GENDER EQUALITY – COMPARISON BETWEEN SLOVENIA AND NORWAY GENDER EQUALITY – COMPARISON BETWEEN SLOVENIA AND NORWAY Issued by: Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Authors: Sonja Robnik and Pia Ažman The publication is available from: http://www.mddsz.gov.si CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 316.346.2(481+497.4)(0.034.2) 342.726(481+497.4)(0.034.2) ROBNIK, Sonja Gender equality [Elektronski vir] : comparison between Slovenia and Norway / [authors Sonja Robnik, Pia Ažman]. - Ljubljana : Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, 2016 ISBN 978-961-6471-35-0 (pdf) 1. Gl. stv. nasl. 2. Ažman, Pia 286891520 The Equal Opportunities Department at the Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities obtained funds from the EEA Financial Mechanism Programme and the Norwegian Financial Mechanism Programme 2009-2014 for the project, Towards Equalizing Power Relations between Women and Men (2013–2016). The project partner was the Norwegian Association of Local and Regional Authorities (KS). The overall aim of the project is to increase understanding of equal/unequal power relations between women and men in order to identify adequate responses to imbalances that persist in a gender-based power structure in society and inequalities between women and men in various areas, particularly in reconciliation of professional and private life, and the balanced representation of women and men in decision-making positions in business and politics. The legislation and statistical data of Norway and Slovenia on the position of women and men in the labour market and decision making in politics and business are compared in this publication. More information about the project can be found at www.mddsz.gov.si (tab Areas of Work/ Equal Opportunities) and on the project’s website, www.uravnotezenost.si. 1 The provider of funds is not responsible for the content of the publication since it presents the views of the project operator. The project, Towards Equalizing Power Relations between Women and Men, is co-financed by the Kingdom of Norway within the Norwegian Financial Mechanism Programme 2009-2014 for Slovenia. TABLE OF CONTENTS Global gender gap index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Gender equality – basic legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Work-life balance and gender equality in parenting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Gender equality in political decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 The balanced distribution of economic power and resources between women and men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Table of contents 4 Norway Slovenia Population 5,223,256 2,064,188 Share of women 49.56 % 50.42 % Share of men 50.26 % 49.58 % Life expectancy Women: 84.15 years Women: 83.68 years Men: 80.36 years Men: 77.97 years Expected healthy life Women: 71.7 years Women: 59.6 years years Men: 68.6 years Men: 57.8 years Fertility rate 1.73 1.58 Surface 385,178 km2 20,273 km2 Capital city Oslo Ljubljana Form of government Parliamentary democracy Democratic republic and constitutional monarchy Constitution 17 May 1814 23 December 1991 Gross domestic product 61,542 USD per capita 31,129 USD per capita Sources: Statistics Norway, Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Eurostat, OECD. Note: The latest available data (2013, 2014 or 2015) are displayed, which cannot be compared directly due to different times of capture. 5 GLOBAL GENDER GAP INDEX On the World Economic Forum scale, which assesses the global gender gap index, Norway ranks second and Slovenia is ninth among 145 countries. Norway is placed first in the world regarding gender equality in the field of economic participation and opportunity and third in the field of political empowerment. Slovenia’s perfor-mance in these fields is also good; it is 16th in the field of political empowerment and 24th in the field of economic participation and opportunity. Global Economic Educational Health Political index participation and opportunity attainment and survival empowerment Norway 0.850 0.868 1.000 0.974 0.559 Slovenia 0.784 0.778 1.000 0.973 0.385 Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2015, World Economic Forum. 0.88 0.85 0.85 0.82 0.81 0.790.790.790.780.780.780.780.780.770.760.760.760.760.750.75 ay y anda venia agua ance IcelandNorw Finland Latvia SwedenIrelandRw erland Slo ealand Fr Namibia Belgium Philippines German Denmark Switz Nicar New Z South Africa the Netherlands the United Kingdom Figure: First twenty countries on the list of the World Economic Forum – Global Gender Gap Index. Source: The Global Gender Gap Report 2015, World Economic Forum. Global gender gap index 6 GENDER EQUALITY – BASIC LEGISLATION Norway passed the Gender Equality Act in 1978 and amended it in 2013. According to the relevant Act, equality means equal status, equal opportunities and rights, accessibility and accommodation. A special objective of the Act is to improve the position of women. The Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender, which also includes discrimination on the basis of pregnancy and leave from work in connection with childbirth or adoption. The prohibition also applies