original scientific article	UDC 712.253(497.5)"1)
received: 2014-01-27
PUBLIC PARKS IN CROATIA IN THE 19TH CENTURY WITHIN
A EUROPEAN CONTEXT
Mladen OBAD ŠČITAROCI
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačiceva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: mos@arhitekt.hr
Bojana BOJANIČ OBAD ŠČITAROCI
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačiceva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: bbojanic@arhitekt.hr
ABSTRACT
The theme of this article are public parks in towns and spas in Croatia from the 18th century and up until WWI (until 1918). Due to its geographical location Croatia has always been under a dual cultural influence: Italian, from the southeast and across the Adriatic Sea, and from the northwest from Austria and Germany. The most significant public parks in Croatia are compared to similar parks in Europe. In comparison, public parks in adjacent regions have been chosen (Slovenia, Austria, Hungary, Italy), within countries of Central and Western Europe. Comparisons are conducted according to the time (year) of the establishment of the park. This comparison allows for monitoring of the appearance of parks and their further development within the same time periods and within different countries.
Key words: landscape architecture in 19'h century, public parks, city parks, urban planning history
i	parchi pubblici nella croatia del 19o secolo nel contesto europeo
SINTESI
II	tema dell'articolo sono i parchi pubblici nelle cittä e nei luoghi turistici e curativi della Croazia dal 18°secolo alla fine della Prima guerra mondiale (fino al 1918). Per la sua posizione geografica nella Croazia si e sempre sentito un doppio influsso culturale: uno veniva da sud-ovest, dall'Italia, attraverso il mare Adriatico e l'altro da nord-ovest, dall'Austria e dalla Germania. I piu importanti parchi della Croazia vengono paragonati a simili esempi nei paesi europei. Per il paragone vengono scelti i parchi pubblici nei dintorni (Slovenia, Austria, Ungheria, Italia), nei paesi dell'Europa centrale e occidentale. Il paragone viene effettuato in base al criterio del periodo (anno) di nascita. Il paragone consente di seguire la comparsa dei parchi e dei loro ulteriori cambiamenti negli stessi periodi di tempo in diversi paesi.
Parole chiave: l'architettura paesaggistica in 19° secolo, parchi pubblici, parchi urbani, storia urbanistica
INTRODUCTION
There are numerous public parks established in Croatian towns and cities in the landscaping tradition of the Baroque, the Biedermeier and Romanticism, and under the influence of the culture of landscaping within the Austrian Monarchy and Western Europe. During the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century, almost every city or larger town had at least one public park or promenade. This was not simply a matter of fashion, but, first and foremost, a necessity and need for public spaces in cities that would be accessible to all its citizens, no matter to which class they belonged, as well as a desire to shape and provide beauty to cities and towns. This was an age when the guiding principle epitomised the inseparability of urban-ism, architecture and landscape architecture.
The incentive for conducting a more comprehensive research of historic parks in Croatia came from two research projects: the Austrian project " Stadtparkanlagen in den Ländern der ehemaligen K.u.K. Monarchie" (Public City Parks in Lands belonging to the Austrian Empire and Monarchy)1 and the Croatian project: The Urban and Landscape Heritage of Croatia as part of European Culture.2
The research project in Croatia included around 50 of the most valuable and renowned parks established predominantly in Croatia in the 19th century. Parks begun in the 18th century were completed in the 19th century. On the other hand, parks created at the beginning of the 20th century are not only characteristic of the Secession, but also in the tradition of the 19th century. Few of the city parks that were laid out in Croatia in the 19th century have disappeared. On the contrary, most of them have been preserved to this day. Some have undergone minor changes, whereas others have lived through major changes in view of their initial layout at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century.
The history of landscape architecture in Croatia goes hand in hand with that of Europe, from the Antique, through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Baroque and up until this day and age. The heritage of Croatia parks has been preserved due to its geographical location, the cultural influence felt in Croatia over the centuries was twofold: from the southwest and from across the Adriatic and Italy, and from the northwest and Austria and Germany.3 As a result, there are two cultural
and historical regions in Croatia which also differ as far as climate and landscape are concerned - 1) the Mediterranean region in the south, which was influenced by Roman and Italian culture since ancient times, and 2) the continental region in the north, influenced culturally since the Middle Ages by events and changes in Central Europe.
Social, political and economic circumstances in Croatia in the 19th century
The 19th century brought great changes to the social and political life of Europe, as well as Croatia. This era was marked by the downfall of feudalism and the feudal social system (in Croatia, serfdom was abolished in 1848), and by the rise of civil states and societies, and saw the advent of national revolutions and the establishment of European nations and states. The beginning of the 19th century in Croatia was marked by Napoleon I Bonaparte and the creation of Illyrian provinces in the southern parts of Croatia that belonged to the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon I in 1815, the Illyrian provinces became part of Austria, so that Croatia became part of the Austrian Monarchy, that is from 1867 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.
According to the decree of 1847, towns and cities were divided into three groups: small towns (up to 8,000 inhabitants), medium-sized towns (up to 30,000 inhabitants) and large towns or cities (over 30,000 inhabitants). At the time, Zagreb had 15,117 inhabitants, so that it was classified as a medium-sized town; by the end of the 19th century it had become a large town/city. The arrival of steamboats and the construction of major railway routes in the second half of the 19th century were two of the incremental factors that led to urban development. The railway first reached Zagreb in 1862. Rijeka, Pula and Split began developing as important maritime towns. Zagreb, Karlovac, Rijeka and Osijek started developing as industrial towns along the main railway route.
Characteristics of towns in Croatia in the 19th century
Up until the 1860s, towns developed very slowly. In some towns medieval and renaissance forts (city walls) were pulled down following the fashion popular in other towns in what was then the Austrian Monarchy and in
The project « Public City Parks in Lands belonging to the Austrian Empire and Monarchy » (Stadtparkanlagen in den Ländern der ehemaligen K.u.K. Monarchie) was initiated in 1996 by Funds for the Promotion of Scientific Research in Vienna and the Institute for the History of Art at the University of Vienna. The project was run and led by Prof. Walter Krause, Ph.D. and Prof. Geza Hajos, Ph.D. The project in Croatia and Slovenia was run and led by Prof. Mladen Obad Šcitaroci, Ph.D. and Bojana Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Ph.D. The project lasted until 2000.
The project «The Urban and Landscape Heritage of Croatia as a Part of European Culture» (Urbanističko i pejsažno naslijede Hrvatske u europskom kontekstu) is an ongoing project and has been run since 2002 at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb and is funded by the Ministry of Science of the Republic of Croatia. The project is led and headed by Prof. Mladen Obad Šcitaroci, Ph.D., www. scitaroci.hr
The most valuable and best preserved historic gardens and parks in Croatia: medieval cloister gardens, renaissance villa gardens in Dubrovnik (15'h-17'h century), baroque and landscaped manor parks in North Croatia (17'h-20'h century), public parks in large and small towns (19'h and first half of the 20'h century).
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Fig. 1. Maksimir, plan from 1846, author: engineer Leonard Baron Zornberg, source: The National and University Library of Zagreb
Europe. Modest, spontaneous construction work began to take place outside the old city walls, fortifications and moats (channels, trenches), promenades appeared, the coastline was converted (in towns on the sea) and settlements expanded. Building and construction was in full swing during the last three decades of the 19th century, resulting in a gradual but clearly defined urban metamorphosis inspired by the construction of the railway and the introduction of the steamboat.
The spontaneous growth and expansion of towns along access routes during the first half of the 19th century led to the rural development of environs belonging to old towns. Only at the end of the 19th century did towns begin to take on an urban appearance. Societies founded in almost all major cities and intent on making cities and towns more attractive aspired towards this aim. Town planning and development during the 19th century in Croatia can be seen by reviewing a number of different types of urban and architectonic development schemes: 1) new urban planning schemes for the development of towns (Sisak, Rijeka, Zagreb); 2) military fortifications belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (Pula, Vis, Prevlaka); 3) public (city) parks and promenades in almost every town and city, and 4) manors and public parks in North Croatia developing within or in the vicinity of residential areas and settlements.
In the first half of the 19th century the most significant urban development in North Croatia was the classicis-
Fig. 2. Maksimir, oil on cardboard, 1880, author: Eduard Weingarten, source: Croatian History Museum, Zagreb
tic urban (regulatory) plan of Sisak from 18294 by the geometer Ivan Fistrovic, which grew up on the ancient foundations of the Roman city of Siscia. Up until the 1860s and 1870s, all other towns in North Croatia were built along access roads; only in the last three decades of the 19th century did urban development take the form of a grid. The Lower Town in Zagreb is the most significant urban development from the second half of the 19th century in Croatia. In Dalmatia, Zadar, the Roman city lader and capital city of Dalmatia during Roman times, underwent major development; Split also began developing, though not to such an extent and degree, and spread out around the ancient of edifice Diocletian's Palace. The first tourist towns on the Adriatic - Opatija, Crikvenica, Lošinj and Rab - also began developing at the end of the 19th century.
