124 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies
 Let./Vol. 76 (142)
Issue 4/2025
pp. 124–145
Mirjana Senić Ružić  
and Zorica Šaljić
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the 
students’ perspective
Abstract: Cyberbullying is a growing societal issue requiring an adequate social and institutional 
response due to the consequences it may have on all subjects involved. Given its presence among stu-
dents, their views should be considered when planning preventive strategies. Therefore, researching 
students’ perspectives on the cyberbullying problem stands out as significant. This research focuses 
on students’ opinions on various aspects of the problem of cyberbullying – its definition, severity, pres-
ence, and causes. The study included 856 students from elementary schools in Belgrade. The results 
show that more than half of the students consider that cyberbullying is present among their peers. 
They are aware of the severity of the cyberbullying problem and its consequences; however, variations 
are present in view of age and gender when different aspects of cyberbullying and the factors leading to 
it are observed. The majority of students recognise behaviours representing cyberbullying, while they 
are uncertain about behaviours that are not cyberbullying per se but that can easily assume these char-
acteristics depending on the context. The findings imply that an integrated approach to prevention is 
important, aimed at raising awareness of the gravity of the cyberbullying problem and its consequenc-
es, as well as developing digital literacy and strengthening the capacities of both families and schools 
for appropriate and continuous preventive action.
Keywords: cyberbullying, students’ perspective, risk factors for cyberbullying, prevention of cyber-
bullying
UDC: 376
Scientific article
https://doi.org/10.63384/spB54z808a
 
Mirjana Senić Ružić, PhD., assistant professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Čika 
Ljubina 18-20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; e-mail: mirjana.senic@f.bg.ac.rs 
Zorica Šaljić, PhD., associate professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Čika Ljubina 
18-20, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia; e-mail: zorica.saljic@f.bg.ac.rs 

125 
Introduction
The increase in the availability and accessibility of mobile devices, comput-
ers, and the Internet has seen a corresponding increase in the number of children 
and teenagers using digital technologies. They engage in numerous online activi-
ties, such as retrieving information, communicating with friends, playing games, 
and watching, creating, and sharing content. These activities can be perceived as 
advantages of an online world that enables easier communication, faster access to 
information, the satisfying of different individual interests, and so on. However, 
the very features that make the online world so appealing and accessible can also 
expose children to a range of potential risks. The overall increase of violence in so-
ciety , for instance, is now also mirrored through the use of digital technologies and 
tools in the everyday lives of children and adults. This is evidenced by numerous 
studies (Marín-Cortés et al. 2019; Modecki et al. 2014; Patchin and Hinduja 2011) 
that point to the dark side of the Internet and various forms of cyberbullying that 
have both short- and long-term negative consequences (Baldry et al. 2015). The 
findings also indicate that children and the young are especially vulnerable to cy-
berbullying and that between 20% and 40% of them are at risk of cyberbullying or 
have suffered from it, with the most sensitive and susceptible being children aged 
12 to 14 years (Tokunaga 2010).
Nowadays, cyberbullying is seen as a serious social problem, particularly en-
dangering children and the young. As such, it demands the increased attention 
not only of parents but also of schools and creators of educational policies to over-
come it. Adequate measures of prevention and intervention require a thorough 
comprehension of the cyberbullying problem, and a significant contribution can 
be gained through the perspectives of children and the young, who, compared to 
adults, spend more time in the digital environment and have more contact and ex-
perience with social media (Dennehy et al. 2020). Therefore, this research focuses 
on how students perceive cyberbullying, what kinds of behaviour they consider as 
cyberbullying, and what circumstances lead to it.
Senić Ružić, Šaljić

126 Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies
Basic characteristics of cyberbullying
When defining the term cyberbullying, most authors agree that it includes all 
such behaviours through which another person is intentionally harassed or hurt 
and thus being incurred harm through the use of digital media (Marín-Cortés et 
al. 2019; Palaiologou 2017; Patchin and Hinduja 2006; Popadić and Kuzmanović 
2013; Tokunaga 2010). The conceptualisation of cyberbullying is aggravated by 
the fact that it occurs in very different forms and manifests itself in various ways 
(Kowalski et al. 2014). It includes behaviours such as insulting and denigration, 
threats, flaming, cyber-stalking, slandering, masquerading, disclosing private in-
formation and trickery, sexual harassment, and sharing inappropriate content, 
which can be sexual or violent (Alhujailli et al. 2020; Livingstone et al. 2015; 
Popadić and Kuzmanović 2013). In addition, it is not rare to come across allegedly 
less harmful behaviour expressed as “jokes” on account of individuals or a group, 
such as malicious comments, spreading rumours, and so on (Alhujailli et al. 2020). 
Cyberbullying is often considered as a subtype of traditional violence, with 
the difference that it happens in a new context—that is, digital surroundings (Li 
in Arato et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2010). This is the reason why many definitions of 
cyberbullying originate from the definition of traditional violence happening “face 
to face” (Dinić 2022; Tokunaga 2010); thus, they keep the elements of Olweus’ 
definition of violence, characterised by the imbalance of power, the intention to 
incur harm, and repetition (Olweus 1994). As with traditional violence, the im-
balance in cyberbullying can be manifested in a physical, social, relational, or psy-
chological form, and the very fact that one person is more digitally literate than 
another can represent the imbalance of power (Kowalski et al. 2014). As for the 
repetition of violent behaviour, it can be less relevant in the case of cyberbullying, 
keeping in mind that only one activity is sufficient to classify certain behaviour as 
cyberbullying and significantly harm someone with long-lasting effects (Baldry et 
al. 2015). Furthermore, cyberbullying is also characterised by some specificities of 
its digital context, such as unlimited internet capacity, the anonymity of the per-
petrator (which also contributes to the above-mentioned imbalance of power), a 
wide audience, and 24/7 availability (Alhujailli et al. 2020; Berne et al. 2013; Kow-
alski et al. 2014). Cyberbullying can also be direct or indirect, private or public, 
and the manner in which the victim experiences such behaviours (being harmful 
or not, regardless of the intention, repetition, or imbalance of power) stands out 
as an important factor in identifying if something is cyberbullying or not (Iqubal 
and Jami 2022; Peter and Petermann 2018). Furthermore, the fact that such “in-
formation” can be shared with anybody with access to technology and viewed 
as many times as the recipient desires adds complexity to the problem (Beghin 
2020). The frequency and range of cyberbullying are not conditioned or limited 
by the physical proximity of a bully and a victim and the real world; as such, the 
violence, as the social problem, has reached a new degree of “maturity” (Patchin 
and Hinduja 2006).
Certain similarities and differences in traditional and digital violence raise 
the question of whether they can be considered close and connected phenomena, 
and whether cyberbullying is only a subtype of traditional violence or a separate 
Senić Ružić, Šaljić

