“Between the East and the West”: 
Vladimir Bartol’s Self-Identification 
between Central European 
Ljubljana and Mediterranean 
Trieste (1946–1956)
Aleksandra Tobiasz
Institute of Civilisation and Culture, Erjavčeva 4, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7216-5099
Aleksandra.Tobiasz@EUI.eu
The article addresses Vladimir Bartol’s fluid self-identification in relation to 
changeable places of his stay in the first decade after the Second World War. The 
writer’s constant oscillation between Trieste and Ljubljana was accompanied by 
the shift in perspectives (minority/majority) and cultural/linguistic dualities 
which render the Slovenian literature in Italy with existentialist overtone. Bartol’s 
return to Trieste problematized his self-understanding not only in spatial terms 
but also with respect to overlapping temporalities (Habsburg multicultural free 
port of the past versus the present Cold-War image of the city). Consequently, 
his stay in Trieste gave way to the extensive personal writing which is also the 
paper’s main source (autobiography and unpublished fragments of diary). 
Drawing inspiration from the spatial turn and applying the phenomenological 
prism of experience of certain places, the author attempts to present Bartol’s self-
identification reconfigured in alignment with his post-war existential topography 
stretched between Central European Ljubljana and Mediterranean Trieste.
Keywords: Slovenian literature in Italy / Bartol, Vladimir / cultural identity / Trieste / 
Mediterraneaness / Central Europe
41
Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 46.3 (2023)
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
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Introduction: Triestine dualities
Where is Trieste? Where does it belong to? To the East, to the West or 
to a “a no-man's land”? (Campanile 147).1 Geographical frontiers in this 
intermediate area between eastern and western Europe as well as meta-
phorical boundaries between reality and imagination have proved to be 
debatable and porous throughout history. In “that most slippery of spac-
es […] caught on the edge of three worlds” (Waley 245), the Romance, 
Slavic and German heritages coexist in a Central European spiritual triad. 
This multiculturalism was embodied in the fate of Triestine writer Scipio 
Slataper, who described himself as “Slavic-German-Italian” (Biagio 59) 
and defined Trieste as “a place of transition” where everything “[…] is 
double and triple, beginning with its flora and ending with its ethnic-
ity” (Slataper qtd. in Cary 46). This multiplicity leaves the imprint on 
personality as well. Dragan Velikić characterized the Triestine milieu as 
a source of dualities with a direct impact on self-identification. “Trieste 
has been from time immemorial radiating duality and this also marked 
its writers” (Velikić 70), for instance Italo Svevo. The commercialist 
Ettore Schmitz chose the pseudonym Svevo “to stress his double sense of 
belonging” (Campanile 150) or even triple considering besides German 
and Italian components of his identity also the Jewish one. This simul-
taneous presence of many personalities made Schmitz/Svevo write his 
life-story in the first person plural instead of singular.
Triestine dualities in form of double perspective (ethnic minority/
majority) and the oscillation between cosmopolitan openness and cen-
tripetal nationalism also marked one of the representatives of Slovenian 
literature in Italy, Vladimir Bartol, born in 1903 in the village close 
to Trieste, Saint Ivan (now the city’s quarter). In the aftermath of the 
Great War and the demise of the Habsburg Empire, when Italy annexed 
the Julian March (former Austrian Littoral), he left his homeland 
together with his family. In 1919 they moved to Ljubljana. Aware of 
embodying the dual perspective himself, Bartol, at some point explicitly 
expressed his kinship with Svevo. Both writers had much in common: 
inspiration with psychoanalysis, cultural and linguistic duality under-
pinned by isolation, and consequently late recognition of their works 
(Bartol, “Demonija”).2 Bartol was schizophrenically viewing himself as 
1 Campanile defined Trieste in reference to Hermann Bahr’s definition of this city 
in terms of “a no-man’s land” and “a border between states” equivalent to a sense of 
not-belonging. 
2 Manuscript Collection of Vladimir Bartol, Institute of Slovenian Literature and 
Literary Studies at the Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts 
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
43
oscillating between Trieste and Ljubljana, the perspective of minority 
and majority. Even after his return to the homeland, he felt a stranger 
(Bartol, Mladost 175). Bartol as a “Triestine apparition” (Poljaz 1–2; 
Košuta, Scritture 105)?3 Remaining beyond national literary canons and 
established national formulas of identity, for a long time he was over-
looked on both sides of the border.
Convinced about a strong influence of space on his literary work, 
Bartol noticed that this relationship could once in future become of 
great interest as an “instructive problem” to some psychologist or a 
literary historian (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX”). Following this intuition, 
the article addresses the impact of place on Bartol’s self-identification 
in the first, post-war decade when his existential topography was delin-
eated by the two cities: Ljubljana and Trieste. I will focus on his move-
ment between them in the period from 1946, when he came back to 
Trieste to reconstruct and supervise the cultural life of Slovenians and 
Croats, until 1956 when due to the lack of Italian consent to pro-
long his sojourn, he had to return to Yugoslavia (Virk, “Vladimir” 140; 
Jevnikar 356).