to discrimination on the basis of a person’s actual, assumed, former or future pregnancy or leave and also refers to a person with whom the person who is discriminated against has a connection. Among other things, the Act also governs: ● prohibition of harassment on the basis of gender and sexual harassment, and urges ma-nagements of organisations and educational institutions to act preventively; ● binds public authorities, employees and employers’ organisations to make active, targeted and systematic efforts to promote gender equality; ● the balanced participation of both genders on all public committees, governing boards, councils, boards, delegations etc.; – if a committee has two or three members, both genders must be represented; if the committee has four or five members, each gender must be represented by at least two members; if the committee has six to eight members, each gender must be represented by at least three members; if the committee has nine or more members, each gender must be represented by at least 40 per cent of members; – the above provision also refers to the appointment of deputy members; – exemptions are possible in the event of special circumstances in which it is unreasona-ble to meet the requirements; ● determines additional rules that apply to the labour market2: – the prohibition of discrimination also applies to the announcement of a job vacancy, appointment, reassignment and promotion, training and skills development, pay and working conditions, and the cessation of employment relationships; – the prohibition of collecting information about pregnancy, adoption or plans to have children; – equal pay for the same work or work of equal value; ● in connection with parental leave, workers have the right to: – return to the same, or a corresponding, position, 2 Slovenia regulates this field with the Employment Relationship Act – the key legislative provisions on the equality of both genders in the labour market comply with those in the Norwegian legislation. Gender equality – basic legislation 7 – benefit from improvements in working conditions to which the worker would otherwise have been entitled during their absence, and – make pay claims and be assessed in pay negotiations in the same way as other workers in an undertaking. Slovenia passed the Equal Opportunities for Woman and Men Act in 2002, and amended it in 2007 and 2016. According to this Act, gender equality means that women and men parti-cipate equally in all fields of public and private life and have equal status, equal opportunities to exercise all rights and to develop their personal potential, whereby they contribute to social development and equally benefit from the results of development. Inter alia, the Act governs: ● the definition of non-balanced gender representation: – when the representation of one gender in a specific field of social life or in part of such a field is lower than 40 per cent; ● special measures: – which remove objective obstacles that cause unbalanced representation of women and men or unequal status of persons of one gender or afford special benefits in the form of incentives to the under-represented gender or the gender experiencing unequal status; ● tasks of the Government and ministries: – when preparing regulations and other measures that apply in fields which are relevant to establishing equal opportunities, ministries must consider the gender equality perspective; – ministries must appoint co-ordinators for equal opportunities for women and men; ● tasks of local communities: – promote and establish equal opportunities and consider the gender equality perspective with regard to the adoption of measures and activities needed to ensure equal opportunities; – may appoint co-ordinators for equal opportunities; ● tasks of political parties: – must adopt a plan every four years in which they take a position on the issue of the balanced representation of women and men. Employment rate, 20–64 years Women Men EU-28 64.3 % 75.9 % Slovenia 64.7 % 75.3 % Norway 76.7 % 81.3 % Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey, 2015. Part-time employment rate, 20–64 years Women Men EU-28 32.1 % 8.9 % Slovenia 13.7 % 7.0 % Norway 38.4 % 14.8 % Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey, 2015. 8 Gender Equality – Comparison between Slovenia and Norway Employment rate of people Employment rate of people aged 25–49 Employment aged 25–49 without children with one child under the age of 6 rate Women Men Women Men EU-28 77.6% 79.3% 69.5% 90.5% Slovenia 74.9% 80.1% 79.2% 94.4% Norway N/A N/A N/A N/A Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey, 2015. Wage gap EU-28 16.1% Slovenia 2.9% Norway 14.9% Source: Eurostat, 2014. Unemployment rate (as per working age population) Women Men EU-28 9.5% 9.3% Slovenia 10.1% 8.1% Norway 4.0% 4.7% Source: Eurostat, 2015. Share of women and men with tertiary education (aged 30–34) Women Men EU-28 43.4% 34.0% Slovenia 56.4% 32.0% Norway 60.9% 41.5% Source: Eurostat, 2015. Share of women among tertiary students EU-28 54.9% Slovenia 57.7% Norway 60.1% Source: Eurostat, 2012. Share of female students in science, mathematics and computing EU-28 37.3% Slovenia 41.0% Norway 34.6% Source: Eurostat, 2012. Gender equality – basic legislation 9 Share of female students in engineering, manufacturing and construction EU-28 25.1% Slovenia 25.1% Norway 26.7% Source: Eurostat, 2012. 