INITIATORS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC PARKS AND PROMENADES
The promoters of the idea for the creation of public parks and promenades were bishops, bans (ban - viceroy in Croatia), military governors, mayors, eminent citizens and societies for beautifying towns. The landscaping of parks was financed by the municipal authorities, except in the case of bishopric parks, which were financed by the diocese.
The bishops of Zagreb, Maksimilijan Vrhovac (17521827), and Juraj-Georg Haulik (1788-1869) are credited with creating Maksimir Park in Zagreb (figures 1 and 2)5. Vrhovac's successor, bishop Aleksandar Alagovic (1760-
Planum neo regulandi oppidi Sziszek tam fundorum intravillanorum quam et tenutorum extravillanorum ad idem oppidum spectantium, anno 1829. confectum / per Ioannem Fistrovich, 1:3600, 116x90 cm. Graphic collection, Archives Kaptol, Zagreb, sign. A.I.178. Maksimir is the largest and most famous public park in Croatia. Initial work on the park was initiated by Bishop Vrhovac in 1 787 and it was completed and opened to the public by Bishop Haulik in 1847. Maksimir is one of the first public city parks in Europe; it covers a vast area of approx. 400 ha (equal to half the surface of Bois de Boulogne in Paris or twice as large as Regent's Park in London), and its designers and architects are renowned Austrian architects, landscapers and artists - Michael Sebastian Riedl, Franz Schücht, Leopold
Philipp, Franjo Serafin Körbler, Joseph Käschmann, Antun Dominik Fernkorn, Anton Kothgasser and Bartol Felbinger (Obad Šcitaroci, 1994; Obad Šcitaroci, 2006a; Obad Šcitaroci, Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, 2001).
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Fig. 3. Zagreb, the Bishopric City of Kaptol and Ribnjak Park, cadastre map, 1862, source: The City Museum of Zagreb
1837), created the bishopric garden Ribnjak (figure 3)6, as well as the garden at his summer residence in Nova Ves (figure 4)7, which was open to the citizens of Zagreb. Once the owner of Stubičke Toplice (the Stubica Spa), in the vicinity of Golubovec, his manor and lands (40 km
Fig. 4. Zagreb, Bishop Alagovic's Garden, lithography, 1859, author: Fanny Daubachy-Doljska, source: The City Museum of Zagreb
north of Zagreb) 8, in 1811 bishop Maksimilijan Vrhovac began renovating the spa and garden (figure 5).
Among the numerous Croatian bans two are mostly credited with creating gardens and parks: Ignjat Gyulay (1763-1831), on whose initiative the Južna promenade, or South Promenade (figure 6)9 was opened to the public in Zagreb in 1813, and Karlo-Dragutin Khuen-Heder-vary (1849-1918), during whose mandate as ban (18831903), a series of parks and squares modelled on Vienna and Budapest were created, known as Lenucijeva pot-kova, or Lenuci's Horseshoe (figure 7)10.
In the 19th century, military governors played an important role in the shaping of towns as far as parks were concerned. The French marshal, August Marmont11, is credited with the first public park in Split in 181112 and
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The bishopric romantic garden Ribnjak adjacent to the bishopric see and cathedral in Zagreb was designed in 1830 by Leopold Kling-spögl, the author of numerous private and public gardens in north-west Croatia during the first half of the 19'h century. The original description of the bishopric garden: Kunitsch, 1831b.
The summer residence of Bishop Alagovic in Zagreb was built in the 1820s according to a project by architect Bartol Felbinger. The garden was one of the most beautiful gardens of its time in Zagreb. It was open to the public Thursdays and Sundays. The original description of Bishop Alagovic's garden in Zagreb: Kunitsch, 1828.
The spa at Stubičke Toplice (Sztubicza Bad), built according to plans designed by architect Christian Heinrich Vesteburg, is one of the first spas to be conceptually and practically realized in Central Europe. Landscaping became a model in the whole of North Croatia. The founding father and proponent of spas and spa gardens was Bishop Maksimilijan Vrhovac, a well-known humanist and enlightener from the end of the 18'h and beginning of the 19'h century. He is credited with the early introduction of progressive European landscaping ideas to Croatia (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 186-187; Obad Šcitaroci, Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, 2008). The Južna promenada - Southern Promenade (present-day Strossmayerovo šetalište - Strossmayer Promenade) was the first public urban promenade in Zagreb and built on the southern slope of the medieval-renaissance old town. On the initiative of the ban and his wife, donations were collected for the construction of the promenade; the mayor and the town judge were personally responsible for overseeing the actual construction work. Work started in 1812, and the promenade was opened in 1813 (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 134-136).
The landscaping of the Lower Town in Zagreb began in the 1870s with the laying out of a series of public parks and squares known as Zelena potkova (Green Horseshoe) or Pejsažna potkova (Landscape Horseshoe). It is also known as Lenucijeva potkova - Lenuci's Horseshoe in honour of the major Zagreb urban planner Milan Lenuci (1849-1924) who created this series of landscaped parks as part of the planned extension of the town in the second half of the 19'h century. The U-shaped or horseshoe-shaped groundplan, including seven squares and the botanical gardens, was realised within the heart of the town over a period of four decades (1873-1914). This is the most representative example of urban planning in Croatia. It can be compared to the Ringstrasse in Vienna (Kneževic, 1996; Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004; Obad Šcitaroci, 2006b).
Marmont (1 774-1852) was the military marshal of Dalmatia and general governor of Napoleon's Illyrian Province.
The landscaping of the park was begun in 1807 at the site of the ruined city fort and completed in 1811. It was destroyed in 1859 with
the construction of the neo-renaissance Prokurative (City Hall) and the neo-baroque theatre.
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Fig. 5. Stubičke Toplice, spa garden, lithography, 1814, source: «Kajkaviana» Donja Stubica
the plantain allee in Karlovac13. Credit for the founding of the General's Gardens in Osijek14 in 1809 goes to general Pemler. Not only is the military governor of Zadar, Baron Ludwig Franz von Welden15, credited with creating the first public park in Zadar in 1829, but he is also the author of the entire park project.16 Thanks to the Austrian military governor for Dalmatia, Dragutin Blažekovic (1828-1893), the landscaping of a second public park also named af-
Fig. 6. Zagreb, Grič Promenade, aquarelle, 1862, author: Josip Svoboda, source: The City Museum of Zagreb
ter Blažekovic17, was begun in Zadar in 1888. The promenade on Čikat in Mali Lošinj was built at the end of the 19th century thanks to the endeavours of the Kotar captain, Dr Alfred von Menussi-Montesoli from Vienna.18
Sometimes, mayors were also great enthusiasts of landscape architecture and the cultivation of flowers and initiated the laying out of public parks. This is true of Giovanni Ciotta, the mayor of Rijeka, who is credited with laying out the public city park in Rijeka in 1874 (figure 8)19. Credit for Sofijin put (Sophie's Path) in Za-
13	A row of plantain trees was planted in 1809 and lined the newly built Louisiana Road. It connected Karlovac and Rijeka and soon became the main thoroughfare for transport of wheat from the continent to the Adriatic Sea. Today, this allee in Karlovac is named after Marmont, while the road itself is named after the French queen, Queen Marie-Louise (1 791-1847), the wife of Napoleon I.
14	The General's Gardens in Osijek were laid out for officers in the Austrian army stationed in Osijek. After the departure of the army in 1883, the gardens were destroyed and cut up into building lots.
15	Ludwig Franz von Welden (1 782-1 853) - officer and commander of the Zadar garrison 1828-1 831, went on to serve in Austria (Graz and Innsbruck). He was an amateur botanist. He is the author of the project from 1829 for the Public Gardens at the Grimani bastion in Zadar. He is also credited with the landscaping of Schlossberg in Graz into a city park. He is buried at the cemetery of heroes in Graz. A plant is named after him - Weldenia.
16	The Zadar public park was laid out at the Grimani bastion, which dates from 1 537, and which was built according to plans by the Italian renaissance architect Michele Sanmicheli. Right from the start it was envisioned as a public garden, a botanical garden (an arboretum with Dalmatian flora) and an exhibition area including Roman fragments, busts and sculptures. The park is pentagonal in shape and is encompassed by the city walls on four sides and with a square on the fifth side - Trg pet bunara (Five Wells Square), which was constructed in 1574. the following buildings were to be found in the park: a Moorish cafe, a Greek "temple", an obelisk, two "Chinese" hexagonal pavilions. A variety of busts were displayed around the park. There was a rockery and an artificial cave at the top of the hill. When it was laid out, the following plant species were planted: Laurus nobilis, Nerium oleander, Arbutus unedo, Viburnum tinus, Celtis australis, Quercus ilex, Ilex aquifolium, Citrus, Terebinthus, Phillyrea, Erica mediterranea, Erica arborea, Rhus coriaria, Acacia julibrissin, Tamarix africana, Punica granatum, Lonicera etrusca, Cytissus fragrans (Petricioli, 1998).