127 
phenomenon requiring specific and unique approaches regarding its prevention 
and intervention (Liu et al. 2021). Some studies indicate a correlation between 
participation in traditional forms of violence and digital ones, suggesting that dif-
ferent types of violence are highly connected (Marín-Cortés et al. 2019; Tokunaga 
2010; Wang et al. 2010)—that is, the experience of one type of violence significant-
ly increases the probability of occurrence of other forms of violence (Finkelhor et 
al. 2007; Kostić and Ranaldi 2022; Turner et al. 2010). These study findings point 
out the significance of perceiving and better understanding the risk factors for 
cyberbullying.
Causes and consequences of cyberbullying
A deeper understanding of the cyberbullying phenomenon and its prevention 
requires examining the various psychosocial risk factors that form the basis of 
this type of violent behaviour. Research suggests that the same risk factors are 
accountable for the appearance of violent behaviour in digital space as for other 
forms of violence, including individual characteristics and unfavourable family, 
school, and social circumstances (Kowalski et al. 2014; Marín-Cortés et al. 2019; 
Patchin and Hinduja 2006; Wang et al. 2010). Key factors include age, to some 
extent gender (due to the inconsistency of research results in that aspect; see 
Hinduja and Patchin 2015; Kowalski et al. 2014; Tokunaga 2010; Wright and Li 
2013), impulsivity, insufficiently developed emotional and cognitive empathy and 
positive image of oneself, resistance to rules and moral norms, an inclination to 
conflictive problem solving, a lack of parental support and supervision, poor aca-
demic performance and an absence of the feeling of affiliation to school, problems 
in relationships with teachers and peers, and exposure to violence in the media, 
among others (Baldry et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2021; Sorrentino et al. 2023). Further-
more, risk factors concerning online activities are specific to cyberbullying, such 
as the time spent on social networks; sharing one’s photos, videos, and data; com-
munication with unknown persons; and so on (Arato et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2021; 
Marín-Cortés et al. 2019). Accordingly, it can be assumed that the quality of and 
time spent on internet activities are closely connected to cyberbullying risks. With 
that reference, the importance of the quality of communication between parents 
and children is emphasised as a predictive factor (Alajbeg 2018; Barlett 2023). 
Findings showing that school bullying represents the most predictive factor of 
cyberbullying risk (Baldry et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2021) are also significant.
The consequences of cyberbullying are far from harmless. They manifest 
in academic performance, disturbed self-confidence and trust towards others, 
self-harming, the consumption of psychoactive substances and alcohol, poor 
health (especially mental health in relation to anxiety and depression), and overall 
functioning (Alhujailli et al. 2020; Beghin 2020; Kostić and Ranaldi 2022; Ortega 
et al. 2012; Mooij 2012; Sorrentino et al. 2023). Cyberbullying has an impact not 
only on the victims but on all those witnessing it and others including the victim’s 
friends and family, which creates an unfavourable climate for development and 
learning (Alhujailli et al. 2020; Mooij 2012; SRSG 2012). 
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

128 
In light of the above, it can be concluded that cyberbullying represents a 
complex social problem that requires a comprehensive resolution approach and 
the joint efforts of schools, parents, relevant social institutions, and society in 
general. Overcoming this problem assumes a significant position in the education-
al policies of many European countries (OECD 2020). Since the starting point in 
developing preventive programmes is to assess the current condition, it is impor-
tant, inter alia, to consider the students’ perspective on the issue of cyberbullying 
because they are the subjects in whose interest these preventative measures are 
developed.
Methodology 
The purpose of this research was to explore students’ understanding of 
the cyberbullying problem. The study focuses on the following questions: What 
behaviours do students consider to be cyberbullying? What is their perception 
of cyberbullying as a social problem? What are their opinions about the factors 
contributing to its occurrence? And are there differences in students’ perceptions 
of the cyberbullying problem in terms of age and gender? In this study, a conve-
nience sampling approach was used to recruit 856 students from 15 elementary 
schools in Belgrade (Table 1). Students from the 5
th
 to the 8
th
 grade were invited to 
participate in the research, since previous studies have shown that cyberbullying 
is more prevalent among students aged 11 years and over and that cyberbullying 
among younger students (8–10 years old) is rarely present (Barlett 2023). The 
findings also indicate that older students at elementary schools are more often 
victims of cyberbullying compared to younger students (Šulc et al. 2021). The 
distribution of the sample per grade was such that the most convenient approach 
for data processing was to merge the categories in the following manner: younger 
students (5
th
 and 6
th
 grade) and older students (7
th
 and 8
th
 grade); thus, these for-
mulations are used when presenting the results and discussion.
Frequency (f) Percentage (%)
Gender Male 359 41.9
Female 497 58.1
Grade 5
th
 241 28.2
6
th
 220 25.7
7
th
 252 29.4
8
th
 143 16.7
Table 1: Structure of the sample
Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Senić Ružić, Šaljić

