. All sources of the text must be cited in the list of “Literature and sources” and vice versa. All works cited in the list of sources must be referenced at least once in the text. - If the author of a report is not known, the entity that commissioned the report should be referenced. - Personal communication includes letters, notes, e-mails, personal interviews, telephone conversations. We refer to personal communication only in the text and not in the reference list. We quote it by using the initials and surname of the author to whom we communicated; we write the date as accurate as possible: T. K. Novak (personal communication, 18 April 2021) or (T. K. Novak, personal communication, April 2021). - The year or date of publication can be found in the colophon of the book, in the data on the journal of a selected scientific article and next to the published text on a website or at the bottom of a website (often next to the sign for the copyright – ©) (Figure 2). Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 77. Figure 2: Copyright sign Source: Faculty of Tourism, 2018 − If the source has no precise date or year of creation, we use the abbreviation n.d. (no date, b. d. in Slovenian). This is written in brackets in the place where the date would otherwise be given. Note that in the Slovenian version there is a space between b. and d. Example: in text: (Posavski muzej Brežice, n.d.) or Posavski muzej Brežice (n.d.) in a list of references: Posavski muzej Brežice (n.d.) Archaeological collection. Retrieved from https://www.pmb.si/arheoloska-zbirka, 23 October 2019. - If in text you refer to a work (e.g. a book), the title of it should be written in inverted commas or in italics. Be sure that your references to works are written consistently. Example: in text: Since Šentrupert is very rich in cultural heritage, to this end Mr Zupan published several collections of work such as “The Roots of Our Past”. Since Šentrupert is very rich in cultural heritage, to this end Mr Zupan published several collections of work such as The Roots of Our Past. 78 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. 7.2 Citation within text In a piece of text, authors can be referenced in two ways: - with the surname as part of the text, then the year of publication in brackets; - with the surname and year in brackets (separated by a comma). 1st way: Celkar (2018) finds that wine tourists are on average well-off. 2nd way: Wine tourists are on average well-off (Celkar, 2018). Using direct quotations If we use a direct quotation, the quoted text must be placed in inverted commas, and must not be altered (if just a part is used, the missing part is indicated by dots), and the page number of the direct quote is also given, for example: “The main culinary speciality of Bizeljsko was the Bizeljsko buckwheat cake, which was cal ed a cake because it was rolled up like potica, although it was not potica” (Kužnik and Rangus, 2017, p. 12). Indirect quotations We should always quote from the original source, but if that is not accessible, we may use indirect quotation, but only in exceptions. We should always at least attempt to get hold of the original work. If in a book authored by Kim in 2012 we come across something written by Castel s in 2009 and the latter work cannot be obtained, is inaccessible or cannot be found, it can be quoted in the following way: YouTube is regarded as a mass communication tool, because it has the potential to reach the global population (Castel s, 2009, p. 55 in Kim, 2012, p. 62). Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 79. 7.3 Referencing sources in a list of references and sources 7.3.1 Use of italics Italics should be used for: - monographs (books, diploma thesis, master’s or doctoral thesis, research reports, conference or symposium proceedings and so forth); the titles of the works are written in italics; - articles (journals, periodicals, newspapers and so forth); the name of the journal and volume number the article appeared in are written in italics. Individual journals can in fact require certain special features in the citation of sources, so before submitting articles we should check the instructions for the specific journal. 7.3.2 Sequence for citing sources and authors Sources should not be numbered and no indicators should be added to precede them, and they should be cited as new paragraphs, with the second line being shifted slightly to the right for greater clarity (to make a hanging indent of the paragraph). See chapter 8. Jurinčić, I. and Bojnec, Š. (2010). Wine tourism development: the case of the wine district in Slovenia. Turizam: međunarodni znanstveno-stručni časopis, 57(4), 435–448. KGZS. (n.d.). Chamber of Agriculture and Forestry of Slovenia. Retrieved from https://www.kgzs.si/, 14 April 2018. Sources are cited in alphabetical order of the surname of the first author, or of the title, if the author of the work is not known. If the same author appears once independently and once as the first author in a group of several authors, then first their independent works are cited and then the group works, which are arranged alphabetical y according to the second (or where necessary third) author. Borštnar, S. (2004) … Borštnar, S. and Kašček, D. (2004) … If the same author appears several times, works are cited by year of publication, from oldest to most recent works. 80 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Lovrenk, F. (2003) … Lovrenk, F. (2005) … In the event that there is the same author and same year, for the years we need to add the letters a, b, c and so on. In this case the letters are added in sequence, with the sources listed in alphabetical order of the word following the year of publication (e.g. by title word). Burja, J. R. (2001a). Control … Burja, J. R. (2001b). Roles of … Where there are sources for which authors have the same surname, but different first names, the sources are arranged alphabetically by first initial. Mihelač, A. L. and Walston, J. (1999) … Mihelač, S. E. and Ahlers, R. J. (1998) … 7.4 Examples of citing sources for individual type of material Single author In referencing an author, we write their surname and give the year of publication in brackets. Citation in a list of references and sources Bessière, J. (2013). ‘Heritagisation’, a challenge for tourism promotion and regional development: An example of food heritage. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 8 (4), 275– 291. Referencing in the text (Bessière, 2013) Two authors In referencing two authors, we always reference both, adding the conjunction “and” between them. Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 81. Citation in a list of references and sources Felsenstein, D. and Fleischer, A. (2003). Local festivals and tourism promotion: The role of public assistance and visitor expenditure. Journal of Travel Research, 41 (4), 385–392. Referencing in the text (Felsenstein and Fleischer, 2003) Three authors In referencing three authors, upon the first reference in the text we cite all three, adding the conjunction “and” before the last author. On the second and subsequent references in the text, we cite the first author and add the words “et al.” (from Latin, meaning “and others”). Citation in a list of references and sources Pan, B., MacLaurin, T. and Crotts, J. C. (2007). Travel blogs and the implications for destination marketing . Journal of Travel Research, 46 (1), 35–45. Referencing in the text First reference in the text: (Pan, MacLaurin and Crotts, 2007). Second and subsequent references: (Pan et al., 2007). Four or more authors Where there are four or more authors, even in the first reference in the text we write the first author followed by “et al.” In the list of references and sources we cite all the names. Citation in a list of references and sources Calantone, R. J., Di Benedetto, C. A., Hakam, A. and Bojanic, D. C. (1989). Multiple multinational tourism positioning using correspondence analysis. Journal of travel research, 28 (2), 25–32. 82 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Referencing in the text (Calantone et al., 1989) Two authors with the same surname and first name initials Where there are two authors with the same surname and same first name initials, we should write the author’s full first name in square brackets behind the initial: Citation in a list of references and sources Tušak, M. [Maks]. (1997). Psihologija športa. Ljubljana: Scientific Institute of the Faculty of Arts. Tušak, M. [Matej]. (2003). Strategije motiviranja v športu. Ljubljana: Faculty of Sport, Institute of Sport. Referencing in the text (Tušak Maks, 1997) (Tušak Matej, 2003) Group of authors or organisation as the author Certain works can also be authored by groups, agencies, associations, and institutions, while some works have no stated authors. For groups of authors we use the official names written out in full in the final list of references and sources (for example: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, and not UNESCO). In the text, upon the first reference to such author, we write the name out in ful and next to it add the abbreviation, which can be used subsequently in the text, so that on each subsequent reference to it we do not have to write out the full name of the organisation. Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 83. Citation in a list of references and sources United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. (n.d.). What is meant by “cultural heritage”?. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property/unesco-database-of-national-cultural-heritage-laws/frequently-asked-questions/definition-of-the-cultural-heritage/, 18 October 2019. Referencing in the text First reference in the text: At the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (n.d.), referred to below as UNESCO, they say that. . OR stated this argument (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), n.d.). Second and each subsequent reference in the text (UNESCO, n.d.) Strategies, Reports For various strategies and reports we cite the entity that commissioned the document as the author. In the event of that entity not being known, the title of the document is cited. Citation in a list of references and sources Municipality of Krško and Krško Enterprise and Tourism Centre. (2018). Strategija razvoja turizma v občini Krško 2018–2022. “Tu je dobro biti”. Retrieved from https://www.krsko.si/files/other/news/71/134687Strategija%20turizma%202018-2022.pdf, 24 October 2019. 84 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Referencing in the text (Municipality of Krško and Krško Enterprise and Tourism Centre, 2018) Sources with editors Where a source has an editor or editors, the editors are written after the title of the work. The title is followed by the word In, then the editors (initials and surname) and the word (ed.). Title of source with editors, p. of chapter. Sources with editors are mainly col ected papers or proceedings, both professional and scientific monographs and proceedings of conferences. Citation in a list of references and sources Golob, L. (2019). Razmislek o prihodnosti energetike v Šaleški dolini z vidika oskrbe s premogom. In F. Žerdin (ed.), Proceedings of the regional conference “Consideration of the future of energy in Šaleška Dolina”, (pp. 54–84). Velenje: Javni zavod Center za razvoj terciarnega izobraževanja SAŠA Velenje. Potočnik Topler, J. (2019). Študentsko delo za družbeno korist in njegovi rezultati. In J. Potočnik Topler and A. Lisec (ed.), Po poti modre frankinje: modra frankinja kot osnova vinskega turizma (pp. 1–4). Maribor: University of Maribor Press. Referencing in the text (Golob, 2019) (Potočnik Topler, 2019) Where only the editor or editors are known, and not the authors Citation in a list of references and sources Picard, D. and Robinson, M. (ed.). (2016). The Framed World: tourism, tourists and photography. London: Routledge. Referencing in the text (Picard and Robinson, 2016) Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 85. ARTICLES In referencing articles, we should first obtain information on the volume of the journal in which the article appeared (the volume represents the total number of years the journal has been published) and on the number of the journal in which the article appeared (the number of the journal represents the number of issues of the journal in one year). Equal y, it is essential to give precise page numbers in which the article appears. Articles in scholarly and specialist journals Citation in a list of references and sources Pavlakovič, B., Knežević, M., Koščak, M., O’Rourke, T., Prevolšek, B. and Brumen, B. (2018). The effects of media displays regarding terrorist attacks on attitudes concerning tourist destination planning. Informatologia, 51 (3–4), 128–141. Referencing in the text (Pavlakovič et al., 2018) Articles in popular newspapers and periodicals or retrieved from the internet Citation in a list of references and sources Kingsley, J. (September 2019). Led pod drobnogledom. National Geographic Slovenija. Retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.si/index.php?t=reportaze&id=818, 18 October 2019. Referencing in the text (Kingsley, 2019) In the illustration below (Figure 3) you can see an example of an online article on the National Geographic Slovenija site. This is a posting with a known author, month and year of publication. In the event that in addition to the date of publication, the online article also gives a date of updating, the updated date is given. 