17	Blažekovic Park (the present-day park named after the Croatian poet Vladimir Nazor) grew up at the site of what was once a renaissance and baroque fortification and was adjacent to the antique (Roman) historical city core situated on a peninsula. The oldest registered park plan dates from 1893. The 4.2 ha park plan coincides with the contours of the bastion and has a landscaped and historicist composition. The park was subsequently changed in 1898, and also in 1946 after it was devastated during bombing in WWII. When it was initially laid out, the following plants were planted: Buxus sempervirens, Cedrus libani, Celtis australis, Cupressus sempervirens, Cupressus torulosa, Hedera helix, Iris foetidissima, Laurus nobilis, Magnolia grandiflora, Phoenix canariensis, Photinia serrulata, Pinus brutia, Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Ruscus hypoglossum, Quercus ilex, Rosa sp., Sternbergia lutea, Taxus baccata, Trachycarpus excelsa, Ulmus carpinifolia, Yucca gloriosa , and others.
18	The Čikat (Cigale) peninsula on the Island of Lošinj (northern Adriatic), which was barren of all vegetation after the woods were cut down and the vineyards ran to waste, was reforested with 300 000 pine trees and 5000 cypresses saplings, Indian fig trees, agave and other plants. After landscaping had been carried out, villas and hotels were built that were architecturally in the style of late historicism and the Secession with large gardens and parks. The first villa was built in 1892. This marked the start of tourism on the island.
19	City Park is the most significant park in Rijeka and is situated west of the antique/medieval historic town core. It covers an area 3.7 ha in size. It was planned by Filibert Bazarig (1843-1896) according to the mayor's guidelines. The park is landscaped on three terraces; the central area of the park was a wood with oak trees (Quercus pubescens) and laurel (Laurus nobilis). A lake with a peninsula with a lantern and a swan house were situated in the lower reaches of the park. There was a cafe with a pavilion where promenade concerts were held on Sundays (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004,1 74-177).
Fig. 7. Zagreb, extract from the master plan of Zagreb from 1913 with outline of squares - Lenuci's Horseshoe, source: The Historical Archive in Zagreb
greb in 1883 goes to the erstwhile mayor of Zagreb, Baron Härdtl, who had great difficulty talking the numerous owners of the land where the promenade now exists into giving up their land plots, so that the promenade could be built (figure 9)20. The public city park in the renaissance town of Karlovac (figure 10), situated in the vicinity of one of the four rivers that run through Karlovac, was the result of an idea in the mind of mayor Josip Vrbanic (1854-1906), a great enthusiast and promoter of landscape architecture and culture.21
During the 19th century, societies intent on beautifying towns were set up and initiated urban development and landscaping. Endeavours invested by their members resulted in the establishment of numerous public parks and promenades. These societies worked on motivating town authorities into financing the laying out of parks and collecting donations for the procurement of seedlings, flowers, benches, and such like. The first society of this kind was founded in Split as early as 1810 during
Fig. 8. Rijeka, City Park, author of draft Filibert Bazarig, 1874, source: The State Archive in Rijeka
French rule. Similar societies in other Croatian towns were set up at the end of the 19th century.
Eminent citizens promoted the laying out of parks and promenades; very often these were also citizens who had gifted their lands to the city for this purpose. Dr Bernhard Wilhelm von Müller (1785-1863) started landscaping the public park in Varaždin in 1838 on his own land, along the south part of the moat (trench) belonging to the renaissance city fortification.22 The Zagreb Post Office director, Matija Pallain, turned an undeveloped area in Zagreb into the Sjeverna promenada (the North Promenade), which he financed with his own money and donations from the citizens of Zagreb.23
Public city parks, promenades and other public spaces would not have existed if these ideas had not been supported by town officials who were responsible for allocating monies for projects and then for their implementation and later maintenance. These were always
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20 Sofijin put - Sophie's Path (present-day Dubravkin put - Dubravka's Path) in Zagreb joins the historic medieval town with Tuškanac, which is today an elite residential area. The town gardener, Josip Peklar (1837-1911), drew up a detailed plan for the landscaping of Josipovac Park as part of the promenade in 1890. The project was accepted by the town fathers and money was secured for its implementation. Original description of the promenade: Kunitsch, 1829.
Work on Vrbanic's park and the bathing area on the river Korana in Karlovac commenced in 1895. It is a landscaped romantic composition with historicist details. A small hotel and baths building were constructed. The park was turned into an area for concerts and children's festivities (Obad Šcitaroci, Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, 2003).
Dr. Müller began building a villa with a garden along the south trench in 1825. This marked the beginning of landscaping around the historic medieval town. The town fathers accepted his landscaping plans for a town park that would be 2 ha in size. The park was created out by the gardener Leopold Klingspögl (or Glünkshügel), the author of the bishopric park Ribnjak in Zagreb (see note 5) and parks in other towns in north-western Croatia. The basic form of the park is delineated by an avenue of horse chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocasta-num) and an avenue of lime trees (Tilia sp.). Poplar trees (Populus nigra 'Italica') were planted in the lower reaches, and spruces (Picea sp.), larches (Larix decidua) and Eastern White Pines (Pinus strobus) on elevated areas. A bandstand was erected in the park in 1854. The park was re-landscaped in the 1870s when a new theatre building was constructed on the edge of the park. Signs denoting the plant names were added as well as benches and petroleum lamps. The park was redone in the historicist style in 1900 when a monument to Queen Elisabeth von Habsburg, the tragically departed wife of Emperor Francis Joseph I, was erected. Original description of the park: Kunitsch, 1831a.
The North Promenade in Zagreb was laid out between 1839 and 1845 according to plans drawn up by architect Bartol Felbinger (1 7851871). The old school building was removed, the north town gate was pulled down and supporting walls were erected. Paths and lawns were laid out, trees, bushes and flowers were planted and benches were introduced. A cafe - named Palajnovka after Matija Pallain, was constructed on the promenade. The promenade received its final (present-day) appearance in 1912 based on plans drawn up by architect Hugo Ehrlich (1879-1936).
Fig. 9. Zagreb, park plan for Josipovac, 1890, author: Josip Peklar, source: The Historical Archive in Zagreb
large sums of money, but town officials and city authorities, as well as citizens, were well aware of the fact that this was an important issue for the creation of a beautiful and healthy town, that is, for all of its citizens to have a more pleasant and enjoyable environment. All this confirms the high degree of a town's or city's awareness and the cultural consciousness of all citizens concerning matters of aesthetics, urbanism and landscaping during the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century.
ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC CITY PARKS IN CROATIA AND EUROPE COMPARED
The aim of the our research was to compare public (city) parks in Croatia with those of Central Europe
Fig. 10. Karlovac, Vrbanic Park, early 20th century, source: private collection
(within erstwhile regions belonging to the Austrian Monarchy) and Western Europe (primarily in France, Great Britain and Germany), major promoters of landscaping from the 17th to the 20th century.24 It is possible to compare them on the basis of their artistic and figurative value as parks, the period in which they were created, their size (area), and the degree to which these parks were part of an existing urban plan and concept, and so on.
It is difficult to compare the artistic (stylistically) values of what are basically modest parks in Croatia with the majestic city parks that can be found in large European towns and cities. From an stylistic point of view, there are only a few examples in Croatia that are worth comparing with the parks of Europe. One of them is the city park Maksimir in Zagreb25, another is Lenuci's Horseshoe in Zagreb (a series of U-shaped, or horseshoe-shaped public (city) parks and squares)26, as well as the spa garden in Lipik (Slavonia, North Croatia)27 and the landscaped garden town of Opatija28 on the north Adriatic coast. But, stylistic analysis is not topic of this article.
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For the purpose of comparison, European examples of public parks have been taken based on available literature selected in this article. See note 4
Lenuci's landscape horseshoe did not come into existence simultaneously based on an initial idea, but gradually as the concept was developed. Whereas there was an international public competition for the Ring in Vienna (1859; the solution offered by the Viennese architect Ludwig Förster was chosen), and for the Andrassy fort in Budapest, there was never a public competition for the Lenuci's Horseshoe in Zagreb. The first landscape square - Zrinjevac - was established in 1869, and the entire planned concept was entered into the
urban plan of Zagreb in 1887. See note 9.
