Frančiška Trobevšek-Drobnak 
Ljubljana 
CDU 802.0-022: 801.56-2 OROSIUS 
EXPANDED TENSES IN THE OLD ENGLISH OROSIUS: 
A SYNTACTIC STRENGTHENING* 
2.1. EXPANDED TENSES 
2.1.1. The present chapter reports the investigation into certain aspects of the 
periphrastic construction to be + present participle (e.g. NE: "he is teaching"; OE. 
"he is laerende") viewed as an example of a syntactic strengthening. The construc-
tion is usually referred to as "continuous tenses/form" or "progressive tenses/form", 
whereas Nickel (1966) uses "expanded form". Coming closest to this latter term, the 
"expanded tenses" employed bere seems a convenient label for two reasons: 
a) the use of expanded tenses is not restricted to the expression of verbal aspect 
(Aspekt) or mode of verbal action (Aktionsart), which is implied by the use of either 
the term "continuous tenses/form" or the term "progressive tenses/form"; 
b) the expanded tenses are integrated into the English tense system, in the sense 
that they can be substituted with the respective non-expanded tenses without any 
change in the syntax of the clause, e.g.: 
NE: "he is teaching in the temple" : "he teaches in the temple" 
OE: "he is laerende in temple" "he laerel> in temple" 
In other words, we exclude constructions of the type "he is interesting" (with 
the participle having adjectival function) or "he is in the temple teaching" (with the 
participle acting as a weakened syntactic variant of the latter· of the two implied 
clauses, "he is in the temple" and "he is teaching"). 
2.1.2. The assumption that Old English expanded tenses were felt as a syntactic 
strengthening can most easily be understood if they are compared with the corres-
ponding non-expanded tenses: 
a) the form of the expanded tenses is more elaborate than the form of the non-
-expanded tenses; 
• The present paper summarizes the author's M.A. thesis "SYNTACTIC CHANGE. English expanded 
tenses". The M.A. thesis was written under the supervision of Professor Janez Orešnik during the 
author's M.A. studies at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana. It was defended at the same faculty on 
December 28, 1987. 
13 
b) from the speaker's point of view, the expanded tenses are less economical 
than the non-expanded terises; 
c) from the hearer's point of view, the expanded tenses are easier to decode 
than the non-expanded tenses. 
The expanded tenses are here viewed as due to the linguistic tendency to render 
communication clearer and more predse, which agrees with the definition of the 
term "strengthening" in Orešnik et al. (in the present volume). The following predic-
tions can be derived from the assumptions stated above: 
a) that the development of expanded tenses in Old English followed the course 
outlined for "strengthenings" in Orešnik et al. (in the present volume); 
b) that on the synchronic leve! expanded tenses act as a strengthened construc-
tion vis-a-vis non-expanded tenses, in terms of form, meaning and frequency. 
2.1.3. The construction composed of to be + presen/ participle, as well as the 
combinations of other copulas with participles, gerunds and agent nouns, were 
known to Hittite, Avestan and Old Indian, to Old Greek and Latin, and they are 
commonly used in modem Spanish, Italian and English. Although the actual usage 
differs from language to language, such constructions are not alien to any Indo-
-European language (Mosse 1938, I, 1-18; Nicke! 1966, 59-82).1 
2.1.4. Expanded tenses (the periphrastic construction beonlwesan + present 
participle ending in -ende) can be found in the oldest extant Old English manuscripts. 
While infrequent in the so-called "pagan poetry" (only four instances in Beowulf, 
ed. Klaeber 1950), they are relatively frequent in texts translated from Latin . Mosse 
went as far as to ascribe to the influence of Latin, in which such constructions were 
quite common, the introduction of expanded tenses into the Old English language: 
"Quelles que soient leur nature, leur dates et leur origine, poesie ou prose, tra-
ductions ou originaux, tous les textes du vieil anglais nous ont donnes des 
clercs, c'est-a-dire des lettres qui tous savaient le latin." (Mosse 1938, 1, 53-54). 
Nicke! dismissed this interpretation (1966, 83-207). He compared the Old 
English translations with the respective Latin originals and found no correlation 
between the use of expanded tenses in Old English and of corresponding construc-
tions in the originals, although word-to-word translations often obscure the real fre-
quency of expanded tenses in Old English. 
1 In some languages this construction exists merely as a potential option (Slovene "bil sem pojoč"), in 
other languages it occurs as a strengthened variant of usually imperfective verbal constructions (Spa-
nish "Juan estaba llegando" vs. "Juan llegaba") or else it conveys the meaning of a specific grammati-
cal category within the verbal paradigm. In this last instance, its usage is regularized and does not dis-
play the behaviour of strengthened syntactic variants. 
14 
Mosse saw another reason for the use of expanded tenses in Old English in the 
disappearance of the old Germanic system of verbal aspects.2 Due to the implicit du-
rative value of the present participle, expanded tenses, according to Mosse, were 
used to express the imperfective verbal aspect. Mosse, however, failed to explain the 
surprisingly high incidence of expanded tenses in identical contexts and situations to 
those where non-expanded tenses are used. That incidence made Nickel disagree 
with Mosse. The present author, however, believes that Mosse's point of view is 
valid for the following reasons: -
a) geographically, expanded tenses spread in the direction in which the former 
system of verbal aspects disappeared, i.e. from the north towards the south of 
England (Mosse 1938, II, 1-38); 
.. :.> 
- -. 