86 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Figure 3: Presentation of data for citation Source: National Geographic, 2019. Articles in newspapers and periodicals without authors In this case instead of the author we write the title of the article. Citation in a list of references and sources 7 idej, kako lahko prispevate k zmanjšanju masovnega turizma. (2019). Sensa. Retrieved from https://sensa.metropolitan.si/zdrave-odlocitve/7-idej-kako-omiliti-masovni-turizem/, 2 March 2020. Referencing in the text (7 idej, kako lahko prispevate k zmanjšanju masovnega turizma, 2019) The example is not relevant literature for use in seminar papers and theses. It is merely an example of citation, where it is clear how an article from a newspaper or periodical without an author is cited. BOOKS In referencing books, the important information is the place of publication and the publisher of the book. Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 87. Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title. Place: Publisher. Citation in a list of references and sources Kužnik, L. and Rangus, M. (2017). Okusi Posavja: izzivi prehranske kulturne dediščine za sodobnost. Ljubljana: ČZD Kmečki glas, d. o. o. Referencing in the text (Kužnik and Rangus, 2017) Online book Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title. Retrieved from http://www.xxyy. ., date of access. Book with editor Surname of the editor, First Name initials. (ed.) (year of publication). Title. Place: Publisher. If just a specific chapter in the book is used, and it has its own author stated, we follow the instructions for citing a source with editors, since usual y such a book has editors. Surname of chapter author, First Name initials. (year). Title of chapter. In Surname and First Name initials of book editor (ed.). Title of book (first page of chapter – last page of chapter). Place: Publisher. Book with several editions The number of the edition is written in brackets in English. For example: (5th Ed.). Citation in a list of references and sources Bovée, C. L. and Thil , J. V. (2018). Business communication today. (14th Ed.). London: Harlow [etc.]: Pearson. 88 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Referencing in the text (Bovée and Thil , 2018) Printed diploma thesis, master’s thesis or doctoral dissertation Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title. (Diploma thesis). Name of the institution, Place. Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title. (Master's thesis). Name of the institution, Place. Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title. (Doctoral dissertation). Name of the institution, Place. Citation in a list of references and sources Vocovnik, S. (2019). Vloga pivovarne Lobik pri razvoju pivskega turizma v občini Ruše. (Diploma thesis). Faculty of Tourism, University of Maribor, Brežice. Valenčič, R. (2019). Vpliv podnebnih sprememb na smučarski turizem v Alpah. (Master's thesis). Faculty of Tourism, University of Maribor, Brežice. Potočnik, M. (2016). Uporaba večkriterijskih odločitvenih modelov za ocenjevanje kakovosti ponudbe turističnih kmetij. (Doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Agriculture and Biosystemic Studies, University of Maribor, Hoče. Referencing in the text (Vocovnik, 2019) (Valenčič, 2019) (Potočnik, 2016) ONLINE REFERENCES Website of a company or organisation Citation in a list of references and sources Author. (year). Title. Retrieved from URL address, date of access. Terme Olimia. (n.d.). Wellness Orhidelia. Retrieved from https://www.terme-olimia.com/sl/wellness-spa/wel ness-orhidelia/, 18 October 2019. Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 89. Referencing in the text (Terme Olimia, n.d.) Internal material of a company or organisation Citation in a list of references and sources Author. (year). Title. Internal material. Place: Publisher Union hoteli, d. d. (2019). Letno poročilo družbe in skupine Union hoteli 2018. Internal material. Ljubljana: Union hoteli, d. d. Referencing in the text (Union hoteli, d. d., 2019) Video material Citation in a list of references and sources Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title [format of video recording]. Place: Publisher Kresal, G. (2012). Dolina Soče [DVD]. Tolmin: LTO Sotočje. Referencing in the text (Kresal, 2012) Video retrieved from the internet Citation in a list of references and sources User name. (year, month, day). Video title. Retrieved from http://xxxxxxxxx, date of access. Šeruga, Z. (2 February 2011). Zvone Šeruga - Papua trailer. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yg1wD-mtdzE, 23 October 2019. 90 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Referencing in the text (Šeruga, 2011) Brochures Citation in a list of references and sources Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title of the brochure [brochure]. Place: Publisher. JZTK Rogaška Slatina. (2015). Promocijska brošura Rogaške Slatine [brochure]. Rogaška Slatina: JZTK. Referencing in the text (JZTK Rogaška Slatina, 2015) In tourist brochures often no authors are given with names and surnames, but just organisations (e.g. public institutes, societies and so forth). Television or radio programmes Citation in a list of references and sources Surname, First Name initials. (ed.). (year). Title of show [television programme]. Place: Publisher. Grčman, M. (ed.). (2019). Na lepše [television programme]. Ljubljana: RTV Slovenija. Referencing in the text (Grčman, 2019) Legislative sources Citation in a list of references and sources Zakon o vinu (Wine Act, Uradni list RS, No. 105/06, 72/11, 90/12 – ZdZPVHVVR, 111/13 and 27/17 – ZKme-1D). Chapter 7: Citation of Literature and Sources 91. Referencing in the text (Zakon o vinu) Lectures published online in PowerPoint or Prezi Citation in a list of references and sources Surname, First Name initials. (year). Title [name of software programme]. Retrieved from http://xxxxxxyyyyy, date of access. Rempel, K. (2007). Chapter ten: Motivating and rewarding employees [PowerPoint]. Retrieved from http://foba.lakeheadu.ca/mirabel i/1511/ch10.ppt, 25 October 2019. Referencing in the text (Rempel, 2007) References APA Style. (n.d.). Style and grammar guidelines. Retrieved from https://apastyle.apa.org/, 25 October 2019. Palčič, I., Ren, Z., Strnad, S. and Ješovnik, A. (2016). Navodila za navajanje virov in citiranje. Retrieved from https://www.fs.um.si/fileadmin/Documents/FS/Studij/Dokumentarno_sredisce/15_Navodila za_citiranje/Navodila_za_navajanje_virov_in_citiranje.pdf, 25 October 2019. Spicer, A. (29 June 2019). Why We “Speak” APA in Academics. CSU GLOBAL. Retrieved from https://csuglobal.edu/blog/what-is-apa-style-and-why-is-it-important, 25 October 2019. Tominc, P., Drozg, V., Ojsteršek, M., Samec, N., Korez, B., Kardum, D. and Hržič, R. (2012). Preverjanje plagiatorstva na UM (delovno gradivo). Retrieved from https://fov.um.si/sites/default/files/upload/page/documents/preverjanje_plagiatorstvana_um_-_delovno_gradivo_18_9_2012.pdf, 29 November 2019. University of Maribor. (2019). Statute of the University of Maribor. Retrieved from https://www.um.si/univerza/dokumentni-center/akti/GlavniDokumenti2013/Statut%20Univerze%20v%20Mariboru%20(NPB%202).pdf, 29 November 2019. University of Maribor Library. (n.d.). Citiranje. Retrieved from https://libguides.ukm.um.si/orodja_za_citiranje, 25 October 2019. 