50 Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 DOI: 10.14502/Tekstilec2020.63.50-59 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Prof. Dr. Darinka Fakin ORCID: 0000-0002-4251-8655 Telephone: +386 2 220 7637 E-mail: darinka.fakin@um.si 1 Introduction Colour is a subjective sensorial perception that de- pends on the physicochemical composition of the ob- served object, type of light, and physiological and psychological abilities of the observer [1, 2]. Th e physical aspect of Colour Science, which is an inter- disciplinary discipline, deals with light and its inter- action. Th e chemical aspect covers the chemical prop- erties of substances – colourants, which can under Darinka Fakin 1 , Lavra Smoljanović, Alenka Ojstršek 1,2 1 University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute for Engineering Materials and Design, Smetanova 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Institute of Automation, Koroška cesta 46, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Detekcija in zaznavanje barve glede na spol in starost Original scientifi c article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 12-2019 • Accepted/Sprejeto 2-2020 Abstract People have been accompanied by colours throughout the history and through all periods of life. In diff er- ent eras, colours were also associated with status symbols of diff erent social classes or mythological beliefs. We are often addressed emotionally by colour combinations, since colour perception is always and exclu- sively a sensorial experience. Various colour combinations can have a pleasant eff ect on us or leave us cold as well as in a state of shock. All of the above, presented the starting point of this research. Detection and perception of sensations through colour was accomplished by preparing a questionnaire related to 12 se- lected colours. The research included 302 participants from Slovenia, of both sexes and diff erent ages, born from 1940 to 2004. From the obtained results, it could be concluded how popular a certain colour is in a material, design and spiritual sense. Moreover, the results were validated and compared regarding the gen- der and age of participants, and further compared with the results of previous studies. Keywords: colour perception, survey, colour popularity, colour of joy, colour of clothes, colour of sleeping area Izvleček Barve spremljajo človeka skozi vso zgodovino in skozi vsa življenjska obdobja. V različnih obdobjih so bile tudi sta- tusni simboli socialnih slojev ali mitoloških prepričanj. Barvne kombinacije, ki jih srečamo, nas čustveno nagovori- jo, kajti dojemanje barve je vedno in izključno samo čutno doživetje. Različne barvne kombinacije lahko na nas de- lujejo prijetno, lahko pa nas pustijo hladne ali se nas celo neprijetno dotaknejo. Slednje je bilo izhodišče za našo raziskavo. Z izbranimi dvanajstimi barvnimi odtenki in pripravljenim anketnim vprašalnikom smo opravili raziska- vo o zaznavanju in dojemanju barv. V raziskavi je zajet vzorec populacije 302 ljudi iz Slovenije, ki zajema tako žen- ske kot moške različnih generacij, leto rojstva od 1940 do 2004. Iz raziskave je mogoče ugotoviti priljubljenost po- sameznih barv tako v materialnem, oblikovalskem, kot tudi duhovnem smislu. Rezultati raziskave so ovrednoteni in primerjani glede na starostna obdobja in spol udeležencev, saj se ti med seboj razlikujejo, narejena je tudi pri- merjava s preteklimi raziskavami. Ključne besede: zaznavanje barve, vprašalnik, popularnost barve, barva veselja, barva oblačil, barva spalnega prostora 51 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 the infl uence of visible light absorb or refl ect light of diff erent spectral wavelengths. Th e psychological as- pect of colours considers the visual system of the ob- server, dealing with its infl uence on the well-being, consciousness and perception of colours. Th e most important aspect of colour in daily life is probably the one that is least defi ned and most vari- able. It involves aesthetic and psychological re- sponses to colour, and infl uences art, fashion, com- merce, and even physical and emotional sensations [3]. However, detection and perception of colour is not isolated from other sensory elements, but is re- lated closely to: (i) Perception of space and move- ment (dark colours seem closer, light makes things farther away), (ii) Weight perception (dark colours appear heavy, light lighter), (iii) Th ermal sensations (red, orange, yellow and brown hues are “warm”, while blue, green and grey are “cold”), (iv) Touch sensations (velvety are “soft ” colours and metallic are “hard”), (v) Odour, (vi) Taste and (vii) Acoustic sensing [4]. Furthermore, red, orange and yellow hues are said to induce excitement, cheerfulness, stimulation and aggression; blues and greens secu- rity, calm and peace; and browns, greys and blacks sadness, depression and melancholy [3]. How we perceive colours depends also on our character, mood, past experiences (memory colour eff ect) [5], gender, age and cultural conditions – place and his- torical period to which we belong [6]. In addition, mental health is one of the very important factors infl uencing colour perception, i.e. schizophrenics have been reported to have abnormal colour per- ception. Also, specifi c colours can have a therapeu- tic eff ect on physical and mental disabilities [3]. Many authors have been dealing with colours in his- tory, although, the studies are mainly related to the psychology of colours and their impact on the well- being, mood and health. A study similar to our re- search was published by A. Trstenjak in [10] and later by M. Tušak in [8], which summarised the re- search by M. Pfi ster [11], Gibson J. J. [12], H. Friel- ing [13] and others. Th e aim of this study was to investigate the percep- tion of sensations through colour, regarding gender and age, by preparing a survey together with 12 se- lected colours, representing the whole colour circle. Th e survey included questions about the (un)popu- larity of colours, the association of colours with joy, favourite colours of clothing and preferred colours of the sleeping area. 2 Experimental 2.1 Participants In the presented study, 302 persons participated in total, 195 females and 107 males, from whom 5 per- sons (1 female and 4 males) had diff erent colour per- ception disorders (self-proclaimed). In order to com- pare the obtained results, three groups were generated according to the year of birth, i.e. 1 st group 1940– 1970 (47 females and 19 males), 2 nd group 1971–1990 (60 females and 46 males), and 3 rd group 1991–2004 (88 females and 42 males). Th e percentages of partic- ipants included in the study regarding the year of birth and gender are disclosed in Figure 1. Figure 1: Participants included in study 2.2 Test samples and survey For the purpose of this research, a survey was pre- pared with nine questions. Th e fi rst three questions were related to gender, year of birth and the colour vision disorder of participants included in the re- search, whereas the other six questions were connect- ed to the perception of sensations through colour. Firstly, participants had to sort the 12 selected colours (cf. Table 1) regarding their popularity by creating a personal scale, from the most popular to the least popular colour. Th e next question was related to the perception of joy through colour, i.e. selection of the most and the least joyful colours. In addition, partici- pants needed to select the colour of clothing they pre- fer to wear and fi nally, what colour they favour for their sleeping room. Th e collected answers were cal- culated as a percentage of the total number of partici- pants in each group (gender and date of birth). Together with the survey, 12 selected colour sam- ples (i.e. black, grey, white, pink, purple, blue, tur- quoise, green, yellow, orange, red, brown) were pre- pared according to the RAL colour system, measured using a UV-VIS SF 600 Plus (Datacolor) spectrophotometer (cf. Table 1) and positioned in the CIE a*b* colour space (cf. Figure 2). Th e survey was conducted in July and August 2018 in a physi- cal form, for all participants to be able to evaluate 52 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 the same colour patterns, which could not be possi- ble through a social network survey (diff erent screens, screen settings, devices etc.). Figure 2: Position of colour samples in CIE a*b* dia- gram 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Popularity and unpopularity of colours in general Th e fi rst objective of the presented study was to de- termine the popularity scale of the 12 selected colours, regarding gender and year of birth (Figure 3 – females and Figure 4 – males). Th e diagrams capture the data of the whole scale; thus, a full pic- ture is given of the colour range. Th e favourite colours are shown as a positive proportion of colours (+) above indiff erent colours (less than 5%), and unpopular colours are shown at the bottom of the scale as a negative share (–). From Figure 3, it can be observed that the favourite colour for females born between 1940 and 1970 was blue (19.6%), followed by red, green and turquoise. Th e least popular was brown (30.4%), followed