How did Bartol define his self between the East and the West, 
between Ljubljana and Trieste? This general question will guide further 
interpretations of his autobiographical writing and fragments of diary 
(among others, a part titled “Between the East and the West” written just 
after the war). While his autobiography is published in three volumes, 
the diaristic notes still await further studies.4 As Tomo Virk noted, “due 
(hereafter MC, ZRC SAZU). Bartol’s awareness of “some strange affinity” to Svevo 
became especially strong when he realized that the writer’s wife was living in the flat 
once inhabited by his family, just before their translocation to Ljubljana. Bartol was 
asking himself: “How is it possible that among so many houses the lady lives right 
here, or better expressed, how could it happen that 40 years ago we received the flat 
right here?” As he noticed: “Similarly to I. Svevo the same was happening also to me. 
His first novel was published in 1892 and passed unnoticed. Newspapers did not men-
tion him at all, they pounced on Svevo’s poor language and poor command of Italian.”
3 Vlasta Polojaz gives an affirmative answer to this question in her essay on Bartol’s 
psychoanalysis and the influence of his experiences of childhood spent in Trieste on 
his literature. She referred here to Miran Košuta’s designation of Slovenian literature 
in Trieste in terms of “apparition.” According to Košuta, the Italian literary history has 
not recognized the role of Slovenian writers born, living and writing in Trieste in their 
contribution to the multicultural image of the city. Overlooked they became invisible 
and ephemeral specters (see Polojaz).
4 Only a small part of them was published in fragments in the literary journal 
Dialogi in the 1980s. Some excerpts from 1930–1933 were published in 1982 (no. 4, 
5, 6–7, 8–9, 10) and some other notes from 1958–1961 appeared in the same journal 
in 1983 (no. 1). 
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
44
to this extensiveness, which is not possible to control totally—for the 
detailed examination of the entire legacy decades would be needed, it is 
always possible to expect, that potential future discoveries will comple-
ment current findings” (Virk, “Netipični” 78). Considering Bartol’s 
immense diaristic legacy, the article’s main aim is to suggest one of the 
possible interpretative paths which, if continued, would require more 
research and close reading of the author’s manuscripts.
Bartol in Triestine Mediterranean in-betweenness
According to Paul Waley, Trieste is “a powerful vehicle for geographi-
cal reflection. It forces us to think geographically, to think about the 
meanings of place and of affection for place and the expression of this 
affection in poetry and prose, as in the works of writers such as Italo 
Svevo and Umberto Saba,” (Waley 246) or Vladimir Bartol and other 
Slovenian writers. Following Michael Biggins’s remark on the predomi-
nant one-dimensional, solely Italian image of Trieste in the western lan-
guages, this study will try “to right that imbalance” by putting an em-
phasis on the Slovenian contribution to the multicultural city (Biggins 
100–101). Concerning the methodological framework, the following 
interpretations revolve around the category of experience, recently 
widely explored in social sciences and humanities (Wolska 6–9). The 
article draws on the phenomenological approach applied both to history 
(David Carr, Frank Ankersmit) and space (Tim Ingold) which allows to 
conceptualize history in terms of individual experience and view space 
as a place of dwelling. The paper also refers to the spatial turn which, 
offering a particular terminology and understanding of place, helps to 
reconstruct self-identifications shaped in relation to space.
When life ceases to be an evident, given phenomenon but always 
questioned in an encounter with cultural otherness, as it happens in 
the borderland areas such as Trieste, it becomes “grounded in idea and 
literature.” In this “paper city,” where life is lived “under protection of 
literature,” it is the latter that allows to “convert uncertainty of one’s 
identity into a travel in search for it, that means a more authentic 
identity” (Magris 308–309). This existential understanding of writing 
marked the Slovenian literature in Italy and thus also Bartol’s oeuvre. 
As Marija Pirjevec and Miran Košuta claim, the particular historical 
and cultural experiences of Slovenians in Italy gave way to a certain 
typology of Slovenian borderland literature, distinguishing it from 
both the Italian literature and the one of the Slovenian hinterland 
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
45
(M. Pirjevec, Tržaški 13, 24; Na pretoku 10, 14; “Zgodovinski oris” 
19; Košuta, E-mejli 28).
Trieste’s cultural status of a mediator between Italy and Mitteleuropa 
entailed a search for identity within local literature (Pizzi, A City 38–43). 
Moreover, the Triestine intersection of changeable and complex identi-
ties nurtured the existentialist understanding of literature which mani-
fests in “a robust autobiographism,” (Pizzi, “Triestine” 147) “an incli-
nation towards exaggerated introspection, hostility towards rhetoric, 
and a moral impulse” (Campanile 152). This dominant existentialist 
tone gave way to Bartol’s extensive autobiography written in the 1950s 
during his stay in Trieste. It was published in fragments in the local 
Slovenian journal Primorski Dnevnik (Virk, “Vladimir” 141, 144).