10 Gender Equality – Comparison between Slovenia and Norway WORK-LIFE BALANCE AND GENDER EQUALITY IN PARENTING Norway governs issues of parental protection with the Working Environment Act from 2005 (amended in 2013). The Act determines that a pregnant employee is entitled to a leave of absence with pay in connection with prenatal examinations if such examinations cannot reasonably take place outside working hours. A pregnant employee is entitled to leave of absence for up to twelve weeks during pregnancy. Parents are entitled to 49 weeks of paid parental leave, of which three weeks before the birth are intended only for the mother. Following the birth, ten weeks of leave of absence are intended for the mother and ten for the father, and the parents may divide among themselves the remaining 26 weeks. The sharing of parental leave has been possible in Norway since 1974. The number of days intended for a child’s illness is limited in Norway: an employee is entitled to a maximum of 10 days’ leave of absence per calendar year until the child’s twelfth birthday or a maximum of 15 days if the employee has two or more children in his or her care. If a child has a chronic or long-term illness or disability, the employee is entitled to a maximum of 20 days’ leave of absence. If an employee has sole responsibility for the care of a child, they are entitled to twice the number of days of leave. Slovenia addresses the matter of parental leave with the Parental Protection and Family Benefits Act and the Employment Relationship Act. Maternity leave normally commences 28 days before the expected date of childbirth for a period of 105 days. Paternity leave with benefit is 15 calendar days or 11 working days, 50 calendar days (35 working days) with the payment of social security contributions and five calendar days with benefits from the end of parental leave until the child completes the first grade of primary school. Others who actually nurse or care for a child immediately after its birth are also entitled to parental leave (other person and mother’s spouse, cohabiting partner or a partner in a registered civil partnership). Parental leave is intended for a mother and father for a period of 130 days for each parent (total of 260 days). The mother may transfer 100 days of parental leave to the father, while 30 days are non-transferable and may only be used by the mother (the father may use 230 days at most and 260 days only exceptionally). The father may transfer to the mother his 130 days of parental leave (the mother may use all 260 days). Parental leave is extended in the case of birth of twins or several children, a premature infant or a child who needs special care. The number of days intended for a child’s illness in Slovenia is limited according to the individual case (and not annually), i.e. to no more than seven working days (and up to 15 working days for children under 7 or older children with a moderate, severe or profound mental and physical handicap). The right to compensation may be extended to 30 working days for care of a child under the age of 7 or an older child with a moderate, severe or profound mental and physical handicap when this is necessary due to the medical condition of the child. Absence due to child’s illness may be extended exceptionally up to six months (e.g. sudden worsening of the child’s health). Work-life balance and gender equality in parenting 11 Part-time employment (share in total employment; aged 15–64) Women Men EU-28 32.4% 8.9% Slovenia 13.2% 6.2% Norway 38.9% 15.3% Source: Eurostat, 2016 (1/4). Reason for part-time employment is provision of care for children or disabled adults (aged 15–64) Women Men EU-28 27.2% 4.4% Slovenia 14.9% 6.2% Norway *12.4% No data available *Low data reliability. Source: Eurostat, Labour Force Survey, 2015. Time spent in unpaid work (per day) Women Men OECD-26 272 minutes 138 minutes Slovenia 286 minutes 166 minutes Norway 211 minutes 162 minutes Source: OECD, 2010. Number/share of fathers Slovenia Norway who used their right Child- Share of fathers who to paternity leave or Up to Over care used full paternal child-care leave 15 days 15 days leave quota or more 2004 12,667 / ND 2013 68.5% 2010 18,042 3,734 1,415 2014 68.2% 2015 16,374 2,890 1,315 / - the right has not been in force yet // ND - no data. Source: MDDSZ, Statistics Norway. Share of children attending From the age of 3 early childhood education Up to the age of 3 to admission to primary and care school EU-28 28% 83% Slovenia 37% 90% Norway 55% 91% Source: Eurostat, 2014. 