b) the use of expanded tenses in Old English gained grounds especially after, the 
year 1200, when the prefix ge-, formerly marking perfectiveness, disappea(-ed even · 
from the southern dialects (Mosse ibid.); - · 
c) according to CONSTRUCTIONAL ICONISM (Mayerthaler i~-8(>): -- a lan-
guage tends to express marked categories with markful forms. From this point of 
view, the prefixation of verbs with ge- to express some mode of ac'ti9n ·(Aktionsart) 
would be "normal" (stable). Once the prefix had !ost its lexical meaning·andJ)egan c -
to denote perfective verbal aspect (Aspect) instead of the mode of actforf.(Aktion-
sart), the situation was reversed: a markful form was used to expresS"Cln:um:harked 
category. This "anomaly" led to the weakening of the prefix until verb pairs $uch as' 
"feohtan" and "gefeohtan" became interchangeable. The ensuing systemjc instabi-
lity (absence of aspectual distinction) led to a further syntactic change (i.e. to the as--
sertion of expanded tenses in the verbal paradigm). This speculation deserves 
further exploration. · .- .. _·· • ' · 
2.1.5. The origin of English expanded tenses is irrelevant from the standpoint 
of our working hypothesis. It hardly matters which one of the numerousfactors (the 
influence of Latin, the disappearance of the former system of verbal aŠpecf, ihe ana-
logy with constructions such as beonlwesan + agent nouns -end ofgerund) played 
the main role. On the basis of the theory propounded in Orešnik et al. (in jhe present 
volume) we asume, · 
a) that at a given period of tirne and under given circumstances the existing ver-
bal paradigm was felt as insufficient and a new "stronger" element of the paradigm 
was called for and eventually added (i.e. expanded tenses); 
2 In the present report verbal aspect (Aspekt) refers solely to the dichotomy of verbs viewing a situation 
from the standpoint of its interna) structure (imperfective aspect). The mode of ver bal action (Aktionsart) 
refers to the stage (phase) of action which is brought into focus (ingressive, perfective, resultative, 
progressive etc.). 
15 
b) that expanded tenses initially asserted themselves under relatively complex 
grammatical conditions, in a complex environment. 
Eventually, the expanded tenses began to express "marked information" only, 
whereby their usage became regularized. This part of the development was due to 
the dissimilation of the expanded tenses vis-a-vis the non-expanded tenses. 
2.2. THE ANAL YSIS OF THE OROSIUS 
2.2.1. The working hypothesis stated in Orešnik et al. (in the present volume) 
has been tested on the Old English expanded tenses in King Alfred's Old English 
translation of the Latin work "Historiarum Adversum Paganos". · 
1he author of the original, a Spanish monastic Orosius, was induced by the 
African bishop St. Augustine to write a history of the World, from the creation to 
A.D. 416, upon Christian principles, to show "the real origin of the misery of the 
World" (Bosworth 1859, iv). 
According to Asser (Wise 1772), Alfred began to translate from Latin' into Old 
English in 887, Orosius being his third translation finished probaly about the year 
890. The translation is rather free. Not only did Afred omit what he deemed of little 
importance, he also added his own remarks and observations and inserted original 
instructive essays (the descriptions of Europe, the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, 
etc.). 
The choice of this work for analysis was dictated by the independence of the 
translation and by the relatively high frequency of expanded tenses in it (Mosse 
1938, 1, 75-76). The syntactic independence of the translation seemed of particular 
importance; of 237 instances of expanded tenses in the Old English version, 53 cor-
respond to non-expanded (simple) tenses in the original text (Mosse. 1938, 66), and 
as many as 78 have no proper equivalent in the Latin original (Nickel 1966, 112). 
2.2.2. Our -investigation of the Orosius involves · the comparison of two 
samples, the basic sample and the control sample. The basic sample consists of 237 
clauses containing instances of expanded tenses in the edition (Sweet 1883, repr. 
1956). The control sample consists of 855 randomly chosen clauses containing in-
stances of non-expanded tenses in the edition (every third clause on every third page 
of the edition has been analyzed). The relative density of the control sample was dic-
tated by the stylistic and syntactic unevenness of the text. 
The clauses thus identified have been analyzed in terms of their type and proposi-
tional modality; the verbal phrases contained in those clauses have been analyzed as 
to tense, mood, number and transitivity. The choice of parameters just mentioned 
16 
was dictated by the properties of the basic sample (e.g. person and voice are not in-
chided since tbe basic sample does not contain any instances of non-tbird persons or 
of non-active voice). Tbe analysis of tbe clauses provides some (partial) information 
about bow complex tbe conditions are under wbicb (non-)expanded tenses occur in 
Orosius. To calculate the probability that a given parameter assumes its marked 
value in tbe expanded and non-expanded tenses, tbe following formula bas been used: 
For the working bypotbesis to be confirmed, tbe probability rates of favourable 
events must be bigber in tbe basic sample than in the control sample: 
Tbe index wbicb sbows whetber the difference bettween any two compared pro-
bability rates is statistically significant, bas been calculated witb tbe aid of tbe 
formula: 
sd (standard deviation) being, 
X Q (n(a) + n(b»5 
n(a) x n(b) 
Two probability rates are statistically significantly different if tbe value of tbe 
index Id exceeds 2 (Pavlič 1985). 
In a given clause, some parameters may assume a marked value and otbers not. 
We predict tbat tbe probability for more parameters to assume a matked value will 
be bigber in tbe sample of expanded tenses tban in tbe sample of non-expanded ten-
ses. Tbis "cumulative markedness" bas been calculated witb the.belp of the median 
and quartiles.6 · 
3 a = favourabe event in the basic sample, in our case the presence of the more complex (marked) form 
of a parameter (e.g. preterite instead of present); 
P(a) = probability of favourable event 
n(a) = total number of favourable events 
n = total number of ali possible events 
4 b(a) = favourable event in the control sample (i.e. the presence of the marked form a parameter) 
P = mean probability rate; 
lf=l-P 
6 median = the value below and above which 50 Ofo of the observed values are distributed; 
quartile = the first (third) quartile is the value under which 25-0fo (75 Ofo) of ali the observed values are 
distributed. 