In the autobiography there is an image of a young boy following 
his father’s indications on a big map presenting changeable battlefronts 
during the Great War. This image served Bartol as an exemplary man-
ifestation of his two instincts in relation to time (“historical sense”) 
and space (“geographical instinct”) (Bartol, Romantika 155–158). The 
writer viewed space as an important factor having an impact on one’s 
perception and literary production. Given that he spent more than 
one-third of his life in Trieste (26 years), it goes without saying that the 
city’s milieu essentially influenced his literature and self-understanding. 
As Košuta argues, Bartol’s strong bond with Trieste manifested in more 
or less explicit “geospiritual influence” on his writing (“palimpsest 
multiculturalism, cosmopolitanism and borderland character of the 
birthplace”). Košuta discerns in the writer’s oeuvre a strong influence of 
tržaškost (multicultural identity of Trieste) (Toroš 19–30) expressed in 
“topos, themes, motives, ambiences, feelings, problems and even lin-
guistic peculiarities of ‘the city in the bay’” (Košuta, “Tržaški” 73–87).
Bartol’s literary articulation of Trieste was nourished by “imagi-
nary-historical space” marked with “at least two, unknown to central 
Slovenia typological peculiarities: Mediterraneaness and multicultural-
ism” (Košuta, E-mejli 40–43; Košuta, Scritture 137). In the diaristic 
notes taken after the Second World War when the political status of 
Trieste was still uncertain, Bartol argued that due to the city’s mediatory 
character as a sphere between the East and the West, it could become a 
center of a new, Mediterranean, cultural entity. He expressed his wish 
to convert Trieste into a place where diverse elements would inter-
mingle and create a new cultural world. Already before his sojourn in 
the city by the hill of Saint Just in the aftermath of the war, Bartol was 
reflecting on “how to activate a symbiosis of the eastern and western 
cultures, Slavic and Romance elements, a new, specific culture upwards 
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
46
of this place. Out of this symbiosis, some new, fresh Mediterranean 
culture would emerge which would absorb dynamics and storminess of 
the East and Apollinianness and sense for measurement of the West” 
(Bartol, “Balkanijada X Trst, 20.III. [47]”). The two elements in a 
complementary and reciprocal combination could coexist and contrib-
ute to some new cultural universe. One of its important features would 
be “a ‘Mediterranean clarity’: perhaps just in Trieste it will be possible 
to formulate definite problems of the ‘East’ much more clearly and eas-
ily” (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX Trst. Trst, VI. zvezek, Dvoživkarstvo, [13.
II.47]”). According to Bartol, the Mediterranean character of Trieste 
could enable to look at the challenges (social, political?) posed by the 
East in another light depriving them of their burdensome complexities 
which in the end would strip the eastern communism of dogmatism 
with the help of realism.5
When historically contextualized, Bartol’s vision of Mediterranean 
Trieste becomes a response to the post-war more and more polarized 
political situation in Europe. In the city where the Iron Curtain (no 
matter how porous) would soon descend, the writer perceived himself 
as placed by fate on “Al Araf,” the line which in “Koran” divides heaven 
from hell and thus the two worlds of redemption and damnation. Trieste 
and its Mediterranean character could present to Bartol a certain rem-
edy to this widening Cold War rift. The decade-long oscillation between 
the two different worlds enabled him to broaden the perspective by the 
possibility of a simultaneous look at the two opposite directions (Bartol, 
“Med Vzhodom in Zapadom”). Additionally, his image of the Triestine 
Mediterranean culture seems to be a project not devoid of political over-
tone. Bartol viewed his official position in Trieste as the one forming 
part of “‘the first line,’ head of the spear directed against the West so that 
it tears the old, falling world” (Bartol, “Balkanijada X Trst”).
Bartol’s references to Trieste as a place of the necessary eastern ideo-
logical infiltration of the West should be placed in a broader, historical 
context of Slovenian political endeavors since 1848, namely Slovenian 
5 Bartol was against the dogmatic identification with the official aesthetic doctrine 
of Socialist  realism. As he remarked: “In opposition to social realism I put: univer-
sal realism. Realism in everything; in all phenomena: in psychological, sociological, 
material, moral. In observation, in ideology, in dialectics.” Consequently, instead of 
an outright identification with a specific political or artistic doctrine, Bartol was only 
approaching it in some aspects. As he underlined in one of the diaristic notes from 
1945: “I need for myself to be always a bit ‘below,’ ‘in the background,’ that I have 
always still a top in front of me. Full recognition, I am afraid, could mean my stand-
still, standstill of my creative force.” (Bartol, “Vzhod in Zapad IV”)
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
47
fight for access to the Adriatic Sea (J. Pirjevec, Trst 11–13). The writer 
shared the view already established in the Slovenian scholarship which 
claims that city belongs to the hinterland. Following this logic, Trieste, 
regarded as the Italian island surrounded by the Slovenian country-
side, also naturally pertains to the Karstic hinterland and politically, 
economically to Yugoslavia. Considering that at the beginning of the 
twentieth century Trieste was the biggest Slovenian city surpassing 
Ljubljana, it acquired an important role during the Slovenian struggle 
for national recognition. With the access to the sea, the city promised 
to Slovenians the end of isolation (Ara and Magris 66–67, 144). Trieste 
was thus of vital importance and the Adriatic question, resurfacing 
more vividly in the moments of territorial rearrangements, remained 
open till its official solution in the 1950s and also engaged Bartol.