12 Gender Equality – Comparison between Slovenia and Norway GENDER EQUALITY IN POLITICAL DECISION- MAKING In Norway, women were granted voting rights in 1913; Norway was the first independent country in the world to enact women’s suffrage1. In Slovenia, female inhabitants of Ljubljana were able to vote in 1911; women living in Slovenian national territory which came under Austrian rule after 1920 were granted voting rights in 1920.2 Universal suffrage was finally enacted in Slovenia, then part of Yugoslavia, in 1945. In Norway, women obtained a one-third share in national politics already in the 1980s; unlike in the majority of other countries, this was achieved without the implementation of a legally required minimum share of each gender or so-called quota at the national level. However, quotas were adopted by Norwegian political parties, but only after women had already been intensively involved in politics (Socialist Left Party in 1975; Norwegian Labour Party in 1983; Centre Party in 1989 and Christian People’s Party in 1993)3. Unlike Norway, Slovenia is a country where the share of women in politics at the national and local level did not even come close to balanced representation, i.e. at least 40-per cent participation of women and men, until the implementation of a legally prescribed minimum share of each gender on electoral lists. This legislation (2004) was first applied during elections of Members of the European Parliament, and balanced representation has thus been achieved already in the first elections. The Act requires the balanced representation of both genders on electoral lists, and at least one woman and one man had to be placed in the upper half of the list. The legislation governing local elections (2005) determines that candidates must be selected in such a way that each gender is allocated at least 40 per cent of candidacies when a political party or voters in a constituency propose more than one person, and must be positioned in the first half of the list alternately by gender. If there are three candidates on the list, at least one person of each gender must be on the list. This provision came into force gradually; a 20-per cent share was applied in the first local elections after the passage of the Act, and a 30-per cent share in the second elections. Thus it was only in the local election in 2014 that the balanced representation of genders was ensured on electoral lists for the first time. From the viewpoint of the balanced representation of women and men in Slovenia, the legislation on the elections of deputies to the National Assembly was amended in 2006, sti-pulating that neither gender on the electoral list could be represented with less than 35 per cent of the total actual number of candidates on the list. If there are three candidates on the list, at least one person of each gender must be on the list. Since the implementation of the mandatory minimum gender quota on electoral lists, the share of female deputies in the Slovenian Parliament increased by about three times. 3 100 Year of Democracy for Women in Norway. Published at www.tnp.no (9 September 2013) 4 Aleš Žužek. V Ljubljani so liberalci napadli ženske, ki so prišle na volišče (Liberals attacked women who came to the polls in Ljubljana.). Published at www.siol.net (23 April 2015) 5 Global Database of Quotas for Women. Published at http://www.quotaproject.org/. Gender equality in political decision-making 13 Participation of Share Share women in national Bureau Female Male of female of male parliaments members members members members EU-28 9 W, 19 M 2,029 5,116 28% 72% Slovenia Men 31 59 34% 66% Norway Men 67 102 40% 60% Source: European Commission Database, 2016. Participation of Share Share women on national Bureau Female Male of female of male councils councillors councillors councillors councillors EU-28 3 W, 10 M 660 1,799 27% 73% Slovenia Men 3 37 8% 92% Norway / / / / / Source: European Commission Database, 2016. Participation Mayors Share Male and female councillors Share of women in local politics Number Number Number of women of men Women Men Number of women of men Women Men EU-28 10,765 60,698 15% 85% 323,673 584,836 36% 64% Slovenia 16 196 8% 92% 1,069 2,296 32% 68% Norway 96 333 22% 78% 4,115 6,670 38% 62% Source: European Commission Database, 2015. Leaders Presidents Vice-presidents of political Number Number Share Share Number Number Share Share parties of women of men of women of men of women of men of women of men EU-28 24 118 17% 83% 58 121 32% 68% Slovenia 1 4 20% 80% 4 6 40% 60% Norway 3 3 50% 50% 3 4 43% 57% Source: European Commission Database, 2015. Women’s representation Number Level 1 Level 2 in decision-making positions of Share Share Share Share in state administration ministries of women of men of women of men EU-28 431 34% 66% 40% 60% Slovenia 17 53% 47% 61% 39% Norway 16 39% 61% 40% 60% *Level 1: high-level official posts at ministries. Level 2: mid-level official posts at ministries. Source: European Commission Database, 2015. 