17 
Furthermore, we have calculated the arithmetical mean of the probability rates 
in both samples. For our hypothesis to be confirmed, the arithmetical mean of the 
probability rates of favourable events must be higher in the basic sample than in the 
control sample. 
2.2. THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND RESULTS7 
2.3.1. The analysis of the clauses contained in the basic sample8 
2/25 waeron winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: had wars, warred 
3/32 waes giernende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: affected, was desirous 
617 waes sprecende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: said, was speaking 
8/15 is irnende 
C: ambiguous+; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
Ne.: takes its source, takes its source 
12/22 sie irnende 
C: sub. +; pres.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: flows, flows running 
7 This section contains the grammatical analysis of the clauses contained in the basic sample (a similar 
analysis of the clauses contained in the control sample is not repeated herc for reasons of economy) 
followed by the results of the statistical work. 
8 For brevity sake, not whole clauses, but only their expanded tenses are quoted; the figure introducing 
each example indicates the page and the line (of the edition) in which the instance of the expanded 
tense occurs. 
C = type of clause and propositional modality; T = tense; M = mood; A = aspect; Tr = transitivity; 
N = number; 
m = main clause, sub. = subordinate clause; + = affirmative propositional modality, - =negative 
propositional modality,? = interrogative propositional modality; pret. = preterite; pres. = present; 
subj. = subjunctive; ind. = indicative mood; imp. = imperfective aspect; perf. = perfective aspect; 
intran. = intransitive, gen. = with genitive, dat. = with dative; acc. = with accusative; prep = with 
prepositional object; obj.c. = with object clause; pl. = plural; sg. = singular; 
NE. = the Modem English translation of the expanded tense taken from Barrington's (1773) and 
Thorpe's (1873) translations of Orosius into Moden! English. Both translations are quoted in Nickel 
(1966, 330-351). In matters of aspect, Nickel's. judgement has been followed (1966, ibid). 
18 
\ 
12/23 sie flowende 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: proceeds, flows up 
12/26 is irnende 
C: m+; T: pres.; M: ind.; A.: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: runs, runs 
12/35 bijj/owende 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: is spread, is flowing 
14/32 is irnende 
C: m +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: runs, runs 
19/34 waes yrnende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: being under sail, was running 
28/28 waes heriende7feohtende 
C: m +; T:B pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: committed devastations, committed devastations 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued to carry on wars, carried on war 
3015 onwinnende waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: by ... making war, by ... making war 
30/ l 2 waes feohtende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing . . 
NE.: was attacking, was fighting 
30/ l 7 waes dreogende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued, carried on 
30/19 waes feohtende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: attacked, made war on 
19 
30/21 waes wilniende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c·~; N: sing. 
NE.: was desirous, was desirous 
30/27 f remmende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: wished to prostitute, was ... perpertrating 
32/38 waes brucende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: were enjoying, was enjoying 
32/11 waes standende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: a flood covered, was standing 
32/29 waeran singende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: give this accountj thus sang 
34/ 16 waes secgende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr.: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: say, says 
36/31 pinnende waeron 
C: ambiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: pained, were pained 
38/7 waeron berstende 7 ( ... ) utsionde 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: burned, burst 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: issued, issued 
38/12 sceorfende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: destroyed, gnawed off 
38/22 waes aefterfy/gende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: determined to pursue, was ... following 
20 
38/35 gongende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intra.; N: pl. . 
NE.: passed, passed 
40/26 donde waeron 
C: ambiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: guilty of.. .murders, were enacting„ .such murders 
40/32 winnende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: made wars, made war 
42/6 donde waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: which befell them, that they did 
42/31 waeron winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: wars, warred 
42/33 beon feohtende 
C: infinitive, A: imp.; Tr: prep. 
NE.: fighting, fighting 
44/ 4 waes winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: carried on a war, carried on a war 
4416 waes farende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: marched, marched 
44/16 aefterfylgende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: .pursued, pursued 
44/19 waeron heriende 7 westende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued to ... plunder, were plunderin~ 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued to„.plunder, were ravaging 
21 
:44/27 winnende waeron 
C: .m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
;NE.: continued, carried on war 
4615 winnende waeron 7 („ .) sleande 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: carrying on the war, carried on the war 
C: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: put them to death, slew 
48/10 wendende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: governed, turned 
48/23 biddende sindon 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep./gen.; N: pl. 
NE.: was now obliged, was„.begging 
50/3 donde waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: spread such devastations, when„.did„.evil 
50/13 sittende waeron 7 feohtende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued the siege, were„.investing 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued, were fighting 
50118 dreogende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: happened, -
50/23 waes aefterfylgende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: ensued, ensued 
54/1 iernende lwaeronl 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: hasted, running 
5419 waes f orsacende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: perf.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: renounced, destroyed 
22 
54/18 waes cwielmende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: oppressed, destroyed 
54122 donde waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: in tormenting, he was inflicting 
54126 prowiende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: -, were suffering 
56/1 waere donde 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: were ... doing evils, -
56/8 winnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: happened the wars, carried on war 
56/11 waeron winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: made incursions, made war 
56/15 winnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr.: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: were at war, were at war 
56126 sittende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: whilst. .. beseiged, should beseige 
58/ 4 dreogende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued at war, suffered 
58/ 17 wrecende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: shewed his wrath, avenged it 
58/30 ricsiende sindon 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: continues, are stili ruling 
23 
62/30 ricsiende sindon 
C: m +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: continue, are now yet ruling 
6412 settende is 7 wendende 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: continues to do, yet establishes 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: continues, turns 
64/8 libbende waeran 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: l'ersisted, were living 
64/11 powiende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: served, served 
64/24 stel/ende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: shewed, set 
66/1 iernende waeron 
C; sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: ran, ran 
6612 waeron f eallende 7 biddende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: falling, fell 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: pl. 
