REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ISSN 2350-4803 (SPLET/ONLINE) ISSN 1855-4431 (TISK/PRINT) The Journal of Elementary Education is published with the support of the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency Revija za elementarno izobraževanje izhaja s podporo Javne agencije za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Odgovorni urednik: Matjaž Duh (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednica za področje družboslovja: Silva Bratož (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednica za področje humanistike: Sonja Starc (Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Urednik informacijske podpore: Tomaž Bratina (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Tehnična urednica: Jerneja Herzog (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) Tajnik revije: Kosta Dolenc (Univerza v Mariboru, Pedagoška fakulteta, Slovenija) MEDNARODNI UREDNIŠKI ODBOR dr. Herbert Zoglowek, (UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Norveška), dr. Maria Aleksandrovich, (Akademia Pomorska w Slupsku, Poljska), dr. Grozdanka Gojkov, (Univerzitet u Beogradu, Srbija), dr. Jelena Prtljaga, (Visoka škola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitača »Mihailo Palov« Vršac, Srbija), ddr. Jürgen Kühnis, (Pädagogische Hochschule Schwyz, Švica), dr. Marie Fulková, (Univerzitě Karlově, Češka), dr. Oliver Holz, (KU Lueven, Belgija), dr. Siniša Opić (Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Hrvaška), dr. Ivana Batarelo Kokić, (Sveučilište u Splitu), dr. Anita Zovko (Sveučilište u Rijeci, Hrvaška), Nickolas Komninos (Univerza Udine, Italija), dr. Dean Iliev, (Univerza St. Klement Bitola, Severna Makedonija), dr. Ljubica Marjanovič Umek, (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Janez Vogrinc, (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dr. Milena Valenčič Zuljan, (Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija), dddr. Joca Zurc (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Alenka Valh Lopert (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Michelle Gadpaille, (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Andrej Šorgo (Univerza v Mariboru Slovenija), dr. Mateja Ploj Virtič (Univerza v Mariboru), dr. Majda Schmidt Krajnc, (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Alenka Lipovec, (Univerza v Mariboru, Slovenija), dr. Mara Cotič (Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija), dr. Tina Štemberger, (Univerza na Primorskem, Slovenija) NASLOV UREDNIŠTVA Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, Uredništvo revije Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija, e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si ZALOŽNIK Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija e-pošta: zalozba@um.si, http://press.um.si/, http://journals.um.si/ Članki se referirajo v: SCOPUS (Elsevier Bibliografhic Databases), DOAJ, ERIH PLUS, EBSCO (EBSCOhostweb), Ulrichˋs Periodicals Directory, IBZ (Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services). Revija za elementarno izobraževanje je revija, ki jo izdaja Univerzitetna založba Univerze v Mariboru v soizdajateljstvu Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Mariboru, Pedagoške fakultete Univerze na Primorskem in Pedagoške fakultete Karlove Univerze v Pragi. Več o reviji: https://journals.um.si/index.php/education Prispevke avtorji oddajo na spletni aplikaciji: https://journals.um.si/index.php/education/about/submissions. Journal of Elementary Education Editor-in-Chief: Matjaž Duh (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Editor for Social Sciences: Silva Bratož (Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Editor for Humanities: Sonja Starc (Universitiy of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) IT Editor: Tomaž Bratina (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Technical Editor: Jerneja Herzog (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenia) Head Secretary: Kosta Dolenc (University of Maribor, Faculty of Education, Slovenija) INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD Herbert Zoglowek, PhD (University of Trømso, Norwegian Arctic University, Norway), Maria Aleksandrovich, PhD (Pomeranian University in Słupsk, Poland), Grozdanka Gojkov, PhD (University of Belgrade, Serbia), Jelena Prtljaga, PhD (Preschool Teacher Training College »Mihailo Palov«, Serbia), Jürgen Kühnis, Phd, (The Schwyz University of Teacher Education, Switzerland), Marie Fulková, PhD (Charles University, Czech Republic), Oliver Holz, PhD (KU Leuven, Belgium), Siniša Opić, PhD (University of Zagreb, Croatia), Ivana Batarelo Kokić, PhD, (University of Split, Croatia), Anita Zovko, PhD (University of Rijeka, Croatia), Nickolas Komninos, (University of Udine, Italy), Dean Iliev, PhD (University St. Kliment Bitola, North Macedonia), Ljubica Marjanovič Umek, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Faculty, Slovenia) Janez Vogrinc, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia), Milena Valenčič Zuljan, PhD (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia), Alenka Valh Lopert, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Michelle Gadpaille, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Andrej Šorgo PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Mateja Ploj Virtič, PhD (University of Maribor), Majda Schmidt Krajnc, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Joca Zurc, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Alenka Lipovec, PhD (University of Maribor, Slovenia), Mara Cotič, PhD (University of Primorska, Slovenia) Tina Štemberger, PhD (Univesrity of Primorska, Faculty of Education, Koper, Slovenia) EDITORIAL OFFICE ADDRESS Journal of Elementary Education, Editorial Board of Journal of Elementary Education Koroška cesta 160, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenija , e-pošta: rei.pef@um.si, http://rei.um.si PUBLISHED BY University of Maribor Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia e-mail: zalozba@um.si, http://press.um.si/, http://journals.um.si/ Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: SCOPUS (Elsevier Bibliografhic Databases), DOAJ, ERIH PLUS, EBSCO (EBSCOhostweb), Ulrichˋs Periodicals Directory, IBZ (Internationale Bibliographie der Zeitschriftenliteratur), Proquest, dLib.si, DKUM, COBISS (Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services). Journal of Elementary Education is a peer-reviewed journal, open access journal that publishes scientific articles primarly but not limited to the area of elementary school education. More about the journal: https://journals.um.si/index.php/education Manuscripts should be uploaded at https://journals.um.si/index.ph–p/education/about/submissions. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje Journal of Elementary Education Volume 18 Number 3 September 2025 Kazalo / Table of Contents Prispevki / Articles Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? Pogledi bodočih učiteljev na poučevanje: pogled nazaj ali korak naprej? 235 Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles Razlike v motivaciji za prevzemanje različnih delovnih vlog glede na spol – ravnatelj/ravnateljica 253 Igor Nikičić & Rahaela Varga A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 Digitalne kompetence vzgojiteljev predšolskih otrok: primerjalna študija digitalnih praks predšolskih učiteljev med 271 pandemijo COVID-19 in po njej Marijana Miočić, Matilda Karamatić Brčić & Bernarda Tokić A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 287 Raziskava o učnem uspehu osnovnošolcev glede na sedežni red v razredu Kukuh Rizki Satriaji, Imam Santosa, Achmad Syarief, & Andriyanto Wibisono Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 305 Izboljšanje učne uspešnosti v osnovnem izobraževanju: Vloge reševanja problemov in izzivov kreativnega mišljenja Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding Facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 325 Učinkovitost računalniške igre za prepoznavanje in razumevanje čustev pri otrocih z okvarami sluha Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 235–251, September 2025 STUDENT TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHING: LOOKING BACK OR MOVING FORWARD? ALMA ŠKUGOR1, SUZANA TOMAŠ2 & ALENA LETINA3 1University of Osijek, Faculty of Education, Osijek, Croatia Potrjeno/Accepted 31. 7. 2025 2University of Split, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Split, Croatia 3University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education, Zagreb, Croatia Objavljeno/Published 30. 9. 2025 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR askugor@foozos.hr Abstract/Izvleček The aim of the study was to compare perceptions about the teaching of the subject “Nature and Society” among preservice primary school teachers at three Croatian universities. The results indicate consistent perceptions among second- and fifth-year students, regardless of their university, with a notable inclination Keywords: toward teacher-centred teaching. Fifth-year students from all three universities DASTT-C, student- demonstrate a slight shift away from the traditional teaching paradigm compared centred teaching, with second-year students. For a genuine transformation in teaching approaches, teacher-centred teaching, perception, preservice in addition to acquired knowledge and developed competences, it is essential to primary school teachers. encourage preservice teachers to engage in self-reflection on their teaching practices to become aware of their own beliefs about teaching. Pogledi bodočih učiteljev na poučevanje: pogled nazaj ali korak naprej? Ključne besede: Cilj raziskave je bil primerjati percepcijo pouka Naravoslovja in družbe med DASTT-C, v učenca študenti, bodočimi učitelji razrednega pouka na treh hrvaških univerzah. Rezultati usmerjen pouk, v učitelja kažejo na homogenost percepcij študentov 2. in 5. letnika glede pouka, ne glede usmerjen pouk, percepcija, študenti na univerzo, na kateri študirajo, pri čemer je opazna izrazita tendenca k pouku, bodoči učitelji. usmerjenemu na učitelja. Študenti 5. letnika vseh treh univerz v primerjavi s študenti 2. letnika izkazujejo nekoliko večji odmik od tradicionalne učne UDK/UDC paradigme. Za dejansko spremembo učne paradigme pa je poleg pridobljenega 378:[37.091.3:5] znanja in razvitih kompetenc pomembno spodbujati študente, bodoče učitelje, k samorefleksiji poučevalne dejavnosti, da bi postali bolj zavedni svojih prepričanj o poučevanju. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.4973 Besedilo / Text © 2025 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 236 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction The study focuses on perceptions about teaching “Nature and Society”, a subject integrated into the Croatian primary school curriculum from first to fourth grade. The most recent educational reform introduced a new “Nature and Science” curriculum, structured around the concepts of Organization of the World Around Us, Changes and Relationships, Individual and Society, and Energy. This curriculum emphasizes a constructivist approach, incorporating experiential, inquiry-based, and problem-solving learning, and promoting student-centred teaching that ensures their active engagement (MZO, Curriculum for the Subject Nature and Society, 2019). Although contemporary teaching paradigms have been embedded in Croatian educational documents for two decades, their implementation in practice remains gradual. Preservice teachers enter their studies with pre-existing beliefs about learning and teaching, shaped by their twelve years of prior schooling. According to Nespor (1987), such beliefs strongly predict teachers’ behaviour in the classroom. Studies (Thomas, Pederson and Finson, 2001; Markic and Ingo, 2010; Minogue, 2010; Jones and Leagon, 2014) indicate that these beliefs and mental models predominantly align with traditional teaching approaches, where teacher-centred, lecture-based teaching prevails, with teachers guiding the process, while students remain passive observers. Research by Kalyon (2020) examining teachers and their students suggests a correlation between teaching styles and student perceptions of teaching. Students of teachers who adhere to a traditional teaching style see themselves in a similar role, while those taught by educators employing constructivist methods perceive learning accordingly. Aydogdu and Selanik-Ay (2016) report that novice teachers and preservice teachers are more inclined toward student-centred teaching, favouring constructivist approaches to learning and teaching. Go and Kang (2015) highlight the influence of teacher education on shaping preservice teachers’ beliefs about science teaching and learning. Bakir (2016) emphasizes the role of university faculty in shaping future teachers’ teaching styles. Methodology courses in teacher education programs provide students with knowledge of teaching practices linked to direct classroom experience (Stroupe et al., 2020). Preservice teachers gain experience by planning, designing, and conducting lessons in training schools, engaging in professional teaching practice, and analysing and reflecting on their teaching activities. Beyond the acquisition of methodological knowledge, greater emphasis should be placed on making students aware of their existing beliefs about teaching Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 237. and supporting their gradual adaptation, as these beliefs will ultimately shape their professional practice (Nilsson and Loughran, 2012). According to Fosnot (2005), students in methodology courses reflect on their learning processes, leading to a shift in their perception of the teacher’s role—from a direct instructor to a facilitator of scientific thinking who aligns student activities with learning outcomes. Nilsson and Loughran (2012) also identify the need for structured support in connecting theoretical coursework with practical experience. Letina and Canjek-Androić (2025) highlight the importance of guidance in implementing teaching strategies, problem- based teaching, and scientific inquiry models. Nordine et al. (2021) describe an international model of coherent science education that fosters collaboration between universities and schools, where university faculty and school-based mentor teachers work together to support preservice teachers in a plan-teach-reflect cycle, which positively impacts and reshapes their teaching beliefs. Self-reflection on teaching practices and strategies is essential not only for students but also for the teachers and university faculty involved in teacher preparation. Professional development programs should integrate self-reflection as a driving force for professional growth, rather than relying solely on information-based lectures (Valenčič Zuljan, 2008). Go and Kang (2015) report that teachers who engaged in reflective practices re- evaluated their beliefs and revised their teaching approaches, leading to meaningful professional development. Their findings include examples of teachers who, through professional training, learned to structure lessons in ways that encourage students to explore, think critically, and draw conclusions independently, rather than relying solely on teacher demonstrations. Examining students’ perceptions about the teaching of “Nature and Society” is justified by the need to understand their professional beliefs that shape their future teaching practice, while also contributing to the improvement of initial teacher education programs, the development of more effective teaching strategies at the university level, the planning of high-quality professional development for teachers, and the strengthening of self-reflection among students, educators, and university faculty. Method The study aimed to examine and compare preservice primary school teachers’ perceptions about the teaching of the subject “Nature and Society” across three Croatian universities. The research questions focused on identifying and analysing REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 238 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION differences in perceptions between second- and fifth-year teacher education students during the 2022/23 academic year. The following hypotheses were tested: H1: There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions about the teaching of “Nature and Society” among second-year students based on their university. H2: There is no statistically significant difference in perceptions about the teaching of “Nature and Society” among fifth-year students based on their university. The study included 288 students from the second and fifth years of teacher education programs: N=129 from the Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb; N=97 from the Faculty of Education, University of Osijek; and N=62 from the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split (Table 1). The data was collected during the 2022/23 academic year. Second-year students were selected as participants because they had not yet developed methodological competences but possessed basic pedagogical, psychological, and didactic knowledge. Teacher education programs introduce teaching methodology courses, including “Methodology for ‘Nature and Society’”, in the third year of study. Fifth-year students were also included in the study, since they were in their final year and would soon enter the teaching profession. All participants provided informed consent and had the option to withdraw from the study at any time. Table 1 presents the sample distribution according to independent variables, study year, and university affiliation. The sample was balanced in terms of the study year, with second-year students (N=126, 43.7%) and fifth-year students (N=162, 56.3%) represented in similar proportions. Given the predominance of female students in teacher education programs, the sample was not gender-balanced, and gender differences were not analysed. This sample provides insight into the structure and implementation of, and reflection on higher education teaching in programs for teacher education and related programs in Croatia. Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 239. Table 1. Structure of the sample in terms of place and year of study University 2nd year 5th year Total (N) Zagreb 47 82 129 Osijek 45 52 97 Split 34 28 62 Total (N) 126 162 288 For the purpose of this research, the Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test-Checklist (DASTT-C) questionnaire by Thomas et al. (2001) was used. The aim of the DASTT-C questionnaire was to examine the perception of student teachers through two means: a) depicting themselves as teachers in a “Nature and Society” class, and b) positioning on the continuum of teaching theories, which assesses students’ perception of teaching in this subject area. The instrument consists of two parts: the first part includes a blank square in which students draw themselves as teachers in a “Nature and Society” class. Below the square, there are blank lines where students briefly describe the activities of the teacher and students in the drawing. This brief description serves to facilitate the interpretation of the drawings and enables a more precise assessment of specific aspects. The instructions given to participants for completing the questionnaire were simple: “Draw yourself as a teacher in a “Nature and Society” class and write a short description of the drawing.” Participants were given 15 minutes to complete the task and were explicitly told that drawing skills were not being assessed. For analysis of the DASTT-C questionnaire results, we used a quantitative frequency content analysis of the drawings by the 2nd and 5th-year students (N=288). These drawings served as the data source. The unit of analysis for the drawings consisted of indicators marked on the DASTT-C checklist for evaluators. The checklist contains three main sections: Teacher (5 indicators), Students (3 indicators), and Environment (5 indicators). The drawings were independently evaluated by three associate professors specializing in didactics and methodology, who assessed the presence (1) or absence (0) of each of the 13 indicators in the drawings. Cohen’s kappa coefficient was used as a measure of inter- rater agreement. In cases of disagreement between two raters, the third rater’s opinion determined the final decision by confirming the judgment of either the first or second rater. Thomas et al. (2001) established the reliability of the DASTT-C questionnaire, with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.82, Finson et al. (2006) reported values between 0.94 and 0.98, and Škugor (2013) reported 0.76. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 240 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Data collected during the empirical research were quantitatively processed using the statistical program SPSS 20.0. Univariate analysis procedures were applied to determine descriptive characteristics, including arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, skewness, kurtosis, and data distribution expressed in frequencies and percentages. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicated that the data distribution deviated from normality, which was further confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk test. Consequently, the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test was used to compare participants based on educational characteristics related to their place of study. Results and Discussion Before data processing, Kappa coefficients were calculated for all 13 indicators, ranging from 0.87 to 1.00, indicating almost perfect agreement among raters. The total number of indicators present in each drawing was then summed overall and within specific sections (Teacher, Students, Environment). Results were classified into three ranked categories along a continuum based on the indicators present in the drawings, reflecting the characteristics of constructivist, traditional, or undefined teaching approaches. Scores from 0 to 4 indicate a teacher whose teaching style is constructivist, inquiry-based, and student-centred; scores from 5 to 6 indicate a teacher with a conceptual teaching style that is insufficiently constructivist; and scores from 7 to 13 indicate a teacher whose teaching style is explicit, traditional, lecture-based, and teacher-centred. Various authors, such as El-Deghaidy (2006), Yilmaz et al. (2007), and Tatar et al. (2012), reported different distributions of results across categories, whereas the authors of this research followed the categorization outlined by the instrument’s authors, Thomas et al. (2001). A similar categorization was applied by Louca et al. (2002), Markic and Ingo (2010), Škugor (2013), Azam and Menon (2021), and Škugor et al. (2024). The first step in the statistical analysis of the DASTT-C questionnaire results was to analyse the frequency of students’ perceptions of “Nature and Society” teaching among 2nd-year students in the 2022/23 academic year (N=126), categorized by their universities. The frequencies of individual category results (from 0 to 13) were expressed as percentages for each university (Table 2). The analysis showed that the overall DASTT-C checklist scores for all 2nd-year students ranged between 3 and 13 points. Drawings with a total score of zero contained one of the assessed indicators. At the University of Zagreb, the frequency range of 2nd-year students’ Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 241. results was between 3 and 13, with the most frequent score being 11 (Mo=11, f max=9), representing 19.2% of students, while the arithmetic mean was 8.87 (SD=2.40). The frequency range of results for students at the University of Osijek was between 8 and 13, with the most frequent score being 12 (Mo=12, f max=22), representing 49% of students, while the arithmetic mean was 11.51 (SD=1.13). At the University of Split, the frequency range of student results was between 5 and 13, with the most frequent score being 11 (Mo=11, f max=12), representing 35.3% of students, while the arithmetic mean was 10.08 (SD=1.57). To test the first hypothesis of this study, which proposed that there was no statistically significant difference in students’ perceptions of teaching based on the university they attend, non-parametric statistics and the Kruskal-Wallis test were used. The test results showed no statistically significant difference between the groups, H (2, N = 42) = 2.56, p > 0.05. Therefore, the first hypothesis is confirmed, as there is no significant difference between the groups of students based on the university they attend. Table 2. Percentage of frequency of scores on the DASTT-C checklist for 2nd-year students Score on 2nd-year students DASTT-C Zagreb Osijek Split checklist f(%) f(%) (f%) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 2.1 0 0 4 6.4 0 0 5 2.1 0 2.9 6 6.4 0 2.9 7 8.5 0 0 8 12.8 4.4 2.9 9 14.9 0 20.6 10 17 11.1 23.6 11 19.2 22.2 35.3 12 8.5 49 8.9 13 2.1 13.3 2.9 Total 100 100 100 The frequency results in percentages are presented graphically to provide clearer insight into students’ perceptions and the differences among them (Figure 1). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 242 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The curves for students from all three universities are shifted to the right, indicating that second-year students of the 2022/23 generation predominantly perceive teaching as teacher-centred. 2nd-year students 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Zagreb Osijek Split Figure 1. Graphic representation of f (%) for 2nd-year students The DASTT-C questionnaire determines students’ placement within one of three categories along the continuum of teaching theories based on their total score (Table 3). Table 3 shows that 8.5% of students from Zagreb perceive teaching as student- centred, while no students from Osijek or Split fall into this category. At all three universities, a high percentage of students, 100% in Osijek, perceive teaching as Decimals in this table need to be periods and not commas. These findings were unexpected, as the same research was conducted at Croatian universities 11 years ago (Škugor, 2013). A decade ago, second-year students most often depicted themselves in the teacher- centred category, but a higher percentage also placed themselves in the student- centred category or in a category that did not align strictly with either approach. Therefore, similar or improved results had been anticipated. Despite educational reforms and the introduction of new curricula (2019) emphasizing constructivist teaching theories and inquiry-based teaching, student perceptions have shifted even more toward teacher-centred approaches, maintaining the traditional teacher role. These results align with findings from other studies (Louca et al., 2002; Talsma, 2007; Tatar et al., 2012), which suggest that students, before enrolling in methodology Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 243. courses, tend to perceive teaching as teacher- Decimals in this table need to be periods and not commas because their beliefs about teaching are shaped by their previous schooling experiences. Choi and Ramsey (2010) highlight that elementary school teaching continues to follow a traditional model with the teacher at the Decimals in this table need to be periods and not commas, which corresponds to the way students depict teaching in their drawings. Table 3. Perception of teaching among 2nd-year students according to categories on the continuum Student-centred Non-specified Teacher-centred University teaching (%) orientation 0 – 4 points of teaching (%) teaching (%) 5 – 6 points 7 – 13 points Zagreb 8.5 8.5 83 Osijek 0 0 100 Split 0 5.8 94.2 The analysis of the frequency of the evaluated indicators on all drawings by 5th-year students for the academic year 2022/23 revealed that the results ranged from 3 to 13 points. For drawings that scored zero points, no evaluated indicators were observed. At the University of Zagreb, the frequency range of the results for 5th- year students was from 3 to 13, with the most frequent score being 5 (Mo = 5, f max = 14) for 17.1% of students, while the arithmetic mean was 6.84 (SD = 2.51). The frequency range of the results for students at the University of Osijek was between 5 and 13, with the most frequent score being 9 (Mo = 9, f max = 14) for 27% of students, and the arithmetic mean was 8.80 (SD = 2.11). At the University of Split, the frequency range of student results was from 3 to 12, with the most frequent score being 9 (Mo = 9, f max = 6) for 21.4% of students, and the arithmetic mean was 7.82 (SD = 2.77). In order to test the second hypothesis in this study, which stated that there is no statistically significant difference in the perception of teaching among 5th-year students depending on the university they attend, non-parametric statistics and the Kruskal-Wallis test were used. The test result showed no statistically significant difference between the groups, H (2, N = 42) = 3.80, p > 0.05, thus the second hypothesis is confirmed as there is no significant difference between the groups of students regarding the university they attend. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 244 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Table 4. Percentage of frequency of scores on the DASTT-C checklist for 5th-year students Score on 5th-year students DASTT-C Zagreb Osijek Split checklist f(%) f(%) (f%) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 4.9 0 7.1 4 14.7 0 10.7 5 17.1 7.7 10.7 6 12.2 7.7 7.1 7 13.4 11.5 7.1 8 8.5 15.4 3.6 9 8.5 27 21.4 10 12.2 3.8 14.3 11 6.1 15.4 14.3 12 1.2 7.7 3.6 13 1.2 3.8 0 Total 100 100 100 To provide a clearer insight into student perceptions of teaching and the differences among universities, frequency distributions expressed as percentages are presented graphically (Figure 2). The curves representing the results of fifth-year students from the universities in Zagreb and Split show a concentration of scores around the middle and a shift to the left, indicating a perception of student-centred teaching and an indeterminate teaching style. In contrast, the results of fifth-year students from the University of Osijek are shifted further to the right, suggesting that students perceive teaching as more teacher-centred. Based on the total score, the distribution of students across the three categories on the teaching theory continuum was determined (Table 5). One in five fifth-year students from the University of Zagreb perceives themselves as a student-centred teacher with a constructivist and inquiry-based teaching style. However, half the students still perceive themselves within a traditional, teacher-centred style of teaching. At the University of Osijek, none of the students perceives themselves as favouring a student-centred teaching approach, with 84.6% depicting a traditional teaching paradigm. At the University of Split, 17.8% of students perceive themselves within a student-centred teaching approach, while the same percentage represents a Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 245. conceptual teaching style that is not yet sufficiently constructivist, whereas 64.4% depict a traditional teaching paradigm. 5th-year students 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Zagreb Osijek Split Figure 2. Graphic representation of f (%) for 5th-year students When comparing the results of second- and fifth-year students from the 2022/23 cohort, a slight shift toward the middle and left side of the continuum is observed among fifth-year students, indicating a move toward a student-centred paradigm and a constructivist teaching style. These findings align with previous research (Louca et al., 2002; El-Deghaidy, 2006; Talsma, 2007; Minogue, 2010; Ambusaidi and Al- Balushi, 2012; Tatar et al., 2012; Lay and Khoo, 2013; Buldur, 2017), which suggests that students revise their beliefs and mental representations of teaching after completing methodology courses, teaching demonstration lessons, and professional teaching practice. Table 5. Perception of teaching among 5th-year students according to categories on the continuum University Student-centred Non-specified Teacher-centred teaching (%) orientation teaching (%) 0 – 4 points of teaching (%) 7 – 13 points 5 – 6 points Zagreb 19.6 29.3 51.1 Osijek 0 15.4 84.6 Split 17.8 17.8 64.4 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 246 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION When comparing the results of students from the 5th year, cohort 2022/23, with those from 11 years ago across the same three Croatian universities (Škugor, 2013), the results today show significantly worse outcomes for students at all three universities compared to the 2011/12 cohort. These results indicate a shift towards a traditional teaching approach, with students retaining the beliefs they held when they entered university and focusing on teacher-centred teaching. A comparison of these two cohorts also reveals differences based on the location of study. Eleven years ago, students from Zagreb and Osijek perceived their education as more student-centred compared to students from Split, who, at that time, also had a greater perception of student-centred teaching. By 2022/23, no student from Osijek perceived teaching as student-centred, while students from Split perceived it as more so than before. Although the current research results indicate a difference in teaching perceptions between 2nd and 5th-year students, as observed in previous studies, it is concerning that these results are notably worse compared to prior student cohorts. The question arises as to why 5th-year students maintain a traditional teaching approach and cannot move beyond the traditional paradigm. It is assumed that online teaching during the pandemic, for which neither teachers nor university staff were adequately prepared, could be among the causes. During the pandemic, students lacked teaching practice in schools and did not have demonstration lessons. As a result, they were deprived of direct experience working with students, as the teaching simulations conducted at universities or online were insufficient to alter their beliefs about teaching. The analysis of demonstration lessons in school serves as an opportunity for students to learn and engage in self-reflection, which was also missing. Šojat (2024) conducted a longitudinal study with future chemistry teachers from universities in Zagreb, Osijek, and Split, the findings of which are consistent with those of this study. The results show uniformity in student beliefs regardless of the university they attend, with a significant trend towards a traditional teaching approach. After completing methodology courses, there was a slight shift towards more student-centred teaching, but after teaching practice, the shift reverted towards traditional beliefs and teacher-centred teaching. This finding is explained by the influence of mentor teachers during teaching practice and of student-teacher interaction. Kind (2015) also reports that the practice and mentors themselves have a significant impact on students’ beliefs and perceptions, especially when mentors’ beliefs remain traditional. This could be another factor explaining the results of this research among future teachers, since most mentors in schools have 20 or more Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 247. years of experience and completed their formal education when the traditional teaching paradigm was prevalent, an alignment which they have not changed throughout their professional development. Contrasting experiences regarding beliefs and changes in mental models during teaching practice are reported by El- Deghaidy (2006), Liaw (2009), Mensah (2011), Tatar et al. (2012), and Turkmen and Unver (2018), who highlight that students receive support from mentors to apply what they have learned in practice. A third potential cause for these research results may be explained by the findings of Prosser and Trigwell (2002), who argue that students who were taught in teacher-centred classrooms during their previous schooling reject modern teaching methods in which they actively participate in the learning process. They find it more acceptable to receive ready-made information to learn, rather than engaging in independent research and drawing conclusions. Conclusion In the Croatian education system, the constructivist approach to teaching and the student-centred paradigm have been present for the past two decades. The most recent educational reform in 2019 introduced a new curriculum for the subject of “Nature and Society”, emphasizing a constructivist approach to teaching that focuses on experiential, research-based, and problem-solving methods, with student-centred approaches ensuring an active role for students in learning. The results of this research provide insight into the complexity and interconnectedness of teaching and learning at all levels of education and during teachers’ professional development. Additionally, the results highlight the need for more intensive collaboration between university faculty and schoolteachers to transfer and sustain changes in practice. The perceptions and beliefs of student teachers about the teaching of “Nature and Society” are not aligned with curricular requirements and the needs of today’s students. The results show uniformity in 2nd and 5th-year students’ perceptions of teaching, regardless of the university attended, with a significant tendency toward teacher-centred teaching. Students at the University of Zagreb show a slight tendency toward student-centred teaching in both the 2nd and 5th years, but without statistically significant differences when compared to students from Osijek and Split. Fifth-year students at all universities show a slight departure from the traditional paradigm towards conceptual teaching, which is still insufficiently constructivist, compared to 2nd-year students. The students of the REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 248 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2022/23 cohort showed significantly worse results compared to students from 11 years ago, when the first study was conducted. The results suggest that future teachers still perceive themselves as central to the teaching process, which is the result of beliefs formed during their previous education. With this perception of teacher-centred teaching, the 5th-year students will soon enter classrooms and design and implement teaching scenarios. During demonstration lessons in schools, students need to be encouraged to analyse and reflect on their beliefs about teaching, which they will eventually transfer into their practice. Self-reflection, along with continuous support through various forms of professional development, is also crucial for teachers. School-based mentors, particularly those with over 20 years of experience, are often trained in the traditional paradigm and play a significant role in guiding students during teaching practice. As a result, students tend to revert to the old paradigm if their beliefs have not been internalized into their belief system. Therefore, the change in teaching paradigms should be considered in a broader context encompassing all levels of education and continuous professional development for teachers. Future research like this could be useful when conducted with trainee teachers and educators to help them recognize and, if necessary, alter their teaching beliefs. It would also be beneficial to carry out such research every five years during preservice education at all Croatian universities to monitor trends in the changes in student perceptions of teaching and draw more specific conclusions about what is happening and why, enabling the implementation of targeted measures. References Ambusaidi, A. K., and Al-Balushi, S. M. (2012). A Longitudinal Study to Identify Prospective Science Teachers’ Beliefs about Science Teaching Using the Draw-a-science-teacher-test Checklist. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 7(2), 291-311. Aydogdu, B., and Selanik-Ay, T. (2016). Determination of teacher characteristics which support constructivist learning environments. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 63, 293-310, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14689/ejer.2016.63.17 Azam, S., and Menon, D. (2021). Influence of Science Experiences on Preservice Elementary Teachers' Beliefs. Electronic Journal for Research in Science & Mathematics Education, 25(1), 20-45. Bakir, S. (2016). What are Their Beliefs? What is Their Approach in Practice? What is the Profile of Their Science Teachers and Professors? International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 11(5), 587-602. Buldur, S. (2017). A longitudinal investigation of the preservice science teachers’ beliefs about science teaching during a science teacher training programme. International Journal of Science Education, 39(1), 1-19. Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 249. Choi, S., and Ramsey, J. (2010). Constructing elementary teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, attitudes, and practical knowledge through an inquiry-based elementary science course. School Science and Mathematics, 109(6), 313–324. El-Deghaidy, H. (2006). An Investigation of Pre-service Teacher's Self-efficacy and Self-image as a Science Teacher in Egypt. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 7(2), Article 2 http://www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/v7_issue2/heba/index.htm od 15.2.2011. Finson, K. D., Pedersen, J. E., and Thomas, J. (2006). Comparing Science Teaching Styles to Students’ Perception of Scientists. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/teaclearfacpub/88 od 13.3.2024. Fosnot, C. T. (2005). Constructivism Revisited: Implications and Reflections. The Constructivist, 16(1), 21-38. Go, Y., Kang, J. (2015). Early childhood pre-service teachers’ self-images of science teaching in constructivism science education courses. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 16(2), 1-25. Harrison, C. (2013). Collaborative action research as a tool for generating formative feedback on teachers’ classroom assessment practice: The KREST Project. Teachers and teaching: theory and practice, 19(2), 202-213. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2013.741839 Jones, M. G., and Leagon, M. (2014). Science teacher attitudes and beliefs: Reforming practice. In N. G. Lederman, and S. K. Abell (eds.). Handbook of research on science education, Vol. II (pp. 830- 847). Routledge. Kalyon, D.Ş. (2020) Primary teachers’ and students’ images of teachers and learning environments. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 13(1), 155-167. https://doi.org/10.26822/iejee.2020.180 Kind, V. (2015). Preservice Science Teachers’ Science Teaching Orientations and Beliefs About Science. Science Education, 100(1), 122-152. Lay, Y. F., and Khoo, C. H. (2013). Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Mental Images of Science Teaching. Social Sciences & Humanities, 21(84), 1361-1377. Letina, A., and Canjek-Androić, S. (2025). Percepcija budućih učitelja o razvoju znanstvenog stvaralaštva u nastavi prirode i društva. In V. Svalina, A. Škugor, J. Martinović Bogojević, and A. Bilić (eds.), Zbornik radova s Prve međunarodne konferencije Kreativni pristupi učenju i podučavanju – CALT, sv. 1, (pp. 179-194). Osijek: Fakultet za odgojne i obrazovne znanosti; Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti. Liaw, E. (2009). Teacher efficacy of pre-service teachers in Taiwan: The influence of classroom teaching and group discussions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(1), 176-180. Louca, P., Rigas, P., and Valanides, N. (2002). Primary Student Teachers' Conceptions of Science Teaching. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Science Education. Nicosia, Cyprus, 242-248. Markic, S., Eilks, I., and Valanides, N. (2008). Developing a Tool to Evaluate Differences in Beliefs About Science Teaching and Learning among Freshman Science Student Teachers from Different Science Teaching Domains: A Case Study. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics and Technology Education, 4(2), 109-120. Markic, S., and Ingo, E (2010). First-Year Science Education Student Teachers’ Beliefs about Student- and Teacher-Centeredness: Parallels and Differences between Chemistry and Other Science Teaching Domains. Journal of Chemical Education, 87(3), 335-339. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed8000864 Mensah, F. M. (2011). The DESTIN: Preservice teachers’ drawings of the ideal elementary science teacher. School Science and Mathematics, (8), 379-388. Minogue, J. (2010). What is the teacher doing? What are the students doing? An application of the draw-a-science-teacher-test. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 21(7), 767-781. Ministry of Science and Education (2019). Kurikulum nastavnog predmeta Priroda i društvo za osnovne škole [Curriculum of the subject Nature and Society]. Retrieved from https://mzom.gov.hr/istaknute- REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 250 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION teme/odgoj-i-obrazovanje/nacionalni-kurikulum/predmetni-kurikulumi/priroda-i-drustvo/747 Nespor, J. (1987). The Role of Beliefs in the Practice of Teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19(4), 317-328. Nilsson, P., and Loughran, J. (2012). Exploring the development of pre-service elementary teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 23(7), 699–721. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-011-9239-y Nordine, J., Sorge, S., Delen, I., Evans, R., Juuti, K., Lavonen, J., Nilsson, P., Ropohl, M., and Stadler, M. (2021). Promoting Coherent Science Instruction through Coherent Science Teacher Education: A Model Framework for Program Design. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 32(8), 911–933. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2021.1902631 Prosser, K., and Trigwell, M. (2002). Experiences of Teaching in Higher Education. In: Understanding, Learning and Teaching: The Experience of Higher Education. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Stroupe, D., Hammerness, K., and McDonald, S. (Eds.). (2020). Preparing science teachers through practice- based teacher education. Harvard Education Press. Škugor, A. (2013). The Paradigm of Pupil-Oriented Science and Society Teaching as a Guideline in Student Training at Faculties of Teacher Education (Doctoral thesis). Zagreb: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Teacher Education. Škugor, A., Letina, A., and Tomaš, S. (2024). Student teachers’ perception of science teaching in Croatia. Revista Românească pentru Educaţie Multidimensională, 16(3), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.18662/rrem/16.3/880 Šojat, L. (2024). Beliefs and Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Croatian Pre-service Chemistry Teachers (Doctoral thesis). Split: University of Split, Faculty of Science. Talsma, V. L. (2007). Children Learning Science: Analysis of Drawings from the Science Methods Classroom. (A work in progress). A paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the North-Central Association for Science Teacher Educators (NASTE) http://homepage.mac.com/vtalsma/papers.htm Tatar, N., Yildiz Feyzioğlu, E. Buldur, S., and Akpinar, E. (2012). Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Mental Models about Science Teaching. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 12(4), 2934-2940. Thomas, J. A., Pederson, J. E., and Finson, K. D. (2001). Validating the Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C): Exploring Mental Models and Teacher Beliefs. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/teaclearfacpub/94 Turkmen, H., and Unver, E. (2018). Comparison of Elementary Students’ Images of Science Teaching for Turkish, Dutch, Scottish, and German Science Classrooms. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 6(11), 2624-2633, DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2018.061127 Valenčič Zuljan, M. (2008). Subjektivne teorije - cjeloživotno učenje. Rijeka: Hrvatsko futurološko društvo. Yan, Z. (2018). How teachers’ beliefs and demographic variables impact on self-regulated learning instruction. Educational Studies, 44(5), 564–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2017.1382331 Yilmaz, H., Turkmen, H., Pedersen, J. E., and Cavasi, P. H. (2007). Evaluation of Pre-service Teachers’ Images of Science Teaching in Turkey. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/teaclearfacpub/80 od 13.2.2024. Alma Škugor, Suzana Tomaš & Alena Letina: Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching: Looking Back or Moving Forward? 251. Authors: Alma Škugor, PhD Associate Professor. University J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Faculty of Education, Cara Hadrijana 10, Osijek, 31 000, Croatia, e-mail: askugor@foozos.hr Izredna profesorica, Univerza J. J. Strossmayer v Osijeku, Pedagoška fakulteta, Cara Hadrijana 10, Osijek, 31 000, Croatia, e-pošta: askugor@foozos.hr Suzana Tomaš, PhD Associate Professor. University of Split, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Split, Poljička cesta 35, Split, 21000, Croatia, e-mail: suzana@ffst.hr Izredna profesorica, Univerza v Splitu, Filozofska fakulteta v Splitu, Poljička cesta 35, Split, 21000, Croatia, e-pošta: suzana@ffst.hr Alena Letina, PhD Associate Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Education, Savska cesta 77, Zagreb, 10 000, Croatia, e-mail: alena.letina@ufzg.hr Izredna profesorica, Univerza v Zagrebu, Pedagoška fakulteta, Savska cesta 77, Zagreb, 10 000, Croatia, e-pošta: alena.letina@ufzg.hr REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 252 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 253–269, September 2025 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN HEAD TEACHERS’ WORK MOTIVATION FOR ASSUMING DIVERSE JOB ROLES IGOR NIKIČIĆ & RAHAELA VARGA Potrjeno/Accepted Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Education, Osijek, 31. 7. 2025 Croatia Objavljeno/Published 30. 9. 2025 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR/ igor.nikicic@gmail.com Abstract/Izvleček This paper explores the characteristics of gender differences in work motivation for assuming the diverse job roles of head teachers in their everyday work in Croatia. Grounded in the well-established self-determination theory (SDT), this paper examines not only the intensity of motivation among head teachers, but also its quality, while applying the WRMS – SP questionnaire. The findings have important implications in recognizing the gender-based similarities in motivation Keywords: types as confirmation that both men and women perceive themselves as effective gender differences, head leaders in a complex job role and present-day challenges in schools. teachers, work motivation, job roles, school. Razlike v motivaciji za prevzemanje različnih delovnih vlog glede na spol – ravnatelj/ravnateljica V prispevku preučujemo značilnosti razlik med spoloma v delovni motivaciji za Ključne besede: prevzemanje različnih delovnih vlog, ki jih ravnatelji/ravnateljice prevzamejo pri razlike med spoloma, ravnatelji, delovna vsakdanjem delu na Hrvaškem. Z uporabo uveljavljene teorije samoodločanja motivacija, delovne (angl. SDT – self-determination theory) preučujemo ne le intenzivnost motivacije vloge, šola. ravnateljev/ ravnateljic, ampak tudi njeno kakovost, in sicer z uporabo lestvice delovne motivacije za ravnatelje/ravnateljice šol, tj. raziskovalnega instrumenta WRMS – SP (angl. Work Role Motivation Scale for School Principals). Naše UDK/UDC 37.091.113:331.101.3 raziskave na podlagi spola vodij kažejo pomembne implikacije pri prepoznavanju podobnosti v tipih motivacije kot potrditev, da se tako moški kot ženske dojemajo kot učinkoviti/učinkovite vodje v kompleksni delovni vlogi in današnjih izzivih v šolah. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.4850 Besedilo / Text © 2025 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 254 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Headteachers in today’s schools encounter diverse challenges in their work. Various cultural, economic, social, and geopolitical changes affect schools, having a multifaceted impact. In schools, administrators are the first line of defence against those external influences. At times, internal demands for change, such as conceptually distinct educational reforms, pose significant challenges to headteachers’ operational and strategic endeavours. Headteachers are expected to act as catalysts for change within their schools, yet their readiness for this role and their effectiveness are often questioned. Pupils’ parents often, through their official bodies, question head teachers’ leadership and management, as well as their personal abilities, competences and motivation. Recent research indicates growing discontent and increased professional challenges among school head teachers (Chapman, 2005, Medford and Brown 2022). Confronted with increasingly intricate and demanding responsibilities, head teachers frequently reassess their career decisions (Su et al. 2003, Woodley, 2018). Given the crucial role they play in school success and enhancement, it is pertinent to investigate motivation among head teachers for involvement in or disengagement from their work. Therefore, this paper examines head teachers’ motivation for assuming the diverse roles they assume in their everyday work. Theoretical framework of workplace roles among head teachers There are a plethora of responsibilities and roles that a headteacher takes on in their everyday school practice. Worldwide, head teachers have different occupational responsibilities depending on the school system, but there are a common set of roles. A meta-analysis of previous studies on head teacher job descriptions has resulted in a tripartite conceptualization of job roles (Table 1). It shows that, regardless of the specific features of each national education system or potential cultural differences between countries, the complexity of a head teacher’s job comes down to three main roles: the administrative role, the instructional leadership role, and the informational role (Fernet, 2011). Fernet’s theoretical framework is based on the findings of several authors, particularly synthesizing the work of Hallinger and Leithwood (1994) and others who examined leadership roles across various educational systems. I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 255. Table 1. Theoretical framework of head teacher roles in school (Fernet, 2011) HEAD TEACHER ROLES Administrative role Instructional leadership role Informational role - school administrator - pedagogical leader - promoter of the school to - human resources manager - agent for change in practices the community - financial and materials manager - educational project planner - point of contact with - supervisor of teachers’ work parents - staff supervisor - liaison with authorities In that sense, Argyriou and Iordanidis (2014) see the administrative role as the duty that a headteacher assumes as an administrator of various aspects in everyday “office” work, and includes the following (sub)roles: 1) dealing with school administration (e.g., providing reports for external and internal bodies, resolving legal issues concerning staff members and pupils, etc.); 2) managing human resources (e.g., managing staff turnover, dealing with yearly fluctuations in student number, forming school teams, participating in the activity of the school boards, etc.); 3) acting as a financial manager (e.g., monitoring cash flow, providing accurate financial information, managing expenses, handling reductions in financial resources, providing new materials and resources, finding opportunities for financial gains/donations, managing facility maintenance, etc.). When head teachers occupy the instructional leadership role, they take responsibility for the teaching and learning processes that occur in classrooms (Kovač, 2021). This means they act in these five roles: 1) pedagogical leaders (e.g., enabling the application of new educational approaches, setting up favourable conditions for curriculum development, implementing current information and communication technologies etc.); 2) agents for change in practice (e.g., changing the policies and practices of the school, creating strategic documents, etc.); 3) educational project planners in the school (e.g., empowering teachers to implement projects in everyday instruction, motivating them and guiding the focus of projects to common goals, etc.); 4) supervisors and evaluators of teachers’ work (e.g., gaining insight into teaching, observing regular classes and extracurricular activities, providing evaluation and guidance in teaching methods, etc.); 5) staff supervisors (e.g., guiding and directing professional development of staff, supervising the work of technical staff, accountants, legal department, etc.). At the same time, head teachers also assume an informational role towards external stakeholders (Towers, 2022), which encompasses the following roles: 1) promoter of the school to the community (e.g., ensuring school visibility, organizing public REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 256 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION events, making media appearances, public promotion of school projects, designing a visual identity of digital school media, etc.); 2) point of contact with parents (e.g., establishing an open-door policy towards parents, mediating between parents and teachers, collaborating with parent to ensure pupils’ well-being, etc.); 3) liaison with authorities (e.g., implementing and enforcing agendas, strategies and action plans, etc.). This framework indicates the complexity of roles and sub-roles that each head teacher is obliged to carry out through activities, administration and cooperation with other stakeholders and staff members. Assuming these roles in an effective and meaningful manner calls for a spectrum of professional knowledge, leadership skills and positive attitudes toward the job itself, which is evident in the motivation of head teachers for their work. Work motivation among head teachers The work motivation of head teachers can be explained by the well-established self- determination theory (SDT), which was introduced by Deci and Ryan (1985) to provide a tool for exploration of both the intensity of human motivation and its quality. It represents an empirically derived theory of human motivation and personality in social contexts, one which differentiates motivation in terms of being autonomous (intrinsic) or controlled (extrinsic) (Deci and Ryan, 2012). It has yielded the following five motivation types: intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, amotivation (Table 2). Drawing on self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation refers to conducting an activity for inherent pleasure and satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation refers to carrying out an activity for reasons other than the activity itself (Van den Broeck et al., 2021). This assumes that the activity is only a means to the end, or the instrument used to achieve a goal. Amotivation is a relative absence of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. It is noticeable when a person does not see a relationship between their action and the outcomes and therefore feels incapable of achieving their goal(s). I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 257. Table 2. Types of motivation (Fernet, 2011), adapted BEHAVIOR Non-self- Self- Determined Determined MOTIVATION Amotivation Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation Regulatory Non- External Introjected Identified Integrated Intrinsic styles regulation regulatio regulation regulation regulation regulation n Perceived impersonal external somewhat somewhat internal internal locus external internal causality Self-determination theory also suggests different types of extrinsic motivation that can also be spread along a self-determination continuum from lower to higher levels of self-determination (Table 2). These are referred to as introjected, external, identified, and integrated regulations. According to Chaman et al. (2021), introjected regulation equals a process in which the external demand becomes an internal depiction. People put pressure on themselves, through shame or guilt (internal coercion), to ensure that distinct behaviour is performed. External regulation occurs when a person’s behaviour is regulated to gain a reward or to avoid pressure. Identified regulation is defined as when individuals choose to act because the behaviour is compatible with their own goals and values. People choose to do the activity even if the activity is not interesting to them, and they do not succumb to external or internal pressure. Integrated regulation occurs when a person values their significance (meaning importance) and the behaviour that is performed is consistent with their identity (Matsumoto et al., 2021). Additional studies indicate that the motivation types have a substantial impact on the welfare of individuals, their productivity, and the overall performance of (any) organizations (e.g., Faragher et al. 2005; Meyer, Stanley et al. 2002). However, studies on school administration and/or leaders have predominantly overlooked the job- Relevant regulatory processes non- intentional, non-valuing, in- competence, l k f complianc e, external rewards and punishment self-control, ego- involvement, internal rewards and personal importance, conscious valuing congruence, awareness, synthesis with self interest, enjoyment, inherent satisfaction REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 258 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION related conduct of school principals, except for their leadership approaches. While these strategies form the foundation for comprehending school improvement, there has been insufficient exploration of the broader factors influencing educational leadership, along with other crucial job-related concerns such as recruitment, retention, job stress, and work-related challenges. In addition, gender can play a role in educational leadership. In Croatia, approximately 60% of elementary head teachers are female. However, this is not the case in many developing countries nor in developed countries. For instance, Mpezeni (2022) reports that there is a prevailing negative attitude and lack of respect from members of the community towards women head teachers, as well as negative perception from some teachers, which is related to gender discrimination in Zambia. Similarly, in Turkey, Arar et al. (2018) noted that there are gender-related challenges in a conservative society, and staff doubt female head teacher abilities. In China, many gender stereotypes are based on traditional culture, the contemporary political context and the organizational setting in school, which is reflected in the lower number of women head teachers (Law, 2013). The situation has improved over time, although women are still highly under-represented among senior managers in education in the UK (Coleman, 1996; Coleman, 2007; Lee, 2023). In the United States, leadership is still perceived to be the most male-dominated position within the field of education (Lemasters and Roach, 2012).Less than five percent of public school superintendents are women, and less than twenty-seven percent of public secondary school principals are women (Noel-Batiste, 2009), which testifies to the existence of a glass ceiling (Lemasters and Roach, 2012). Contrary to that, women are more frequently found occupying head teacher positions than men in Croatia, which shows that women head teachers are positively viewed by students and teachers (Nzeli, 2013). Given the rising trend for women to be appointed to head teacher positions, the question arises whether there are gender-based differences in motivation for occupying diverse job roles. When it comes to gender differences in head teacher work motivation, the previous findings are inconclusive and system dependent. With that in mind, this study turns to determining what motivates men and women head teachers in Croatia to do their job and assume various work roles. I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 259. Research methodology Aim The study aimed to examine the motivation of head teachers to assume the diverse roles that their job requires, with an emphasis on gender differences. The focus was on the three types of job roles (administrative role, instructional leadership role and informational role) in addition to five types of work motivation (amotivation, external, introjected, identified and intrinsic). More precisely, we aimed to find the answers to the following research questions: RQ1: What types of motivation do male and female head teachers exhibit while assuming a) the administrative role; b) the instructional leader role; and c) the informative role? RQ2: Are the differences in motivation between men and women head teachers while assuming a) the administrative role; b) the instructional leader role; and c) the informative role statistically significant? The answers to our research questions should provide better insight into work motivation types among Croatian head teachers, while identifying potential gender differences. Participants To find answers to the research questions, we turned to head teachers for self- assessment. According to the Croatian Ministry of Education and Youth [MZOM] database, eRudnik (2023), there are 924 primary school head teachers in the Republic of Croatia. In total, 564 are female and 355 male. According to Cohen et al. (2007), this dictates that the size of the random sample should be approximately 270 to make it representative of the entire population, and in this study, it is 262. Both genders were represented, but there were more female than male participants (Table 3), which is in line with the national ratio (MZOM, 2023). Table 3. Gender distribution in the population (MZOM, 2023) and in the sample of primary school head teachers in Croatia Gender distribution in population Gender distribution in the sample Male Female Male Female N 355 564 93 169 % 39% 61% 35% 65% Total 924 (100%) 262 (100%) REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 260 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION When it comes to other demographic data, according to MZOM, 2023, the average age of Croatian head teachers is 52, with 9.2 years of leadership experience. Most of them have a master’s degree (81.2%), 18% hold a bachelor’s degree and 0.4% has completed doctoral studies (all women head teachers) The participants included in this study are also highly educated professionals, with 85.8% having a master’s degree, 13.4% a bachelor’s degree and 0.38%, a doctoral degree. Again, these figures were in line with the national ratio (MZOM, 2023). Method, instrument and procedure To collect the type of data suitable for statistical analysis, a quantitative method was used. The research instrument was a questionnaire called the Work Role Motivation Scale for School Principals (Abb. WRMS – SP), constructed by Fernet (2011). It has a 15-factor structure (5 types of motivation × 3 roles) confirmed through factor analysis and construct validity through a multitrait-multimethod matrix method analysis. The questionnaire was modified for online distribution as a Google form. The scale consisted of three parts describing three roles: a) the administrative role (10 items describing five types of work motivation), b) the instructional leadership role (10 items describing five types of work motivation), and c) the informational role (10 items describing five types of work motivation). Next to each item, there was a seven-point Likert-type scale asking the participants to recognize how much the described motivation statement corresponded to each job role in their own everyday practice (1 - Does not correspond at all; 2 -Corresponds very little; 3 - Corresponds a little; 4 - Corresponds moderately; 5 - Corresponds strongly; 6 - Corresponds very strongly; 7 - Corresponds completely). The collected data on head teachers’ motivation and job roles were processed with the statistical package SPSS 20.0, and measures of descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages and mean values) were applied. For the examination of gender differences in measured variables, the two – tailed t-test for independent samples was used. Results The first set of results provides the answer to the first research question (RQ1) regarding types of head teacher motivation types. When it comes to the administrative role, male and female head teachers are extrinsically motivated (Table 4). I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 261. Table 4. Types of work motivation expressed by Croatian head teachers (responses to the question: Why do you perform your work roles?) Items Gender N Mean SD 1) ...gives pleasure F 169 4.97 1.466 M 93 5.02 1.518 2) ...seems pointless F 169 3.07 1.763 M 93 2.95 1.563 3) ...is interesting F 169 4.60 1.556 M 93 4.51 1.639 4) ...out of guilt F 169 5.85 1.317 M 93 5.26 1.580 5) ...for the salary F 169 5.22 1.515 Administrative M 93 5.18 1.539 role 6) ...enables professional F 169 4.85 1.535 achievements M 93 4.73 1.643 7) ...is mostly disliked by me F 169 2.66 1.700 M 93 2.73 1.745 8) ...is essential for the job F 169 4.98 1.510 M 93 5.05 1.354 9) ...for self-validation F 169 4.84 1.663 M 93 4.77 1.490 10) ...is required F 169 5.67 1.280 M 93 5.52 1.256 11) ...gives pleasure F 169 5.68 1.071 M 93 5.32 1.287 12) ...seems pointless F 169 2.60 1.586 M 93 2.80 1.698 13) ....is interesting F 169 5.47 1.314 M 93 5.08 1.385 14) ...out of guilt F 169 5.84 1.269 M 93 5.15 1.628 15) ...for the salary F 169 5.44 1.388 Instructional M 93 5.39 1.497 leadership role 16) ...enables professional F 169 5.53 1.254 achievements M 93 5.27 1.320 17) ...is mostly disliked by me F 169 2.37 1.591 M 93 2.77 1.801 18) ...is essential for the job F 169 5.51 1.354 M 93 5.42 1.183 19) ...for self-validation F 169 5,02 1.558 M 93 4,97 1.521 20) ...is required F 169 5.82 1.255 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 262 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION M 93 5.58 1.297 21) ...gives pleasure F 169 5.57 1.184 M 93 5.44 1.211 22) ...seems pointless F 169 2.72 1.725 M 93 2.60 1.596 23) ...is interesting F 169 5.42 1.391 M 93 5.12 1.405 24) ...out of guilt F 169 5.64 1.429 M 93 5.13 1.637 25) ...for the salary F 169 5.37 1.413 Informational M 93 5.31 1.406 role 26) ...enables professional F 169 5.34 1.331 achievements M 93 5.03 1.363 27) ...is mostly disliked by me F 169 2.56 1.762 M 93 2.74 1.738 28) ...is essential for the job F 169 5.46 1.309 M 93 5.33 1.228 29) ...for self-validation F 169 5.11 1.616 M 93 5.03 1.514 30) ...is required F 169 5.83 1.234 M 93 5.73 1.172 They express dominantly external regulation, for they strongly agree with the statement that they do administrative tasks because their position requires it (item 10: (M (f) = 5.67; M (m) = 5.52); that they are paid to do those tasks (item 5: (M(f)= 5.22; M(m)=5.18), and introjected regulation for they strongly agree with the statement that they feel guilty if they do not perform this role properly (item 4: M (f) = 5.85; M (m) = 5,26). For their instructional leadership role, head teachers’ self-perceived motivation is both extrinsic and intrinsic. The highest mean scores are found in items referring to external regulation (item 20: (M (f) = 5.82; M (m) = 5.58); item 15: (M (f) = 5.44; M (m) = 5.39), and those referring to introjected regulation (item 14: (M (f) = 5.84; M (m) = 5.15), corresponding to the statements that they perceive instructional leadership to be an integral part of the job they are paid to do, and that they would feel guilty if they did not perform well. On the other hand, they also strongly agree with the statements that they feel pleasure in performing this role (item 11: (M (f) = I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 263. 5.68; M (m) = 5.32); and that they find activities related to this role to be interesting and stimulating (item 13: (M (f) = 5.47; M (m) = 5.08), thus testifying to intrinsic regulation. In addition to this type of intrinsic motivation, they also exhibit integrated regulation, by strongly agreeing with the statement that this role enables them to achieve their own work objectives (item 16: (M (f) = 5.53; M (m) = 5.27), and that they feel this role to be essential to performing their job (item 18: (M (f) = 5.51; M (m) = 5.42). While assuming the informational role, head teachers again exhibit both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation by scoring an average mean above 5.00 (strongly agree) on all items, except for the items denoting amotivation (item 22: (M (f) = 2.72; M (m) = 2.60 and item 27: (M (f) = 2.56; M (m) = 2.74). To further explore gender difference and to find answers to the second research question (RQ2), an independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the score on the scale of the administrative role for male and female head teachers (Table 5). Table 5. Gender differences in motivation types for the administrative role Levene’s Test Motivation type Items for Equality of t-test Variances F Sig. t Sig (2-tailed) Intrinsic Item 1 .012 .914 -.267 .790 motivation Item 3 .757 .385 .451 .653 Identified Item 6 1.131 .289 .566 .572 regulation Item 8 1.042 .308 -.380 .704 Introjected Item 4 2.787 .096 3.25 .001 regulation Item 9 2.598 .108 .319 .750 External Item 5 .025 .875 .214 .831 regulation Item 10 .011 .916 .965 .335 Amotivation Item 2 1.715 .192 .543 .588 Item 7 .108 .743 -.309 .758 p ≤ .05 There was a statistically significant difference found on item 4, describing introjected regulation among male head teachers (M = 5.26, SD = 1.580) and female head teachers (M = 5.85, SD = 1.317), but the magnitude of the difference in the means REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 264 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION was very small (t (260) = 3.250, p = 0.001, eta squared = 0.039), meaning that only 3.9% of the variance in introjected regulation is explained by gender. Similarly, gender differences were tested in the instructional leadership role (Table 6). Again, the only difference that proved to be statistically significant was found on item 4, describing introjected regulation among male head teachers (M = 5.15, SD = 1.628) and female head teachers (M = 5.84, SD = 1.269). Table 6. Gender differences in motivation types for the instructional leadership role Levene’s Test for Equality of t-test Motivation type Items Variances F Sig. t Sig (2-tailed) Item 11 2.894 .090 2.406 .017 Intrinsic motivation Item 13 .088 .767 2.302 .022 Item 16 .134 .715 1.563 .119 Identified regulation Item 18 2.433 .120 .570 .569 Item 14 7.446 .007* 3.536 .001 Introjected regulation Item 19 .344 .558 .280 .779 Item 15 .238 .626 .308 .759 External regulation Item 20 .218 .641 1.475 .141 Item 12 1.521 .219 -.915 .361 Amotivation Item 17 2.013 .157 1.863 .064 p ≤ .05* Equal variances not assumed However, the magnitude of the difference in the means was very small (t (260) = 3.536, p = 0.001, eta squared = 0.0458), meaning that only 4.58% of the variance in introjected regulation was explained by gender. Finally, we investigated gender differences in the informational role and the motivation types that head teachers have (Table 7). Again, the differences found in self-assessed motivation types between male and female head teachers in the informational role were not found to be statistically significant, except in the case of item 4, which corresponds to introjected regulation. The independent t-test for equality of means shows that female head teachers (M = 5.64, SD = 1.429) feel significantly more guilty than male head teachers (M = 5.13, SD = 1.637) when not I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 265. performing well in this role. The magnitude of the difference in the means was very small (t (260) = 2.624, p = 0.009, eta squared = 0.0257), meaning that only 2.57% of the variance in introjected regulation is explained by gender. Table 7. Gender differences in motivation types for the informational role Levene’s Test for Equality Motivation type Items of Variances F Sig. t Sig (2-tailed) Item 21 .054 .817 .825 .410 Intrinsic motivation Item 23 .003 .959 1.674 .095 Item 26 .225 .636 1.760 .080 Identified regulation Item 28 1.141 .286 .775 .439 Item 24 2.854 .092 2.624 .009 Introjected regulation Item 29 1.296 .256 .393 .695 Item 25 .169 .681 .335 .738 External regulation Item 30 .029 .866 .621 .535 Item 22 1.007 .317 .552 .581 Amotivation Item 27 .012 .915 -.820 .413 p ≤ .05 Discussion The first set of findings refers to the gender differences in the way they approach their roles, and it provides an answer to the first research question (RQ1: What types of motivation do men and women head teachers exhibit while assuming various job roles?). The results suggest that there are no statistically significant differences between male and female head teachers, even though previous research on gender- based differences suggested that men and women head teachers could differ in many leadership features. More precisely, Peters (2010) reports that female head teachers tend to establish a non-hierarchical and interaction-based leadership, because they perceive the system differently than men (Alyami and Floyd, 2019), because they work and operate in a world dominated by men and in a paradigm designed around men (Leamsters and Roach, 2012). Mpezeni (2022) claims that, in order to foster a positive attitude towards female leadership, women head teachers more frequently REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 266 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION turn to teamwork through employing a transformational, participatory and people- oriented leadership style, thus confronting education challenges of social justice, democracy, and equity in their schools (Normore and Jean-Marie, 2008). When asked about their prevailing style, both male and female head teachers see themselves as adopting stereotypically “feminine” style of leadership (Coleman, 2007). However, when self-perception is put aside, primary schools are increasingly ‘masculinized’ in terms of management regimes because the women climbing up the managerial ladder tend to assume