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Original scientific article                                      DOI: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2024.440
received: 2024-03-07             UDC: 796.012-053.5
EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN 
CHILDREN POST-COVID-19 PANDEMIC: IMPLICATIONS 
FOR MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Domenico MONACIS1, Dario COLELLA2 & Pierpaolo LIMONE1
1 Faculty of Human Sciences, Education and Sport, Pegaso Telematic University, 
Naples, Italy
2 Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University 
of Salento, Lecce, Italy
Corresponding author:
Domenico MONACIS 
Faculty of Human Sciences, Education and Sport, Pegaso Telematic University, 
Naples, Italy
Telephone +39 3283536185 
E-mail: domenico.monacis@unipegaso.it
ABSTRACT 
Motor competence assessment represents one of the most important topics in the 
field of motor development and physical education. The present cross-sectional study 
aims to assess basic motor competence, self-perception and enjoyment during physical 
activity (PA) in a sample of normal weight, and overweight or obese children post-
COVID-19 pandemic. The participants (N = 107, age = 8-9 years old) were recruited 
from an experimental project conducted in Lecce (Italy). The motor competence assess-
ment was undertaken using MOBAK 3-4 protocol, and self-perception and enjoyment 
were evaluated with two validated questionnaires. A multivariate analysis of variance 
(MANOVA) was performed to assess the effect of gender and BMI on the variables 
considered. Despite the MANOVA results indicating no significant interaction effects 
between variables, a significant main effect was found for gender [F(10,93) = 2.353, 
p = .013, η² = 0,218] and BMI cutoff [F(10,93) = 2.351, p = .013, η² = 0,218]. Moreover, 
an independent t-test highlighted significant differences in catching, dribbling, balanc-
ing and object movement according to gender (p < .05), and in balancing, rolling and 
self-movement according to BMI cutoff (p < .05). Self-efficacy differed significantly be-
tween males and females, while no significant effect was found for enjoyment. Further 
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
studies should investigate the effect of BMI and factors related to physical activity on 
motor competence development. 
Keywords: basic motor competence, motor development, self-efficacy, obesity. 
OCENA OSNOVNIH MOTORIČNIH SPOSOBNOSTI PRI 
ITALIJANSKIH OTROCIH PO PANDEMIJI COVIDA-19: KAKŠNI 
SO UČINKI PANDEMIJE NA MOTORIČNI RAZVOJ?
IZVLEČEK
Ocenjevanje motoričnih sposobnosti je eden najpomembnejših vidikov na podro-
čju gibalnega razvoja in telesne vzgoje otrok. S to presečno študijo smo želeli oceniti 
osnovne motorične sposobnosti, samopodobo in užitek ob telesni dejavnosti na vzorcu 
otrok z normalno telesno težo in otrok s prekomerno telesno težo po pandemiji covida-19. 
Udeleženci (N = 107, starost = 8–9 let) so bili izbrani v okviru projekta, ki je bil izveden 
v mestu Lecce v deželi Apulija. Motorične sposobnosti smo ocenili s pomočjo protokola 
MOBAK 3-4, medtem ko so otroci samopodobo in užitek ob telesni dejavnosti ocenili z 
dvema potrjenima vprašalnikoma. Vpliv spola in indeksa telesne mase (BMI) na obrav-
navane spremenljivke smo ocenili z multivariatno analizo variance (MANOVA). Čeprav 
rezultati analize MANOVA niso pokazali pomembnega medsebojnega vpliva med spre-
menljivkami, smo ugotovili, da imajo pomemben glavni vpliv spol [Ž(10,93) = 2.353, 
p = .013, η² = 0.218] in mejne vrednosti indeksa telesne mase [Ž(10.93) = 2.351, 
p = .013, η² = 0,218]. Poleg tega je neodvisni t-test pokazal pomembne razlike v lovlje-
nju, preigravanju, ohranjanju predmeta v ravnotežju in premikanju predmeta glede na 
spol (p < .05) ter v lovljenju ravnotežja, kotaljenju in samostojnem gibanju glede na 
mejne vrednosti indeksa telesne mase (p < .05). Ugotovili smo pomembne razlike pri 
samoučinkovitosti otrok moškega in ženskega spola. Zaznali nismo nobenega učinka na 
užitek ob športni dejavnosti. V nadaljnjih raziskavah bi bilo treba raziskati vpliv inde-
ksa telesne mase in dejavnikov, povezanih s telesno dejavnostjo, na razvoj motoričnih 
sposobnosti.