129 
The study employed the descriptive research method, with data collected 
through online surveys sent by email. The survey instrument consists of three 
scales. The first, three-point, scale (1 – no, 2 – not sure, 3 – yes) is intended to col-
lect data about the behaviours representing cyberbullying. It consists of fiffteen 
items that include the behaviours, some of which are unquestionably related to cy-
berbullying while others refer to behaviours which are essentially not violent but 
can be considered as such depending on the content, intention, and context. The 
scale is reliable for identifying behaviours belonging to cyberbullying (α = 0.84). 
The second, four-point, scale (1 – strongly disagree, 2 – mostly disagree, 3 – mostly 
agree, 4 – strongly agree) consists of eight items and is used to examine students’ 
opinions on different problems of cyberbullying; therefore, the items are inter-
preted separately . The third, three-point, scale (1 – cannot contribute, 2 – can con-
tribute to a small extent, 3 – can contribute to a great extent) is used to examine 
students’ opinions on the circumstances that can contribute to the occurrence of 
cyberbullying. The reliability of this scale is acceptable (α = 0.84).
The data were collected during the 2023/24 school year. The research was 
carried out following ethical principles. Participants were informed of the purpose 
and significance of the study, reminded that participation was anonymous and 
voluntary , and given the possibility to withdraw from the research at any time. Pa-
rental consent for the students to take part in the study was secured through the 
teachers. The obtained data were processed using IBM SPSS statistics software, v . 
26 using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and single factor anal-
ysis of variance (ANOVA).
Research results 
Violent behaviours in the digital environment 
The obtained data show that the majority of students recognise behaviours 
representing cyberbullying (Table 2). Since the scale does not include solely those 
behaviours that can be classified with certainty as cyberbullying, the obtained 
data were subjected to exploratory factor analysis aimed at reducing the set of var-
iables. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin test (KMO = .93) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity 
(p < .001) were used to verify that the data set was suitable for factor analysis. 
Using oblimin rotation and the analysis of major components, two factors were 
identified. The proposed structure explains 57.24% of the total variance, where-
upon the factor saturation of variables is within the range from .507 to .866 for 
the first factor and from .536 to .728 for the second factor (Table 2). The first fac-
tor singles out the variables that undoubtedly represent cyberbullying, while the 
second factor distinguishes behaviours that may but do not have to be classified 
as cyberbullying, such as making comments on someone’s posts. For further sta-
tistical analyses, the factor scores were kept as separate variables along with the 
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

130 
composite score made of all statements from the scale representing the variable of 
understanding cyberbullying. 
Behaviours in the digital environment
Factor 
satura-
tion
No Not sure Yes
Factor 1: Behaviours representing cyberbullying % f % f % f
Mockery and inappropriate comments on someone’s 
photos, messages, and posts on social networks
.866 14 116 5 43 81 697
Sharing somebody’s sexual content without his/her 
consent or pressuring or threatening a person to 
create and share personal sexual content
.860 13 109 3 29 84 718
Sending disturbing, offensive, or threatening mes-
sages
.857 11 96 4 37 84 723
Sharing photos or videos with inappropriate, sex-
ual, or disturbing content in common groups or on 
social networks
.831 12 105 6 51 82 700
Sending viruses, hacking profiles, or stealing and 
changing passwords
.803 12 104 5 46 82 706
Sharing false information about someone in an 
online space
.791 15 129 10 85 75 642
Sharing photos or videos of friends on social net-
works without their consent
.738 16 136 13 114 71 606
Belittling someone’s opinion in online discussions .721 20 172 13 111 67 573
Ignoring and excluding individuals from groups on 
social networks
.507 29 248 23 197 48 411
Factor 2: Behaviours not necessarily cyberbullying      
Making comments on someone’s posts .728 55 472 30 259 15 125
Researching somebody’s followers (about who 
follows the person we are following)
.706 60 516 27 231 13 109
Organising events and gatherings through social 
networks
.676 65 559 21 179 14 118
Following one person on several social networks .656 77 657 10 89 13 110
Participating in group discussions by making com-
ments regarding some post
.595 42 361 30 258 28 237
Sharing someone’s posts (e.g. photos) from open 
profiles or some common groups
.536 30 257 25 218 45 381
Extraction method: Analysis of major components  
Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser normalisa-
tion 
Rotation performed in four iterations
Table 2: Factor weight matrix and students’ assessment of which behaviours represent cyberbullying
Extraction method: Analysis of major components  
Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser normalisation 
Rotation performed in four iterations
Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Senić Ružić, Šaljić