After the Second World War, there were three possible solutions to 
the “Trieste question ” envisaged during the Paris Peace Conference: 
the city’s return to Italy, its annexation to Yugoslavia or a buffer state 
of Free Territory of Trieste. The latter option prevailed although in 
fact remaining unrealized (Sluga, “Trieste” 295–296). Slovenians 
were divided in their perceptions of the city’s desirable fate. Besides 
supporters of Josip Broz Tito who fostered the idea of Trieste as a 
basis for the eastern ideological infiltration of the West, there were 
right-oriented Slovenians (Christian-liberal) who fought for the Free 
Territory of Trieste having in mind the western infiltration of the East. 
Furthermore, there were also Slovenians who after Tito’s withdrawal 
from the Cominform in 1948 were closer to the Stalinist political line 
and Vittorio Vidali. The final demarcation of the western border in 
1954 only entrenched the divisions between Slovenians in Trieste (J. 
Pirjevec, Trst 419, 483). Shortly after his return to the city by the hill 
of Saint Just, Bartol became a member of the Slovenian-Italian antifas-
cist union for the Free Territory of Trieste, the movement supporting 
Tito’s Yugoslavia. Additionally, he tried to become a member of the 
communist party (Košuta, “Komentar” 326).6
Until 1954 Trieste continued to be an international issue provok-
ing many tensions. The ideologically and nationally polarized inner 
situation was marked with manifestations organized either in sup-
6 Even though the communist party was doubtful regarding his application, the 
writer declared that while waiting for the decision he would behave “as if he were 
accepted.” For more information concerning Bartol’s opinion about the situation in 
Slovenia during the Second World War and attitude towards communist ideology 
which in the end also resulted in his unsuccessful attempts to become a member of 
the party see the writer’s interview with Ljenko Urbančič as well as Virk, “Komentar.”
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
48
port of Yugoslavia or Italy (Košuta, “Komentar” 323). The city’s fate 
was dependent on the relations between the great political powers. 
Suspended between the West and the East, the inhabitants breathed 
the air imbued with feelings of loss and disorientation. In fact, state-
less, “with no control over their destiny, at the mercy of the vagaries of 
international geopolitics,” they found themselves in a specific “political 
and cultural limbo” (Bialasiewicz and Minca 1097; Minca 268). The 
post-war indeterminate international status of Trieste had to be experi-
enced by its inhabitants as extremely peculiar if Bartol chose this place 
as the setting of one of his short stories in which the main hero, a noble 
Englishman, sir Oliver Burke suffering from a strange indisposition 
of “nihil admirari” desperately searches for a source of astonishment. 
Having visited almost all the most distant corners of the world and 
experienced the most exotic phenomena, which, however, did not sur-
prise him, the main protagonist finally succeeded in finding the desired 
sense of bewilderment in post-war Trieste (Bartol, “Zgodba” 40–74).
Trieste as a microcosm of European modernity and phenomena 
which shaped the twentieth century (psychoanalysis, fascism, antisemi-
tism), was certainly a place that easily provided many different sources 
of bemusement. Bartol, upon his return in 1946 and having in mind 
Trieste in which he had come of age, namely the city under the Austro-
Hungarian rule, was assuredly also bewildered by many contradictory 
aspects of new, post-war Trieste under Anglo-American administra-
tion. Referring to the image of the city delineated in one of his novellas, 
Bartol could find himself in an uneasy situation of in-betweenness
between black marketeers and allies, between fascists and communists, between 
black people, Italians, and Slovenians, between refugees of all shades, between 
Ustashas and chetniks, between experienced Anglo-American colonizers, between 
partisans and war orphans, between Jews, exiles and Annamites, between prosti-
tutes and long-skirt Christian democrats, between an armada of unemployed;—
in short in our old magnificent Trieste by the Adriatic, […] between the West 
and the East. (Bartol, “Tržaška” 17)
Bartol’s amphibiousness and “wayfaring” between Trieste 
and Ljubljana
Spatial frames of self-identification become especially susceptible to 
problematization while travelling and if cultural contexts are often 
changed. After the Second World War, the main reference points 
on Bartol’s existential topography were the two cities: Trieste and 
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
49
Ljubljana. While he was fulfilling his professional duties in Trieste, in 
Ljubljana he had his family and acquaintances from literary circles who 
made him revisit this city frequently, sometimes almost every week for 
a couple of days (Bartol, “Balkanijada X. Trst. Vrhovni princip”). The 
city attracted Bartol not only because of the present familial ties but 
also due to the past experiences. In Ljubljana he was studying, made 
first attempts in a literary world and experienced many youthful adven-
tures, love (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX”). His often travels from one city to 
another made him compare himself to a creature that needs simultane-
ously two environments to survive. He perceived this amphibiousness 
as “a very well-chosen combination” necessary for his literary creation 
and ascent as a writer.7
Change of place shapes the way of writing. In one of his diaris-
tic notes Bartol remarked: “Besides, it is interesting to observe, how 
strongly a milieu also influences the psychological constitution itself, 
thoughts, triggering of ideas.” Consequently, a context where a story is 
written inevitably leaves its imprint which does not necessarily accord 
with the story’s imagined background. As Bartol recalled his work in 
Ljubljana, even though he aimed to overcome the city’s general atmo-
sphere of provinciality by placing his literary imagined universe within 
a “great world” of western metropolis, the outcome was “the Parisian 
stories” with an Alpine spirit of mountain pastures reminding more of 
Slovenia than of the western world (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX”).