92 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR M. Turnšek (ed.) Chapter 8 Text Formatting NEJC POZVEK In the chapter about the formatting of text we will deal with two different aspects. In the beginning we wil present how to break down the text into separate units (frequently used terms include structuring of the text or cutting down the text) which is actually one of the first, elementary phases in the preparation of each text and logically follows the research process (see chapter 4). In the second part of this chapter we wil deal with technical editing of the text, which predominantly involves skil s of using or mastering various text formatting tools – in our case the formatting will be presented with an example of the use of the MS Office Word programme, which is most frequently used. Technical skil s can be acquired through own research, at various classes or with the help of manuals found online and in libraries. The final objective of technical formatting is uniform appearance, which is precisely prescribed through certain detailed instructions. 8.1 Structuring of text In setting up the basic structure of the text, we are faced with breaking down the content into individual sections or chapters and sub-sections. The structuring process begins with the initial design of the paper or thesis, even before the idea is put on paper. In the case of the final thesis, the preparation of the proposal represents the part of the process where we determine/establish the structure of the text. Also in the case of all other pieces 94 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. of work or theses it makes sense to determine the structure before writing (during the design or development of the idea), because this can considerably facilitate our future work. The structure of seminar papers is most often predefined on the basis of the content you are required to present in the paper. Professional and scientific texts (as well as literary and other texts) follow the classical design, with their structure involving three parts: introduction, body and conclusion. These parts are used to present, analyse and solve a certain (research) problem. Each of these three fundamental content components can be broken down at wil into chapters and sub-chapters that logical y lead us from the starting to the end point of the text. The INTRODUCTION should include: - a definition and description of the problem (we should try to establish the definition in a clear and concise manner, optimally in a single sentence, while the description of the problem usually requires more space); - the purpose and objectives of the research; - the hypotheses or research questions; - the assumptions and limitations of the research; and - research methods. It is very advisable for the introduction also to include an indication of the author’s personal motives for the selection of the topic, where we explain why we decided to select a certain topic, how we arrived at this topic, how the research idea was developed and so forth. The BODY, which represents the central part of the text, should include a more detailed description/presentation of the topic. We should draw on the (relevant!) domestic and foreign literature which we use to develop and explain the selected topic. The body is usually divided into: - the theoretical part (titled in accordance with the content of the thesis and broken down logical y into chapters; the key elements of this part include previous findings on this topic, i.e. a presentation of the already existing literature); - the empirical part (discussion of the methodology, critical analysis, confirmation or rejection of the established hypotheses or answers to the research questions) and - the research results (suggested solutions of the problem). Chapter 8: Text Formatting 95. In the CONCLUSION of the text we should be sure to include: – concluding thoughts; – a summary of the research findings; – analysis of the achieved objectives (as compared to the set objectives); – analysis and an assessment of the work in terms of its purpose (was the purpose achieved or not) and – a definition of suggestions for further research. 8.2 Technical editing of text As already presented earlier, technical editing requires certain skills or knowledge related especial y to a knowledge of text design and editing software. The best known of such software is most certainly the MS Word programme from the Microsoft Office collection of tools. Our examples of editing in the sections below are based on this programme. The objective of technical editing is the aesthetic and mainly (in our case) uniform appearance of all works. With its instructions and directions presented in the following sections, the Faculty of Tourism sets its own standards. They mainly follow the generally established, uniform rules, whilst specific details are very rare. In formulating the instructions, to a certain extent we relied on the already established rules of other faculties at the University of Maribor, 4 and in a certain part also on the latest applicable Common Guidelines for the preparation of final theses at the University of Maribor. 5 As a key accessory that facilitates the technical formatting of text, students should use the Template for the preparation of final papers at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor6 and the Template for the preparation of seminar papers at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor, which were edited and updated during the preparation of these instructions. These templates provide practical examples with visual information and a chance to check the written instructions, which al ows for a much easier 4 The formulation of our instructions about technical formatting or editing of texts primarily draws on the document entitled Navodila za izdelavo pisnih del na Ekonomsko-poslovni fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru (Instructions for the preparation of written work at the Faculty of Economics and Business of the University of Maribor, authors: Simona Sternad, Darja Boršić and Polona Tominc), which was published in September 2013. In these instructions students can also find plenty of useful hints that make the work with MS Word easier, and we certainly encourage students to use them. The instructions are also available online. 5 The Common Guidelines for the preparation of final papers at the University of Maribor are accessible online. 6 The Template for the preparation of final papers at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor, is available on the faculty website. You can also access it directly via the default link. In addition to the Template, the same tab on the website offers a Template for the preparation of seminar papers at the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor, and other information on the preparation of (final) papers. 96 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. presentation. In particular their use ensures appropriate formatting, uniform appearance of works and less complications during the technical review of papers. 