NE:: intreated, intreated 
66/18 /Joliende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: suffered, were suffering 
66/21 winnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued their attacks, continued the war 
66/23 winnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: warred, warred 
24 
68/31 dreogende waes 
C: suh.+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: after he had been carrying, which he had heen carrying 
70/1 ondraedende waeron 
C: m +; T: preet.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: alarmed, dreaded 
70/ 11 brociende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued to afflict, continued to afflict 
72/2 waeron wuniende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: was ... resident, dwelt 
74/3 is irnende 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: runs, runs 
74/6 farende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: pas!!ing, proceeded 
74/18 is irnende 
C: suh.+; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: is running, runs 
74/25 sprecende sie 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M. subj.; A: imp.; Tr: prep_~; N: sing. 
NE.: addresses, as if it were speaking 
74/33 waes aefterfylgende 
C: m +; T: pr.et.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: whilst. .. were behind, while ... was following 
76/2 ishr.eosende 
C: sub. +; T pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing, 
NE.: are„.decaying, are falling 
76/5 wenende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: ob.c.; N: sing. 
NE.:-, imagined 
25 
76/5 fleonde waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.:-, were fleing 
. 76/18 drincende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: drank, drank 
76/20 waes farende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: marched, went 
76/21 wunniende waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: was dwelling, was staying 
76/24 /iencende waes 
C: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep./obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: bethought herself, was ... thinking 
76/28 farende waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: was flying, were fleeing 
76/30 waes aefterfy/gende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: whilst. .. were behind, while„.was following 
76/33 pyrstende waere 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: ten.; N: sing. 
NE.: hast been thirsting, hast been thirsting 
80/25 feohtende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: groaning, was ... groaning 
80/34 waes sprecende 7 geormiende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: addressed, was speaking 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: groaning, was groaning 
26 
82/7 waes wi/niende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: flattered himself, was„.desirous 
, 
82/12 jeohtende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.:-,-
82/21 bidde(nde) waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: prevailed, besought 
82/26 fleonde waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: fled, took to flight 
82/29 waes laerende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: advised, advised 
84/9 waes ondraedende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.:-,-
84/9 waeren aejterjylgende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: being in pursuit, were in pursuit 
84/ 14 waes biddende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: was now obliged, was„.begging 
84/ 17 f arende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: the fleet, in which they had been faring 
84/33 sprecend(e) waes 
C: sub +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: spoke, said 
86/23 birnende waere 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N:· sing. 
NE.: as if on fire were burning 
27 
86/30 winnende waeron 
C: m +; pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: made war, made war 
88/ 11 waes cwaciende 7 berstende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued to quake, quaked 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued to hurst, hurst 
88/20 waes on teonde 
C: amhiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat./acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: arrogated, would arrogate 
88/21 gepafiende naeren 
C: suh.-; T: pret.; M: suhj.; A: imp.; Tr: gen./dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: allowed, would not concende 
88/22 winnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.:-,-
88/26 wergende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: hanished, defended 
90/8 winnende waeron 
C: suh.+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: had perpetual wars, had ... warred 
90/10 winnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: were at war, made war 
90/18 dreogende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued, carried on 
92/14 waeron aefterfylgende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: pursued, followed 
28 
92/ 15 waeron hergende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: devastation, ravaged 
92/16 waeron sleande 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: ac.; N: pl. 
NE.: it was filled with every kind of devastation, slaughter 
94/1 naeron hergende 
C: m-; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: plundered, were plundering 
9212 waeron hergende 7 (. „) baernende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: ransacked the city, were ... ravaging 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: ransacked, were burning 
94/9 waeron wilniende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: pl. 
NE.: eh ose, were ... desirous 
94/29 giddende sindon 
C: sub. +; T: pres.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: panegyrics, sing 
98/16 waeron ondraedende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: pl. 
NE.: began to dread, dreaded 
100/l waeron winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: made war, made war 
100/29 waeron winnende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: had been at war, had been warring 
100/31 waeron hergende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: laid waste, laid waste 
29 
104/15 winnende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.:-, they were warring 
104/18 weaxende waes 
C: amhiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: ensued, went on increasing 
104/19 dypende waeron 
C: suh.+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: ohj.c.; N: pl. 
NE.: appeared, testified 
106/13 winnende beon 
C: infinitive, A: imp.; Tr: intran. 
NE.: carried on their wars, would he at war 
108/29 donde waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued this, this they did 
110/11 gemunende beon 
C: infinitive; A: imp.; Tr: gen. 
NE.: will take notice, will„.mention 
112/21 waeron winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.:-, were„.warring 
112/24 winnende waes 
C: suh.+; pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: enemies, were warring 
112/29 peowiende waeron 
C: suh+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: were under his power, were his slaves 
118/1 waes cirrende 
C: suh.+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: intended to return, was on his return 
118/ 19 waes hergende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: advanced, made hostila inroads 
30 
118/20 waes sierwende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: -, laid ambushes 
120/12 waes hienende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: plundered, was ... devastating 
122/10 beon forsugiende ( ... ) secgende 
C: infinitive; A: perf.; Tr: gen. 