Ključne besede: osnovne motorične sposobnosti, motorični razvoj, samoučinkovi-
tost, debelost
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INTRODUCTION
New theoretical frameworks (Herrmann & Seelig, 2017a; Herrmann, 
Gerlach & Seelig, 2016; Legarra-Gorgoñon et al., 2023; Strotmeyer, Kehne, 
& Herrmann, 2021) posit that motor competence is not merely the observable 
performance of skills itself (e.g., dribbling, bouncing, catching, rolling), which 
are considered basic motor qualifications. Instead, basic motor competence is 
defined by a child’s ability to engage and manage their own resources to solve 
motor tasks (e.g., the ability to dribble, bounce, catch, roll).
This construct refers to a result-oriented and functional response to a spe-
cific motor task, representing an evolution and addition to the concepts of ca-
pabilities, defined as person’s genetic potential for success in a specific task 
(Goodway, Ozmun, & Gallahue, 2021) and motor skills, as experientially based 
action (Goodway et al., 2021), respectively. Moreover, research has demon-
strated a positive association between competence in fundamental movement 
skills (e.g., kicking, jumping) and physical activity in young people (Hulteen, 
Morgan, Barnett, Stodden, & Lubans, 2018). Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS), 
citing Stodden et al. (2008), “are the equivalent of the ABCs in the world of 
physical activity”, composed of locomotor skills and object control skills. The 
first class of movement includes moving the body through space and includes 
skills such as running, galloping, skipping, hopping, sliding and leaping; the 
second one consists of manipulating and projecting objects and includes skills 
such as throwing, catching, bouncing, kicking, striking and rolling. These skills 
represent the basis for future movement and physical activity.
Stodden et al. (2008) proposed a theoretical model explaining the potential 
role of motor competence (i.e., Ulrich, 2000; Henderson, Sugden & Barnett, 
2007) in promoting positive or negative trajectories of physical activity (i.e., 
ActiGraph GT3X-BT accelerometer; Crocker, Bailey, Faulkner, Kowalski, & 
McGrath, 1997) health related-fitness (i.e., Council of Europe, 1993; Morrow, 
Mood, Disch, & Kang, 2015) and weight status, during infancy, adolescen-
ce and adulthood. In this concept, motor competence (MC) is a precursor to 
physical activity and learning to move is necessary for participation in physical 
activity (PA) and subsequent healthy weight. In this view, motor competence 
is a key factor promoting engagement in motor activity for health. Perceived 
motor competence plays a key role in the educational process, as it promotes 
children’s engagement in motor activity and sport (Estevan & Barnett, 2018) 
and is directly related to physical activity levels and inversely to body weight 
(De Meester et al., 2016). Robinson et al. (2015) suggest that healthy lifestyles 
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
and motor competence development early in life promote physical activity and 
other positive health trajectories across the lifespan.
Faigenbaum, Rebullido and MacDonald (2018), in developing their mo-
del of the “Pediatric Inactivity Triad”, describe three interrelated factors that 
contribute to physical inactivity: exercise deficit disorders, pediatric dynapenia 
and physical illiteracy: (a) exercise deficit disorder is a condition characterized 
by low levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; ‘<60 mins 
daily), including active transportation, free play, recreation, sport and structu-
red exercise; (b) pediatric dynapenia is a loss of muscular strength and power 
and the consequent functional limitations, activity-related injuries and adver-
se health outcomes in children; (c) physical illiteracy is a lack of confidence, 
competence and motivation to move proficiently when engaged in any type of 
physical activity. The interaction between these factors lead to the progressive 
decline of physical activity levels (PAL) and physical fitness levels during the 
developmental age, with negative effects on global health status (Wyszyńska 
et al., 2020; Santana et al., 2017). These negative trends not only contribute 
significantly to the increase in the prevalence of overweight and obesity in chil-
dren and adolescents, but are also among the main determinants of the decline 
of physical activity levels, with negative repercussions on the development of 
motor competence. 
In the light of this evidence, the aim of the present study is to assess motor 
competence levels in primary school children according to gender and BMI 
cutoff following the COVID-19 pandemic. 