Lipik is a health spa in North Croatia (125 km east of Zagreb) and has been famous for its therapeutic springs and waters since Roman times. In the 19'h century, Lipik is mentioned as the first iodine spa in Europe. The plan for the spa complex and park was drawn up at the end of the 19'h century. No signature is appended to the plan and it is not dated; it was drawn up in Indian ink on thick drawing paper and coloured in the aquarelle technique; it is 87x67 cm in size. The plan coincides in its entirety with what was later actually built and the spa's present-day appearance. All the spa buildings - the Kursalon, the roofed promenade, the hotels, baths buildings, etc. - are
incorporated within the park. The historicist park includes two entities: neo-baroque, geometrical gardens at the front of the buildings and a late-romantic landscaped park. The park and spa buildings build up the central area and their construction and development was started after the park had been laid out. The spa and park were predominantly destroyed during the war in 1991-1992, so that major renovation of the entire spa and park is needed (Obad Šcitaroci, 2006c; Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 200-203). Opatija is a town and summer resort on the eastern coast of Istria (the northern Adriatic). Opatija stared developing as a climatic spa in the second half of the 19'h century around the Benedictine monastery - the opatija (abbey) - from the 15'h century and is named after it. The building of the Villa Angiolina, the summer residence of Ignio Scarpa - in 1844 marked a turning point in Opatija's development. The Austrian emperor and king, Francis Joseph I, (1830-1916) gave Opatija the status of a spa resort - Winterkurort im Süden. Apart from its hotels and villas, Opatija has numerous promenades and public and hotel gardens - mostly secessionist and historicist in style. Opatija has retained its original appearance and characteristics to this day (Vahtar-Jurkovic, 2004; Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 204-207).
Fig. 11. Varaždin, the music pavilion in the City Park, early 20th century, source: The National and University Library of Zagreb
It would be interesting to compare parks according to their size (area), especially the relation between their size in comparison to the size of the town in which they are to be found and of the town's population. For example, when it was first laid out, Maksimir Park in Zagreb and the adjoining woods initially stretched over an area 402 hectares (mid-19th century), which means it was approximately half the size of the Bois de Boulogne in Paris, or twice the size of Regent's Park in London. This was a huge area in view of the fact that Zagreb was a very small town with barely 15,000 inhabitants in the mid-19th century (in 1846 Paris had more than one million inhabitants, and in 1841 London had 2,235,000 inhabitants).
The focal point of the research presented in this paper is the comparison of the timeframe within which public parks were laid out in Croatia and other select European towns and cities. Particular attention is paid to public (city) parks from the beginning of the 18th century and up until the beginning of the 20th century, that is, a full two centuries, during which the concept and idea of public parks and spaces were born, developed and matured in European towns and cities.
When we draw a comparison between the time at which individual parks and promenades came into existence in Croatia and in other European countries, then it is evident that new ideas always fell on fertile soil in Croatia. There were always individuals who promoted a European idea, especially the idea of parks open to the general public. Many parks in Croatia were created before those in other large towns and cities and many
more prosperous milieu. The notion of setting up and landscaping public parks in Croatian towns occurred simultaneously, or took root with very little delay, as far as other European towns were concerned. Difficulties or problems usually occurred later. After the initial idea had been executed and realised, the upkeep of these parks on a daily basis, year in, year out, often became a problem, as they needed regular tending, which in turn required additional funding. Parks were maintained during the Habsburg Monarchy, but then, after the fall of the monarchy, and after the First World War (1918), parks gradually began to fall into neglect. During the 20th century, many were transformed and so lost their original appearance. Their renewal and renovation was begun at the end of the 20th century, with particular care being taken concerning their historic(al) characteristics.
Public parks in the 17th and the first half of the 18th century
The period during the 17th and the first half of the 18th century was still an age of private and royal stately homes with representative parks. English and French kings were the first to open their royal gardens and parks to the public in the 17th century. In London, Hyde Park (laid out in 1630, opened to the public since 1660), Marylebone Park, Kensington Gardens, Greenwich Park and St. James Park were opened to the public; in Paris the same is true of Jardin de Tuileries (opened to the public at the beginning of the 17th cent.) and the Champs-Elysees. Vauxhall, the first public pleasure gardens, was opened to the public at the end of the 17th century. The 18th century saw the opening of a second public pleasure park in London - Ranelagh, and in Paris the Tivoli was opened.
There are few examples of public parks from the first half and mid-18th century in countries that had been part of the Austrian Monarchy. One early example is Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad) in the Czech Republic, where the building of thermal baths and a spa and the laying out of a park were started in 1728. In Croatia, the laying out of the Public Garden in Osijek29 started in the mid-18th century, although it took an entire century for work to be finalised.
Public parks in the second half of the 18th century (1761-1789)
In the second half of the 18th century many of the existing royal parks were opened to the public; in addition, new public and semi-public parks began to be laid out.
The imperial and royal parks in Vienna were opened to the public: the Prater in 1766 and the Augarten in
29 The Public City Garden in Osijek extends over an area 4.25 ha in size. When it was first laid out, this was a large surface as the town only had a couple of thousand inhabitants. It was established on the initiative of the local citizens and nobility and was originally situated outside the actual town and its fortifications. The garden was reached by either riding a horse-drawn tram or by carriage. A broad main allee bordered by horse-chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) and tall clipped common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) hedges ran through the central area of the elongated garden with white benches placed along the edges. Adjoining allees were laid out alongside the main allee. There were numerous additional facilities, for example, a bandstand, a secessionist stone well, a gloriette, etc. It was a venue where events took place that were gladly visited by the townsfolk. It was severely devastated during WWII and a football stadium was built in its place after the war. Today, a sports centre is being built at the site.
1775. The Augarten Luzanky in Brno, laid out for the public in 1786, was fashioned in the likeness of the Viennese Augarten. Margaret Island in Budapest began to be laid out in 1798, but was not opened to the public until 1869. A number of private parks within what was once the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were opened to the public. A number of pleasure parks (Jardins spectacles) were laid out in Paris: the first was the Paris Vaux-hall on the Boulevard St. Martin in 1764, followed by the Monceau Park in 1773 and the summer Vauxhall on the Boulevard du Temple in 1785. Promenades were created along the castle walls in Linz (1772) and in Graz (1787); the botanical gardens in Krakow were laid out in 1782, and the spa garden at Baden near Vienna was begun in 1758. In 1775 a promenade and avenue (the Alleegarten) was laid out in Ljubljana. A kilometre-long park running along the coast (the Villa Comunale) was raised in Naples in 1780), and seven years later the Par-co delle Cascine was opened to the public in Florence (although it was not completed until the 19th century). In 1789 the American B. Thompson worked on the first project for the creation of a large city park - the Englischer Garten in Munich.
In the second half of the 18th century, the Bishop of Zagreb, Maksimilijan Vrhovac (1 752-1827)30 started converting the old episcopal forest into Maksimir Park, a public park for the inhabitants of Zagreb. The idea to create Maksimir was influenced by Enlightenment thought and mindset, both of which Bishop Vrhovac could relate to, but the landscaping of this public space was also modelled on the royal parks that had been opened to the public in Vienna - the Prater and the Augarten. In 1787 Vrhovec notes in his diary that work on the landscaping of Maksimir has begun. In the same year, the Kanalka Park is laid out for the citizens in Prague and the royal Lobzow Palace Park is converted into the university public park, and in Graz the Dammallee Promenade begins to be laid out. For the sake of comparison, the following were opened to the public shortly before Maksimir in Zagreb: the Monceau Park in Paris (1773), the Augarten in Bratislava (1775-1776) and the Augarten Luzanky in Brno (1786). Work on the first project for the Englischer Garten in Munich was only started two years after work had already commenced in Maksimir, and Sckell's project, according to which the park was laid out, came
Fig. 12. Opatija, the Villa Angiolina Park, copy from cadastre map, 1897, source: The Historical Archive in Rijeka
twelve years after work on the Late-Baroque Maksimir had already begun. Many famous European city parks were laid out later or significantly later than Maksimir. The fact that the late-Baroque Maksimir Park was never completed does not decrease either its value and worth, the initial idea of establish a public park for the citizens of Zagreb. Vrhovac and his inspired Enlightenment thought thereby lent historical significance to Maksimir and put it on the map alongside other prominent historic landscape architecture in Europe.