NE.: pass over, be silent 
C: infinitive; A: imp.; Tr: gen. 
NE.: dwell upon, be speaking 
124/9 waes farende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: marched, marched 
124/35 waes ondraedende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: dreaded, dreaded 
128/8 waes fleonde 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intra.; N: sing. 
NE.: fled, fled 
130/9 winnende waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued, was ... carrying on war 
130/20 waeron faren de 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: marched with him, his associated 
130/21 waeron winnende 
C: sub. + ·; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: marched, fellow-warriors 
130/30 hienende waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: was ... killing, was the oppressor 
31 
' 130/31 waes sin}yrstende . 
' C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.:. was thirsty, was„.thirsting 
132/24 waes feohtende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: was opposing, had fought 
134/7 waeron dreogende 
C: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: it was a long tirne, were long contending 
134/14 waeran ehtende 
C: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: pl. 
NE.: attacked, assailed 
140/27 dreogende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: had continued, they had been carrying 
148/2 waes donde 
C: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: distressed, did.„evil 
148/35 winnende waeron · 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
. NE.: carry on the war, made war 
154/34 begon(gen)de waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.,· M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.,· N: sing. 
NE.: -, worshipped 
1581 JO waeron sleande 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: slew, slew 
158/27 waeron sleande 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: would turn against, slew 
160/6 winnende waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: Ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: war continued, was warring 
32 
162127 laerende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat./acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: taught, taught 
166/12 waeron acsiende 7 frinende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: asked, (was) asking 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
NE.: asked, (was) inquiring 
166119 ~aes· braedende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: raised, streched 
166120 waes waniende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: bemoaning, bewailed 
166125 waes girnende 
C: ambiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: was ambitious, was craving after 
168/17 fremmende waere 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: subj.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: had plotted, of having acted 
168129 waes sleande 7 hienende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: slew, was driving out 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: made depredation, (was) oppressing 
168/32 aefterfylgende waes 
C: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: pursued, followed after 
168/34 waes hergende 7 baernende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: harassed, was harrying 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; .N: sing. 
NE.: burned, (was) burning 
33 
~ff!rende . . 
;fpret:; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: mtran.; N: s1g. 
· ~$1.y~pcing, was marching 
z waeron feohtende 
f): sfib:. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: pl. 
~~:; · ~. were ... fightihg 
172/34 waeron hergende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
.NE.: laid waste, harried 
174/2 farende waes 
C: suh.+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.:-'-, he came 
182/4 dreogende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: occasioned, endured 
184/3 onwinnende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: heing now attacked, was raging 
186/4 waes sittende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued, was sitting 
186/11 waes wenende 
C: suh.+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: ohj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: conceived, imagined 
188/ 12 f arende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: approaching, proceeded 
183/13 waespencende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: ohj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: with intention, thought 
188/19 waes donde 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: had many engagements, fought many hattles 
34 
190/4 waeron aefterfylgende 7 („.) sleande 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: pursued, pursued 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: ac.; N: pl. 
NE.: killing, slew 
194/22 wilniende waes 7 wenende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: had hoped, was desirous 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: had hoped, was„ .hoping 
196/ 13 waes biddende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: pressed, entreated 
200120 waes sleande 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: made a carnage, was„.slaying 
202/ 10 biddende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: jmp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: desired, prayed 
202/10 wilniende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N. sing. 
NE: desired, desired 
202/31 dreogende waeron 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N. pl. 
NE.: had continued, had been carrying 
208/ 13 waes swencende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: swinged, harassed 
212/4 waes feohtende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued his attacks, was fighting 
214/15 waeron dreogende 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: suffered, were suffering 
35 
· 216/15 weard aefterfy/gende · · 
CC: m+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
· NE.:..:,.,,-
218/30 waes winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: Ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: having carried on the war, was there warring 
220/2 waes wuniende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued, continued 
222/6 irnende waeron 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: issued forth, ran out 
224/28 dreogende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: he had undergone, he had undergone 
226/6 jaerende waeron 
C: suh+; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: the ships, were sailing 
230/17 waeron pafiende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: obliged to endure, were enduring 
230/18 waeron donde 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: continued, they were doig 
232/21 waes oppyncende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: was not approved, taking this „ .ill 
232/24/ 11 waeron biddende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: pl. 
NE.: proposed, requested 
232/27 waes weaxende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: grew, was increased 
36 
234/8 waes biernende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: ascended, burnt up 
234/ 10 waes bradiende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N. sing. 
NE.: declined, extending 
234/11 waes farende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: rose, returned 
236/9 f arende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N. sing. 
NE.: marched, marched 
236/ 15 waes cirrende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: proceeded, quickly again turned 
236/20 waes f arende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: returned, proceeded 
236/29 aejterfylgende waes 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: pursued, pursued 
238/3 waeron dreogende . 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: pl. 
NE.: was suffered, they endured 
242/ 19 waes maenende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: wept, bewailed 
244/ 4 waes waniende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: conceived, grieved 
246/7 waeron faren de 
C: ambiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: were embarked, were faring 
37 
24618 waeron farende 
C: ambiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: pl. 
NE.: he had, were faring 
252/12 waes mic/iende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued, was .. .increasing 
260/29 donde waes 
C: sub. +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: acc.; N: sing. 
NE.: -, in addition ... he perpetrated 
262/2 waes biernende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: continued burning, that was burning 
274/19 beon winnende 
C: infinitive; A: imp.; Tr: intran. 
NE.:-, be ever warring 
274/27 waeron onwinnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: made war, made war 
278/24. waeron winnende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: prep./dat.; N: pl. 