131 
To better understand students’ awareness of cyberbullying behaviours, we 
examined differences among students given their age and gender. Statistically sig-
nificant differences were found in overall understanding (F = 41.65; p < .001) 
and in relation to two factor scores. Younger students (M = 2.30; SD = 0.41) 
demonstrated greater sensitivity to different forms of cyberbullying compared to 
older students (M = 2.12; SD = 0.40), regarding the total score of understanding 
cyberbullying. The factor 1 analysis revealed significant differences (F = 23.25; p 
< .001), showing that younger students were better at recognising clear cases of 
cyberbullying (M = 0.14; SD = 0.93) than older students (M = -0.16; SD = 1.05). 
The factor 2 analysis, which concerns situations that are not necessarily cyber-
bullying, also revealed significant age differences (F = 24.45; p < .001); younger 
students (M = 0.15; SD = 0.92) were more likely to identify these behaviours as 
potential cyberbullying, while older students (M = -0.18; SD = 1.06) were less 
likely to do so. 
The analyses indicated differences between girls and boys in their percep-
tions of cyberbullying situations. Girls were found to be more likely to recognise 
certain situations as cyberbullying compared to boys (F = 32.75; p < .001), with 
higher overall scores (boys: M = 2.13; SD = 0.46; girls: M = 2.29; SD = 0.37). Sim-
ilar findings were obtained for factor 1, which includes clear cases of cyberbullying 
(F = 32.26; p < .001), while for factor 2, which includes behaviours not necessarily 
representing cyberbullying, gender differences were statistically significant at the 
.05 level (F = 4.49; p = .034). The results regarding girls (M = 0.16; SD = 0.88) 
and boys (M = -0.22; SD = 1.11) indicate that there is a greater probability of 
girls identifying behaviours that are unmistakably harmful than boys, such as 
sharing explicit content or sending threatening messages. On the other hand, the 
results obtained on the subsample of boys were below the total average. In terms 
of behaviours such as commenting on other people’s posts or sharing someone’s 
posts or photos from open profiles, girls (M = 0.06; SD = 0.96) were more likely to 
classify these behaviours as cyberbullying than boys were (M = -0.09; SD = 1.04). 
Different aspects of cyberbullying
Besides identifying behaviours classified as cyberbullying, we attempted to 
research the perceptions of students on various aspects of the cyberbullying prob-
lem, such as severity, prevalence, and its consequences (Table 3). The majority 
of students in elementary school senior grades were aware of the seriousness of 
the cyberbullying problem (87%). They stated that cyberbullying was present in 
their school (61%), and most of them confirmed that cyberbullying was not only 
carried out by unknown persons (86%). Only 15% of students considered cyber-
bullying as harmless because it happens in the digital environment, and the ma-
jority (80%) recognised that cyberbullying can lead to permanent consequences. 
Twenty-eight per cent (28%) of students considered that cyberbullying cannot be 
prevented, whereas 74% stated that one can protect oneself against cyberbullying. 
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

132 
Although the issue concerns a small percentage, only 15%, it should be mentioned 
that there were students who considered that it is the fault of the cyberbullying 
victim, which can be interpreted through the traditionally grounded assumptions 
that the victim has contributed in a certain way to her/his exposure to some form 
of violence. 
Statements on cyberbullying N Minimum Maximum M SD
Cyberbullying is a serious problem among 
peers 
856 1 4 3.32 0.80
Cyberbullying is not present among stu-
dents in my school
856 1 4 2.23 0.90
Cyberbullying is carried out only by un-
known persons
856 1 4 1.64 0.83
Cyberbullying cannot be prevented 856 1 4 1.89 1.04
Cyberbullying is harmless because it does 
not happen in the real world but in the 
digital environment
856 1 4 1.54 0.86
Cyberbullying does not incur permanent 
consequences
856 1 4 1.74 0.92
One can protect oneself against cyberbul-
lying
856 1 4 2.94 0.99
Cyberbullying is the fault of the victim 856 1 4 1.64 0.84
Table 3: Perception of students on different aspects of cyberbullying
The analysis revealed significant differences between younger and older stu-
dents regarding three statements (Table 4). Younger students were more likely to 
view cyberbullying as a serious issue among peers, while older students more often 
perceived it as harmless and believed that the victim is to blame. As for the other 
items, no statistically significant age differences were found (i.e. both younger and 
older students similarly perceived the presence of cyberbullying among peers, the 
possibility of its prevention, and the seriousness of its consequences). 
Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Senić Ružić, Šaljić

133 
Item Grade M SD F p
Cyberbullying is a serious problem among 
peers
5
th
 and 6
th
3.41 0.79
11.83 .001
7
th
 and 8
th
 3.22 0.81
Cyberbullying is harmless because it does not 
happen in the real world but in the digital 
environment
5
th
 and 6
th
 1.42 0.74
22.73 .000
7
th
 and 8
th
1.69 0.96
Cyberbullying is the fault of the victim 
5
th
 and 6
th
 1.52 0.78
20.80 .000
7
th
 and 8
th
1.78 0.90
Table 4: Statistically significant age differences in students’ opinions on cyberbullying 
Statistically significant gender differences were found in students’ opinions 
on cyberbullying (Table 5). Girls were more likely to see it as a serious problem 
among peers than boys, while boys were more likely to believe that cyberbullying 
is harmless, is carried out by anonymous individuals, and that it does not incur 
permanent consequences. Boys were also more likely to blame the victim. Both 
girls and boys perceived the presence of cyberbullying among their peers in a sim-
ilar way, as well as the potential for its prevention and protection from it. 
Item Gender M SD F p
Cyberbullying is a serious problem among peers
Male 3.16 0.91
23.58 .000
Female 3.43 0.70
Cyberbullying is carried out only by unknown 
persons
Male 1.76 0.91
13.30 .000
Female 1.55 0.76
Cyberbullying is harmless because it does not 
happen in the real world but in the digital 
environment
Male 1.63 0.93
6.53 .011
Female 1.48 0.80
Cyberbullying does not incur permanent con-
sequences
Male 1.85 0.96
9.06 .003
Female 1.66 0.88
Cyberbullying is the fault of the victim 
Male 1.80 0.89
21.34 .000
Female 1.53 0.78
Table 5: Statistically significant gender differences in students’ opinions on cyberbullying
Circumstances contributing to the occurrence of cyberbullying among students
The students believed that various factors contribute to cyberbullying to a 
lesser or greater extent and that poor relations among peers (M = 2.61; SD = 
0.65) and the need to inflict harm on somebody (M = 2.51; SD = 0.69) contrib-
ute the most. They also highlighted exposure to violent content (M = 2.42; SD 
= 0.74), a lack of parental supervision (M = 2.43; SD = 0.71), incomprehension 
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