Interestingly, a particular remedy for this Slovenian provincialism 
emerged with a more open, vigorous Serbian context and Belgrade 
which in the interwar period with tripled number of population “was 
on a steady, though not necessarily linear, trajectory of moderniza-
tion, urbanization, and Europeanization” and outpaced in its growth 
other Yugoslav cities such as Zagreb, Sarajevo and Ljubljana (Babović 
5–6). In Belgrade in 1933 Bartol experienced “a dynamic pace of 
society developing into capitalism” which made on him “the mighty 
although not entirely delightful impression” and also influenced his 
writings (Bartol, “H kritikam” 212). The atmosphere of the Yugoslav 
capital enabled the writer to gain and then also apply in his literary 
work a wider perspective. Furthermore, the social structure in both cit-
ies, Ljubljana and Belgrade, was different as “the Yugoslav capital did 
7 For Bartol’s attitude to Ljubljana see Dolgan who emphasizes that for Bartol it 
was more convenient to live in Trieste than in Ljubljana just after the war. “Trieste due 
to the Allied ‘capitalist’ orientation soon in terms of living standards, cultural pulse 
and openness surpassed Ljubljana which was engulfed by collectivism, nationalization, 
staged trials, socialist realism and restrictions on creative freedom.” (Dolgan 345)
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
50
not have a historic aristocracy or an established bourgeoisie before the 
Great War” (Babović 6). Therefore, less conservative Belgrade aspir-
ing to become a modern European metropolis was more receptive to 
the present challenges such as for instance artistic inspirations coming 
from abroad. The Yugoslav main city diffused a spirit which to Bartol 
seemed more realistic. Even in Ljubljana, he tried to project some of 
this realism on his artistic production (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX”).
Bartol’s belief in the decisive role of spatial frames in shaping his lit-
erary work also reveals in his hypothetical considerations about a form 
which his most internationally famous novel “Alamut” would have 
taken if he had written it not in Slovenia but Serbia, Belgrade. In the 
same vein, the writer noticed an interesting divergence between the 
notes taken in Trieste and before his arrival there, as well as the differ-
ence between plans for writing and the outcome which emerged due 
to the change of place. What Bartol intended to write, when already 
written in a different spatial context, would very often assume another 
shape from the one planned: “It seems to me, that what differs (at least 
a bit) is also writing, which I brought in head from Ljubljana and here 
I put on paper and vice versa.” (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX”) The outcome 
did not meet expectations, and it was a change of place which intro-
duced this discrepancy.
Each city possesses a unique genius loci made of different geographi-
cal locations, histories and cultural heritages. For Bartol, “an amphibi-
ous,” Ljubljana and Trieste represented divergent environments and 
thus every revisit had to entail a certain emotional response to a new 
context. Diverse ways of framing thoughts incited by the two cities were 
underlain with different moods and feelings. As the writer emphasized, 
“intellectual amphibiousness also corresponds to emotional amphibi-
ousness” (Bartol, “Balkanijada IX”). Therefore, the emotional layer also 
underwent important changes following the switchable urban refer-
ences of self-identification. While oscillating between the two cities, the 
writer experienced a specific change of “rhythm of organism, rhythm of 
thinking and feeling.” After each arrival in Trieste from Ljubljana he 
needed some days for his organism to calm down (Bartol, “Balkanijada 
VI”). While every visit to Ljubljana for Bartol was accompanied by “a 
stage fright,” in familiar Trieste, all anxiety and uneasiness dispersed 
(Bartol, Mladost 11). As if a human organism were a sensitive instru-
ment which, in order to be harmonious, requires some special tuning 
in alignment with a particular melody of a place. Bartol’s description 
of his experience of arrivals and departures with regard to the two cities 
is worth quoting, (notwithstanding the length of citation), as it reflects 
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
51
well the writer’s sensitivity to change of places and his resultant dual 
self-identification in relation to space.