by grey, black and fi nally, pink. Other colours were of minor interest. Th e second female group (1971– 1990) preferred red (14%), blue and green, and re- fused brown (40%), grey and pink. Th e youngest fe- males preferred black (13.3%), blue and white, and refused brown (39.9%), orange and purple. In general, the least popular colour in all three groups was brown and the central position on all scales was reserved for turquoise, with ca. 4–6% of popularity. Orange, which was popular in the eldest population (8%), proved to be a less popular colour for the youngest participating group, with almost the same share (–8.2%). In contrast, black was shift - ed from less popular (–10%) by the oldest genera- tion to the most popular colour (13.3%) by younger females. Figure 4 shows the popularity of colours in male groups, from which less diff erence could be per- ceived in comparison with female groups, i.e. the most popular colour was blue (up to 34.5%), the Table 1: Selected colours according to RAL [7] and CIE L*a*b* measured values Colour pattern RAL mark Naming colour Measured CIE L*a*b* colour value L* a* b* C* h 15 00 black 27.42 0.21 –0.42 0.47 296.53 270 70 10 grey 71.56 –0.21 –9.41 9.42 268.74 290 90 05 white 90.31 0.94 –2.47 2.65 290.80 340 70 30 pink 70.36 27.58 –9.92 29.31 340.22 300 60 35 purple 60.77 16.84 –28.56 33.16 300.53 250 50 40 blue 52.70 –12.75 34.52 36.80 249.73 180 70 25 turquoise 70.66 –24.42 0.17 24.42 179.56 120 70 50 green 70.92 –23.90 40.93 47.40 120.28 090 90 60 yellow 89.19 0.18 57.06 57.06 89.82 050 60 70 orange 60.92 42.83 44.65 61.88 46.19 030 40 60 red 44.35 44.60 21.28 49.41 25.51 060 40 40 brown 45.04 17.00 25.35 30.53 56.15 53 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 Figure 3: Colour popularity among female participants Figure 4: Colour popularity among male participants 54 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 Figure 5: Colours of joy for females Figure 6: Colours of joy for males 55 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 least popular pink (up to 29.3%), and indiff erent colours were orange, grey and yellow, with percent- age diff erences between ages. If we compare both genders and all ages (cf. Figures 3 and 4), a relatively popular colour was blue, more for males (up to 34.5%), unpopular was brown, more by females (up to 40%), and indiff erent was yellow. In addition, women prefer red and men green colour, and both declined pink (men to a higher extent than women). Th e fi ndings of the presented research were com- pared with other studies as follows. In 1994, Tušak [8] interviewed gymnasium students and students of secondary vocational schools, and found out that blue was the most popular colour for both genders and for all researched groups. Th e second most pop- ular colour among boys was green (gymnasium) and red (secondary vocational schools). Th e second most popular colour among girls was purple (gymnasi- um) and black (secondary vocational schools). Th e most unpopular colour at boys was pink, followed by yellow and brown. Th e most unpopular colour among girls was yellow (gymnasium), followed by pink and brown (secondary vocational schools). If we compare the results with our studied group (1991–2004), which was wider, but also included tertiary level students, some similarities as well as diff erences could be found, i.e. blue was the most and pink the least popular colour among males in both studies. Th e biggest diff erences were between the (un)popularities of colours among females. In addition, Tušak [9] conducted a survey of colour popularity in a group of people aged between 60 and 87 years, without division by gender, which could be compared with our group of participants born between 1926 and 1970. Blue turned out to be the most popular colour in both researches, fol- lowed by green (as in our research for males) and red (second most popular colour for females in our study). Th e most unpopular colour in Tušak’s re- search was black, followed by yellow and brown, while in our research, the least preferred colour for females was brown, followed by black, and for males pink, followed by brown. A recent study prepared by Guzelj et al [14] in 2016 examined the emotional response to colours in a sample of the female population in Slovenia, reveal- ing whether a selected colour was perceived as pleas- ant or not. Similarities with our study could be seen in the popularity of colours by age. Elderly females preferred red and blue, and declined black as a pop- ular colour. Interestingly, in a survey [14], most women selected purple as the colour they like. In our study, purple was less popular among females, except in the group born between 1971 and 1990. 