134 
of the severity of the cyberbullying problem (M = 2.42; SD = 0.69), and insuffi-
cient knowledge of the consequences of cyberbullying (M = 2.33; SD = 0.72) as 
key contributing factors. Some students considered the unrestricted use of digital 
technologies (M = 2.19; SD = 0.73) and boredom or a surplus of free time (M = 
2.03; SD = 0.72) as contributing risk factors. 
Statistically significant age differences were found in students’ opinions 
about the role of unrestricted use of digital technologies (F = 22.01; p < .001) 
and the amount of violent content online (F = 11.72; p < .001) in contributing 
to cyberbullying. Younger students (M = 2.30; SD = 0.73) rated the impact of 
unrestricted use of digital technologies higher than older students (M = 2.07; SD 
= 0.72). In contrast, 7
th
 and 8
th
 graders (M = 2.33; SD = 0.76) assessed the contri-
bution of violent content on the Internet and in the media to cyberbullying lower 
than their younger peers (M = 2.50; SD = 0.72). Both younger and older students 
similarly assessed boredom or excess free time, poor peer relations, a lack of pa-
rental supervision, insufficient knowledge and understanding of the cyberbullying 
problem, and the need to harm others as factors that contribute to the occurrence 
of cyberbullying.
The analysis revealed significant gender differences in students’ perceptions 
of cyberbullying risk factors. Girls attached a more important role to poor peer re-
lations, a lack of parental supervision, violent online content, a lack of awareness 
about the severity of the cyberbullying problem and its consequences, and the in-
tent to harm others (Table 6). However, no significant gender differences emerged 
regarding the role of unrestricted digital technology use or boredom/surplus of 
free time in contributing to cyberbullying.
Item Gender M SD F p
Poor peer relations
Male 2.55 0.70
5.38 .021
Female 2.66 0.61
A lack of parental supervision
Male 2.33 0.73
11.01 .001
Female 2.50 0.69
A large amount of violent content on the Internet and 
in the media
Male 2.32 0.79
12.75 .000
Female 2.50 0.70
Insufficient knowledge of cyberbullying consequences
Male 2.23 0.74
11.49 .001
Female 2.40 0.69
Incomprehension of the severity of the cyberbullying 
problem
Male 2.35 0.75
7.03 .008
Female 2.47 0.65
Need to inflict harm on somebody
Male 2.42 0.74
11.21 .001
Female 2.58 0.65
Table 6: Statistically significant gender differences in students’ opinions on circumstances contribut-
ing to cyberbullying
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135 
Discussion
Understanding of the cyberbullying problem 
Previous research has shown that the availability and frequency of using 
technology and the Internet increase with age and that the amount of time spent 
online is directly linked with greater exposure to different risks, the frequency of 
cyberbullying, and the number of students involved in it (Popadić and Kuzmano-
vić 2013). Therefore, it can be assumed that students are familiar with the cy-
berbullying problem and hold certain opinions on its presence among elementary 
school students and its possible causes. Findings also show that children between 
10 and 14 years of age unwittingly undertake activities that can be classified as 
peer cyberbullying because they are often unaware of the harm they can inflict on 
their peers with such behaviour (Kostić and Ranaldi 2022). While the data suggest 
that students are generally aware of behaviours that are considered as cyberbul-
lying, some ambiguity remains, particularly regarding the behaviour of ignoring 
and excluding individuals from groups on social networks. It is concerning that 
over half of the student participants did not identify this as a case of cyberbul-
lying, possibly overlooking its impact on the person being ignored or excluded 
from some group on social networks. However, this may also be a reflection of the 
students’ understanding of the exclusion context. The students may have been 
unsure whether this was an issue of cyberbullying or a reaction to cyberbullying 
if it concerns the exclusion of a person who is himself/herself digitally violent in a 
group and upsets other members.
Greater uncertainty was present concerning those behaviours that may or 
may not be cyberbullying situations. About a third of the students were not cer-
tain whether commenting on someone’s posts or participating in group discussions 
represents cyberbullying. In fact, such behaviours do not qualify as cyberbullying 
if the content and intention are not such; therefore, the context conditions the as-
sessment of whether it is cyberbullying or not. With that reference, it can be said 
that a third of the students were cautious about what is specified as cyberbullying. 
Studies have shown that students have difficulties in recognising subtle forms of 
cyberbullying, such as the exclusion of individuals or spreading rumours online, 
although such behaviours have a significant psychological impact on those experi-
encing them (Patchin and Hinduja 2015), and that jokes in digital environments 
are often not regarded as harmful, which leads to the normalisation of certain 
forms of cyberbullying (Popadić and Kuzmanović 2013). 
Our factor analysis supported this distinction. Two groups of behaviours were 
identified: one containing situations that undoubtedly represent cyberbullying, 
and another comprising behaviours that may but do not have to be classified as 
cyberbullying, such as commenting on posts. Detailed analysis of these situations 
revealed that the context (intention, content) behind the behaviour represents the 
key criterion for observing it as cyberbullying. This is in line with the conclusions 
of previous research, that emphasised that one of the specificities of violence in 
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