8.2.1 General rules for formatting/editing texts Among the general rules we will discuss the basic rules regarding the setup of the page and margins, fonts and paragraphs, formatting of graphical elements (figures and tables) in the text, formatting of equations, pagination and some other details. - Setup of page and margins At the very beginning of formatting texts we should set up the page (these settings are most often already programmed as default) where we should take into consideration the size of the paper (A4) and appropriate margins (2.5cm on both sides). In the case of a bound hard copy of the written work we should also set a binding margin of 1 cm. In this case we need to be careful regarding the print: if it is printed on both sides, we need to select mirror margins in the settings. Written works should also heed environmental considerations7 and should therefore be printed on both sides. The exception to this is the opening pages of the final thesis (up to the introductory chapter), which are printed just on one side. In creating written work that is not final, it is worth checking possible additional instructions of individual mentors or course teachers: often the submission of an electronic version is sufficient, otherwise it should be printed on both sides. The orientation of pages should be portrait. As an exception (in cases of large tables or graphs), the orientation of a certain page may be landscape. This is done by “isolating” the landscape page by inserting section breaks (next page). - Fonts and paragraphs Throughout the paper we should only use one font type. The selection of font types comprises: Arial, Times New Roman, Tahoma and Calibri. Font colour should always be black. 7 It should be noted that the final print and paper (80-100 g) should be of appropriate quality, especial y if the work includes colour photographs, il ustrations and so forth. Chapter 8: Text Formatting 97. The body should be written with font size set to 12 pt. and aligned on both sides (justified). Bold and italic fonts should only be used as exceptions for important emphasis; underlining should be avoided. (in these instructions, bold and italic and underlined text is included as formatting elements due to the nature/type of the work. Such type of writing is generally not used in written works.) Even before starting to write, it makes sense to set the style of the body text (some information about the setting of the style can be found in the following sections) which will be used for the entire paper. In the Paragraph tab you should set the spacing before to 0 pt., and the spacing after to 12 pt. (representing 1 line). Paragraphs wil therefore be automatically separated with a single line (12 pt.). There should be no indent before the first word of the paragraph. There should be single spacing between the lines. - Title page The first page of a seminar paper or final thesis should adhere to the standard setup as defined in the Template for seminar papers and Template for final papers. For seminar papers, at the top of the page write the name of the university and faculty (16 pt. capitals, centred). In the middle of the page should be the title of the seminar paper (20 pt. bold capitals, centred). This is followed by the description of the work – seminar paper or final thesis – in the specific subject (16 pt. lower case, centred). Then come the name and surname of the author or authors and mentors (14 pt. lower case, ranged left) and at the bottom of the page the place where it was written and the month and year of completion of the paper (16 pt. lower case, centred). For final theses, at the top of the page write the name of the university and faculty (16 pt. capitals, centred). This is followed by the name and surname of the author (16 pt. lower case, centred) and title of the thesis (20 pt. bold capitals, centred). This is followed by the description of the work – final thesis in the specific study programme (16 pt. lower case, centred). At the bottom of the page is given the place where it was written and the month and year of completion of the paper (16 pt. lower case, centred). When we are preparing the inside title page of a final thesis, below the description of the work we add the mentor and possible co-mentor (14 pt. lower case, ranged left). 98 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. - Chapter headings Chapters of the paper should be hierarchical y structured. An individual chapter may include several sub-chapters, but in any case at least two. Chapters are formed from several paragraphs. If they are extremely long, we should try to rationally divide them into smaller units. Headings of different level chapters should not fol ow one another. There should always be some text separating them. 1st level chapter headings should be ranged left and written in bold capital letters in 16 pt. font. The main headings should always start on a new page – spacing before the heading should therefore be set to 0 pt., whilst spacing after the heading should equal two empty lines (24 pt.). 2nd level subheadings should be ranged left and written in bold lower case letters of 14 pt. font (except for the obligatory capital initials). The spacing before the 2nd level subheading is 18 pt., and after it 12 pt. (The structuring, as already mentioned, should avoid a main heading being directly followed by a subheading – the same applies to lower levels. Otherwise the criteria governing heading spacing in chapter formation wil also be broken.) 3rd level subheadings should be written in bold lower case letters in 12 pt. font (but using capital initial letters). The spacing before and after the 3rd level subheading is 12 pt. Chapters of all levels should be numbered with Arabic numerals. In the case of several levels of chapters, the numbers should be separated with a full stop (no space), while there should be no full stop after the last number – in this place the text of the title should begin. Numbering of chapters is simple, using styles that also al ow simple insertion of the Table of Contents. If preset styles (customisable) were used, it is simplest to use the appropriate multi-level list to number chapters. Such list is already prepared in MS Word. - Formatting graphical elements Graphical elements (figures, graphs, diagrams, photographs, etc.) and tables are used to provide the reader with a more transparent and clearer presentation of data. They are placed logically by content in the text and we should try to mention them before they appear. Graphical elements and tables therefore require a reference (the element being referenced must be precisely defined, e.g. Figure 1 shows. .) and explanation. The title of Chapter 8: Text Formatting 99. the graphical element is composed of the designation (Figure, Table, Diagram, etc.), the sequential number and title of the inserted graphical