NE.: declared war, were ... making war 
280/29 waes giernende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.: was ... covetous, little desirous 
284/31 waes f arende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: intran.; N: sing. 
NE.: marched, went 
290/7 waes wilniende 
C: ambiguous +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: gen.; N: sing. 
NE.:-,-
292/23 waes pencende 
C: m +; pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr: obj.c.; N: sing. 
NE.: was ... desirous, was thinking 
38 
296/13 waes blotende 
C: m +; T: pret.; M: ind.; A: imp.; Tr.: dat.; N: sing. 
NE.: offered, sacrified 
2.3.2. Statistical results 
2.3.2.1. Expanded tenses (ET) 
total: 237 
finite forms: 2319 
infinitives: 6 (2.5 %) 
in affirmative clauses: 229 
in non-affirmative clauses: 2 
in main clauses: 152 
in subordinate clauses: 70 
ambiguous: 9 
In present tense: 16 
in preteri te: 215 
in indicative: 219 
in subjunctive: 12 
in perfective aspect: 3 
in imperfective aspect: 234 
with accusative: 62 
intransitive: 83 
with prepositional object: 39 
with object clause: 20 
with genetive: 16 
with dative: 20 
total marked transitivity: 95 
in singular: 127 
in plural: 104 
9 Bold print indicates favourable events. 
P(al) 0.8% 
P(a2) = 30.3 % 
P(a3) = 93.1 % 
P(a4) = 5.2% 
P(a5) = 98.7% 
P(a6) = 40.1 % 
P(a7) = 45.0% 
39 
2.3.2.2. Non-expanded tenses (NET) 
total analysed clauses: 855 
finite forms: 800 
infinitives: 5 5 ( 6 .4 OJo) 
in affirmative clauses: 753 
in non-affirmative clauses: 40 
in main clauses: 483 
in subordinate clauses: 317 
in present tense: 124 
in preterite: 676 
in indicative: 732 
in subjunctive: 68 
in perfective aspect: 442 
in imperfective aspect: 358 
with accusative: 326 (38.1 OJo) 
intransitive: 253 
with prepositional object: 52 
with object clause: 69 
with genetive: 68 
with dative: 87 
total marked transitivity: 276 
in singular: 516 
in plural: 284 
P(bl) = 5.0% 
P(b2) = 39. 6 % 
P(b3) = 84.5 % 
P(b4) = 8.4% 
P(b5) = 45.0 % 
P(b6) = 32.3 % 
P(b7) = 35.5 % 
2.3.2.3. The comparison of the basic sample and the control sample 
The probability rates of favourable events (the presence of marked parameters) 
are higher in the basic sample for the parameters tense (93.1 OJo : 84.5 OJo), aspect 
(98.7 OJo : 45.0 OJo), transitivity (40.1 OJo : 32.3 OJo) and number (45.0 OJo : 35 .5 OJo). The 
probability rates of favourable events are lower in the basic sample for the parame-
ters propositional modality (0.80Jo : 5.00Jo), type of clause (30.30Jo : 39.60Jo) and 
mood (5.2 OJo : 8.5 OJo). 
The probability of a (non)expanded tense to assume a finite form (favourable 
event) is higher in the basic sample than in the control sample (97 .5 OJo : 93.6 OJo). 
40 
The following table shows the probability rates of favourable events (the mar-
ked parameter value) in both samples. The index "Id" shows whether the difference 
between two probability rates (e.g. Pal and Pbl) is statistically significant. 
marked values of parameters probability rates probability rates Index Id 
in basic sample in control sample 
1. non-affirmative clause': P(al): 0.8 OJo 
2. subordinate clause: P(a2): 30.3 OJo 
3. preterite: P(a3): 93 .1 OJo 
4. subjunctive: P(a4): 5.2 OJo 
5. imperfective: P(a5): 98. 7 OJo 
6. marked transitivity: P(a6): 40.1 OJo 
7. plural: P(a7): 45.00Jo 
"Cumulative markedness" 
The parameters studied assume a marked value 
in at least 25 OJo of the clauses 
in at least 50 OJo of the clauses 
in at least 75 OJo of the clauses 
ET 
5 parameters 
2 parameters 
2 parameters 
or, the marked value can be expected for 
one grammatical category in 
two grammatical categories 
three grammatical categories 
four grammatical categories 
five grammatical categories 
six grammatical categories 
seven grammatical categories 
98. 7 OJo of ET 
93.1 OJo 
59.9% 
45.00Jo 
40.1 OJo 
5.2 OJo 
0.8 OJo 
The mean probability rate of the marked values is 
P(ET) = 44. 7 % P(NET) = 35.8% 
P(bl): 5.00Jo 2.8 
P(b2): 39.6% 2.6 
P(b3): 84.5 OJo 3.3 
P(b4): 8.5 OJo 1.7 
P(b5): 45.00Jo 14.7 
P(b6): 32.3 OJo 2.3 
P(b7): 35.5 OJo 2.7 
NET 
5 parameters 
1 parameters 
1 parameters 
84.7% of NET 
45.00Jo 
39.6 OJo 
35.5 OJo 
32.3 OJo 
8.5 OJo 
5.00Jo 
2.4. THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH EXPANDED TENSES 
2.4.1. Expanded tenses were rather infrequent in Old English. While a number 
of scholars tried to discover the rules of the usage of expanded tenses in Old English, 
recent studies claim that expanded tenses were used promiscue with the non-expan-
ded tenses and that the actual usage of one or the other syntactic variant depended 
on the environment of the verbal phrase. Their emphatic value seems rather obvio-
us, though, which explains to some extent ~hat expanded tenses were more frequent 
in vivid historic descriptions than in philosophical prose (Nickel 1966, Kisbye 1971). 