Coming from Trieste to Ljubljana I often feel somehow cramped, I feel as 
if there appeared some ring around my brain. […] And when I arrive from 
Ljubljana to Trieste, just at the first sight of the sea from Opčine or Nabrežina 
the horizon somehow widens, I take a wider breath, anxious bonds go off 
from me. Also before the war I felt a similar confinement in Ljubljana com-
ing from Paris or Belgrade, my passion was not in vain, every so often to 
look at the world and widen one’s horizons. Ljubljana is strong, root-like, 
profound—and also narrow, narrow-minded, it cannot be hidden. Ljubljana 
is an outstandingly cultural city, while Trieste and also Belgrade are not, at 
least not in the same degree. Strange, in this view Ljubljana is rather similar 
to Paris. […] Ljubljana forces a man to contemplation, to determined deal-
ing with some (narrow) problem, to depth, to intensive, deep experience, to 
thoroughness. Whereas Trieste in opposition to this, widens horizons, forces 
to big perspectives, goes “widely and highly.” In Trieste you are more a realist 
than in Ljubljana. You think more clearly, you feel more clearly. You are open. 
Ljubljana forces a great man to “greatness in depth,” Trieste to “greatness in 
width and height.”
Trieste as a city under the sign of Mercury, because having at its ori-
gins trade and economy, could resemble a place where life is strongly 
marked with realism and pragmatism. In this regard, the former com-
mercial harbor of the Habsburg Monarchy was opposed by Bartol with 
more metaphysical Ljubljana, which as a city dominated by cultural life 
seemed to him closer to Paris and western Europe in general. While 
Ljubljana privileged a contemplative look into depths of oneself or a 
scrutinizing search for roots of some problem, Trieste blurred this focal-
ized and narrow perspective by opening a view at the seemingly endless 
sea widening the horizon and making a person more open. Suddenly 
the burden of intricate perception searching for rootedness in the Alpine 
hinterland could be shed or dissolved by the sea. Moreover, the atmo-
sphere of realism encountered in the Triestine emporium would clarify 
self-perception, liberating it from a threat of restraining essentialism.
The seaside city relieved Bartol of the confinement he could feel in 
the Slovenian hinterland surrounded by the Alps where the cultural 
circles seemed to him devoid of a necessary “valve” (possibly present in 
Trieste because of the sea?). In Ljubljana, as the writer remarked, “all are 
somehow irritated, hysterical as if they cannot or must not out of them-
selves” (Bartol, “Vzhod in Zapad”). Trieste, in this context, presents a 
relieving counterweight because one glance at the sea may provide with 
some distance towards oneself opening a valve of escape from one’s 
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
52
confinement within a monad of the inner world (one dominant ideol-
ogy or identity imposed by the majority). As if the constantly changing 
surface of the sea reminded its observer of the inevitable passage of 
time, fluidity and a fleeting nature of all historical phenomena, percep-
tions, identities. Therefore, the roots taken in “profound” Ljubljana 
could be undermined with a look at the sea and the metaphysical jus-
tification of bonds established between the Alps would evaporate in a 
more realistic atmosphere of the seaside city. “Anxious bonds go off” 
together with any seemingly fixed identity—in the Slovenian interior 
still taken for granted but in Trieste, when faced with different mani-
festations of otherness, it becomes relative and indeterminate.
Certain spaces, identified with specific “orders of time,” are experi-
enced differently also in terms of perception of time. In this regard, in 
contrast to the hectic spirit of the port city of Trieste, Ljubljana could 
make an impression of a place defined by a considerably slower pace of 
life. In 1947 while roaming along the streets of Slovenian capital, Bartol 
immersed himself in a sullen mood provoked by an atmosphere of the 
city similar to the one he had encountered there ten years before as if 
time were brought to a halt. Was the rhythm of changes in Ljubljana 
so slow that the only images which could come to mind of its frequent 
visitor were those from the past? In opposition to Trieste which, as 
an urban experiment, a fruit of a future-oriented vision of Habsburgs, 
privileged a continuous focus on the present moment, Ljubljana would 
acquire a more traditional, conservative character rooted in the past. 
Furthermore, Bartol defined the temporal orientation of both cities also 
in ideological terms. While in the Slovenian Littoral he could experi-
ence the forward-looking partisan spirit more directly, Ljubljana with 
its rather conservative trait seemed only reluctantly subjugating itself to 
the subversive, partisan ideas. Bartol formulated his impressions from 
one of his stays in the Slovenian main city as follows: “So slow, calm, 
philister, bureaucratic it seemed to me. Is it because the wide, joyful 
partisan spirit vanished? Yes, Ljubljana is a heavy, strong city. Heavy is 
its ambient and it slowly absorbed the entire partisan spirit.” (Bartol, 
“V. i Z.”)
The decade-long oscillation between Central European Ljubljana 
and Mediterranean Trieste enabled Bartol on the one hand to assume 
a privileged position due to a wider and more complete perspective. 