Public parks at the end of the 18th century (1790-1799)
At the end of the 18th century, two separate parks were laid out in Croatia: the Prater pleasure garden in Varaždin31 and the military Pukovnijski vrt (Regiment Garden) - Regimentsgarten in Osijek32. In 1799, the
30	Bishop Maksimilijan Vrhovac (bishop from 1787 to 1827) was well-versed in the theory and practical art of landscaping of the time. The bishopric library contained all the relevant and important books in the field of landscape theory published at the end of the 18'h century: J.G. Sulzer, Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste (Leipzig) 1771-1774; Christian Caius Lorenz Hirschfeld, Theorie der Gartenkunst (KielLeipzig), 1779 (vol. 1), 1780 (vol. 2 and 3), 1 782 (vol. 4), 1785 (vol. 5); J.N. Schwerdling, Wald-Scenen und natur-Schönheiten (Zagreb: Biskupska knjižara) 1794; Die Gartenkunst für Gärtner und Gartenfreunde (Leipzig) 1797. Not only was the bishop well-read as far as theories and literature available at the time were concerned, but he also had an inclination for landscape architecture, which enabled him to create the significant stunning works that he did. It is important to note that his ideas and concepts were implemented very early, so that they may be considered early European examples, principally examples of public city and spa parks. See notes 4 and 7.
31	The Prater in Varaždin (80 km north of Zagreb) was laid out in 1 799 on the western moat (trench) of the medieval-renaissance town core. Music was played and theatre performances and masked balls were held among the lime trees, acacias and beech trees.
32	The Regiment Garden (Regimentsgarten, present-day King Tomislav Park) in Osijek is the largest and most valuable park in Osijek - a city in east Croatia which grew up in Roman times as a Roman camp, castrum Mursa. The garden was established at the end of the 18'h and beginning of the 19'h century as a separate military garden between the civil town Gornji grad and the military town Tvrda (Jukic, 1996).
Fig. 13. Opatija, the Quisisana Sanatorium Park, early 20'^ century, source: private collection
Prater had already been completed in Varaždin, when Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell began work on his Englischer Garten project in Munich (Germany). Work on Margaret Island in Budapest (Hungary) had started a year earlier, but would see several changes to the initial concept by the end of the 19th century. In the last decade of the 18th century the hunting grounds belonging to Count Waldstein in Leitomischl (Austria) were converted into a public park - Vratnicka Nedosinsky (modelled on the Vienna Prater); the park in Eisgrub (Austria), belonging to Prince Liechtenstein was opened to the public, the spa garden in Baden near Vienna was extended in 1792 in the style of the Rococo, and in Krakow (Poland) the pleasure garden Krzyzanowski was built in 1796.
Public parks at the beginning of the 19th century (1800-1815)
At the beginning of the 19th century the most significant undertaking in Europe was the laying out and landscaping of Regent's Park in London in 1811 based on a project by the architect John Nash. Among the parks of Central Europe, the most significant is Varosliget in Budapest (Hungary) from 1813, based on plans by Heinrich Nebbien from Lübeck. Both Marmont's Park in Split
(1807-1811)33 and General's Garden in Osijek (1809)34 had been opened before Regent's Park; however, both were destroyed a couple of decades later. The laying out of Regent's Park coincided with that of the classicist spa garden at Stubičke Toplice in Croatia (1811-1814, figure 5)35. Work on the laying out of the Južna promenada - South Promenade, in Zagreb (figure 6)36 started two years after that of Regent's Park, and at the same time as that of Varosliget in Budapest. This was three years after Margaret Island in Budapest had been landscaped (1810).
At the beginning of the 19th century, more and more parks and promenades around Europe began to be fashioned on the foundations of medieval and renaissance castles. Parks laid out on remains of old fortifications appeared in Bremen (1802), Znojno (1804), Düsseldorf (1810), Frankfurt am Main (1811), Munich (1812), Wro-clav (1813), and many other Central European towns. This means that before Regent's Park had been created in London, and before the fall of Napoleon I, numerous parks had already been raised at the site of city fortifications in Europe. The Južna promenada - South Promenade, in Zagreb (see figure 6), although modest in view of the initial work carried out, is among the first projects of this kind in Europe.
Public parks in the first half of the 19th century (1816-1845)
After the Napoleonic Wars, a new wave of city landscaping commenced, which was to peak in the second half of and the end of the 19th century. During the first half of the 19th century spa gardens and parks were created in Croatia, and Maksimir (see figure 2) took on a landscaped, romantic appearance.
There were a number of significant accomplishments in England. After St. James Park in London came the new parks: Victoria Park (1840) and Battersea Park (1843-1846) in London, the public arboretum in Derby (1839), and Prince's Park (1842) and Birkenhead Park (1842-1847) in Liverpool.
Several noteworthy public city parks were also established in the lands of Central Europe. The Volksgarten (later incorporated within the Ringstrasse) was erected from 1817 to 1823. The Klosterberg, the first public city park in Germany, created by Peter Joseph Lenne, was laid out in Magdeburg in 1824. In 1830, while the bishopric park Ribnjak (figure 3)37 was being created out in Zagreb, the Parco del Valentino was established in Turin and landscaping also began in Berlin with the conversion of the large royal hunting park, the Tiergarten, done
33	See notes 10 and 11.
34	See note 13.
35	See note 7.
36	See note 8.
37	See note 5.
according to project plans by Fintelmann and Lenne (similar conversions of royal hunting grounds in Paris would come only twenty or so years later). And the city park in Prague was created in 1833.
The growth of the urban populations in the first half of the 19th century accelerated the building of city promenades and prompted the laying out of pleasure gardens and a speedier development of spa gardens. The building of a promenade started in Graz in 1817 on Schlossberg, and, in the 1820, renovation was begun on the Dammallee promenade dating back to the end of the 18th century. In Budapest, the promenade on the Celle-rtsberg was laid out in a romantic style in 1822; unfortunately, the promenade would be removed in 1852 to make way for the construction of a fort. In Poland, the first pleasure gardens - the Kremer - were laid out in Krakow in 1820 and were a cross between a geometrical and English style; in 1826 a promenade was also opened to the public in Czestochow, and in 1840 the Planty, a landscaped promenade (begun in 1800), was opened to the public in Krakow. A geometrically fashioned pleasure garden with avenues in the shape of a star was laid out in the 1920s in Ljubljana (Slovenia) where the Park Zvezda stands today, and in 1835 the Tivoli Park, next to the castle, was also established out in Ljubljana (public park Tivoli was officially established in 1860). Pleasure gardens were also made, for example, in Linz (Austria) in 1824 at the site of what is today Schillerplatz; a Tivoli was also laid out at Meidling near Vienna (east of Schönbrunn) in 1830, as well as in Copenhagen in 1843. A number of renowned spas also started to be created in the first half of the 19th century; for example: Rogaška Slatina in Slovenia (after a year 1812 and 1840s), Bad Ischl in Austria (1822) and Mehadia near Temesvar (Timijoara) in present-day Romania (1824). The Austrian spa gardens at Baden near Vienna (a romantic extension of Lang'sche from 1837), Bad Gleichenberg (1837) and Bad Ischl (1838) were laid out in the 1930s.
A number of parks were created in Croatia in the first half of the 19th century. Whilst Cellertsberg in Buda and Bad Ischl were being established, or the romantic conversion of St. James Park was taking place in London, from 1822 to 1828 Aleksandar Alagovic, the Bishop of Zagreb (1760-1837) laid out the residential summer garden in Nova Ves (figure 4). According to a description by Michael Kunitsch from 1828 this park was open to the
Fig. 14. Krapinske Toplice, spa and spa garden, postcard, early 20th century, source: private collection
public right from the start, every day of the year and all day long.38 At the same time, a city park was laid out in 1829 in Zadar on the Grimani city bastion39 according to plans made up by the commander of Zadar, Baron Ludwig Franz von Welden40, who went on to complete the Schlossberg promenade in Graz ten years later. In the same year, Michael Kunitsch describes the completed woody promenade Tuškanac in Zagreb as being a dreamy expanse.41 A public park in Varaždin (figure 11)42 from 1838 was made at the same time as one in Bad Ischl, and before Victoria Park and Battersea Park in London, or Prince's Park and Birkenhead Park in Liverpool, which were laid out according to plans made by the author of Crystal Palace, Joseph Paxton.
In the same year, in 1838, the Bishop of Zagreb, Ju-raj Haulik, initiated work on the romantic landscaping of Maksimir 43; this would not only be the most important and most notable park project of its time, but also the most valuable park project to be realised in the 19th century in Croatia (see figures 1-2). Maksimir can be compared to the Englisher Carten in Munich (final project draft by Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell, 1799), with Regent's Park (1811) in London or the transformed version of St. James Park (1827), completed according to a project by John Nash; with the landscaped conversion of the landscaped Bois de Boulogne in Paris (project by Vare and Alphand, 1852) or Sefton Park in Liverpool (project by Edouard Francois Andre, 1866).
The Sjeverna promenada (North Promenade)44 in Zagreb was laid out at the same time as the Schlossberg Prom-
38
39
40
41
See note 6. See note 15. See note 14.