41 
':i,;~1;;n,: 2A;~.- In Middle English the use of expanded tenses declined, except in the 
,p,Qflhern: dialects. From there it spread again towards the South after the year 1200, 
~where.it '.gained grounds especially after 1400. The reassertion of expanded tenses 
'has been ascribed to various factors. Some authors stress the importance of the in-
fluence of French and of the Celtic languages (Mustanoja 1960), as well as the ana-
logy with the construction "be + a- + -ing" (from the older construction "be + on 
+ -ing"). The incidence of the "be + a- + -ing" construction was vastly inferior to 
the one with "be + -ing", even when the former was in its peak period (1500-1700) 
(:Kisbye 1971, 36-:-38). About the year 1200, the ending -ing started to comp~te with -
ende in the southern dialects. From there it spread to other parts of England and ul-
timately prevailed sometime after the year 1500. The unification of endings must 
have been enhanced by the phonetic instability of a multitude of endings (-en, -enne, 
-ing, -ung), and even more so by the stable ending -ing (-ung) in the gerund. 
The use of expanded tenses in Middle English did not differ very much from 
their use in Old English. The use was stili not regularized, although some characteri-
stics seem to stand out: the durative, emphatic and emotional force of expanded ten-
ses if compared with the corresponding non-expanded tenses. In the late Middle 
English period the expanded form of the verb "come" began to denote future tirne. 
The same period gave rise to the construction "be + going to + verb". 
2.4.3. In the 16th century, the use of expanded tenses grew more stable and has 
been spreading ever since, although expanded tenses stili account for only 5 % of 
verbal phrases in Modem English (Quirk et al. 1985). In the early 18th century the 
use of expanded tenses was regularized at practically the present state of affairs. 
In Modem English, the use of expanded tenses is 
a) obligatory 
- to express the imperfective aspect as opposed to non-expanded tenses, which do 
not express this aspect. Here the imperfective aspect relates to the progressive 
mode of action; it describes the verbal situation in its progress, adding to the se-
mantic value of the verb the information "+ progressive" and "+ durative"; 
- to express the temporary value of the verbal situation, adding to the semantic in-
formation of the verb the feature "+temporary"; 
- to encode the simultaneity of the verbal situation with another situation, hence 
the additional "+ simultaneous" information. 
It is often difficult to teli the above functions of expanded tenses apart. 
42 
b) optional 
- to express a repetative situation (with adverbs like always, continually, constat-
ly „ .), in which case the expanded tenses contribute " + emotional colouring"; 
"she is always quarrelling„." ( + annoyance) 
"he will always be dreaming„." ( + condescendence) 
c) exceptional 
- with static verbs denoting perception, mental activity, emotions and situations. 
Such verbs are used to describe situations which are beyond our will or control, 
they refer to state rather than to action. When applied, the expanded tenses turn 
the verbs from static to dynamic, or else emphasize some other specific attribute 
(e.g. gradualness, emphasis): 
"I am feeling the blanket and it feels soft" 
"Do you like it? No, l'm hating it" 
"I study mathematics and every day 1 am learning more". 
d) impossible 
- with some static verbs the use of expanded tenses is not possible, not even in ex-
ceptional cases (e.g. know); the same applies to the use of expanded tenses with 
moda! verbs. 
" * 1 am knowing you more and more" 
" * you are maying go". 
III. CONCLUDING REMARKS 
3.1. THE COMPARISON OF THE WORKING HYPOTHESIS WITH THE 
RESUL TS OF THE ANAL YSIS OF OROSIUS 
3.1.1. Prediction: 
Expanded tenses asserted themselves in Old English first in a relatively complex 
linguistic environment 
a) The prediction that strengthenings assert themselves first with complex 
("heavy") words cannot be tested in our material and can therefore be neither con-
43 
firmed nor rejected. The most frequent verbs in our basic sample are (Nickel 1966, 
330-351): 
winnan (to make war) 
faran (to travel) 
dreogan (to continue) 
aefterfylgan (to pursue) 
don (to do) 
feohtan (to fight) 
hienan (to oppress) 
irnan (to run) 
34 (of 237 instances) 
16 
13 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10. 
These verbs are the most frequent ones in the control sample, too, owing to the 
contents of the text (history and geography). The judgement of their "complexity" 
could not be objective. 
b) The results of the statistical analysis confirm the prediction that expanded 
tenses are more frequent in a complex environment. Of the seven parameters obser-
ved (person and voice are left out due to the absence of non-third persons and pas-
sive voice), four parameters (tense, aspect, transitivity and number) assume their 
marked value significantly more often in the sample of expanded tenses than in the 
sample of non-expanded tenses. 
The fact that the working hypothesis is not confirmed in the case of propositio-
nal modality and mood does not necessarily bear much weight, considering the low 
frequency of negative clauses and of subjunctive mood, both in the basic and in the 
control sample (bellow 10 O/o). 
Even more indica ti ve than the comparison of the basic and of the control sam ples 
in terms of individual parameters is the comparison of both samples as to the "cu-
mulative markedness" of the clauses/verbal phrases in which (non)-expanded tenses 
occur. Our working hypothesis is sustained in the sense that in more than 50 O/o of the 
instances of the basic sample three grammatical parameters assume their marked va-
lue, while only one grammatical parameter assumes its marked value in more than 
50 O/o of the instances in the control sample. The mean probability rate of a gramma-
tical parameter to assume a marked value (arithmetic mean) is higher in the sample 
of expanded tenses than in the sample of non-expanded tenses, which also speaks in 
favour of our working hypothesis. 