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample
The sample comprises 107 primary schoolchildren (male = 52, female = 55) 
aged 8-9 years old, who were recruited from three schools joined an experi-
mental project in the Province of Lecce (Italy). The project, promoted by the 
University of Salento Didactic Laboratory of Motor Activities was aimed at 
studying motor development of primary school children highlighting psycho- 
pedagogical and methodological implications for physical education (PE) te-
achers’ training. According to this study’s purpose, both normal weight and 
overweight or obese children were included. Consecutive sampling was applied 
using BMI cutoffs – normal weight and overweight or obese children according 
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Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
to Cole’s Scale (2000) – and an age range of 8-9 years as eligibility criteria to 
ensure better representation of the target population. 
Procedure and Assessment
After reaching an agreement between the University of Salento and the 
participating schools, motor evaluations were conducted from October to 
December 2023 for a total of 8 weeks. Prior to starting the motor assessments, 
the children’s age, weight and height were reported, and they were asked if 
they engaged in extracurricular physical activity (or sports) following the 
COVID-19 pandemic. Children were then classified into categories of normal 
weight, overweight and obese according to Cole’s Scale (Cole, Bellizzi, Flegal, 
& Dietz, 2000). 
The motor competence assessment was conducted using the MOBAK 3-4 
protocol, a test instrument designed for children aged 8-9 years old that inve-
stigates two areas of basic motor qualifications (BMQ): object movement and 
self-movement. Moreover, according to Herrmann & Seelig (2019), each basic 
motor qualifications encompasses four latent factors or basic motor compe-
tencies (BMC). These include throwing, catching, bouncing and dribbling for 
object movement, and balancing, rolling, jumping and running for self-move-
ment qualifications. The children were asked to perform two attempts of each 
MOBAK test item, reporting results as follows: 0 points for 2 attempts failed, 
1 point for 1 successful attempt, and 2 points for 1 both successful attempts. 
Moreover, the protocol provides 6 attempts only for the throwing and catching 
BMC, changing results interpretations (0-2 hits = 0 points, 3-4 hits = 1 pints, 
5-6 hits = 2 points). The MOBAK total score can be obtained by adding the 
score of each BMQ, with a maximum 8 points for each BMQ and 16 as the 
MOBAK total score. The test instrument showed good factors of reliability 
(from 0.54 to 0.72), structure for the latent factors (BMQ) and content validity 
as confirmed by other studies (Herrmann & Seelig, 2017a; Carcamo-Oyarzun 
& Herrmann, 2020). 
Self-efficacy was assessed with the Perceived Physical Ability Scale 
(Colella, Morano, Bortoli, & Robazza, 2008), a six-item questionnaire asses-
sing strength, speed and coordinative abilities in primary school children. Item 
responses were based on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = run very slowly, 4 = run 
very fast), so the total score ranged from 1 to 24 points. High scores reflect bet-
ter self-perception during physical activity, while lower scores indicate worst 
self-perception. 
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
Enjoyment during physical activity was assessed with the Physical Activity 
Enjoyment Scale (PACES) (Carraro, Young, & Robazza, 2008), comprising 
16 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale with two subscales (positive and nega-
tive). Children were asked to indicate their agreement (or disagreement) with 
sentences investigating how they feel during physical activity. As with the 
Physical Ability Scale, higher scores on the positive scale and lower scores on 
the negative scale indicate greater enjoyment during PA. In this study, negative 
items were reversed, and total PACES score were calculated ranging from 16 
to 80 points. 
As confirmed by validation studies, both questionnaires showed good reli-
ability and content validity for target population (Carraro et al., 2008; Colella 
et al., 2008). 
The assessment was conducted in the schools’ gymnasiums by PE teachers 
and ten graduates in Sports Sciences – recruited by the Didactic Laboratory of 
Motor Activities – during curricular PE lessons. Before starting the evaluation, 
five training meetings were held to standardize the assessment procedure. To 
ensure that the assessment of motor competence did not have an effect (positive 
or negative) on self-efficacy and enjoyment, the MOBAK was carried out be-
fore the self-reports. In addition, based on the number of students, two or three 
evaluation tests were proposed at a time in each lesson of MOBAK (object 
movement at first and then self-movement qualifications). 