personal characteristics of head teachers that are connected with hegemonic masculinity (Skelton, 2002). Coleman (1996) notes the emergence of an ‘androgynous’ leader, who draws upon a range of qualities, whereby the effective leadership of women head teachers is ascribed to the possession of qualities similar to those of the traditional male leader combined with the female aspiration to prove themselves worthy of leadership. Unlike style and typical behaviours, when it comes to motivation types, there were no statistically significant differences found between men and women school leaders: both are extrinsically motivated for doing the administrative part of the job; head teachers’ self-perceived motivation is both extrinsically and intrinsically motivated for instructional leadership and for their informational role. The only exception is the finding that women head teachers are more guilt-driven when it comes to all job roles as compared to men head teachers. This is in line with the recent study conducted by Lee (2023), who claims that both male and female school leaders have gendered approaches to their roles and conceive school leadership in markedly different ways, with male leaders rating themselves more positively than their female peers. Women being more guilt-driven relates to the second research question (RQ2: Are the differences in motivation of men and women head teachers in Croatia while assuming a) the administrative role; b) the instructional leader role; and c) the informative role statistically significant?) corroborates the existence of a statistically significant but rather small difference. An explanation as to why women head teachers are more guilt-driven can be found in their conflicting professional and domestic roles (Guihen, 2020), indicating that women tend to contemplate whether or not to pursue promotion to headship, because they often make career choices knowing that they carry most of the I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 267. domestic responsibilities in their family, whereas male colleagues are more likely to have partners who take the majority of domestic responsibility. In other words, the effects of gender on work motivation are closely related to the effects of family roles (Ernst Kossek and Misra, 2012). Conclusion This study extends and deepens the understanding of head teacher work motivation and shows how men and women head teachers self-assess their motivation for different job roles in elementary education in Croatia. Based on the data obtained with the use of the Work Role Motivation Scale for School Principals (Abb. WRMS – SP) Questionnaire, it can be concluded that both men and women head teachers are extrinsically motivated for their administrative role, while expressing dominantly external and introjected regulation. For their instructional leadership role, both genders report extrinsic (introjected regulation) and intrinsic motivation (integrated regulation), which is also the case with the informational role. Gender-based differences are generally not detected, apart from a single statistically significant difference when the administrative role is explored in more detail, indicating that women head teachers would feel more guilt than men head teachers if they failed to perform their role properly. This shows that those two groups of leaders differ in this aspect of extrinsic motivation, confirming that women head teachers are more guilt-driven for the administrative role, which may be linked to increased levels of accountability in schools. In that sense, important implications of the research lie in recognizing gender-based similarities in motivation types as confirmation that both men and women perceive themselves as effective leaders in a complex cultural and political environment, while gaining acceptance from all stakeholders. By recognizing that head teachers, regardless of their gender, are externally motivated for the administrative aspects of the profession, policy makers can find appropriate responses to better motivate head teachers for the job role. There are also implications regarding the training of school leaders, where innovations are called for in order to increase their intrinsic motivation for instructional leadership and informative roles. However, the main limitations of this study involve the fact that the results of the study were drawn exclusively from self-assessment of in-service head teachers; thus, further research should include triangulation of sources, as well as observation of day-to-day leadership practices in order to expand our understanding of the issue. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 268 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION References Alyami, R., and Floyd, A. (2019). Female school leaders’ perceptions and experiences of decentralisation and distributed leadership in the tatweer system in Saudi Arabia. Education Sciences, 9(1), 25. Arar, K., Orucu, D., and Kucukcayir, G. A. (2018). These students need love and affection: Experience of a female school leader with the challenges of Syrian refugee education. Leading and Managing, 24(2), 28-43. Argyriou, A., and Iordanidis, G. (2014). Management and Administration Issues in Greek Secondary Schools: Self-Evaluation of the Head Teacher Role. Education Research International, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/147310 Chaman, S., Zulfiqar, S., Shaheen, S., and Saleem, S. (2021). Leadership styles and employee knowledge sharing: Exploring the mediating role of introjected motivation. PloS one, 16(9), e0257174. Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2007). Metode istraživanja u obrazovanju. Slap. Coleman, M. (1996). The Management Style of Female Headteachers. Educational Management & Administration, 24(2), 163-174. Coleman, M. (2007). Gender and educational leadership in England: A comparison of secondary headteachers’ views over time. School Leadership and Management, 27(4), 383-399. Croatian Ministry of Education and Youth, (2023). eRudnik. Retrieved from: https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiZWE3YTE4OWQtOWJmNC00OTJmLWE2M jktYTQ5MWJlNDNlZDQ0IiwidCI6IjJjMTFjYmNjLWI3NjEtNDVkYi1hOWY1LTRhYz c3ZTk0ZTFkNCIsImMiOjh9 Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-determination in Human Behaviour. Platinum. Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801 Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (pp. 416–436). Sage Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n21 Ernst Kossek, E., and Misra, K. (2012). Nonwork Influences on Work Motivation. In R. Kanfer, G. Chen, and R. Pritchard (eds.), Work Motivation: Past, Present and Future (471 -500). Routledge. Fernet, C. (2011). Development and validation of the Work Role Motivation Scale for School Principals (WRMS-SP). Educational Administration Quarterly: EAQ, 47(2), 307–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161x10385108. Guihen, L. (2020). Using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) to explore the career experiences of women deputy headteachers. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 43(5), 526-540. Hallinger, P., and Leithwood, K. (1994). Introduction: Exploring the impact of principal leadership. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 5(3), 206-217. Kovač, V. (2021). Instructional School Leadership Scenarios from the Perspective of Croatian High Schools [sic] Principals. Život i škola, 67(1), 9-31 doi:10.32903/zs.67.1.1 Law, W. W. (2013). Culture, gender and school leadership: school leaders' self-perceptions in China. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 43(3), 295-322. Lee, C. (2023). How do male and female headteachers evaluate their authenticity as school leaders? Management in Education, 37(1), 46-55. Lemasters, L., and Roach, V. (2012). 3-Dimensional Portrait of the Female CEO. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 7(1), 1 – 12. Matsumoto, H., Taniguchi, A., and Nishida, J. (2021). A revised self-determined motivation scale for exercise with integrated regulation inclusion. Journal of Health Psychology Research, 34(1), 13-22. Medford, J. A., and Brown, T. (2022). Newly appointed principals’ challenges in learning and adjusting to school culture. Heliyon, 8(9), e10542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10542 I. Nikičić & R. Varga: Gender Differences in Head Teachers’ Work Motivation for Assuming Diverse Job Roles 269. Mpezeni, P. (2022). Challenges facing female head teachers in management of public primary schools; A case of selected primary schools in Lusaka district of Zambia (doctoral dissertation). The University of Zambia. Noel-Batiste, L. (2009). The perceptions of female school leaders of the obstacles and enablers that affected their career paths to educational administration. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal, 7(1), 32, https://doi.org/10.58809/QOPP8457 Normore, A. H., and Jean‐Marie, G. (2008). Female secondary school leaders: At the helm of social justice, democratic schooling and equity. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 29(2), 182-205. Nzeli, K. A. (2013). Challenges faced by female headteachers in the management of secondary schools: A case of Kangundo District in Machakos County, Kenya (unpublished M. Admin. Dissertation). Kentata University. Peters, A. (2010). Elements of Successful Mentoring of a Female School Leader. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 9(1), 108 – 129, https://doi.org/10.1080/15700760903026755 Skelton, C. (2002). The 'feminisation of schooling' or 're-masculinising' primary education? International Studies in Sociology of Education, 12(1), 77-96, https://doi.org/10.1080/0962021020020008 Towers, E. (2022). Why do headteachers stay in disadvantaged primary schools in London? Leadership and Policy in Schools, 21(2), 206-221. Van den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., and Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. Organizational Psychology Review, 11(3), 240-273. Woodley, M. A. (2018). Principal socialization: A single case study of novice charter school principals in Los Angeles. Concordia University. https://digitalcommons.csp.edu/cup_co–mmon– s_grad_edd/156 Authors: Igor Nikičić, PhD candidate Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Education, Cara Hadrijana 10d, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, e-mail: igor.nikicic@gmail.com Josip Juraj Strossmayer Univerza v Osijeku, Pedagoška fakulteta, Cara Hadrijana 10d, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, e-pošta: igor.nikicic@gmail.com Rahaela Varga, PhD Associate Professor, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Education, Cara Hadrijana 10d, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, e-mail: rvarga@foozos.hr Izredna profesorica, Univerza Josipa Jurja Strossmayerja v Osijeku, Pedagoška fakulteta, Cara Hadrijana 10d, 31000 Osijek, Hrvaška, e-pošta: rvarga@foozos. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 270 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 271–285, September 2025 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHERS’ DIGITAL PRACTICES DURING AND AFTER COVID-19 MARIJANA MIOČIĆ1, MATILDA KARAMATIĆ BRČIĆ2 & BERNARDA TOKIĆ2 Potrjeno/Accepted 31. 7. 2025 1Department of Teachers and Preschool Teachers Education, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia Objavljeno/Published 2Department of Pedagogy, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia 30. 9. 2025 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR/ bptokic@gmail.com Abstract/Izvleček This study investigates early childhood teachers’ perceptions and use of digital media during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, addressing the need to understand evolving ICT practices in early education. Employing a longitudinal design, data were collected via structured questionnaires from the same kindergartens in 2020 and 2024. Quantitative analysis revealed stable self-assessed digital competence but changing pedagogical use and attitudes. Keywords: The findings underscore the need for targeted digital training and systemic COVID-19 pandemic, support. The study’s novelty lies in its comparative longitudinal approach, digital competences, digital media, early offering insight into the sustained impact of a global crisis on digital childhood, early integration in early childhood education. childhood teachers. Digitalne kompetence vzgojiteljev predšolskih otrok: primerjalna Ključne besede: študija digitalnih praks predšolskih učiteljev med pandemijo COVID- digitalne kompetence, 19 in po njej digitalni mediji, V študiji so predstavljene zaznave in uporaba digitalnih medijev med pandemija Covid-19, vzgojitelji v zgodnjem otroštvu med pandemijo COVID-19 in po njej, in sicer zgodnje otroštvo, predšolski učitelji. z namenom bolje razumeti spreminjajoče se prakse uporabe IKT v zgodnjem izobraževanju. Z uporabo longitudinalnega raziskovalnega načrta so bili podatki zbrani z uporabo strukturiranih vprašalnikov v istih vrtcih v letih 2020 UDK/UDC 373.2:004 in 2024. Kvantitativna analiza je pokazala stabilno samoevalvacijo digitalnih kompetenc, a spreminjajočo se pedagoško rabo in stališča. Ugotovitve kažejo na potrebo po ciljno usmerjenem digitalnem usposabljanju in sistemski podpori. Novost raziskave je v njeni primerjalni longitudinalni zasnovi, ki ponuja vpogled v dolgoročni vpliv globalne krize na digitalno integracijo v predšolsko vzgojo. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.4951 Besedilo / Text © 2025 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 272 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction The processes of learning and upbringing have evolved, reflecting shifting societal expectations and the growing influence of digital media. In today’s digital society, children are immersed in media-rich environments from an early age, necessitating updated educational approaches (Šimala, 2017, Renić, 2018). Modern early childhood education emphasizes continuous teacher development, particularly in digital competences. Teachers must not only support children’s development and moral values but also guide them in navigating digital environments safely and critically. As digital tools become integral to education, expectations for information and communication technology (ICT) use continue to grow. The pervasive integration of technology into daily life has significantly reshaped expectations for information and communication technology (ICT) in the educational process (Vrkić Dimić, 2013). The teacher's beliefs and behaviours, professional competences, and pedagogical knowledge during the educational process all have a significant impact on the child’s development, self-confidence and self-esteem, their future educational success and assumption of the role of competent, active citizen of the society in which he/she lives. Professional competences of early childhood teachers Ongoing societal changes necessitate the continuous development of teachers’ professional competences, emphasizing the importance of lifelong learning. Through continuous education, early childhood teachers enhance their ability to adopt pedagogical strategies that support children’s developmental needs (Mlinarević, 2000). Professional competence is commonly defined as a combination of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes essential for effective practice (Eraut, 2003, as cited in Višnjić Jevtić, 2018). Early childhood professionals are tasked with the complex role of tailoring digital and educational practices to the individual needs of each child, considering age, developmental stage, curriculum goals, and cultural contexts (OECD, 2023). This includes tracking developmental progress and fostering collaboration with families to support holistic learning. The profession also demands flexibility and responsiveness to the unpredictability of daily practice, challenging the notion of early education as a rigid, standardized field (Šagud and Jurčević-Lozančić, 2012). To navigate these demands, early childhood educators must engage in ongoing professional development, possess specialized knowledge, M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 273 and critically reflect on their practice. This includes cultivating self-awareness and the ability to adapt to evolving pedagogical and technological landscapes (Kisić, 2019). ICT competences of teachers As the age of media exposure has shifted, we must recognize that childhood today is a “media childhood” (Mikić, 2015), and that media plays a role as a secondary socialization factor. For children to successfully master media, their teachers must play a key role in the relationship between them and media. First and foremost, it is desirable for teachers to be media literate, so that they themselves can properly educate children about media in a socially appropriate way (Sindik and Veselinović, 2010) and thus match the modern child. As primary caregivers, it is the parents’ responsibility to find a balance when selecting and using media content for children. Parents should be role models for their children by using information technology in a regulated way and explaining the possible positive or negative aspects of it (Đuran et al., 2019). Early childhood experiences, especially through structured programs, are vital to individual and societal well-being. However, the rapid growth of digital technology presents a new challenge. While this technology holds promise, teachers lack the knowledge to fully exploit its benefits and mitigate potential risks within the context of early childhood education. Therefore, crafting policies to safeguard and empower children in this digital environment is crucial to prioritising human well-being in a world increasingly dominated by technology. Early childhood education programs must adapt to the digital age, prioritising children’s development and well-being in a tech-driven world. This adaptation requires acknowledging how technology shapes children’s experiences both locally and globally, ultimately preparing them for the future (OECD, 2023). During formal and informal education, an individual acquires knowledge and competences that will help him live and work in the modern digital age, both of which will need to be further developed to keep up with the changes. The continuous development of information and communication technology (ICT)confronts teachers with the need for lifelong education. The use of the internet and digital technology during the educational process enables the digital literacy of the individual and encourages the creation of an active and creative attitude towards the application of modern technology (Sindik and Veselinović, 2010). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 274 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION By developing digital competences, teachers, children, and their parents develop media and information literacy, acquire new knowledge and competences for the safe use of ICT technology. Social changes and the growing use of ICT in daily life have transformed teaching and learning, promoting new forms of knowledge acquisition. Digital tools such as multimedia content, interactive books, and online resources enhance educational quality and foster children’s active engagement. These tools also support the development of information literacy, an essential competence in modern society and consequently enabling individuals to locate, evaluate, and apply information effectively (Rogulj, 2011). To guide young children in this digital environment, early childhood educators must themselves be information literate, reinforcing the need for targeted teacher education. The use of digital technologies proved especially vital during the COVID-19 lockdown, when teachers relied on applications like Viber and WhatsApp to share activities with parents. These tools helped mitigate the effects of social isolation and supported children’s continued engagement during periods of remote learning. The rapid digital transformation of education, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has raised significant questions about the preparedness and adaptability of early childhood teachers. While digital media offer new opportunities for enriching pedagogical practices and supporting collaboration with families, they also introduce challenges related to competence development, equity in access, and pedagogical appropriateness for young children. These complexities underline the importance of examining how early childhood educators perceive and implement ICT in their daily practice. Given this context, this study seeks to address the following question: How have early childhood teachers’ digital competences, usage of ICT in educational work, and collaboration with parents changed between the periods during and after the COVID-19 pandemic? By investigating variables in teachers’ digital competence, ICT usage, and cooperation with parents across two critical time points, this study aims to contribute to the growing discourse on digital readiness in early childhood education and provide guidance for future policy and professional development initiatives. M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 275. Methodology This is a longitudinal study with measurements taken at two different time points. Even though individual responses are anonymous and cannot be paired, the kindergarten-level responses can still be compared across the two time points. This paper presents the results of a follow-up study conducted four years after an initial investigation. The study examines the perspectives of early childhood teachers on their own Information and Communication Technology (ICT) competences. It explores changes in the frequency of ICT application in their educational work, both during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, the research investigates the perceived advantages of using ICT during the pandemic. This study aimed to investigate potential changes in early childhood teachers’ ICT competences and usage patterns following the COVID-19 pandemic. Three research hypotheses were formulated: Hypothesis 1 (H1): No statistically significant difference exists in the ICT competences of teachers who participated in the research in 2020 compared to those who participated in 2024. Hypothesis 2 (H2): There is no difference in the self-reported frequency and patterns of ICT use for educational work with children and parents between teachers who participated in the study in 2020 and 2024. Hypothesis 3 (H3): Teachers’ perceptions of the advantages of ICT use in their work do not differ significantly between the pre-pandemic period (2020) and the post- pandemic period (2024). This study aimed to investigate whether there was a significant difference in early childhood teachers’ knowledge of and skill in using ICT after a four-year period, and how the application of digital technology in teachers’ educational work with children and their parents differed during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Instrument For the purpose of the research, the same Questionnaire was used as in the 2020 study. The Questionnaire included an explanation of the research purpose, independent variables (gender, age, years of experience in the profession, professional title, level of education), and scales for self-assessment of teachers’ ICT competences and the application of ICT technology in everyday educational work with children and their parents during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 276 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The self-assessment scale consisted of 26 items, split into 4 subscales: Early childhood teachers’ knowledge of and skill in using ICT (k=5), Using ICT in everyday work with children and parents (k=9), Previous experience with ICT (k=3) and the advantages of using ICT during COVID-19 (k=9). Preschool teachers expressed their level of agreement with the statement about their ICT competences on a five-point Likert scale (ranging from “I completely disagree” = 1 to “I completely agree” = 5). Factor analysis was used to identify 4 sub-scales in the first point of time, and CFA confirmed the same factor structure for the second point of time. The reliability of the instrument was confirmed by applying the Cronbach alpha test: 1. Early childhood teachers’ knowledge of and skill in using ICT (k=5; α1=0,816, α2=0,783, α=0,757) (α1 – first sample; α2 – second sample; α- total) 2. Using ICT in everyday work with children and parents (k=9; α1=0,888; α2=0,873; α=0,883) 3. Previous experience with ICT (k=3; α1=0,825, α2=0,834, α=0,836) 4. The advantages of using ICT during COVID-19 (k=9; α1=0,912, α2=0,912, α=0,910) The table below outlines the number of items and key indicators used within each subscale. Table 1. Instrument Indicators Subscale Number of Items (k) Indicators - Use of basic digital tools Early Childhood - Confidence in integrating ICT Teachers’ Knowledge 5 - Use of ICT to support development of and Skill in Using - Understanding digital safety ICT - Troubleshooting ICT issues - ICT use in instruction - Use of multimedia content - Child engagement via ICT Using ICT in Everyday - Communication with parents Work with Children 9 - Sharing digital materials and Parents - Individualized ICT adaptation - ICT in curriculum - Collaborative digital learning - Monitoring digital use M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 277 - Prior ICT training Previous Experience 3 - Pre-pandemic ICT use with ICT - Participation in digital projects - Continuity of learning - Digital communication with parents - Child engagement via digital tools Perceived Advantages - Organizing remote learning of Using ICT During 9 - Collaborative support via ICT COVID-19 - Motivation for skill improvement - Awareness of ICT role - Benefit to child development - ICT for crisis preparedness Procedure The data for this study were collected in two cycles. The first cycle was conducted in March 2020, and a sample of 178 early childhood teachers working in kindergartens located in Zadar County participated in the research. In January 2024, a sample of 78 early childhood teachers working in kindergartens located in Zadar County participated in the research. Data was collected from the same 18 kindergartens at both measurement points. Research was conducted using electronic questionnaires created using the 1Ka (One Click Survey) tool. Consent for the participation of educational staff in the research was requested from the directors and counsellors in kindergartens. Links to the questionnaires were sent to teachers, and the purpose and goal of the research were indicated. Participants anonymously filled out the questionnaire. Research results were analysed using SPSS software. Sample In the first cycle, most participants were female (N=177, 99.4%). Regarding professional titles, the majority of these were working as early childhood teachers (N=167, 93.8%). A smaller percentage held mentor (N=9, 5.1%) or advisor (N=2, 1.1%) positions. Most early childhood teachers participating in the research had 11- 20 years of experience in early childhood practice (N=69, 38.8%). Other experience levels included 0-5 years (N=39, 21.9%), 6 – 10 years (N=26, 14,6%), 21 – 25 years (N=23, 12.9%), and 26 and more years (N=20, 11.2%). Most teachers had bachelor’s degrees (N=166, 82%), while N=32 (18%) had master’s degrees. In the second research cycle, the great majority of teachers were female (N=75, 96.2%). As for the previous measurement point, most of the participants worked as early childhood teachers (N=72, 92.3%), there were N=4 (5.1%) teachers with the REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 278 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION title of mentor, and N=2 (2.6%) with the title of advisor. The results from 2024 show that the teachers participating in the study had been working in the profession for 0 – 5 years (N=21, 27%), 6 – 10 years (N=11, 14.1%), 11 – 20 years (N=17, 21.8%), 21 – 25 years (N=15, 19.2%), and 26 years and more (N=14, 17.9%). There were N=51 (65.4%) teachers with bachelor’s degrees, while N=27 (34.6%) had master’s degrees. Results For the processing of data obtained from the research, frequency analysis of data, descriptive analysis of data, and a t-test were used to determine if there was a difference in the percentage of opinions among early childhood teachers in relation to each statement. The data in Table 1 show that for all the variables used, the full ranges of responses was obtained, and the skewness indexes did not exceed the values of +/- 2; it is therefore justified to apply parametric statistics. Table 2. Descriptive statistics for subscales N Min Max M SD Skewness Kurtosis Teachers’ knowledge of 256 1.00 5.00 3.1339 .99323 -.321 -.786 and skill in using ICT Using ICT in everyday work with children and 256 1.33 5.00 3.0271 .94390 -.245 -.955 parents Previous experience with 256 1.00 5.00 3.0319 .92894 -.211 -.531 ICT The advantages of using 256 1.00 5.00 2.9583 1.11034 -.153 -1.171 ICT during COVID-19 Valid N (listwise) 256 According to the descriptive analysis (Table 1), it was determined that teachers believe they have average knowledge and skills, for each of the competences, for using ICT (M=3.1339; SD=0.993), and that they use ICT on average (M=3.027; SD=0.943) in everyday work with children and parents. This is also consistent with M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 279 their opinion on the average previous experience of using ICT (M=3.0319; SD=0.9289). The research results also show that teachers rate the advantages of using ICT during the COVID-19 pandemic as average (M=2.958; SD=1.110). Table 3 Comparison of Subscales between participants in 2020 and 2024: Independent Samples t-Test Results N M SD Min Max t-test p Teachers’ knowledge 2020 178 3.1755 1.09696 1.00 5.00 of and skill in using 2024 78 3.0391 .69845 1.60 4.40 1.011 0.313 ICT Total 256 3.1339 .99323 1.00 5.00 Using ICT in everyday 2020 178 2.8178 .99829 1.33 5.00 work with children 2024 78 3.5046 .57221 1.78 4.67 5.677 0.000 and parents Total 256 3.0271 .94390 1.33 5.00 Previous experience 2020 178 2.8549 .92568 1.00 5.00 with ICT 2024 78 3.4359 .80637 1.00 5.00 4.081 0.000 Total 256 3.0319 .92894 1.00 5.00 The advantages of 2020 178 2.6860 1.13919 1.00 4.89 using ICT during 2024 78 3.5798 .73281 1.33 5.00 6.372 0.000 COVID-19 Total 256 2.9583 1.11034 1.00 5.00 In accordance with the first hypothesis, the differences in self-assessed competences were tested between teachers who participated in the research in 2020 and 2024. From the results shown in Table 2, there is no statistically significant difference (t = 1.001, p < 0.05) in the self-assessment of teachers in both studies in terms of their knowledge of and skill in using ICT in everyday work with children and parents. Both groups assess their competences equally, i.e., as average. Therefore, we can accept the first hypothesis because we found no statistically significant differences. In accordance with the second hypothesis, the differences in the previous and regular frequency of using ICT technology in educational work with children and their parents were tested between teachers who participated in the research in 2020 and 2024. From the results shown in Table 2, teachers participating in the 2020 study emphasize that they use ICT more often in their work, i.e., they express a more positive attitude towards the use of ICT in their work (t= 5.677, p<0.01) compared to participating teachers in 2024. Moreover, participating teachers from 2020 have more previous experience in using REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 280 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ICT (t= 4.081, p<0.01) than teachers participating in the research conducted in 2024. The research results show that we can completely reject the second hypothesis, i.e., statistically significant differences were obtained for both measures. In accordance with the third hypothesis, the differences in the opinions of teachers about the advantages of using ICT during and after COVID-19 were tested. From the results shown in Table 2, teachers participating in the 2020 study, during COVID-19, estimate there are more advantages in using ICT (t=6.372, p<0.01) than teachers participating in the study conducted in 2024 after COVID-19. According to these results, there is a statistically significant difference, and we can reject the third hypothesis. The patterns of ICT use among early childhood teachers during and after the COVID-19 pandemic reveal key shifts. During the pandemic, digital tools were widely adopted, particularly for parent communication and remote learning as a necessary response to unprecedented conditions. In this context, ICT was not only functional but essential, fostering more favourable attitudes toward its use. Post- pandemic, however, ICT usage and perceived benefits declined. This likely reflects a return to traditional, hands-on practices better suited to early childhood education, along with the view that digital reliance was a temporary adaptation rather than a lasting pedagogical change. It can be observed that younger, less experienced teachers reported greater digital competence and use, likely due to greater familiarity and comfort with technology. Institutional barriers such as inadequate infrastructure, limited support, and unclear digital guidelines may have further discouraged continued ICT integration. Additionally, some teachers questioned the developmental appropriateness of digital tools, especially concerning social- emotional growth and physical activity. Overall, ICT use was shaped by a mix of urgency, generational readiness, structural capacity, and pedagogical belief. While crises can accelerate digital adoption, sustained integration requires long-term investment in teacher training, infrastructure, and educational culture. However, it is important to note that the difference in sample sizes has implications for interpreting the findings. Although both samples were drawn from the same kindergartens, the smaller 2024 sample may reduce representativeness and increase the risk of sampling and nonresponse bias, particularly if non-participants held different attitudes toward ICT. The reduced sample also lowers statistical power, potentially obscuring subtle but meaningful changes. Factors such as post-pandemic fatigue, shifting priorities, or workforce turnover may have influenced participation and introduced generational variation, with newer teachers potentially more digitally M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 281. fluent. These limitations suggest that observed differences may reflect both actual changes in practice and variations in sample composition, warranting cautious interpretation. Discussion The COVID-19 pandemic posed significant challenges for early childhood teachers, requiring a sudden shift to online environments and demanding rapid adaptation to digital tools. This transition presupposed a baseline of digital competence that many educators lacked (Visnjic-Jevtic et al., 2021). Both novice and experienced teachers reported feeling unprepared in areas such as inclusive education and digital literacy, highlighting the inadequacy of current training programs (Miočić and Tokić, 2021). Many teachers lacked the digital competence required for effective teaching during the pandemic, thus emphasizing the importance of structured, ongoing professional development and institutional support to build digital readiness across all levels of education (Perifanou et al., 2021). Similar findings were reported by Velki and Miočić (2025), who emphasized that although teachers are expected to mentor and guide children in safe internet practices, many report lacking adequate preparation to address the specific risks and benefits associated with children’s digital engagement. Prior ICT experience and foundational digital skills were essential for effectively delivering remote education, underscoring the importance of integrating practical digital training into teacher preparation (Velki and Miočić, 2023). Although pre-service teachers in Norway expressed scepticism about the emphasis on digital skills in university curricula, they still reported confidence in their own ICT abilities (Instefjord and Munthe, 2017). This reflects a broader trend: early childhood teachers recognize the importance of ICT for professional growth but often remain self-critical of their competence, showing strong motivation for further learning (Rogulj, 2011). Teachers’ digital literacy is crucial, not only for their own professional development but also for supporting young children in a media- saturated world. Research confirms that self-efficacy plays a significant role in teachers’ effective use of ICT in the classroom (Ismail, 2023). Studies also show that less experienced teachers tend to report higher ICT competence and more frequent use, likely due to recent exposure and training (Miočić and Tokić, 2021). However, low levels of digital competence and inadequate infrastructure in kindergartens remain significant barriers to effective ICT integration (Celizić and Zovko, 2021). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 282 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION While teachers acknowledge the value of ICT, especially in communicating with parents, they face obstacles such as large group sizes, lack of equipment, and underdeveloped digital systems. Both educators and parents have expressed the need for clearer communication protocols when using digital platforms (Rogulj, 2019). Similar patterns emerged globally: for instance, teachers in China also reported low confidence in applying digital tools during the pandemic (Hong et al., 2021). Educators generally agree that formal training alone is insufficient, and many express a willingness to continue professional development to meet modern educational demands (Soleša and Soleša-Grijak, 2011). Continued exposure to digital tools has been shown to support the development of ICT competences (Chen and Aklikokou, 2020; Cigdem and Ozturk, 2016; Marangunić and Granić, 2015; Rafique et al., 2018). When effectively implemented, ICT fosters child development, expands teaching possibilities, and enables integration across educational activities (Bolstad, 2004). Digital media also enhances communication between teachers and parents by improving the flexibility, access, and frequency of interactions (Scully et al., 2015; Gestwicki, 2015; Özdamli and Yildiz, 2014; Olsen and Fuller, 2008). Many modern parents prefer ICT for staying informed about their child’s learning (Katyal and Eversa, 2007). Nonetheless, successful ICT integration depends on institutional support. Research shows that many kindergartens lack the infrastructure needed to support daily digital use. For example, in Russia, only 62% of early childhood teachers reported having internet access at work (Kosaretskii and Chernyshova, 2013). Improving ICT infrastructure is therefore essential for enabling digital communication and giving parents meaningful insight into their child’s early learning experience. Today’s education systems require digitally skilled educators who can integrate emerging technologies into teaching and respond to the needs of children. Continuous professional development is essential to keep teachers aligned with evolving educational trends and ICT opportunities. Additionally, higher education should emphasize ICT training, particularly in digital content creation, to prepare future professionals for innovative practice (Garzón-Artacho et.al., 2021). Conclusion This study highlights that while early childhood teachers perceive themselves as moderately competent in using ICT, their actual use of digital tools and their perceptions of its benefits have evolved over time. Greater engagement was reported M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 283. during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly in relation to communication with parents and support for the learning process. However, this use declined post- pandemic, reflecting both a return to traditional practices and lingering limitations in digital infrastructure and training. Notably, less experienced teachers reported higher levels of confidence and engagement, suggesting a generational trend in digital readiness. The findings expose a persistent disconnect between the digital demands of modern early childhood education and the preparation offered by formal teacher training. This highlights the need to modernise pre-service education by embedding structured, practice-oriented modules in digital pedagogy, tailored specifically to the developmental needs of young children. To address varying competence levels among current educators, continuous professional development must be strengthened, offering hands-on experience with commonly used tools and fostering mentorship from digitally proficient peers. At the policy level, the study underscores the importance of investing in equitable digital infrastructure, including hardware, internet access, and technical support, as well as establishing clear, developmentally appropriate guidelines for ICT use in early childhood settings. Furthermore, effective digital transformation requires collaboration with families; thus, efforts must also enhance parental digital literacy and promote transparent, accessible communication channels. The novelty of this research lies in its longitudinal comparative design, offering insights into how a global crisis catalysed changes in digital practices and revealing both progress and regression over time. These findings provide a valuable foundation for shaping future digital strategies in early education and for guiding sustainable, inclusive transformation efforts. References Bolstad, R. (2004). The role and potential of ICT in early childhood education: A review of New Zealand and international literature. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Education. Celizić, M., and Zovko, A. (2021). Stavovi odgojitelja rane i predškolske dobi prema online stručnom usavršavanju. Metodički obzori: časopis za odgojno-obrazovnu teoriju i praksu, 16 (2(31)), 47-69. Chen, L., and Aklikokou, A. K. (2020). Determinants of E-government adoption: testing the mediating effects of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. International Journal of Public Administration, 43(10), 850-865. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2019.1660989 Cigdem, H., and Ozturk, M. (2016). Factors affecting students’ behavioral intention to use LMS at a Turkish post-secondary vocational school. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(3), 276-295. DOI:10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2253 Đuran, A., Koprivnjak, D., and Maček, N. (2019). Utjecaj medija i uloga odraslih na odgoj i obrazovanje djece predškolske i rane školske dobi. Communication Management Review, 4(1), 270-283. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 284 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Garzón-Artacho, E., Sola-Martínez, T., Romero-Rodríguez, J. M., and Gómez-García, G. (2021). Teachers' perceptions of digital competence at the lifelong learning stage. Heliyon, 7(7). Article e08567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08567 Gestwicki, C. (2015). Home, school, and community relations. South-Western. Hong, X., Zhang, M., and Liu, Q. (2021). Preschool Teachers Technology Acceptance During the COVID-19: An Adapted Technology Acceptance Model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 691492. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.691492 Instefjord, E. J., and Munthe, E. (2017). Educating digitally competent teachers: A study of integration of professional digital competence in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 67, 37- 45. Ismail, R. (2023). The Preschool Teachers' Perspective of Digital Technology Use in Classrooms: A Case Study of North Maluku Province, Indonesia. Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, 10(2), 223-232. Katyal, K. R., and Evers, C. W. (2007). Parents—partners or clients? A reconceptualization of home– school interactions. Teaching Education, 18(1), 61-76. Kisić, I. (2019). Zajedništvo odgojitelja i kvaliteta ustanove ranog i predškolskog odgoja i obrazovanja (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zagreb. Faculty of Teacher Education). Kosaretskii, S. G., and Chernyshova, D. V. (2013). Electronic communication between the school and the home. Russian Education & Society, 55(10), 81-89. Marangunić, N., and Granić, A. (2015), Technology acceptance model: A literature review from 1986 to 2013. Universal Access in the Information Society, 14(1), 81-95. Mikić, K. (2013). Medijska pismenost, mediji kao prijenosnici humanih poruka, ideja, vrijednosti. In D. Smajić, and V. Majdenić (Eds.), Dijete i jezik danas-dijete i mediji [Children and Language Today – Children and Media], (pp. 13-49). Osijek, Croatia Miočić, M., and Tokić, B. (2021). Early Childhood Teacher Professional Development: The Need for Continuing Lifelong Education. INTED2021 - 15th International Technology, Education and Development Conference, Proceedings (pp. 810-818). IATED. Mlinarević, V. (2000). Kompetencija odgojitelja i autonomija djeteta. Interakcija odrasli-dijete i autonomija djeteta: zbornik radova sa znanstvenog kolokvija s međunarodnim sudjelovanjem [Adults-Children Interaction and Child’s Autonomy: Proceedings of the Scientific Colloquium with International Participation], (pp. 143-150). Osijek, Croatia OECD (2023). Empowering Young Children in the Digital Age, Starting Strong, OECD Publishing https://doi.org/10.1787/50967622-en. Olsen, G. W., and Fuller, M. L. (2008). Home-school relations: Working successfully with parents and families. Pearson Education. Özdamlı, F., and Yıldız, E. P. (2014). Parents’ views towards improve parent-school collaboration with mobile technologies. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 131, 361-366. Perifanou, M., Economides, A. A., and Tzafilkou, K. (2021). Teachers’ digital skills readiness during COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 16(8), 238–251. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v16i08.21011 Rafique, H., Almagrabi, A. O., Shamim, A., Anwar, F., and Bashir, A. K. (2020). Investigating the acceptance of mobile library applications with an extended technology acceptance model (TAM). Computers & Education, 145, 103732. Renić, M. (2018). Korištenje medija kod djece predškolske dobi i njihovih roditelja (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zagreb. The Faculty of Political Science). Rogulj, E. (2011). ICT kompetencije odgajatelja. 5th International Conference on Advanced and Systematic Research, Proceedings (pp. 321-329). Zagreb, Croatia. Rogulj, E. (2014). Novi mediji u dječjem okruženju. 14th Days of Mate Demarin: Contemporary Challenges to educational theory and practice, Proceedings (pp. 243-252). Topusko, Croatia. Rogulj, E. (2019). Digitalne tehnologije u komunikaciji odgojitelja i roditelja (Doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. University of Zagreb. M. Miočić, M. Karamatić Brčić & B. Tokić: A Comparative Study of Early Childhood Teachers’ Digital Practices During and After COVID-19 285. Šagud, M., and Jurčević-Lozančić, A. (2012). Autonomy of preschool teachers and strengthening their competencies. In I. Pehlić, E., Vejo, and A. Hasanagić (Eds.), Suvremeni tokovi u ranom odgoju [Contemporary Trends in Early Education], 464-475. Zenica Scully, P. A., Barbour, C., and Roberts-King, H. (2014). Families, schools, and communities: Building partnerships for educating children. Pearson. Šimala, T. (2017). Utjecaj medija na djecu predškolske dobi (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zagreb. Faculty of Teacher Education. Sindik, J., and Veselinović, Z. (2010). Kako odgojiteljice percipiraju utjecaj medija na predškolsku djecu? Medijska istraživanja: znanstveno-stručni časopis za novinarstvo i medije, 16(2), 107-133. Soleša, D., and Soleša-Grijak, Đ. (2011). ICT kompetencije učitelja i odgojitelja. Croatian Journal of Education, 13(2), 8-37. Velki, T., and Miočić, M. (2025). Adaptation and Validation of a Questionnaire on Perceived Benefits and Risks of Children's Internet Use. 48h MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO), Proceedings, (pp. 651-656). Opatija, Croatia. Velki, T., and Miočić, M. (2023). Applying TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) to Predict Effective ICT Use of Preschool Teachers during the COVID-19 Pandemic. 46th MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention (MIPRO), Proceedings, (pp. 527-532). Opatija, Croatia. Višnjić Jevtić, A. (2018). Odgojiteljska samoprocjena kompetencije za suradnju s roditeljima (Doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. University of Zagreb. Visnjic-Jevtic, A., Paz-Albo, J., Sahin-Sak, I. T., Varga Nagy, A., Sánchez-Pérez, N., Ozturk, G., and Toran, M. (2021). Policies and practices of early childhood education and care during the COVID-19 pandemic: Perspectives from five countries. Journal of Childhood Education and Society, 2(2), 200-216. Vrkić Dimić, J. (2013). Kompetencije učenika i nastavnika za 21. stoljeće. Acta Iadertina, 10(1), 49-60. Authors: Marijana Miočić, PhD Asisstant professor, Department of Teachers and Preschool Teachers Education, University of Zadar, Ulica dr. Franje Tuđmana 24 i, 23000 Zadar Croatia, e-mail: marijanamiocic@yahoo.com Docentka, Oddelek za izobraževanje učiteljev in vzgojiteljev, Univerza v Zadru, Ulica dr. Franje Tuđmana 24 i, 23000 Zadar, Hrvaška, e-pošta: marijanamiocic@yahool.com Matilda Karamatić Brčić, PhD Associate professor, Department of Pedagogy, University of Zadar, Obala kralja Petra Krešimira IV./2, 23000 Zadar, Croatia, e-mail: mkarama@unizd.hr Izredna profesorica, Oddelek za pedagogiko, Univerza v Zadru, Obala kralja Petra Krešimira IV./2, 23000 Zadar, Hrvaška, e-pošta: mkarama@unizd.hr Bernarda Tokić, PhD Student, Department of Pedagogy, University of Zadar, Obala kralja Petra Krešimira IV./2, 23000 Zadar, Croatia, e-mail: bptokic@gmail.com Oddelek za pedagogiko, Univerza v Zadru, Obala kralja Petra Krešimira IV./2, 23000 Zadar, e-pošta: bptokic@gmail.com REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 286 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 287–304, September 2025 A STUDY OF CLASSROOM POTENTIAL BASED ON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ SEATING POSITION PREFERENCES KUKUH RIZKI SATRIAJI, IMAM SANTOSA, ACHMAD SYARIEF & ANDRIYANTO WIBISONO Visual Art and Design, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Potrjeno/Accepted 31. 7. 2025 Bandung, West Java, Indonesia Visual Art and Design, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Objavljeno/Published Bandung, West Java, Indonesia 30. 9. 2025 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR kukuh.satriaji@itb.ac.id Abstract/Izvleček Previous research has shown a link between seating position and student interest in and motivation for learning. This study explores classroom potential based on seating preferences and reasons behind student choices. Teachers rarely allow students to select their own seats, despite the benefits of comfort and engagement. Keywords: Conducted in 5th and 6th elementary grades, this research used a participatory teaching, school, approach involving students and teachers. The study found that students’ seating student, learning preferences were influenced by spatial characteristics, opportunities for social process, peer feedback. engagement, and academic motivations. Understanding these preferences can help Ključne besede: create a more conducive learning environment, enhancing student comfort, poučevanje, šola, participation, and overall academic motivation. učenec, učni proces, Raziskava o učnem uspehu osnovnošolcev glede na sedežni red v razredu vrstniška povratna Dosedanje raziskave so pokazale povezavo med sedežnim redom v razredu in informacija. zanimanjem ter motivacijo učencev za učenje. V študiji raziskujemo učni uspeh učencev glede na njihovo izbiro sedežev v razredu in razloge za izbiro. Učitelji UDK/UDC: redko dovolijo učencem, da si sami izberejo, kje bodo sedeli, kljub prednostim, 373.3.091.3 kot sta udobje in vključenost pri pouku. V raziskavi, izvedeni v 5. in 6. razredu osnovne šole, je bil uporabljen participativni pristop, ki je vključeval učence in učitelje. Ugotovitve so pokazale, da so na izbiro sedežnega reda vplivale prostorske značilnosti, možnosti za socialne stike ter učna motivacija. Razumevanje teh učenčevih želja lahko pripomore k oblikovanju spodbudnejšega učnega okolja, ki izboljšuje udobje, sodelovanje in splošno učno motivacijo učencev. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.5010 Besedilo / Text © 2025 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 288 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Research and discussion to enhance the quality of education persist through the exploration of learning elements and environments that effectively motivate students. Research in the education domain emphasizes the development of innovative learning approaches alongside the augmentation of teacher capacity and motivation in the teaching process (van der Lans et al., 2021), measurement of student motivation and perception (Allen et al., 2021), to the development of activities and facilities in classrooms (Stewart et al., 2019). Changes in the education system, whether in pedagogy, management, or policy, do not always align with adaptation to the learning environment (Barrett et al., 2015). By providing proper facilities, motivating students, and employing skilled teachers with effective methods, an education system actively shapes the future character of individuals. The school serves as a controlled environment where students simulate real-world societal scenarios, contributing to their overall development (Weinstein and David, 1987). Students improve through the development of literacy skills (Gul and Ozdemir, 2023), critical thinking, responsibility, and environmental awareness (Hendrizal et al., 2022). An effective classroom environment plays a critical role in cultivating these abilities by directly influencing students. Thus, a thorough understanding of the factors that enhance classroom quality is imperative (Sutton et al., 2021). It is widely believed that students possess a strong motivation to learn and aim for the best possible outcomes. The first day of school marks an exciting start to their educational path. This motivation is driven by an intrinsic desire to acquire knowledge and engage with new learning experiences (Ardiyanto and Muharam, 2021). However, this motivation is often diminished by several factors, including the following: (1) monotonous learning environments; (2) limited social interaction; (3) difficulty in understanding the learning materials; and (4) inadequate school facilities. Schools should provide opportunities for students to maintain their motivation by participating in diverse and engaging learning activities. A lack of creativity and innovation in classroom management, including seating arrangements, can lead to boredom and disengagement from the learning process (Rohmanurmeta and Farozin, 2016). Teachers are responsible for maintaining the physical environment of the classroom (Purnomo and Aulia, 2018) so that they can always provide new experiences for students. Schools shape fundamental behaviour by teaching respect for others and balancing personal comfort with shared spaces, ensuring designs align K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 289. with student needs (Kliment, 2001). The school building provides various functions, such as the education and exploratory functions, recreation and social functions, as a provision for future preparation (Spencer and Blades, 2005). Figure 1. Student’s school journey A student’s journey from outside into the classroom involves transitioning through various areas, each governed by its own set of rules and expectations (Figure 1). At first, students are free to play and explore; however, as they approach the classroom, rules become increasingly strict. In the hallways, running and shouting are prohibited. Inside the classroom, students are expected to remain in their assigned seats during designated times. Movement is limited, and those sharing seats are required to avoid behaviours that could disrupt their peers. The nature of elementary students is characterized by their active and joyful disposition, as they eagerly engage in uninhibited exploration and movement (Kytta, 2004). For them, every object holds unlimited exploration potential. However, there are strict classroom rules prohibiting noisy or dirty activities. The system confines most activities within assigned seats, while students view games and exploration as integral to their learning experience. Student desks are important elements in a classroom because they can provide atmosphere in a learning environment (Valikhani et al., 2016). The duration students spend in their seats varies, determined by the established seating system. Some systems change dynamically every day, while others remain fixed for the semester. There are no standard guidelines for arranging classroom furniture (Saidi et al., 2023). Spending about 30-40 hours weekly at their desks, students need a well- designed room that supports learning. Classroom furniture should allow movement and align with students’ motor abilities, following ergonomic and anthropometric principles (Domljan et al., 2010). Problems that occur in the design of student desks include the following: the design not being in accordance with student ergonomics REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 290 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION and anthropometry (Herga and Fošnarič, 2017); conditions that are no longer suitable for use, and using materials that are too heavy (Purwaningrum et al., 2015). Standard table heights for Indonesian elementary students range from 70-72.5 cm, while chair heights are 37-42 cm, ensuring ergonomic support based on student anthropometry (Satriaji et al., 2020). These dimensions are based on average student anthropometry, although physical variations do exist. However, some schools still use outdated wooden tables and chairs. The relationship between the seating position and the classroom elements is something that has rarely been further examined. It is suspected that it can provide value in the learning process at school (Wannarka and Ruhl, 2008). This study examines the influence of the classroom elements on student preferences for classroom seating position. Moreover, it can influence elementary school students’ motivation to learn in class. Seating position must be considered because, apart from being a personal choice (Tobia et al., 2022), most of the time students