The natural Sessile oak-tree (Quercus petraea) and common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) woods, which reach as far as the town centre,
were turned into a path through the woods with small holiday houses, gardens, vineyards, belvederes, romantic groves and promenades.
Since the 19'h century and up until this day, this has remained an "elite" residential area of the town. Josipovac (note 19) and Sjeverna
promenade - North Promenade (note 22) are an integral part of Tuškanac.
See note 21.
See note 4.
See note 22.
Fig. 15. Lipik, spa garden plan, end of 19th century, source: The Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia
enade in Graz - in 1839. The spa gardens at Varaždinske Toplice45 began in 1821, a year before work at Bad Ischl (Austria), and 17 years before its park was raised, as well as 23 years before the park at Rogaška Slatina (Slovenia).
The building of the Villa Angioline in 1845 marked the birth of Opatija46 - a new town of villas, hotels, parks and promenades, soon to become a popular tourist resort and health spa on the North Adriatic (figures 12-13). Opatija developed into a fashionable winter spa on the Adriatic catering to rich clientele, much like the Lido in Venice or Rimini in Italy. The clear and well-defined urban-landscaping concept that was deployed at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century gave Opatija its unique identity, and it quite rightly received the epithet - garden town.
Public parks in the mid-19th century (1846-1860)
The mid-19th century is characterised by towns and cities in Great Britain where numerous public parks began to flourish - in London, Glasgow, Salford, Halifax and Dundee. A total of four parks were laid out in London - Albert Park (1851), Sydenham Park (1852, near London), Finsbury Public Park (1857) and Southwark Park (1857), and an additional two in Glasgow - Kel-vingrove Park (1852) and Queen's Park (1857). In Austria, two city parks were laid out during the same period - the Stadtpark in Vienna (1860) and the Volksgarten in Linz (1857). Many parks from earlier periods also underwent renovation and transformation. The old royal
hunting grounds in Paris were transformed into large landscaped public parks as part of the urban transformation of Paris during the reign of Napoleon III and the administrator of Paris at the time, Baron GeorgesEugene Haussmann. The Bois de Boulogne in the west of Paris was transformed in 1852 (Louis-Sulpice Vare, Jean-Charles-Adolphe Alphand), followed by the Bois de Vincennes (Alphand) in 1860 and the Monceau Park in 1770 (also Alphand). In Bordeaux, the geometrically fashioned park laid out in 1817 underwent a transformation (1856-1858). In the Swiss city of Geneva a city park, the Jardin anglais, was created in 1854. In the mid-19th century the classicist spa gardens at Bad Gleichenberg (1847), and at Baden near Vienna (1850), as well as the Parco del Valentino in Turin (1860), and others, were enlarged and landscaped.
The political instability that marked the mid-19th century within the Habsburg Monarchy (the revolutions of 1848-1849 in Hungary and Bach's Absolutism which followed) was not advantageous to the laying out of public (city) parks in Croatia. The most notable park project from this period is the public park in Split, in front of the north fagade of Diocletian's Palace. Plans for the park were drawn up 1846, but it took fifteen years before work on its realisation actually started.47 In Osijek, the public town garden and Regiment Garden, started as far back as the 18th century, were finally completed.48
Public parks in the second half of the 19th century (1861-1889)
In all major European cities the second half of the 19th century saw far more renovation, transformation and extension of existing parks than the creation of new ones. However, in contrast to this, in Croatia, as well as other smaller cities and towns in Europe, this period was distinguished by the appearance of numerous new parks laid out in the manner of the parks in larger European towns and cities. A number of new parks were made that are considered to be valuable achievements in landscaping. Two new romantically styled masterpieces were laid out in Paris - the Parc des Buttes Chaumont (1863) at the site of the quarry and earlier rubbish tip (Jean-Charles-Adolphe Alphand and Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps) and the Parc Montsouris (1870, Alphand). Another valuable example of landscape design from the second half of the 19th century is Sefton Park in Liverpool (1866, Edouard Frangois Andre). Other parks to ap-
45	The Varaždin Spa lies northeast of Zagreb and is famous since Roman times when it was known as Aquae Jasae. The spa garden includes two entities: a hilly area with romantic landscaped traits and a flatland area bearing historicist characteristics. The historicist garden was laid out at the Roman archaeological site - the Roman forum and capitol; in the 1950s the garden was removed and replaced by an archaeological park with finds in situ (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 188-189).
46	See note 27.
47	The town park in Split was created at the site of the northern baroque fortification walls belonging to Diocletian's Palace. The leitmotif of the park initially was an elliptical avenue of trees, which was reshaped between 1861 and 1880 in the spirit of historicism, whilst the elliptically shaped avenue was kept intact (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 162-165).
48	See notes 28 and 31.
pear in Britain are the Public Park in Dunfermline (1863) and Hasketh Park in Southport (1864).
Numerous public parks and promenades were laid out in the Austrian (Austro-Hungarian) Monarchy. Almost every town and city now had a promenade or landscaped public park, whether a new one or an extended and renovated existing park. Parks underwent transformation - those created in a classic manner, those dating back to the Biedermeier period from the first half of the 19'h century, as well as those that had been neglected. The new trend and fashion in the second half of the 19'h century was characterised by romanticism and parks mirrored this trend until the end of the 19'h century. The Austrian Empire and Monarchy was bustling with activity. In Vienna, two large and significant parks - the Stadtpark (addition of a children's playground) and the Volksgarten were extended in 1863. In Budapest, the Varosliget underwent adaptation and was extended (addition of zoological gardens in 1866, transformation in 1885) and Margaret Island was renovated (1869). In Bratislava (Slovakia), the Augarten was renovated (1868), and in Linz (Austria) the Volksgarten was transformed (1885). Numerous new city parks appeared. In Graz, the Stadtpark (1869-1972) was laid out at the site of the old city fortifications and glacis, in Brno (the Czech Republic) the promenade on the Spielberg hill was renovated in 1861, and in 1870 the Nepliget was laid out in Budapest. The Cebirgspark and Aupark-Sternallee were laid out in 1870 in Bratislava. In 1872 Rudolf Siebeck (1802-1879)49 drew up plans for the Rathauspark, the park by the city hall in Vienna. The landscaped city park, the Türkenschanzpark (1885-1889) was erected at the site of the moat dating back to the Turkish Siege of Vienna (1683). In Krakow, Park Jordana was landscaped in 1888.
In the second half of the 19'h century spa gardens also began to be laid out and landscaped in Austria -in Salzburg (1872), Bad Ischl (renovated 1873-1875), Mödling (1873-1882), Baden (1880), and other places. The spa gardens in Croatia were also raised during this
Fig. 16. Lipik, park avenue, 1906, source: The National and University Library of Zagreb
period - at Varaždinske Toplice (1865, extension and landscaping)50 Krapinske Toplice (commencement of landscaping in 1866, figure 14)51 and Lipik (commencement of landscaping in 1867, figures 15-16)52.
Intensified landscaping of parks in Croatia only started in the 1860s and culminated in the last three decades of the 19th century. The most significant two parks from the 1860s are the city park in Split (renovation and transformation in 1 861)53 and the first public park in Pula - Maximillian's Park (1 863)54, established during the construction of the south part of the town and the building of the naval harbour. These two parks had been laid out even before two other world famous parks - Sefton Park in Liverpool and Stadtpark in Graz. Four significant parks were created in Croatia in the 1870s - Zrinjevac in Zagreb (1870-1878)55, Monte Zaro in Pula (1870)56, the public park in Rijeka (1874, figure 8)57 and the Theatre Park in Rijeka (1875, fig-
49	Rudolph Siebeck was the administrator of the Viennese parks, a doctor of philosophy, author of a number of books and numerous gardens and parks in the Austrian Monarchy and Germany. He is the 1873 project author for Zrinjevac Square in Zagreb. The project plans have been lost, but were in the tradition of the French parterre. He is the author of one of the tender projects for Stadtpark in Vienna.
50	See note 44.
51	The Krapina Spa lies northwest of Zagreb and has been famous since Roman times when it was known as Aquae Vivae (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 198-199).
52	See note 26.
53	See note 46.
54	Pula is a town with an atypical radial-circular plan for a Roman town. The town began expanding in the 19'h century when Pula became an Austrian military port. The first park in the town was Maksimilijanov perivoj (Maximillian's Park), named in honour of Grand Duke Maximillian of Habsburg (the brother of Emperor Francis Joseph I), and commander of the Austrian navy. A 5-metre tall marble column with a sculpture symbolising Freedom was erected in the middle of the park in his honour.