On the other hand, his amphibiousness implied a certain schizophre-
nia provoking problematic identity dilemmas. The mediating position 
between the East and the West makes possible reciprocal enrichments 
but also poses a threat of double isolation as a result of marginalization 
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
53
from two sides of the border and from two societies distortedly repre-
sented by national identities as homogenous. Bartol experienced both 
positive and negative aspects of his existential situation marked with 
in-betweenness.
As “the Littoral Slovenian among continental Slovenians, a fish on 
dry land” (Košuta, “Tržaški” 86), the writer viewed himself as more 
open and liberal than his compatriots living in other parts of the coun-
try. Bartol explained this clash of worldviews and experiences, referring 
to his particular origins immersed in the open and multicultural atmo-
sphere of Trieste, foreign to other Slovenians:
A man, who as a child could each day watch ships coming from all the conti-
nents of the world and who saw in his birthplace day by day representatives of 
the most divergent nations, people and races walking along his streets, listened 
to unknown languages and unknown melodies, necessarily accumulated in 
his memory different impressions, as a child necessarily indulged in different 
wishes and fantasies than someone who was born and grew up in the midst of 
patriarchal peace […] in a separated from the world Slovenian village and its 
more or less poetic idyll. (Bartol, Pot 293–294)
Bartol found himself in an uneasy situation of double alienation which 
he described as follows: “In Ljubljana I was a foreigner, they thought it 
because I am Triestine […]. Here I was a foreigner for them because they 
thought that I am from Ljubljana. […] I am a guest among Slovenians, 
they accepted me as an annoying intruder.” (Bartol, “Zapiski”)
In Ljubljana, Bartol experienced isolation predominantly on the 
artistic plane. As Taja Kramberger noted, the writer’s provenience and 
thus different “social habitus,” “topoi” and “places of collective mem-
ory” (sea, urbs, intellectuality, humour) which compose his “literary 
topography” made him foreign and unaccepted within the “Slovenian 
literary field” characterised by provincialism, sentimental rusticism 
and “scholastic antiintellectuality” (Kramberger 889–892). Bartol was 
a nonconformist escaping the predominant in Slovenia aesthetic classi-
fications. Distant from abiding any clearly defined genre, he wished to 
elaborate his own formal way of expression. This “multi-genre author” 
transcended the commonly adopted and expected artistic, mental pat-
terns with his particular attitude to art and approach to the world 
which combined irony, cynicism, nihilism and Machiavellianism 
(Belšak 124–135). As an outsider, referencing the dominant aesthetic 
currents, the writer remarked: “In my notes on numerous places I 
complain about my loneliness and misunderstanding …” (Bartol, 
Romantika 269, 275)
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
54
Reflecting on his own fate and alternative, untaken paths of life, 
Bartol concluded that if he had remained in Trieste, he would have 
become an entirely different person. While in the seaside city he could 
sense a certain unity with its inhabitants and life in general (“here I am 
with people and life one”), in Ljubljana he felt more foreign. Many 
years spent in the Slovenian capital could not mitigate his experience 
of alienation. Bartol compared himself to a “foreign bird” which as a 
victim of the locals’ hostility was lost and unaccepted on the Slovenian 
territory. “The native birds pecked and banished the foreign bird seek-
ing shelter. And where shall it fly away if it cannot go home? In the 
heights?” He could not go home because with the passage of time it 
became recognizable only in memory (Bartol, “Balkanijada VI. Trst, 
2. VII. 46”). Bartol managed to go beyond this double estrangement 
founded on excluding national identities and the binary perspective of 
majority-minority by placing himself within some wider frames of a 
universal spirit. As he noted: “In reality I was only the messenger of the 
universal spirit, der Herold des Weltgeistes. Erratic bloc, meteor which 
fell on the earth and by accident on the Slovenian ground.” (Bartol, 
“Zapiski”) Convinced that life itself forced him to follow the “steep 
way up,” Bartol perceived his fate as similar to France Prešeren, whose 
literary work was recognized only posthumously. Misunderstood by his 
contemporaries, Bartol believed that his original contribution to the 
Slovenian and world literature would receive a proper recognition in 
future (Bartol, “Balkanijada VI. Trst, 2. VII. 46”).
Conclusion
Trieste with its flourishing harbor, for centuries attracting a flux of 
newcomers, became the city of immigrants (Cattaruzza 193)8 where 
arrivals and departures made up discontinuous life-stories tinged by on 
the one hand uprootedness and on the other hand a search for some 
bonds. Intermingled nationalism and cosmopolitanism informed in-
habitants’ positions depending on their social background, economic 
and political interests as well as historical circumstances. Given that 
both cosmopolitanism and irredentism in Trieste were, in Pamela 
Ballinger’s words, “interrelated ideologies upon which individuals may 
8 For the study of the role of immigration (“driving factor”) and demographic 
development in the transformation of the city’s social structure and its fast economic 
growth see Kalc 12.