3.2 Colour of joy Figures 5 and 6 present the colour of joy for females and males, regarding their year of birth. From Figure 5, it can be noted that yellow represents joy for females of all tested ages. In the fi rst group (year of birth 1940–1970) and third group (1991– 2004), yellow was selected by 34.0% and 55.2%, re- spectively, followed by orange and pink. Th e mid- dle-aged group preferred yellow (41.7%), followed by red, pink and orange. All the mentioned colours are the so-called warm colours, except for pink. Th e minority of females of all ages (1.7 up to 2.3%) se- lected turquoise and purple as the colour of joy. Figure 6 presents a rather diff erent perception of joy through colour for men compared to women. In the younger generation (1991–2004), two so-called cold colours, blue and green (following yellow), represent- ed the colour of joy, revealing blue as a very impor- tant colour in everyday life. Contrarily, the generation of men between 1940 and 1970 favoured red (26.3%) as the colour of joy, followed by green (21.1%), and yellow and orange in the same percentages (15.8%). On the opposite side of joyful colours for men, there were white, purple, turquoise and black. Th e study performed by Kovachev and Musek [15] got similar results as presented in our study. Th eir survey included mainly female students, who most oft en associate joy with the red colour, followed by yellow and orange. In our study, women quite oft en selected pink (8.9% up to 16.7%), which was not available in a comparative study [15]. From the physiological point of view, yellow is the strongest colour, and relates to emotions, self-es- teem and creativity [4]. Yellow is thought of as joy- ful, outgoing, open and friendly. In colour-mood association studies, yellow is associated with come- dy, happy mood and playfulness. It occupies the largest range in the visible spectrum and has a ben- efi cial eff ect on the eye and nervous system [16]. 3.3 Favourite colour of clothing Figures 7 and 8 present favourite colours of clothes for women and men, respectively, regarding their year of birth. 56 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 Figure 7: Favorite clothing colours among females Figure 8: Favorite clothing colours among males 57 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 In Figure 7, minor diff erences can be observed among the favourite colours of female clothes re- garding age. Th e oldest population (1940–1970) pre- ferred blue (29.8%) over black (17.0%) and pink (8.5%), the population in their middle ages (1971– 1990) black (38.3%) over blue (20.0%) and purple (11.7%), and the youngest ones (1991–2004) black (50.6%) over white (19.5%) and blue (9.2%). Th e mi- nority of females preferred brown, purple, yellow and turquise, with small diff erences between ages. It is not surprising that the black colour is the favourite colour for clothes, as it can be combined with all oth- er colours, it is appropriate for all occasions, diff er- ent subcultures, and can hide body’s shortcomings. Th e answers about the favourite colours for clothes among males (cf. Figure 8) were similar to those by females, but in diff erent percentages. Th e eldest population (1940–1970) preferred blue (63.2.4%) over black (10.5%) and grey (10.5%). Th en, the pop- ularity of the blue colour diminished by lowering the age, on account of the black colour, i.e. in the population in their middle ages (1971–1990), black (43.5%) still dominated over blue (26.1%), and in the youngest population (1991–2004), black (47.6%) dominated over blue (31.0%). If we compare the popularity of colours of garments by gender, it can be concluded that the trend is blue and black. Th e choice of black decreases with age, while the popularity of blue increases. Most men preferred cooler colours, while women selected some warm colours as their favourite ones. In some cases, women chose the pink colour that was not found in the men’s answers. Th is can be linked to the colour popularity chart (cf. Figure 4), as pink was one of the undesirable colours according to men. Trstenjak [10] investigated in 1996 the popularity of dress colours of persons aged 15 to 22 years, which could be compared with our 3 rd study group (1991– 2004). He found out that grey was the most popular colour for males, followed by blue; in our study, black was ahead of blue. Th e female population in Trstenjak’s research preferred blue in a high per- centage over red in a low percentage. Th e data ob- tained from both surveys for young female popula- tions are not comparable at all. Two decades have passed since Trstenjak’s survey and the above com- parison shows that the popularity of certain colours has, as expected, changed over time since the colour of clothes (especially for women) is in close relation with fashion. 