Statistical Analysis
A priori power calculation was conducted using G*Power, setting param-
eters as follows: medium effect size f 2 (V) = 0.15 (Cohen, 2013), and α level at 
0.05. Results suggested a sample size of 100, which is consistent with the 107 
participants involved in the present study. In addition to descriptive statistics 
(mean ± standard deviation), a two-way factorial MANOVA was performed 
to assess MOBAK basic motor competencies’ items based on gender, BMI 
cutoff and their interaction. Levene’s test was performed to assess the multi-
variate homogeneity of variance-covariance matrix assumption, while facto-
rial MANOVA was robust (with more than 10 participants per group) against 
deviations from multivariate normality. Due to the small and unequal sample 
size, Pillai’s F statistic was used to evaluate the main effects of gender and BMI 
cutoff on the dependent variables to control for type I error rate. The effect of 
gender was analyzed using separate MANOVAs for each BMI cutoff, and vice 
versa. Partial eta squared was used to estimate effect size, interpreting results as 
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Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
follows: 0.01 = small effect, 0.06 = medium effect, and 0.14 or higher = large 
effect (Cohen, 2013). Furthermore, two independent t-tests were performed 
to assess significant differences according to gender and BMI cutoff, respec-
tively. Bonferroni correction was applied for multiple-comparison adjustment. 
Cohen’s d was used as the effect size measure, with value: 0.2 = small effect, 
0.5 = medium effect and 0.8 = large effect (Cohen, 2013). All significant index-
es were determined at p < .05. SPSS (ver. 26) was used to perform all statistical 
analyses. 
RESULTS 
The sample’s descriptive anthropometric characteristics, measures of basic 
motor competences, self-efficacy and enjoyment are presented in Table 1 and 
Table 2, according to gender and BMI cutoff. The number of observations in 
each group exceeds the number of dependent variables assessed, indicating 
sample size adequacy for conducting the analysis. Moreover, as fewer than 5% 
of children reported engaging in physical or sport activities outside of school, 
sports participation was not included in subsequent analyses. 
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to assess the ef-
fect of gender and BMI cutoff on MOBAK items, self-efficacy and enjoyment 
in children aged 8-9 years old. Univariate normality was confirmed by the 
Shapiro-Wilk test, and no multivariate outliers were found in the data, thereby 
assuming multivariate normality. Moreover, the correlation between variables 
(Table 3) was below the recommended threshold of 0.9. 
Pillai’s Trace (Table 4) indicated a statistically significant difference in 
MOBAK items and questionnaires between gender [F(10,93) = 2.353, p = .013] 
and cutoff [F(10,93) = 2.351, p = .013] with a substantial effect size (η²= 0.218). 
However, the interaction effect was not significant [F(10,93) = .791,  p = .648]. 
To investigate how gender can affect the variables, two independent t-tests 
were performed to assess significant difference among the male and female 
sample (Table 5), as well as between normal weight and overweight or obe-
se children (Table 6). Pairwise comparisons according to gender revealed that 
males exhibited better performance in catching (p = .011, d = 0.199), dribbling 
(p = .020, d = 0.197), total object control score (p = .004, d = 0.201), balan-
cing (p = .002, d = 0.204) and self-efficacy (p = .024 d = 0.197). Moreover, 
normal weight children performed significantly better in balancing (p = .029, 
d = 0.200), rolling (p < .001, d = 0.209) and total self-movement (p = .001, 
d =  0.205). 
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
Table 1. Sample Anthropometric Characteristics. 
Gender Group Measures Mean SD Min Max Range
Female
Nw (32) Age 8,28 0,46 8 9 1
Height 1,34 0,067 1,24 1,50 0,26
Weight 28,96 4,76 20,00 41,00 21,00
BMI 16,12 1,59 13,00 18,37 5,37
Ow-Ob (23) Age 8,48 0,511 8 9 1
Height 1,37 0,12 1,14 1,58 0,44
Weight 39,93 8,16 28,50 57,00 28,50
BMI 21,16 2,84 18,60 30,00 11,40
Male
Nw (21) Age 8,19 0,40 8 9 1
Height 1,33 ,05 1,20 1,42 0,22
Weight 28,95 4,45 21,00 36,00 15,00
BMI 16,34 1,60 13,22 18,37 5,15
Ow-Ob (31) Age 8,32 0,47 8 9 1
Height 1,36 0,074 1,15 1,50 0,35
Weight 40,15 7,26 28,40 63,00 34,60
BMI 21,75 3,38 18,44 32,60 14,17
Legend: Nw = normal weight; Ow-Ob = Overweight and Obese. 