136 
the digital environment is that it is difficult to differentiate the intention to incur 
harm to someone from other intentions (Menesini and Nocetini 2009), as well as 
that unintentional activities can have the same negative consequences as inten-
tional ones (Steer et al. 2021). Therefore, understanding the victim’s perspective 
becomes important when classifying certain behaviours as cyberbullying (Iqubal 
and Jami 2022; Menin et al. 2021; Nocentini et al. 2010).
In addition to how students perceive behaviours classified as cyberbullying, 
this research gives insight into their perceptions on the severity of the cyber-
bullying problem, its prevalence among elementary school children, and its con-
sequences. The results confirm that cyberbullying is present among elementary 
school children. Most of the student participants recognised cyberbullying as a 
serious problem among their peers and were aware of the harm it can cause and 
the possibilities for its prevention. However, there were some differences in how 
seriously cyberbullying is perceived in terms of the students’ ages and genders, 
especially among older boys, who had the tendency to normalise it or perceive it 
as harmless. Students are often unaware of the impact of their online activities 
and the potential consequences these activities imply (Hinduja and Patchin 2010); 
they neither experience cyberbullying as a serious problem (Smith and Slonje 
2009) nor do they recognise the emotional harm that cyberbullying may inflict on 
others, which can lead to normalising such behaviour in the online space, more 
frequent incidents, and a lack of empathy towards the victims (Dennehy et al. 
2020).
In line with this, some authors point out the inevitability of normalisation, 
minimisation, and comprehension of the cyberbullying problem, not only with 
students but also with parents and teachers who consider that exposure to vio-
lence is a normal part of growing up and that such experiences prepare children 
for the future, since technology is present everywhere and is a part of everyday life 
(Mishna et al. 2020). These authors specify the need to move the focus in study-
ing the cyberbullying problem from individual perspectives (observing it from the 
point of view of students, teachers, and parents) to the critical perspective and an 
understanding of its broader social impacts, which shape personal assumptions 
and stereotypes that further enable and facilitate various forms of cyberbullying.
Factors contributing to cyberbullying among students
Research has shown that many factors contribute to cyberbullying, such as 
family dynamics and parenting styles, the influence of peers or adults, and societal 
and contextual factors (e.g. violence in the media, crime rates, population density , 
cultural values, and political and economic stability) (Kowalski et al. 2014). This 
study focused on the cyberbullying risk factors most relevant to students aged 10 
to 14 years and their ability to identify them.
The students who participated in this study rated the importance of several 
factors contributing to cyberbullying: poor peer relations, exposure to violent con-
Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Senić Ružić, Šaljić

137 
tent, a lack of parental supervision, and limited understanding of the cyberbul-
lying problem and its consequences. These findings align with previous research 
showing that poor peer relations can be reflected in the digital environment and 
lead to cyberbullying (Huisting et al. 2012; Kollerova and Smolik 2016; Popadić 
and Kuzmanović 2013, 2016; Wright and Wachs 2019) and that exposure to vio-
lent content and cyberbullying occurrences may encourage aggressive online be-
haviour and make students less sensitive to the harm caused by cyberbullying 
(Modecki et al. 2014; Kuzmanović et al. 2016). 
Some students felt that the unrestricted use of digital technologies and bore-
dom or a surplus of free time, especially when unsupervised, can contribute to 
cyberbullying. This is a finding supported by other research showing that adoles-
cents with more free time and without structured activities are at a higher risk 
of being involved in digital harassment and negative online behaviour, seeking 
ways to fill their time (Botino et al. 2015; Wright and Li 2013). These findings 
indicate that students are aware that they might turn to technology in moments 
of boredom, sometimes engaging in negative online behaviours due to a lack of 
guidance on its appropriate use. Furthermore, studies have shown that a lack of 
parental control and frank communication with parents about risky behaviour on 
the Internet, as well as lower levels of parental digital literacy, are significant risk 
factors contributing to cyberbullying (Bottino et al. 2015; Hinduja and Patchin 
2015; Jevtić 2020, 2022; Kowalski et al. 2014; Kuzmanović et al. 2016; Pajkić et al. 
2023; Patchin and Hinduja 2011). 
Age and gender differences in perceptions of the cyberbullying problem 
Further analyses revealed important age and gender differences in how cy-
berbullying was perceived and understood among the students. While the overall 
perception was shared across ages and genders, some differences emerged in how 
seriously it was regarded and how its contributing factors were interpreted.
Age differences. Younger students showed greater sensitivity and more com-
prehensive understanding of both explicit forms of cyberbullying and those be-
haviours which can but do not have to be considered as such. They were also more 
likely to perceive cyberbullying as a serious problem among their peers, and they 
attributed greater significance to the unrestricted use of digital technologies and 
exposure to violent content as contributing factors to cyberbullying. This may be 
linked to their more limited exposure to such situations and to the more prom-
inent role of parental mediation at younger ages, as some studies suggest (Kuz-
manović et al. 2019; Popadić et al. 2016). The influence parents have on the time 
and manner in which children use technology reflects on students’ exposure to cy-
berbullying and probably their higher caution and awareness of the possible risks. 
On the other hand, older students, who generally spend more time online 
and experience fewer parental restrictions, were more likely to normalise or be 
less sensitive to certain behaviours, interpreting them as a part of everyday digi-
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