55	Zrinjevac is the first of the eight public gardens and squares that form Lenuci's Horseshoe. The project plan for the park square (2.7 ha) was drawn up in 1870 by the town engineer Rupert Melkus (1 833-1891). The plan is divided into 4 square fields with a circular extension at the meeting point of two paths where the bandstand was built in 1891. Apart from plantain trees brought over from Italy, the square was created in the historicist style with flower beds. After being opened to the public in 1878, representative palaces were built around the square. Most of the original layout, with minor changes, has been preserved to this day. See notes 9 and 25.
56	Monte Zaro is the largest park (2.9 ha) in Pula and was laid out on a steep hill with a renaissance fortress. In 1877 a monument to Vice-admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff (1827-1871) was raised in the centre of the park.
57	See note 18.
Fig. 17. Rijeka, plan of the Theatre Garden from 1875, source: The State Archive in Rijeka
ure 17). In Zadar, the Coastal Promenade was raised in 186858, as well as a new public city park - Blažekovic (1888)59. Numerous promenades were made elsewhere in Croatia, for example, the town woods Marjan in Split (1884)60 and the Promenade of Maria Valeria in Karlo-vac (1886)61.
The most notable achievement of the 1880s in Croatia is the landscaping of the parks and squares known as Lenuci's Horseshoe in Zagreb.62 The Zagreb Botanical Garden, an integral part of Lenuci's Horseshoe, were founded in 1889, and landscaping of the gardens started a year later (figure 18).63 The landscape framework Lenuci's Horseshoe can be compared to similar solutions found in other Central European cities where landscaping was applied to medieval-renaissance fortifications, for example, in Vienna, Prague, Brno, Kra-
kow, Sofia, Riga, and others cities. The squares that form the Lenuci's Horseshoe were not built up in the place of old fortifications as in the majority of Central European cities, for example, Vienna or Brno.64 Unlike the Ringstrasse in Vienna, most of the public buildings of Lenuci's Horseshoe are located in the middle of the square (e.g. the theatre, the university library, the art pavilion, etc.).
Public parks at the end of the 19th century (1890-1900)
At the end of the 19th century, landscaping took firm root within the urban planning of all towns and cities. Parks began to embody characteristics inherent to his-toricism, but a romantic strain still remained. Public parks from this period are a blend of historicism and romanticism. Towns and cities that had once belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were the pioneers of this age. The last decade of the 19th century saw the laying out of new public city parks in Graz (Augarten (1890-1897), Košice in Slovakia (Szechenyi-Park, 1894), in Krakow (Podgorze - Bednarski Park, 1897), in Salzburg (Kaiser Francis Joseph Park, 1898), and other towns and cities of the monarchy. Numerous public parks and promenades were also laid out or revitalised in honour of Sisi - Queen Elisabeth of Bavaria and Hungary and Empress Consort of Austria (after her assassination in 1898) and a sculpture of her was often displayed in them.
Although parks laid out earlier were renovated, new parks also appeared in Croatia. In 1890 a number of important parks were laid out: Sakuntala in Osijek (1890)65,
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
Today, «Morske orgulje» (Sea Organs) and «Pozdrav suncu» (Solar Circle) have been set up at part of the Coastal Promenade, which have become a great tourist attraction in Zadar. See note 16.
Marjan lies on a peninsula and is a hill in Split which was woods in medieval times; later the woods were cleared and vineyards and olive groves were planted. In 1884 the hill was replanted with Aleppo Pine trees (Pinus halepensis), the promenades and belvedere were renovated, so that Marjan became a favourite public town promenade. Today, Marjan is a protected park/wood and, alongside Diocletian's Palace, it is an integral part of Split's identity.
The urban concept of Karlovac from the end of the 19'h century was based on the intention to encircle the historic renaissance star-shaped town core with public parks and promenades. The Šetalište Marije Valerije (Maria Valeria Promenade) or Velika promenada (Great
Promenade) in Karlovac was laid out with a fivefold avenue of horse chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) and lime trees (Tilia sp.) (435 trees in total) Maria Valeria was the daughter of Emperor Francis Joseph I. (Krajnik, Obad Šcitaroci, Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, 2008). See notes 9, 25 and 54.
The plan for the botanical gardens (3.85 ha) in Zagreb were drawn up by Antun Heinz (1861-1919) and the Czech head gardener Viteslav
Durchanek (1857-1924) (Regula-Bevilacqua, 1997; Kneževic, 1996; (Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 149-150).
In Krakow (Poland), the Ring (its landscape framework) at the site of the city fort was designed as early as the 1820s. In Riga the glacis was converted into a 150-metre wide park in 1817; in 1856 the walls were pulled down, and in 1857 an urban plan for development was produced by architects Daniel Felsko and Otto Dietze. Ludwig Förster's plan for the Ring in Brno (a series of parks on the baroque forts and glacises) from 1860 was, after minor changes had been made, realized in 1916. Discussions for the urban development of Prague started in 1 873, after Josef Schulz had drawn up a city plan. This resulted in intensified construction work being carried out at the site of the old town forts. The urban metamorphosis and development of the centre of Sofia at the site of the fort and glacis were started in 1878 when the Czech architect Adolf Vaclav Kolar drew up a city plan and lasted until 1903 (Wiebenson, 2001).
Sakuntala Square in Osijek, known today as Preradovicevo šetalište (Preradovic Promenade), was named after the most well-known piece by the Indian drama writer Kalidase from the 5'h century (sakuntala = lost ring). There were two sphinxes at the entrance to the park and a sculpture depicting the girl Sakuntala in the park itself. All the sculptures have been preserved. The plan from 1910, drawn up by Viktor Axmann, has also been preserved.
Fig. 18. Zagreb, plan of the Botanical Garden, 1889, author: Antun Heinz and Viteslav Durchanek, source: Botanical Garden in Zagreb
The
City Park (1890) and Maria Valeria Park (1893) in Pula66, the city park in Šibenik (1890-1896)67 and Vrbanic Park in Karlovac (1896)68. At the very end of the 19th century, sea promenades began to be created on Čikat in Mali Lošinj69, while the spa gardens at Stubičke Toplice (figure 5)70 and Lipik (figures 15-16)71 received their final form and appearance. The concept that led to the picturesque urbanisation and landscaping of the spa town of Lipik at the end of the 19th century makes it the most valuable spa in North Croatia, and it can be compared to other spas in Central Europe, notably, Baden, Bad Ischl or Bad Gleichenberg in Austria.
Public parks at the beginning of the 20th century (1901-1918)
Culturally and historically, the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century are characterised by a variety of movements in architecture and art, known under different names in different parts of Europe: Jugendstil, Secession, Art Nouveau, Modern Style, Stile Liberty, Stile Floreale, Modernisimo, Style Nouille, Style Guimard, etc. As far as Croatia is concerned, the influence of the Viennese Secession on the entire artistic opus in Croatian towns and cities, especially on landscape architecture, is of vital importance. In contrast to the historicist and
romantic traditions of the 19th century, the Secession imbued landscape architecture with new ideas. This was first noticeable in the gardens of city villas, and later extended to public city spaces. Nature was no longer the ideal and guiding force behind inspiration to secessionist creativity, but rather the idea was that a park was a creation of man. Parks were no longer seen as separate entities but as an integral part of a cohesive and unified architectural whole, where parks became an extension to buildings and interiors, which meant that equal attention was paid to the laying out of parks as was to the fashioning of decorative details on facades. Since the advent of World War I prevented the execution of many great public (city) park projects in Central Europe, especially Vienna and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the influence of these ostentatiously planned public (city) parks and spaces was felt to a greater degree in larger towns than in smaller ones. This why the landscaping of most promenades, parks and villa frontage gardens in Croatian towns and cities remained reminiscent of horticultural gardens and botanical collections. As these villa gardens faced the street, they lent harmony and a park-like appearance to the shaping of the streets. Many such secessionist streets grew up in Croatian towns and cities. The best preserved example of such a street is European Avenue in Osijek.72
66	The town park in Pula was laid out along the embanked coast (1.2 ha) in the vicinity of the Roman amphitheatre (Arena). The groundplan of the Maria Valeria Park (in honour of the daughter of Emperor Francis Joseph Josef I and Queen Sisi) is triangular in shape, and situated between the coast and the Arena.
67	City Park in Šibenik (4 ha) was raised at the site of the eastern renaissance city walls. The project was drawn up by engineer Aloise Me-ichsner (Sironic, Sironic, Mornar, 2008).
68	See note 20.
69	See note 17.
70	See note 7.
71	See note 26.
72	Thanks to the undeveloped area (glacis) and the baroque fortifications at Tvrda in Osijek, it was possible to implement the superb idea of a continuous series of parks in the centre of the town - as a link between the military town Tvrda and Donji, Gornji and Novi grad, all three of which only became a united town entity in the 19'h century. This is how a town on the edges of what was then the Austrian Monarchy came to have parks that were over-dimensioned in view of the size of Osijek at the time, but representative of Central European measures in the 19'h century. Apart from the large parks, at the beginning of the 20'h century an attractive and broad secessionist allee with an avenue of trees, Europska avenija (European Avenue) was erected as a continuation of the Sakuntala Park (note 64) which links Donji grad with the baroque Tvrda and Donji grad (once the Roman town Mursa). Secesijska ulica (Secession Road) is truly an exhibition of secessionist architecture, secessionist front gardens and unique fences (Šmit, 1997; Krajnik, Obad Šcitaroci, Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, 2008).