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
55
draw in different realms or moments,” Triestines’ self-identifications 
acquired a changeable character. This coexistence of only seemingly 
contradictory ideologies was embodied by many Triestine writers who 
“simultaneously embraced ‘nationalist’ and ‘cosmopolitan’ positions in 
different aspects of their life” (Ballinger 92–93). This duality was also 
mirrored in Bartol’s oeuvre which thus could be characterized as both 
supranational and local, Slovenian. Following this line of interpreta-
tion, the writer was described by Košuta as “glocal,” on the crossroads 
of globality and locality (Košuta, “Tržaški” 73–88). Bartol’s global 
openness, trespassing national boundaries, radiates from his past ex-
perience of cosmopolitan and to great extent mythologized Habsburg 
Trieste. Later in the Cold War period the city marked with a tense 
atmosphere of increasing national divisions shaped the writer’s locality.
Multicultural Trieste, where omnipresent otherness led to contin-
gent self-delineations per negationem (Ara and Magris 13–16), is also 
a place reverberating with absence, not only of the past, origins but 
also of unfulfilled (geopolitical) visions of future. Claudio Minca, who 
presents Trieste’s history through the prism of “ideal geographies of 
absence” which in 1848 shifted from “cosmopolitan/Mediterranean” 
to “‘national’/territorial,” underlines that “dominant imaginations 
of the city have always been (and continue to be) structured around 
such ‘geographies of absence’—both in ideal terms (absence as a value 
in itself), as well as in clear opposition to the ‘geographies of essence’ 
that sustained the other grand project of European bourgeois moder-
nity: the territorial nation-state.” These manifold instances of absence 
refer to the absence of Italy (Trieste as an orphan), Vienna (Trieste as 
“Austria’s widow”), Istrian Peninsula, Slavic nation-state with Trieste 
as capital (advocated among Slovenians) as well as a new future-ori-
ented cultural horizon and a political project which could restore to 
post-war Trieste its bygone cosmopolitan spirit (Minca 269–272). 
Bartol’s experiences of the Triestine reality after the Second World 
War combined both cosmopolitan (nostalgic) and territorial (future-
oriented) “geographies of absence.” At one end, faced with the renewed 
Italian-Slovenian confrontation, the writer sensed a certain absence of 
the multicultural, cosmopolitan city of his youth. At the other, con-
vinced about Trieste’s adherence to the Slovenian hinterland, his expe-
rience of absence also related to the unfulfilled but desirable annexation 
of Trieste to Yugoslavia.
Bartol’s self-identification in relation to space in terms of amphib-
ian reveals his topographical imagination and indicates his sensitivity 
to changeability of places. The writer’s amphibiousness shaped by his 
PKn, letnik 46, št. 3, Ljubljana, november 2023
56
decade-long oscillation between Mediterranean Trieste and Central 
European Ljubljana enriched his self and his literary work but also pro-
voked double isolation. He managed to transcend the sense of alien-
ation by identifying himself with a world spirit (Weltgeist) and by the 
intensified work of memory which could to a certain extent mitigate 
the temporal discordance between bygone Habsburg Trieste and Free 
Territory of Trieste, between a mythicized cosmopolitan openness and 
the Cold War confinement.
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»Med Vzhodom in Zahodom«: Samorazumevanje 
Vladimirja Bartola med srednjeevropsko Ljubljano 
in sredozemskim Trstom (1946–1956)
Ključne besede: slovenska književnost v Italiji / Bartol, Vladimir / kulturna identiteta / 
Trst / mediteranskost / Srednja Evropa
Članek obravnava fluidno samorazumevanje Vladimirja Bartola v povezavi s 
spremenljivimi kraji njegovega bivanja v prvem desetletju po drugi svetovni 
vojni. Stalno nihanje pisatelja med Trstom in Ljubljano so spremljale spre-
membe perspektiv (manjšina/večina) in kulturno-jezikovne dvojnosti, ki so 
slovensko književnost v Italiji zaznamovale z eksistencialističnim predznakom. 
Bartolova vrnitev v Trst je postavila pod vprašaj tako njegov odnos do prostora 
Aleksandra Tobiasz:     “Between the East and the West”
59
kot do časa oz. sobivanja preteklega habsburškega multikulturnega pristani-
šča v spominu z doživeto hladnovojno podobo mesta. Bivanje v Trstu je tako 
botrovalo obsežnim zapisom, ki predstavljajo glavni vir članka (gre za avtobio-
grafijo in neobjavljene fragmente dnevnika). Pri predstavitvi Bartolove samoi-
dentifikacije se avtorica navdihuje pri prostorskem obratu ter fenomenologiji. 
Na ta način skuša prikazati pisateljevo samorazumevanje, rekonfigurirano v 
skladu z njegovo povojno eksistencialno topografijo, razpeto med srednjee-
vropsko Ljubljano in sredozemskim Trstom.
1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original scientific article
UDK 821.163.6.09Bartol V.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v46.i3.03