138 
tal communication, or minimise their harmful impact. This finding is in line with 
other studies showing that, in older students, either cognitive strategies are iden-
tified that normalise such behaviours (Smahel et al. 2020) or their influence is 
decreased; therefore, they experience them as less severe and interpret them as 
jokes and friendly teasing rather than as malicious harm (Popadić and Kuzmano-
vić 2013). Additionally, in the present study, older students did not perceive the 
unrestricted use of digital technologies and exposure to violent content as risk 
factors for cyberbullying. These tendencies may be reflected by discrepancies in 
developmental changes, which mirror the way students perceive online behaviour, 
or may come from older students’ overconfidence in their ability to navigate the 
digital environment, which does not necessarily reflect their actual digital literacy 
or awareness of cyberbullying risks. Although previous studies indicated that time 
spent online correlates with students’ self-perceived digital skills (Kuzmanović et 
al. 2019; Popadić et al. 2016), spending more time online does not necessarily 
result in higher levels of digital literacy but rather creates a sense of competence 
in students. Furthermore, older students may be less exposed to violent content 
precisely because they have developed digital skills due to greater online experi-
ence and can filter the content reaching them, which consequently questions the 
assumption that more time spent online and the unrestricted use of technology 
also implies higher exposure to violent content and cyberbullying. These findings 
align with research pointing out that individual online experience, behaviour, and 
preferences influence the exposure to online risks and cyberbullying perception, 
rather than the access to technology , time spent online, or age (Barlett 2023; Hin-
duja and Patchin 2015).
Gender differences. In the present study, girls tended to be more sensitive to 
both unmistakably harmful behaviours and ones that may not necessarily be per-
ceived as cyberbullying. They were more likely to consider the intention behind a 
behaviour and its harmful or emotional consequences, as well as to recognise the 
severity of the cyberbullying problem. This aligns with previous research showing 
that girls often exhibit higher levels of empathy and awareness of the harmful 
consequences of cyberbullying (Hinduja and Patchin 2015; Kovalski et al. 2014) 
and are more inclined to perceive cyberbullying as a serious problem among peers 
(Agatston et al. 2007). In this study, girls also assigned greater importance to re-
lational and contextual risk factors for cyberbullying, such as poor peer relations, 
a lack of parental control, and exposure to violent content. These findings are 
consistent with studies indicating that girls seem to experience and participate 
more in indirect forms of violence that are emotional and psychological in nature, 
thus corresponding to the cyberbullying forms (Hinduja and Patchin 2015). Their 
greater engagement with and recognition of these subtler forms of harm may ex-
plain both their heightened sensitivity and their more nuanced understanding of 
cyberbullying dynamics.
In contrast, and similar to older students, boys were more likely to minimise 
the seriousness of cyberbullying, perceiving it as harmless teasing, part of normal 
online interaction, or behaviour without lasting consequences. They may require 
a more explicit indicator of harmful intent in order to classify a behaviour as cy-
Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Senić Ružić, Šaljić

139 
berbullying. In the present study, they had tendencies to consider cyberbullying 
as harmless, without permanent consequences, and carried out by anonymous 
individuals, associating it with impersonal interactions and, thus, distancing 
themselves from its emotional dimension, which is in line with studies suggesting 
that boys experience lower levels of empathy and sensitivity to the harmful con-
sequences of cyberbullying, perceiving it as a less serious problem (Hinduja and 
Patchin 2015; Kowalski et al. 2014; Popadić and Kuzmanović 2013, 2016). While 
research findings on gender differences concerning cyberbullying perception re-
main inconsistent (Hinduja and Patchin 2015; Kowalski et al. 2014; Tokunaga 
2010; Wright and Li 2013), existing evidence points to the need for further explo-
ration of the role that gender may play as a predictor of cyberbullying or victimi-
sation, or as the factor shaping the comprehension of this problem. 
The presented findings confirm the complexity of the cyberbullying problem, 
which is also in line with the conclusions of the researchers, who indicate that the 
conceptualisation of this phenomenon is complicated exactly due to the complex 
nature of the digital environment and the intricate nature of interactions happen-
ing in such an environment (Dennehy et al. 2020). In addition, there is research 
directed at understanding the multifaceted definitions of cyberbullying (e.g. Ali-
pan et al. 2020), which vary depending on the perspective from which the problem 
is observed (cyber-bully, victim, or bystander); it also confirms the complexity of 
this phenomenon and amplifies the challenge regarding its research and more 
precise definition and understanding.
Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research
While this research provides significant insight into students’ perceptions 
of cyberbullying, certain limitations should be considered. The sample is not rep-
resentative: the obtained results do not include the findings and experiences of 
students outside the central city area. Therefore, we are not familiar with the 
situation in other areas in that respect, especially in rural areas where access to 
technology and cultural norms related to its use may differ substantially. Since 
the data are based only on the students’ self-reporting, the presence of socially 
acceptable responses can be expected as well as diminishing the significance of 
some experiences as a particular defence mechanism. 
Using an assessment scale with defined items can also be limiting, since it is 
difficult to include all behaviours that may be considered as cyberbullying. Being 
guided by a specific theoretical framework of cyberbullying may condition the 
omission of some elements that would provide a more complete image of the wide 
spectrum of behaviours representing this kind of violence, which can be latent 
and difficult to identify. Furthermore, modes of communication and the creation 
of digital content are changing with technological development, which leads to the 
appearance of new forms of violence in the digital environment, such as memes, 
cyber pranks, and cyber mobs (Iqubal and Jami 2022). In addition, the role of the 
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective

140 
context and perspective of the different participants in cyberbullying situations 
should not be forgotten (Menin et al. 2021; Nocentini et al. 2010), namely , how dif-
ferent participants experience and understand the content or intention of certain 
behaviour, which does not have to be bad or intentional for the victim to perceive 
it as such. 
Research using a qualitative methodology or a mixed-method approach could 
address these limitations and provide a deeper understanding of students’ per-
spectives on cyberbullying, which other researchers also point out (Dennehy et al. 
2020; Mishna et al. 2022; Peter and Petermann 2018). Besides a different meth-
odological approach, further research is required in relation to an overall exami-
nation of behaviour repertoire and the degree of impact of particular risks, as well 
as the perspective of other significant participants, such as parents, teachers, and 
expert associates at schools, who can provide a substantial contribution to under-
standing this problem, thus working towards the creation of effective measures 
for cyberbullying prevention.
Conclusion
Understanding cyberbullying, ranging from the risks, over-manifestations, 
and consequences on individuals and society to the possibilities for prevention, is 
increasingly important, particularly in the school context, with the young being 
an especially vulnerable group. Since students spend significant amounts of time 
online, understanding their perceptions on cyberbullying is essential. This study 
aimed to explore students’ views, offering insights that can inform the develop-
ment of preventive strategies in elementary schools. 
Students generally recognise behaviours that undoubtedly represent cyber-
bullying, whereas they are uncertain about behaviours that are not cyberbullying 
per se but can easily assume these characteristics depending on the context. They 
also display awareness about the seriousness of the cyberbullying problem and its 
contributing factors, identifying poor peer relations, the intent to harm, exposure 
to violent content, a lack of parental supervision, and underestimation of the se-
verity of cyberbullying and its consequences as key risk factors. These findings 
indicate the need for preventive actions aimed at fostering positive peer relations 
in the school context, where children and the young have most peer interactions. 
The focus should then be directed to limiting exposure to violent content, given 
its role in normalising violent behaviour. Additionally, schools and communities 
should offer structured activities to engage students constructively in order to 
positively direct boredom and the surplus of free time. 
The obtained findings indicate the importance of an integrated approach 
to cyberbullying prevention. This implies the inclusion of all relevant subjects 
in preventative action-taking, harmonised with various students’ needs and the 
different risk levels they are exposed to, as well as various activities that would 
strengthen their competencies (Šaljić 2017). This would, inter alia, contribute to 
higher sensitivity and a better understanding of the problem’s specificities. It is 
Sodobna pedagogika/Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies Senić Ružić, Šaljić

141 
necessary to work on raising awareness among students, parents, and teachers 
about the seriousness of cyberbullying and its consequences, promoting responsi-
ble online behaviour and developing empathy, tolerance, solidarity, togetherness, 
and so on. With that reference, developing digital literacy is singled out as an im-
portant direction for action-taking, both in schools and families, which requires, 
besides strengthening school capacities, also encouraging parental involvement 
and empowerment for digital parenting (Senić Ružić 2021; Senić Ružić et al. 
2024). All of the above represent important prerequisites for preventing the oc-
currence and decreasing the frequency of cyberbullying among students.
Acknowledgment 
This research was funded by the Ministry of Science, Technological Devel-
opment and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia within its programme funding 
scientific and research activities at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of 
Belgrade (Contract No. 451-03-137/2025-03/ 200163).
This research is produced under conditions of systemic repression and overt 
media, legal, financial, and psychological pressures exerted by the ruling struc-
tures of Serbia on its entire academic community.
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Mirjana SENIĆ RUŽIĆ (Univerza v Beogradu, Filozofska fakulteta, Srbija)
Zorica ŠALJIĆ (Univerza v Beogradu, Filozofska fakulteta, Srbija)
STALIŠČA UČENCEV DO PROBLEMA MEDVRSTNIŠKEGA SPLETNEGA NASILJA
Povzetek: Spletno nasilje je vse večji družbeni problem, ki zahteva ustrezen družbeni in institucion-
alni odziv zaradi posledic, ki jih lahko ima za vse vpletene. Glede na njegovo prisotnost med učenci je 
treba pri načrtovanju preventivnih strategij upoštevati tudi njihova stališča. Zato je raziskovanje stal-
išč učencev o problemu spletnega nasilja izjemno pomembno. Ta raziskava se osredotoča na stališča 
učencev o različnih vidikih spletnega nasilja – o njegovi opredelitvi, resnosti, prisotnosti in vzrokih. V 
študijo je bilo vključenih 856 osnovnošolcev iz Beograda. Rezultati kažejo, da več kot polovica učencev 
meni, da med njihovimi vrstniki spletno nasilje obstaja. Zavedajo se resnosti problema spletnega nasil-
ja in njegovih posledic, vendar pa obstajajo razlike glede na starost in spol, ko opazujemo različne 
vidike spletnega nasilja in dejavnike, ki vodijo do njega. Večina učencev prepozna vedenja, ki predstav-
ljajo spletno nasilje, medtem ko so negotovi glede vedenj, ki sama po sebi niso spletno nasilje, vendar 
lahko v določenem kontekstu zlahka dobijo njegove značilnosti. Ugotovitve kažejo, da je pomemben 
celosten pristop k preprečevanju spletnega nasilja, njegov cilj pa je ozaveščanje o resnosti tega proble-
ma in njegovih posledicah ter razvoj digitalne pismenosti in krepitev usposobljenosti družin in šol za 
ustrezno in neprekinjeno preventivno delovanje.
Ključne besede: spletno nasilje, stališča učencev, dejavniki tveganja za spletno nasilje, preprečevanje 
spletnega nasilja
Elektronski naslov: mirjana.senic@f.bg.ac.rs
The problem of peer cyberbullying from the students’ perspective