Very few public (city) parks were laid out at the beginning of the 20'h century. Since almost all towns and cities already had public parks and promenades, theses were mostly extended or transformed, or attention was paid to their upkeep. Apart from the secessionist street in Osijek, the most significant achievement of the age was the completion of Lenuci's Horseshoe (figure 7) in Zagreb. The first decade of the 20'h century saw the completion of the western part of the Horseshoe, and the building of the University Library in the manner of the Secession based on an architectonic competition and the landscaping of squares. The secessionist projects for the landscaping of Zagreb's squares ranked Zagreb among other great cities of Central Europe.73
CONCLUSION
Due to its geographical location, the character of Croatian landscape architecture is a combination of southern (Mediterranean, Adriatic) traits and Central Europe traditions. Due to the underlying idea, the period in which they were created and their authenticity in view of the day and age in which they were laid out, the public parks and gardens in Croatia are internationally recognised and autochthonous. They were creatively envisioned and initiated and also shaped urban transformation and evolution at the end of the 19'h and beginning of the 20'h century. The persons responsible for this and the establishment of public parks and promenades in Croatian towns were bishops, bans, military functionaries, majors and prominent citizens, who set up societies for the beautifying of towns. They are credited with the appearance of public parks in Croatia, often even earlier than in other European towns and cities, and wealthier milieus, which became and remain an inseparable and indelible part of the town landscape.
The first public parks and gardens appeared in Croatian towns as early as the mid-18'h century (The Town Park in Osijek, 1750; Maksimir in Zagreb, 1787) - at the same time as they did in European towns and cities. The large majority were created during the 19'h and 20'h century. The first town fortifications were transformed into public parks and promenades at the turn of the 18'h century and the beginning of the 19'h century. When we compare the time at which they were laid out in Croatia and in other European countries, then it is apparent that new ideas were always readily adopted either immediately, or with only a slight delay, after the same had been adopted in other European towns. In addition, European ideas were adapted to local conditions, and especially financial circumstances. However, after the initial idea and the first plans and designs became a reality, there
were often unforeseen difficulties in collecting the substantial funds needed for continuing the upkeep of public parks on a regular basis.
All these public parks are landmarks in the development of towns (they develop towns and help shape a recognisable image of the town); they are public (they are intended for all the town's citizens and accessible to all); they are numerous (there was not one town that did not have at least a number of public parks), and they are expertly and professionally designed and created (and as such represent valuable cultural and historical heritage).
The preserved public parks and gardens in Croatia which are internationally recognised are as follows: Maksimir (end of the 18th and first half of the 19th century) and the Lenuci Horseshoe (a series of parks and squares from the end of the 19th century) in Zagreb, and Opatija as a town of gardens and parks on the north Adriatic (second half of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century). Maksimir is one of the first public parks in Europe; it is laid out over a large area (400 ha) and was designed by skilled Austrian architects and artists. The Lenuci Horseshoe is a representative example of urban planning in Zagreb in the 19th century. It was not raised at the site of a Renaissance-Baroque fortification, as in most other European towns, but was laid out on undeveloped areas of land (meadows and fields) as the expression of an urban idea and design which was not in the interest of private capital and gain, but in the interest of all citizens and in the name of beauty. Opatija is the most beautiful and enlightening example of a Croatian town that has been shaped by gardens and parks that radiate in the spirit of urban landscape architecture.
With hindsight, a century or two ago, Croatian towns could afford to lay out numerous parks, gardens and promenades, squares, forest-parks and groves. Today, these parks in the same towns stand neglected, while new ones are a rarity. Not only were these erstwhile parks (historical parks, from today's viewpoint) numerous, they were also imaginatively and creatively laid out and an integral initiator of urban development. They adhered to existing current trends of the period; they even often appeared only shortly after those in European metropolises - Paris, London, or Vienna. The reason why town parks were created seems to stem from the fact that there was a high degree of awareness and a cultural relation between citizens and towns and the public spaces in towns. In the past, neglected and undeveloped spaces in towns were transformed into public parks and promenades; down the line and in time, this resulted in the establishment of an entire system of public spaces in towns. Today, there are very few new town parks and
73 The National and University Library was built according to a project drawn up by architect Rudolf Lubynskog (1 873-1 935) who received first prize at the architectonic competition in 1909. Construction began in 1911 and was completed in 1913. The library is the most beautiful secessionist building in Croatia. It is situated in the middle of the park square, also done in the secessionist style (Kneževic, 1996; Bojanic Obad Šcitaroci, Obad Šcitaroci, 2004, 150-151).
those that do exist as a historical monument to the past	consideration and the development of new, creative in-
are neglected or have been decimated because of new	terpretations and the sustainable renovation of old parks
construction work.	and gardens.
The public parks from the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century are those that take us back to the itiner-	ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ant cultural conception of town spaces, care for public
spaces, towns and cities and to a harmonious relation We would like to thank our Viennese colleagues,
between public and private interest. All the examples	Professor Walter Krause and Professor Geza Hajos who
of old public parks and gardens in Croatian towns in-	ran the European research project Stadtparkanlagen in
dicate that this harmony was once attainable and at-	den Ländern der ehemaligen K.u.K. Monarchie - in co-
tained; however, it has not been sustained ubiquitously.	operation with whom we carried out our research over a
Be that as it may, what remains of these public parks	number of years, as well as the Ministry of Science and
and gardens should be preserved, not only as histori-	Education of the Republic of Croatia for enabling the
cal heritage, but also as a starting point for present-day	continuation of our research.
javni mestni parki na hrvaškem v 19. stoletju v evropskem kontekstu
Mladen OBAD ŠČITAROCI
Univerza v Zagrebu, Fakulteta za arhitekturo, Kačiceva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Hrvaška e-mail: mos@arhitekt.hr
Bojana BOJANIČ OBAD ŠČITAROCI
Univerza v Zagrebu, Fakulteta za arhitekturo, Kačiceva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Hrvaška e-mail: bbojanic@arhitekt.hr
POVZETEK
Tema članka so javni mestni parki in sprehajališča v mestih, turističnih in zdraviliških krajih na Hrvaškem od 18. stoletja do konca prve svetovne vojne (do 1918). Zaradi svojega geografskega položaja se je na Hrvaškem od zmeraj občutil dvojni kulturni vpliv: z jugozahoda je čez Jadransko morje prihajal iz Italije, a s severozahoda iz Avstrije in Nemčije. Najbolj značilni javni parki na Hrvaškem se primerjajo s podobnimi primeri v evropskih deželah. Za primerjavo se izbirajo javni parki v okolici (Slovenija, Avstrija, Madžarska, Italija), v deželah srednje in zahodne Evrope. Primerjava se primarno izvaja na podlagi kriterija časa (leta) nastanka pri čemer je opazovano obdobje, razdeljeno na časovne odseke, ki približno sovpadajo s stilskimi značilnostmi tega obdobja. Primerjava omogoča spremljanje pojava parkov in njihovih nadaljnjih sprememb v istih časovnih obdobjih v različnih deželah.
Nove ideje o javnih prostorih krajinske arhitekture na Hrvaškem so vedno naletele na plodna tla. Veliko je posameznikov, ki so spodbujali napredne evropske ideje v kontekstu parkovne in urbane kulture, posebej ideje o javnih prostorih v mestu, ki so namenjeni vsem meščanom. Ideje o dvigovanju in urejanju javnih krajinskih prostorov v hrvaških mestih so se rojevale najbolj pogosto istočasno, ali z majhno zamudo, kot v ostalih evropskih mestih. Za evropske prilike se nekateri javni parki na Hrvaškem pojavljajo zelo zgodaj, kot je Maksimir, ki so ga začeli delati že v 18. stoletju kot park, in ki je namenjen vsem meščanom Zagreba. Poleg zgodnjega nastanka Maksimir lahko površino primerjamo z največjimi in najbolj znanimi evropskimi parki - njegova površina je dvakrat večja od londonskega Regents Parka, a polovico je površine Bois de Boulogne v Parizu. Presenetljivo je, da je Zagreb lahko zgradil takšen javni park glede na to, da je sredi 19. stoletja imel samo 15 000 prebivalcev.
Ključne besede: krajinska arhitektura, mestni javni parki, zgodovina urbanizma/načrtovanja mesta
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