14 Gender Equality – Comparison between Slovenia and Norway THE BALANCED DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC POWER AND RESOURCES BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN Norway enacted a minimum corporate board gender quota; the Act was passed in 2003 and implemented gradually. However, Norway did not pass such legislation hastily; the first government bill was drafted in 1999 and anticipated at least 25-per cent representation of each gender. The Act of 2003 first applied to companies owned by the state or municipalities (2004), and then to newly-established public limited companies (2006), and later to existing public limited companies (2008) and municipal and cooperative companies (2009). The Act now requires 40-per cent participation of women and men on corporate boards. The legislation includes detailed rules on the number of representatives of each gender if 40-per cent participation is not possible: – if a board has there two or three members, both genders should be represented; – if a board has four or five members, both genders should be represented by at least two members; – if a board has six to eight members, both genders should be represented by at least three members; – if a board has nine or more members, the membership should be comprised of at least 40 per cent men and 40 per cent women6. The Act anticipates severe sanctions, including the liquidation of a company. In the field of balanced gender representation in decision-making positions in business, Slovenia has no (yet) legislation which prescribes a minimum share of both genders7. The general act on gender equality (Equal Opportunities for Women and Men Act of 2002) determines that when appointing or proposing governmental representatives in public corporations or other bodies governed by public law, the Government must observe the principle of balanced representation of both genders, except when this is not possible for objective reasons. 6 Mari Teigen. 2010. Gender Quotas for Corporative Boards in Norway: Innovative Gender Equality Policy. In: Colette Fagan, Maria C. Gonzales Menendez and Slivia Gomez Anson (eds.). Women on Corporate Boards and in Top Management. European Trends and Policy. 7 As this publication was being drafted, a special working group was preparing a draft act to regulate this field. The balanced distribution of economic power and resources between women and men 15 General male direc- Women’s Number tor/female director Executive function Non-executive function representation of in business companies Share of Share Share of Share Share of Share women of men women of men women of men EU-28 615 4% 96% 15% 85% 25% 75% Slovenia 20 10% 90% 23% 77% 21% 79% Norway 21 0% 100% 17% 83% 39% 61% Source: European Commission Database, 2015. Equal gender representation is not important only in political decision-making or decision- -making in business. The share of women and men in many other decision-making positions is also an important indicator of the level of democracy in a society. The latest data available on the representation of women and men in positions of supreme court presidents and decision-making positions of public service radio and television are presented below. Representation of Bureau Membership women and men in Number of Number of Share of Share of supreme courts women men women men EU-28 8 20 39% 61% Slovenia 0 1 38% 62% Norway 0 1 35% 65% Source: European Commission Database, 2015. Representation of women Bureau Management and men in leading positi- Number Number Number Number Share Share ons of public service of of of of of of radio and television women men women men women men EU-28 9 39 136 299 31% 69% Slovenia 0 1 4 7 36% 64% Norway 0 1 4 4 50% 50% Source: European Commission, 2015. Representation of women Works councils and men on the works councils of the public service Number of Number of Share of Share of radio and television women men women men EU-28 6 14 30% 70% Slovenia 2 0 100% 0% Norway 1 2 33% 67% Source: European Commission, 2015. 16 Gender Equality – Comparison between Slovenia and Norway Representation of CEOs Executive Non-executive women and men in positions positions executive and non- executive positions men men men in public service men men men radio and television Number of men of men of men of wo Number Share of wo Number of wo Number Share of wo Number of wo Number Share of wo EU-28 5 44 10% 116 235 33% 126 266 32% Slovenia 0 1 0% 5 4 56% 2 7 22% Norway 0 1 0% 3 6 33% 3 2 60% Source: European Commission, 2015. Representation of Bureau Membership women and men in independent regulatory Number Number Number Number Share Share bodies in public service of of of of of of men radio and television women men women men women EU-28 9 26 88 179 33% 67% Slovenia 0 1 0 7 0% 100% Norway 0 1 2 4 33% 67% Source: European Commission, 2015. The balanced distribution of economic power and resources between women and men 17 Through the Norway Grants and EEA Grants, Norway contributes to reducing social and economic disparities and to strengthening bilateral relationships with beneficiary countries in Europe. Norway cooperates closely with the European Union through the Agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA). For the period 2009-14, Norway’s contribution is €1.7 billion. Grants are available for non- -governmental organisations, research and academic institutions, and the public and private sectors in twelve newest EU member States, Greece, Portugal and Spain. There is broad cooperation with Norwegian entities, and activities may be implemented until 2016. Key areas of support are environmental protection and climate change, research and scho-larships, civil society, health and children, gender equality, justice and cultural heritage. More information on the Norwegian Financial Mechanism Programme 2009-2014 is available at www.norwaygrants.si and www.norwaygrants.org. 18 Gender Equality – Comparison between Slovenia and Norway