element or table (with initial capital). Example: Table 12: Tourist overnights in Brežice between 2018 and 2021 For the purpose of easier arrangement of the table of contents later on, it makes sense to edit all the text headings of graphical elements in the References tab, where the relevant heading is inserted (choose between what is set out or add your own). Headings should be centred (and the graphical elements too) and their font size set to 12 pt. The spacing before the heading is set to 0 pt., and after it to 6 pt. Below the graphical element we should cite the source (sometimes also notes) which should be centred and written in italic with the font size set to 10 pt. Spacing from the graphical element should be set to 6 pt., while spacing after the source (note) should be set to 12 pt. If we need to indicate a note as well as the source under the graphical element, the spacing between them should be set to 6 pt. The source is followed by a full stop. Example: Source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2021. If the graphical element is our own independent work (exceptions include photographs where the photographer should be indicated8) it is not necessary to cite the source. The caption of the source depends on the method of summarising or data processing. If a graphical element is the same as in the original work, this should be indicated in the following way: “Source: citation of the source, year of publication, page” . If we used certain data in the preparation of the graphical element, this should be indicated in the following way: “Source of data : citation of the source, year of publication” . If a certain graphical element was adapted, this should be indicated in the following way: “Adapted from: citation of the source, year of publication, page” . 8 Credit/ownership of photographs is stated as Source: own source 100 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. - Special table formatting characteristics In the same document, tables should have a uniform appearance. In principle, tables should be ranged from the left to the right margin, except where this does not make sense due to the smal volume of information. In such cases, tables should be centred. Tables should always include the heading (1st line) and in most cases also the top (1st column) where it is appropriate to write the text in bold and have coloured cells (e.g. 10% grey shading). Font size in the table should be set to 12 pt. (in the case of a large volume of data it can exceptionally be smaller, e.g. 11 pt.), there should be single line spacing between the lines, and there should be no spacing before and after the paragraph. Al data should be aligned logically (and uniformly) according to the content. The external border of the table should be double, whilst the internal borders should be single. - Formatting of equations Equations should always be written in italic (font size 12 pt.) and centred. Each equation in the same line by the right margin should be numbered with Arabic numerals in brackets. For easier formatting of the equation in the manner described you can opt to insert a table (one row, two columns) with invisible borders. An empty line (12 pt. spacing) should be left before and after the equation. - Footnotes Footnotes (notes under the line) are used to explain the text in more detail or to direct the reader to other sources. As an exception, footnotes may be used to cite a source (e.g. as cited in: Surname of the author, year of publication) from which we cite an entire chapter. This type of citation is not appropriate (not al owed) for final theses. Footnotes should be written in the form of sentences (ending with a full stop) in font size set to 10 pt., justified, and with spacing before and after the paragraph set to 0 pt. Footnotes are inserted with the help of the References tab. - Page numbering Pages should be numbered at the bottom of the page – with Arabic numbers aligned in the centre of the page. The first numbered page is for the Introduction chapter, and the last is the References and sources chapter or the last page of any appendices. The opening pages of a final thesis up to the Introduction are not numbered. Chapter 8: Text Formatting 101. For numbering in the above-mentioned way, before the Introduction chapter we must insert a section break to the next page, then in setting the page number, select the number 1 for the Introduction page. We can also make use of various MS Word options located in the Header and Footer tab. - Lists When listing, we should above all select/distinguish between numerical and line lists; the first type is used when the listing order is important, while the other type is used when the listing order is not important. Numerical or character markings should be used in a uniform manner throughout the paper, which means that we should constantly use one type/form of numbers/characters. It makes sense to appropriately indent the line character and the beginning of the text from the left edge of the page (this should be performed in a uniform manner throughout the paper). In the case of multi-layer lists we should logically indent each next level by 1 cm towards the centre of the page (this does not apply for chapter headings). There should be no spacing between the beginning of the list and the last line of the previous text (to which the list is connected), while there should be an empty line separating the end of the list from the text following. In listing we should be attentive to punctuation: in short references we start in the lower case, and can use commas or semicolons, with the list concluding in a ful stop (in exceptions punctuation marks can be left out); longer text (sentences) are listed in the form of sentences (capital first letter + full stop at the end of each indent). - Styles In the above paragraphs we frequently referred to what are called styles, which can be of great help (and extremely useful) in the technical editing of text. Before the actual formatting of a paper it makes sense to set and adjust the styles for use, because this can greatly ease and speed up the work. Most of the styles are preset (default), however not al of them comply with this handbook for written works; the settings of such styles can be changed and kept for further use. Styles are used to format the entire text: the main text as wel as headings, captions, lists, etc. Titles that we do not want to include in the Table of Contents (Summary, Tables, etc.) can also be formatted in styles, which is not specifically mentioned in this handbook. In all cases, styles can be used to adjust the 102 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. settings in accordance with the instructions (spacing before and after, alignment, potential indent of text, etc.). - Table of contents The Table of contents is an arranged presentation of the structure of our work which includes the headings of al chapters and sub-chapters and also presents the