3.1.2. Prediction: 
The grammaticalization of the use of expanded tenses was to result in their spe-
cialization for the encoding of more marked (complex) information. The areas to 
44 
which the use of expanded tenses bas not spread are simple (unmarked) contexts and 
situations. 
The prediction does obtain in the light of the following: 
a) In Modem English, the use of expanded tenses is obligatory to express the 
marked verbal aspect and mode of verbal action, i.e. progressiveness, temporary 
duration, simultaneity, ingressiveness, imperfectiveness, etc. 
b) Whenever the use of expanded tenses is optional, meaning that they still act 
as the strengthenings of the respective non-expanded tenses, the expanded tenses 
imply emotional colouring, or stress a particular mode of verbal action. 
c) Very frequent and relatively simple verbs, such as static verbs (of percep-
tion, emotions, mental activity), are used in expanded tenses only exceptionally. 
Some verbs change their lexical meaning when assuming the expanded form, so that 
they tum from static verbs into verbs denoting actions, the action being considered 
more marked than the state. 
d) The use of expanded tenses bas not spread to some of the most frequent 
verbs, such as modal verbs. 
3.2. GENERAL ASSESSMENT OF THE WORKING HYPOTHESIS AND 
POSSIBILITIES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 
The analysis of the Old English Orosius and the survey of the use of expanded 
tenses in Modem English indicate that the consideration of syntactic changes as 
strengthenings or weakenings deserves serious attention. The results of our statisti-
cal analysis need to be compared with the results of the analyses not only of addi-
tional texts, but also of other syntactic changes, possibly in other languages as well. If 
such comparisons confirm the theory of weekenings and strengthenings in syntax 
(the theory would then fit the notion of "natural syntax" - by analogy with "natu-
ra! phonology" and "natural morphology"), it would be most interesting to find out 
whether and how the behaviour of syntactic strengthenings/weakenings differs 
from the behaviour of phological or morphological strengthenings/weakenings. 
Syntax is likely to teli us a great deal about the functioning of the human mind; 
the principles goveming syntactic changes viewed as a response to communication 
problems can be one of the keys to the communication between man and artificial 
intelligence. 
45 
REFERENCES 
Bosworth, J., ed. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version of the compendious history 
of the World. London, 185.9. 
Klaeber, F., ed., Beowulf and The fight at Finnsburg. Boston, 1950, 3rd ed. 
Mayerthaler, W., Morphologische Natuerlichkeit. Wiesbaden, 1981. 
Mosse, F., Histoire de la forme periphrastique etre + participe present en germa-
nique, 1-2. Paris, 1938. 
Mustanoja, T.F., A Middle English syntax l. Helsinki, 1960. 
Nickel, G., Die Expanded Form im Altenglischen. Vorkommen, Funktion und 
Herkunft beon/wesan + Partizip praesens. Neumuenster, 1966. 
Pavlič, l., Statistička teorija i primjena. Zagreb, 1985. 
Sweet, H., ed., King Alfred's Orosius, EETS Nr. 79. London, 1883, reprinted 1959. 
Wise, F., ed., Annales rerum· gestarum Aelfredi Magni, auctore Asserio Menevensi. 
Oxford, 1722. 
Povzetek 
RAZŠIRJENI ČASI V STAROANGLEŠKEM OROSIJU: SKLADENJSKA OKREPITEV 
Razširjeni časi (opisne zgradbe, ki so sestavljene iz pomožnega glagola 'biti' in deležnika sedanjika) 
so se v stari angleščini uporabljali kot skladenjska različica ustreznih nerazšfrjenih časov (nesestavljenih 
glagolskih zgradb). Njihova raba je bila poljubna, bili so nosilci enakih slovničnih pomenov kot ustrezni 
nerazširjeni časi. 
Vprašanje, na katerega je želela odgovoriti avtorica, je, ali se je slovnično okolje staroangleških raz-
širjenih časov statistično signifikantno razlikovalo od okolja ustreznih staroangleških nerazširjenih ča­
sov. S tem namenom je bila opravljena primerjalna analiza stavkov in skladnje glagolov, ki se pojav-
ljajo v razširjenih oz. nerazširjenih časih v staroangleškem prevodu knjige španskega redovnika Orosija o 
zgodovini sveta. 
Analiza je zajela opazovanje sedmih slovničnih kategorij (oblika in vrsta stavka, glagolski čas, na-
klon, vid, prehodnost, število) s stališča njihove bolj ali manj zapletene (označene) vrednosti, ki jo imajo 
v primeru rabe razširjenih časov (osnovni vzorec) oziroma nerazširjenih časov (kontrolni vzorec). 
V obdelanem jezikovnem gradivu so se razširjeni časi pogosteje pojavljali v pretekliku kot v sedanji-
ku, v nedovršnem glagolskem vidu kot v dovršnem, v množini kot v ednini, v zapleteni prehodnosti pogo-
steje kot z golim tožilnikom. Stopnja verjetnosti, da se več slovničnih kategorij pojavi istočasno v zaple-
teni vrednosti, je večja pri razširjenih časih kot pri nerazširjenih časih. Aritmetična sredina pogostnosti 
označenih vrednosti slovničnih kategorij je višja v osnovnem vzorcu (razširjeni časi) kot v kontrolnem 
vzorcu (nerazširjeni časi). 
Primerjava rezultatov statistične obdelave jezikovnega gradiva z delovnimi napovedmi je pokazala, 
da so staroangleški razširjeni časi v obdelanem jezikovnem gradivu vedli v primerjavi z nerazširjenimi ča­
si kot okrepitev ter da je torej tudi skladenjske spremembe smotrno obravnavati s stališča teorije o jezi-
kovnih spremembah kot okrepitvah ali ošibitvah . 
46