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Table 2. Basic Motor Competence and Questionnaires assessment
BMI Cutoff
Nw Ow-Ob
Gender N Min Max M SD N Min Max M SD
Female
Throwing 32 0 1 0,25 ,440 23 0 2 0,30 0,559
Catching 32 0 6 2,16 2,034 23 0 6 1,43 1,805
Bouncing 32 0 2 0,53 ,842 23 0 2 0,52 0,846
Dribbling 32 0 2 0,34 ,545 23 0 2 0,26 0,541
Object Mov. 32 0 10 3,28 2,932 23 0 8 2,52 2,937
Balancing 32 0 2 1,06 ,878 23 0 2 0,57 0,896
Rolling 32 0 2 1,06 1,014 23 0 2 0,39 0,783
Jumping 32 0 2 0,41 ,756 23 0 2 0,17 0,576
Running 32 0 2 1,03 ,897 23 0 2 0,78 0,902
Self Mov. 32 1 8 5,22 2,310 23 0 8 3,17 2,640
Self-Efficacy 32 16 24 20,34 2,119 23 11 24 19,43 3,245
Enjoyment 32 52 72 63,41 4,478 23 35 68 60,57 6,721
Male
Throwing 21 0 2 0,48 ,680 31 0 2 0,52 0,677
Catching 21 0 6 2,86 2,308 31 0 6 2,84 2,131
Bouncing 21 0 2 0,67 ,856 31 0 2 0,87 0,806
Dribbling 21 0 2 0,71 ,644 31 0 2 0,42 0,564
Object Mov. 21 0 10 4,71 3,437 31 0 10 4,65 3,104
Balancing 21 0 2 0,43 ,676 31 0 2 0,26 0,575
Rolling 21 0 2 1,14 ,964 31 0 2 0,35 0,755
Jumping 21 0 2 0,19 ,512 31 0 2 0,16 0,523
Running 21 0 2 0,81 ,928 31 0 2 0,90 0,908
Self Mov. 21 0 8 4,10 2,119 31 0 10 3,06 2,279
Self-Efficacy 21 18 24 21,19 2,040 31 15 24 20,81 2,358
Enjoyment 21 44 69 61,29 5,524 31 57 67 62,06 2,792
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Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
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Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
37
Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
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38
Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
39
Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
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40
Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
DISCUSSION
The results of the present study revealed significant effects of gender and 
BMI cutoff on basic motor competencies. The observation of MOBAK motor 
tasks indicated that males performed significantly better than females in cat-
ching, dribbling and total object movement qualification, but not in balancing. 
Considering BMI differences, the statistical analysis revealed significant dif-
ferences in only two MOBAK test scores (balancing and rolling) and in total 
self-movement qualification, favouring normal weight compared to overweight 
or obese children. Moreover, males exhibited significantly higher self-effica-
cy compared to females, whereas no statistically significant differences were 
observed in enjoyment and self-efficacy when comparing BMI groups. These 
results align closely with findings reported in similar studies within the field.
According to Carcamo-Oyarzun, & Herrmann (2020), gender has small to 
moderate relationship with object movement and self-movement competenci-
es, and BMI was inversely related to self-movement, indicating that children 
with lower BMI achieved better results in MOBAK tests. Similar results were 
also reported in a cross-sectional study assessing basic motor competencies 
in children aged 6-8 years, according to which (a) boys performed significan-
tly better than girls in object movement, (b) girls achieved higher scores in 
self-movement qualification, and (c) a small significant negative correlation 
between BMI and self-movement emerged (Wälti et al., 2022). 
However, the effect of body composition on locomotor and object mani-
pulation skills remain a topic of debate in this research field, strictly related 
to assessment methods and measures (Webster, Sur, Stevens, & Robinson, 
2021; Herrmann & Seelig, 2017b; Vega-Ramirez, Pérez-Cañaveras, & De Juan 
Herrero, 2021; Wood, McMillan, Imai, Swift, & DuBose, 2022). 
Self-efficacy and enjoyment did not exhibit significant differences among 
groups in this study (except for self-efficacy in males and females) and showed 
no significant correlation with other variables investigated. Contrary to the re-
sults obtained from this study, several findings have highlighted the mediation 
role of self-efficacy and enjoyment in enhancing basic motor competence deve-
lopment (Ensrud-Skraastad & Haga, 2020; Peers, Issartel, Behan, O’Connor, & 
Belton, 2020; Morales-Sánchez et al., 2021 Barnett et al., 2022; Greule et al., 
2024). These results may be related to poor practice of physical activity decla-
red by children (< 5% of total sample). 