breakdown of the content of the written work. It makes sense to format this after the writing is concluded. It is usually comprised of three levels, and in exceptional cases even more (longer works). Insertion of the table of contents in MS Word is simple if styles have been used in a consistent manner. The first chapter in the Table of Contents is the Introduction; all elements of the work before the Introduction should be excluded from the Table of Contents. The technical specifications for formatting the table of contents are as follows: the heading Table of Contents (font size set to 16 pt., capital letters) should be followed by an empty line (12 pt.) and then a presentation of the entire content, set out at the first level in bold capital letters with font size set to 12 pt., at the second level with classic settings, while the font size at the third level may be reduced to 11 pt. The link of chapter headings to page numbers (lead line) is provided by dots. The Table of Figures should be set on the page following the Table of Contents. The heading Table of Figures (capitals in font size 16 pt.) should be followed by an empty line (12 pt.) and the figures in their order of appearance through the written work. The Table of Figures is presented in completely classical font settings (12 pt. lower case) and the link of chapter headings to page numbers (lead line) is provided by dots. The Table of Tables may be separated from the Table of Figures with two empty lines (24 pt.). It is not necessary to present this on a separate page. The heading Table of Tables (capitals in font size 16 pt.) should be followed by an empty line (12 pt.) and the tables in their order of appearance through the written work. Al other formatting is the same as in the Table of Figures. The same rules apply to tables of other graphical elements. With the appropriate command in Word, they are all set out automatically, and in order to do this you need to appropriately designate all the headings and captions in the References tab by selecting the option Insert caption. Chapter 8: Text Formatting 103. The Table of Appendices is placed at the end of the paper (as the last numbered chapter after the section References and sources), and then al the stated appendices fol ow on a new page. For the heading “appendix” it is best to design a new style (printed capitals in 14 pt.); the heading is followed with a 12 pt. space by the heading of the individual appendix, which is numbered as “Appendix 1, 2, 3, etc.” (14 pt. bold). - List of abbreviations At the time of the first appearance of an abbreviation in the text, this abbreviation should be followed by the phrase in full and an explanation in brackets, where we should also indicate how it will be presented further on in the text. From that point on, the reference can always be made in the text using the abbreviation. If more than 10 abbreviations appear in the text they should be explained in a special section List of Abbreviations, after all the other tables. The List of Abbreviations should be formatted in the same manner as the Tables of Figures and tables discussed earlier. In the case of a large number of abbreviations it makes sense to place the List of Abbreviations on a separate page. Otherwise it can follow the last table with a space of two empty lines (24 pt.). The font size of the List of Abbreviations should be set to 16 pt. capitals. The list should be followed by an empty line and an explanation of the abbreviations written in 12 pt. font. The abbreviations should be arranged in the list alphabetically. 8.2.2 Special elements in formatting the final thesis Final papers (diploma and master’s thesis) require certain elements, such as bound hard covers, a summary, key words and various statements (e.g. on authorship) which other works do not (these might be expressly defined in the instructions for the preparation of the thesis). Formatting of individual elements is precisely defined and presented in the sections below. At this point we should once again highlight the previously mentioned Word templates for preparing final/seminar papers, which are most useful in formatting these elements. 104 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. Outside and inside title page of hard bound copy Information is provided on the cover (outside title page) of a hard bound copy in single spacing and without the addition of a space before and after the wording. Font size should be set to 16 pt., except for the title which should be written in bold 20 pt. font, and everything should be centred. Attention should be paid to capital and lower case letters. The inside title page is formatted almost identically to the outside/cover (the sole difference being the mention of the author and mentor, which are ranged left). We suggest that for the formatting of the outside and inside title pages you use the Template for final papers, which is created for this purpose and is attached to these instructions. If you do not use the Template, the formatting of the outside title page should be identical to the formatting in the Template. Rules on Final Thesis Preparation and Defence for First- and Second-cycle Study Programmes at the UM Faculty of Tourism9 also define the language of writing for final papers. If the thesis is written in a foreign language, it makes sense to abide by the provisions of the rules or use the Template for writing final papers in a foreign language. Students should also remember the other provisions of the Rules on Final Thesis Preparation and Defence for First- and Second-cycle Study Programmes at the UM Faculty of Tourism, which define the colour of covers and the fonts, which are important when submitting the final thesis for printing. Statement of authorship These elements are followed by statements. First and foremost, and most commonly, this is merely a Statement of authorship and authenticity of the printed and electronic forms of the final thesis. The student simply completes a previously prepared statement. Acknowledgements, summary, key words, tables of contents An acknowledgement should be written if we would like to give special thanks to those who helped us in any way during the preparation of the written work. The way this is presented is shown in the template. (Description of formatting: the heading Acknowledgement (12 pt., capital letters, bold) should be followed by an empty line (12 9 The Rules on Final Thesis Preparation and Defence for First- and Second-cycle Study Programmes at the UM Faculty of Tourism were adopted on 30 March 2017 and are available on the faculty website. Chapter 8: Text Formatting 105. pt.) and the text of the acknowledgement (font size 12 pt.), which should be justified along with all of the following text. There should be single line spacing between the lines. The entire text should be shifted to the lower edge of the page.)10 On the next page is the summary. The summary usualy contains from 150 to 200 words. The title