3.4 Colour of sleeping area Figures 9 and 10 represent favourite colours of the sleeping area separately for women and men, re- garding their year of birth. From Figure 9, it can be observed that the white colour is the fi rst choice for the sleeping area for fe- males of all tested ages. Here, the similarities be- tween groups stopped. In the fi rst group (1940– 1970), females also preferred yellow, green and grey, in this order, in the second group (1971–1990) they chose green, yellow and pink, and in the third group (1991–2004), blue, turquoise and orange. Women like cold colours in their sleeping area, e.g. white, blue, green and turquoise, although some also pre- ferred warm colours, e.g. yellow and orange. In the youngest generation, 3.4% of females picked black as their favourite colour for their sleeping place. Th is colour was not favourite for other generations, from which it could be concluded that the younger generation follows the trends and changes colours more easily in indoor surroundings. Elderly men and those in their middle ages were more traditional and favoured the white colour for their sleeping space in relatively high percentages (cf. Figure 10), i.e. 52.6% (1940–1970) and 58.7% (1971–1990). Th is trend changed with the youngest investigated group, where only 26.2% preferred white. Other popular colours were red and blue (1926–1970), green and blue (1971–1990), and blue and yellow (1991–2004). Similarly as in the young- est female generation (cf. Figure 9), 4.8% of males (cf. Figure 10) picked black as their favourite colour for their sleeping place. We can conclude that white was the most popular colour for the sleeping surroundings irrespective of gender and age, whereas the popularity of other colours changed by age. Black became the perfect choice for the youngest males and females, although for the 2 nd and 3 rd groups, black was not even on the scale. Van der Voordt et al [17] studied in 2017 studied the popularity of colours in diff erent rooms. His research found that the most popular colour for the bedroom was white, as in our study, followed by red, blue and green, which is similar to our study, with the excep- tion of red, which was not among the favourite colours with our participants. Th e reason for choos- ing white for the sleeping space could be that people want to have as much light in the room as possible. White is the colour that refl ects the lightest and 58 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 Figure 9: Females’ favourite colours of sleeping area Figure 10: Males’ favourite colours of sleeping area 59 Detection and Perception of Colour Regarding Gender and Age Tekstilec, 2020, 63(1), 50-59 therefore works as the brightest of all colours. Th e reason for its frequent choice could also be that white is considered as a safe choice and could be combined with all other shades in smaller proportions. 4 Conclusion Th e purpose of the presented research was to inves- tigate the perception of sensations through colour, regarding gender and year of birth, by preparing a survey together with 12 selected colours, represent- ing the whole colour circle. Th e survey covered ques- tions about the (un)popularity of colours, associa- tion of colours with joy, favourite colours of clothing and preferred colours of the sleeping space. We could fi nd a symbolism in colours and establish that they can infl uence humans’ well-being. Sometimes, we are unaware of their presence. Th e study gained a lot of data, providing a comprehensive view about the perception of colours. Th e presented research gave some general criteria of what we can expect from colours, while their perception still remains an individual choice. Colour perception is diff erent by gender and age, although it is slowly changing with time, which could be a consequence of more aggres- sive propaganda of fashion/designers’ industries through new (social) media and technologies. It would be interesting to perform a more detailed re- search within the individual sets of data obtained. References 1. KLANJŠEK GUNDE, Marta. Svetloba in barve – fi zikalni vidik. V Interdisciplinarnost barve. 1. del – v znanosti. Edited by S. Jeler and M. Ku- mar. Maribor : Društvo koloristov Slovenije, 2001, 13–55. 2. 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