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, epidemiological studies indicated that 
a large percentage of young boys (78%) and girls (85%) aged 11 to 17 did 
not meet international guidelines and recommendations for physical activity 
ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
41
Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
(Guthold, Stevens, Riley, & Bull, 2020), and since 2016 the American Academy 
of Pediatrics (AAP) has advised that children, adolescents and, especially pa-
rents, limit the time spent in front of monitors, smartphones, TV and game 
consoles.
However, while some studies have highlighted a significant reduction 
in motor competence development during and after COVID-19 pandemic 
(Cheng, Tai, & Wang, 2023; Carballo-Fazanes, Rodrigues, Silva, Lopes, & 
Abelairas-Gómez, 2022), not all authors have reported the same results (den 
Uil et al., 2023a). This is probably due to the complexity of factors involved 
by lockdown measures in each country, as well as specific regional and local 
variables that impact motor competence development in children.
Furthermore, recent findings have highlighted the fundamental role of physi-
cal activity in mediating and moderating the relationship between BMI and 
motor competence acquisition (Burton et al., 2023; Dapp, Gashaj, & Roebers, 
2021; Herrmann, Heim, & Seelig, 2019). Studies suggest that the relationship 
between BMI, engagement in physical activity, and both motor and perceived 
motor competence begins to manifest from ages 6 to 9 years (den Uil et al., 
2023b). This underscores the inference that sedentary lifestyles and the dec-
reased practice of physical activity post-pandemic may further hinder motor 
development, especially in children who are not physically literate or have poor 
physical literacy.
In fact, poor engagement in physical or sports activity has been found to 
negatively with both object and self-movement qualifications, while high enga-
gement (particularly, individual and team sports) has shown a medium to high 
correlation with BMQ (Herrmann & Seelig, 2017a; Herrmann & Seelig, 2017b; 
Wälti et al., 2022). 
The COVID-19 pandemic drastically changed the already low levels of 
physical activity among children and adolescents, leading to a significant incre-
ase in time spent in sedentary behavior and screen time (Paterson et al., 2021; 
Neville et al., 2022). 
Another important consideration relates to the type and accessibility of 
physical activity opportunities. As suggested by Walker et al. (2023), new 
physical activity trends are characterized by a growing dependence on structu-
red and organized physical activity, leaving out spontaneous play and unstruc-
tured physical activity, promoting barriers in participation for lower socio-eco-
nomic status children.  
These data are highly significant for informing the development of inter-
ventions and policies aimed at promoting opportunities for physical activity 
and fostering healthy eating habits in primary school children. Moreover, in 
42
Domenico MONACIS, Dario COLELLA, Pierpaolo LIMONE: EVALUATING BASIC MOTOR COMPETENCE IN ITALIAN CHILDREN ..., 25–46
ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 15 • 2024 • 1
addition to quantitative data on physical activity (i.e., time of motor engage-
ment, intensity, % of MVPA, etc.) even the quality of motor experiences plays 
a fundamental role in motor competence development (Schmutz et al., 2020). 
CONCLUSIONS
The assessment of motor competencies during childhood is crucial to ensure 
the quality of the teaching process and monitor the stages of children’s mo-
tor development. The present results show poor levels of motor competencies 
in both boys and girls, as well as a negative impact of BMI on basic motor 
qualifications. 
Considering the growing prevalence of overweight and obesity during deve-
lopmental age, coupled with declining levels of daily physical activity among 
children and adolescents, the interpretation of these findings raises signifi-
cant methodological and pedagogical considerations for the future directions 
of physical education (PE) teachers’ training and motor activities. On the one 
hand, there is a need to enhance qualitative opportunities for motor learning at 
school. On the other hand, it is essential to engage institutions and families in 
developing physical activity interventions outside of school. 
Further research should assess the effects of experimental interventions on 
motor competence development, evaluating the mediating role of structured 
and unstructured physical activity between BMI and motor competence. 
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American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Council on Communications and Media 
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Barnett, L. M., Webster, E. K., Hulteen, R. M., De Meester, A., Valentini, N. 
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