of the summary is the actual title of the thesis (16 pt. bold capitals), followed by the text, which is written in the usual font size (12 pt.) and justified. We should be attentive to the writing style, with the text written using the passive voice. The summary is followed by the key words. These are set out in 12 pt. font, and the phrase Key words in bold; usually we select around five key words. The key words are followed by the UDC (universal decimal classification), 11 which is written using the template sample. There should always be a 24 pt. spacing between the title, summary, key words and UDC. The entire content is also written on a new page in a foreign language (usually in English). If the thesis is written in a foreign language, an expanded summary should be provided in Slovenian, and this must comprise at least 5% of the entire paper (it must cover the content from the first to the last chapter, but without the list of references and sources and the appendices). The above elements are followed by the Table of Contents, which is described in detail a few paragraphs earlier. In the case of formatting of al pages up to the Table of Contents it is probably best to use the template. Afterwards, we recommend that you adhere to the template (which shows useful examples), while the content should be formatted and prepared by the authors themselves. 8.3 By way of a conclusion The primary concern of the authors of written works should of course remain the content. However, it is very difficult to offer even high-quality content to the reader without appropriate presentation (structuring and formatting). The logical structure of the content and its arranged appearance are of key importance for its presentation to audiences and readers. We should therefore never underestimate the formatting part (structure and arrangement of the text) because, in most cases, it represents the first contact of the content with its audience – and this contact is extremely important. A piece 10 If the diploma thesis has been written in English or some other language, the acknowledgement should also be written in that language. 11 UDC is the English abbreviation. 106 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR. of written work is of high-quality if it covers and observes all the aspects of good communication (as also presented in this handbook). And its quality can only be as good as the quality of its weakest link. References Faculty of Tourism. (2017). Pravilnik o postopku priprave in zagovora zaključnega dela na študijskih programih prve in druge stopnje Fakultete za turizem UM. Brežice: Faculty of Tourism, University of Maribor. Sternad, S., Boršič, D. and Tominc, P. (2013). Navodila za izdelavo pisnih del na Ekonomsko-poslovni fakulteti. Maribor: Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Maribor. University of Maribor. (n.d.). Skupne usmeritve za pripravo zaključnih del. Retrieved from https://www.um.si/univerza/dokumentni-center/akti/GlavniDokumenti2013/Skupne%20predloge%20za%20pripravo%20zaklju%C4%8Dnih%20 dela%20na%20UM.pdf, 8 November 2019 HANDBOOK FOR WRITING AND EDITING TEXTS OF THE FACULTY OF TOURISM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MARIBOR MAJA TURNŠEK (ED.) University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Maribor, Slovenia. E-mail: maja.turnšek@um.si Abstract The learning process at the faculty requires not only attending lectures and active participation in the tutorials, but also intensive individual work of a student, which is often presented in the form of a seminar paper. However, the most important individual work of a student is definitely a final paper - a diploma or a master's thesis. In order to present and facilitate the preparation of written works for the students of the Faculty of Tourism of the University of Maribor, we have prepared this handbook for writing and editing texts at the faculty. The professional monograph covers the chapters that lead the student through the whole process of research and writing their paper. From the initial search of the research idea and the basics of scientific writing and research in tourism, to the individual steps of the research process and research methods. The professional monograph also includes a chapter on personal relationships, which in particular addresses the relationship between a student and a mentor in the process of preparing the paper or thesis. The handbook also provides Keywords: writing practical advice on language and text designing, as well as instructions texts, for citing references. The professional monograph, thus, combines editing, basic information that both students of tourism and their lecturers wil research, citing, use in their study and work processes, as they will follow the uniform text guidelines for writing texts in tourism at the Faculty of Tourism. designing DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-545-0 ISBN 978-961-286-545-0 Document Outline Introduction Chapter 1 The Foundation of Quality in Research: Peer Review Chapter 2 Introduction to Scientific Thinking and Writing Chapter 3 Steps of the Research Process 3.1 Selection of topic/research area (and review of the literature) 3.2 Definition of the research problem (and its relevance) 3.3 Purpose 3.4 Objectives 3.5 Analysis and interpretation of data 3.6 Discussion and findings Chapter 4 Definition of the Research Method; Between the Quali- and Quantitative 4.1 Definition of qualitative research methods and data collection 4.1.1 Interview 4.1.2 Observation with participation 4.1.3 Focus groups 4.1.4 Discursive analysis of content 4.2 Analysis of qualitative data 4.3 Definition of quantitative research methods and data collection 4.3.1 Survey 4.4 Use of qualitative and quantitative methods 4.5 Discussion and findings Chapter 5 Personal relations in scientific writing 5.1 Mentorship 5.2 Building a positive relationship between student and mentor 5.2.1 Preparation of the final thesis 5.2.2 Selection of mentor for preparation of the diploma thesis 5.3.3 Selection of co-mentor for preparation of the diploma thesis 5.3.4 Communication between student and mentor 5.3.5 Cooperation of student and mentor 5.3.6 Steps in preparation of the diploma thesis 5.3.7 Duration of the process and number of interactions with the mentor Chapter 6 Language and Writing Style 6.1 General characteristics of scientific writing 6.2 Punctuation marks 6.3 Upper and lower case initial letters 6.4 Numbers 6.5 Special characters in the text Chapter 7 Citation of Literature and Sources 7.1 General instructions 7.2 Citation within text 7.3 Referencing sources in a list of references and sources 7.3.1 Use of italics 7.3.2 Sequence for citing sources and authors 7.4 Examples of citing sources for individual type of material Chapter 8 Text Formatting 8.1 Structuring of text 8.2 Technical editing of text 8.2.1 General rules for formatting/editing texts 8.2.2 Special elements in formatting the final thesis 8.3 By way of a conclusion