spend at school is in their seats. Several variations of seating arrangements in the classroom include traditional classroom style, herringbone style, face to face style, cluster style, seminar style, and horseshoe style. These seating arrangement model has the best academic impact (Rogers, 2020) because students can see one another, which supports better social interaction. Most schools in Indonesia use conventional seating with chairs and tables in a grid for up to 38 students. Heavy furniture limits flexibility, while curriculum and teaching methods rarely support varied layouts. Seating comfort depends on ergonomics, anthropometry, and safe, practical furniture that enhances learning and well-being. Learning activities in the classroom include listening, reading, taking notes, discussing, chatting, and asking questions (Pirih, 2019). Several improvements to learning activities can be carried out to increase motivation among elementary school students to study in the classroom (Bojović and Antonijević, 2017). The activity in the classroom must be tailored to the characteristics of the student so that the student can feel engaged (Table 2). Learning activities carried out should be supported by varied learning methods while ensuring optimal utilization of classroom elements in the space where these activities take place. A good learning strategy will facilitate the achievement of learning objectives (Wahyuningsih et al., 2023). Then how to determine student seating? One common occurrence is the struggle for a seat position on the first day of school, which often becomes a competition among parents. Some still believe that “position determines achievement,” often preferring their child to sit in the front row for a better grade, while back-row seats K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 291. are associated with lower academic performance. The class teacher can implement various seat selection systems based on thoughtful consideration (Table 1). Student seating arrangements often follow a conventional style owing to a lack of awareness about alternative layouts. Seating can be adjusted dynamically based on thematic learning, teaching methods, and subject content to enhance student engagement and classroom interaction (Wardana and Rulyansah, 2019). Table 1. Type of student seating selection Type Description Implementation First come, first served Seats are chosen based on Early-arriving students select their arrival order seats, often resulting in hierarchical group dynamics Health Considerations Seats assigned based on Visual or hearing-impaired students student health needs prioritized to sit in the front row Seat rotation Seats periodically moving Students experience different seating arrangements, implemented on a daily or weekly basis Physical factors Seating based on students’ Shorter students are placed in front, physical characteristics, such while taller students are seated in the as height back to ensure visual access Gender Seating organized according May involve grouping students of the to student gender same or different genders at a single table Schools must support the expected learning outcomes by providing security, cleanliness, safety, and a conducive environment (Fauziati, 2016). Classrooms must be able to organize learning activities properly according to the methods used. Learning outcomes are influenced by both internal factors—such as physiological and psychological conditions (Che Ahmad et al., 2017)—and external factors, including curriculum design, teaching methods, social relationships, school discipline, learning support tools, and the physical condition of school buildings (Raresik et al., 2016). Key considerations include adequate space, safety, flexible furniture, sufficient storage, and compliance with educational standards to optimize the learning experience (UNICEF, 2016). Based on the background outlined above, this research has two aims: 1. To understand students’ seating preferences and the reasons behind their choices. 2. To identify classroom potential from the student’s perspective to enhance learning experiences and engagement. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 292 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Methods This study explores classroom potential by analysing students’ seating preferences and the reasons for their choices. Building on prior research, it examines how physical classroom elements influence learning and aims to optimize the learning environment. Student seating preferences vary according to individual backgrounds. This study was conducted at SDN 03 Kepongpongan, Cirebon, involving 44 students from the 5th and 6th grades, selected through purposive sampling. All participants had prior classroom experience and received approval from the school to take part in the study. The data will be analysed using a heat map diagram to visualize the distribution and patterns of seating preferences within the classroom. Table 2. Classroom activities Activities Location Description Curiosity-driven Student desk Activities stimulate student curiosity by connecting activities daily events to the subject matter Learning materials Centre of the Simulate the teaching material provided adjusted to simulation class student learning outcome Group study Group Group discussion to solve a problem, providing configuration opportunities for students to convey and listen to desk opinions from peers. Direct learning In front of the Teacher conveys the outcomes for each stage of assessment class learning openly and describes the strategy to achieve the parameters of success. Praise can be given by the teacher to students during the process to increase morale. Physical activities All areas Learning activities not limited to seats but include simple movements around the classroom. Integrating indoor- Classroom- Learning can incorporate outdoor phenomena, like outdoor activities Schoolyard vehicle sounds, weather, scents, and motion. These experiences enhance understanding and support students’ physical development (Joyce et al., 2023) Game based activities Classroom Learning fosters a competitive spirit among students while creating a dynamic learning environment. This enhances engagement and helps address learning challenges effectively (Katemba et al., 2022) Quizzes All areas Aligning quiz content with the curriculum while fostering healthy competition among students. K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 293. This qualitative study investigates elementary students’ seating preferences in relation to existing classroom conditions. The research was conducted in three stages: data collection, workshops, and analysis. Methods employed include surveys, observations, and interviews, utilizing measurement sheets and seating identification tools. Interviews were conducted to assess student engagement and learning experiences to better understand classroom dynamics and optimize the learning environment. In the initial stage, the study examined classroom attributes and orientation, including the extent of outdoor visibility. Measurements of classroom dimensions, furniture, and openings were carried out using both laser distance meters and manual measuring instruments. Figure 2. Existing classroom conditions This data forms the basis for digital drawings using SketchUp creating a simplified 3D classroom model for the workshop sheet (Figure 2). The drawing closely represents actual classroom conditions. Students begin by identifying the classroom elements. Each seat is coded with letters and numbers, where letters indicate columns and numbers denote rows. For example, A1 and B1 represent seats at the front left near the teacher’s desk, while C1 and D1 are central front seats. The classroom’s grid-based layout allows easy coding, helping students identify seating arrangements. This structured approach enhances workshop engagement and helps analyse seating preferences effectively. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 294 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Table 3. Classroom elements Classroom Area Elements Front area Blackboard, Garuda Pancasila (Indonesia national emblem), photo of Indonesia President and Vice President, information board, learning poster, teacher table Left- or right-side area Windows, information boards, learning posters, entrance, decoration Rear area Cabinet, unused table or chair Middle area Student chair and desk configurations Observations reveal that elementary school classrooms have common features and elements (Table 3). Seating often follows a traditional grid layout, with rows and columns oriented toward the blackboard and teacher. Each desk holds two students, accommodating 38 students per class. Workshop images were simplified for clarity. The student worksheets (Figure 3) and instruction in Indonesian (L1) used simple wording during the workshop. This was a collaborative activity between students and teachers. Teachers remained present but did not influence student choices, ensuring authentic responses that reflected true seating preferences. The teachers guided students, addressed difficulties, and leveraged their familiarity with individual learning styles. Misi Posis iDuduk diDalamKelas Alat: Stiker bulat berwarna Kali ini, Satria sudah menyediakan gambar ruang kelas lengkap dengan meja, kursi dan papan tulis, mirip dengan ruang kelas teman-teman ya. Tugas teman-teman adalah menempelkan stiker berwarna pada gambar ini. Tempelkan stiker warna pada kursi untuk: Tempat duduk saat ini Posisi paling nyaman Posisi paling tidak nyaman 6 Figure 3. Student seating worksheet In the initial stage, students observed their classrooms from their respective seats. They were provided with worksheets and three coloured stickers—green (indicating K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 295. their current seat), blue (their most preferred seat), and red (their least preferred seat). Primary colours were deliberately selected to enhance engagement and comprehension among elementary students. This activity not only explored their seating preferences but also assessed their spatial awareness and understanding of classroom layout. The perceived potential of the classroom is closely linked to specific interior elements, particularly those that influence student comfort and engagement (see Table 4). Four key elements were assessed: the teacher’s desk (T), the blackboard (B), the classroom door (D), and the window (W). Each element was categorized based on its proximity to student seating positions: very close, close, far, very far, or extremely far. These classifications considered not only physical distance but also the presence of potential obstructions—such as furniture or classmates— that might hinder students’ physical or visual access to these elements Table 4. Classroom seating position identification Row Left Side (A & B) Middle (C & D) Right Side (E & F) Front Very close to T Close to T Far from T Row Close to B Very close to the B Close to B (1) Far from D Close to D Very close to D Very far from W Close to W Very close to W Middle Close to T Far from T Very far from T Row Far from B Close to B Far from B (2) Very far from D Far from D Close to D Very far from W Close to W Very close to W Back Far from T Very far from T Very very far from T Row Very far from the B Far from B Very far from the B (3) Very very far from D Very far from D Far from D Very far from W Close to W Very close to W Results and Discussion Students’ Optimal Classroom Position The results revealed that students selected their favourite seating positions based on classroom conditions within the learning environment. Three positions were considered attractive by students: B1, C1, and D1 (Figure 4). Seating position number D1—the middle front row near the blackboard—emerged as the most favoured, chosen by 28.57% of students. The front-row, fourth-column seat provides a clear view of the blackboard, enabling students to follow lessons more REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 296 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION effectively and engage directly with the teacher. Its proximity to the classroom entrance also offers quick access, prompting some students to compete with their peers to secure this favoured position. The popularity of this seat reflects students’ naturally competitive tendencies (Hofer, 2007). Front wall (blackboard) A B C D E F 1 2 8 10 12 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 Rear wall Figure 4. Student’s preferred position distribution The second is C1, chosen by 23.8%, and located adjacent to D1 in the first row and third column. This position offers advantages similar to D1, facilitating effective communication. The third is B1 at 19.04%, situated in the first row of the second column, directly across from the teacher’s desk. This position enhances student- teacher interaction during lessons. These results suggest that elementary school students exhibit a tendency to opt for seats in the front row, prioritizing proximity to the blackboard and the teacher’s desk—the key elements capturing their attention in class. The similar distribution of the remaining results at 4.76% is evident in seating numbers A1, F1, A2, B2, D2, and C3. The predominant seating preference is observed in the front row (A1 to F1) with a massive percentage of 80.8%. Students prefer seats near the teacher’s desk, the blackboard, and the entrance, indicating a tendency towards the front. This preference is likely influenced by clearer teacher communication, proximity to the class focus, and easy outdoor access, making front- row seating a motivating factor in their learning experience. On the other hand, the most favoured elongated seating distribution is in the middle column (C1, D1, D2, C3) for 61.7% of students. This choice is perceived as offering an equitable opportunity to enjoy all classroom features, given the symmetrical arrangement typical of most classrooms Left wall (windows) Right wall (entrance) K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 297. Students’ Less Optimal Classroom Position Among the less desirable choices, 11 seating positions are considered unattractive by students: A1, B1, F1, A2, B2, A3, B3, C3, D3, E3, and F3 (Figure 5 ). Seat number B1, located in the front row near the teacher’s desk, is the least favoured selected by 22.72% of students. Being directly in front of the teacher’s desk, this position could make some students feel discomfort due to heightened scrutiny and expectations of increased participation in class discussion. The perceived limitation on engaging in alternative activities also contributes to the unfavourable perception of this seating position. This finding contrasts with its also being the students’ third most favoured position, indicating a nuanced preference for this location. The second least preferred seating position is number A3, positioned in the first column in the back row. Students find this location unattractive as it is in the back left corner of the classroom, offering limited accessibility and fewer opportunities to engage with class features. This position holds an option rate of 13.63% like seating position number E3, situated in the back row in the right corner. These findings underscore students’ reluctance to occupy seats in the rear corners. This position is defined by two walls, limiting student movement and interaction. Seat number E3, located in the fifth column and third row, is notably distant from the teacher’s desk and the blackboard. E3 could pose a challenge for students who wish to concentrate on the teacher’s explanations, because they could experience difficulty hearing the teacher’s explanations. Additionally, its distance from the window results in frequent external noise distractions. Front wall (blackboard) A B C D E F 1 2 10 0 0 0 4 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 3 6 4 2 2 6 4 Rear wall Figure 5. Distribution of Student’s Less Favourable Seating Position The remaining selections, constituting 9.09%, are distributed among seating positions number F1, B3, and F3. Positions number A1, A2, B2, C3, and D3 each account for 4.54%. The least favoured sideways seating positions are situated at the Left wall (windows) Right wall (entrance) REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 298 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION very back of the class (A3 to F3), accounting for 54.4%. These positions are closest to the back wall of the class, significantly distant from all prominent features, including sound sources, orientation cues, and outdoor access. Allowing students to sit in these positions is believed to potentially diminish their motivation during the learning process. Similarly, the least favoured distribution of seating extending backward is on the left side of the class (A1 to A3 and B1 to B3), constituting 58.9% near the left-side wall. This row lacks appealing features and offers only a high window that cannot be visually accessed by students. This seating position is also far from the entrance, so the student sitting here will be the last to leave the classroom. These features discourage students from choosing these seats. Discussion Connection Between Seating Preferences and Classroom Attachment In classroom design, it is essential to provide spaces where students can develop a sense of attachment. When students feel emotionally connected to a particular space, they are more likely to feel satisfied and engaged, considering that school-age children are at a formative stage in which their personalities are being shaped— creating conditions that foster this sense of attachment can contribute significantly to the development of their identity (Borzooeian, 2014). Studies on learning environments examine how classroom settings can foster both comfort and attachment, enabling students to be present and actively engaged during learning. In practice, seating arrangements are often determined by the homeroom teacher’s policies. However, these decisions rarely consider the spatial potential of the classroom, such as layout and features. The physical condition and location of the classroom influence students’ seating preferences. Elementary students tend to choose seats they find personally appealing. These choices are often based on positions that support their learning, make them feel secure, suit their individual characteristics, or offer opportunities for observation. The findings suggest that students’ seating preferences are shaped by several factors within the classroom, including the position of the teacher, blackboard, classroom entrance, windows or openings, and the presence of peers. K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 299. Figure 6. Key Factors Influencing Seating Preferences (1) The Teacher Position The teacher, positioned as the central figure and facilitator of classroom activity, strongly influences students’ seating preferences. When teachers adopt an engaging and interactive teaching style, students tend to choose seats closer to the teacher to participate actively, ask questions, and maintain visual contact with instructional materials. Motivating teaching behaviour increases the likelihood of positive student engagement (Cents-Boonstra et al., 2022). On the other hand, if the teacher is perceived as strict or unapproachable, students may choose to sit farther away to create a sense of personal space or reduce potential discomfort. Thus, the teacher’s demeanour and instructional style shape the spatial dynamics of the classroom (2) Blackboard Positioning In the conventional elementary school’s classroom, the placement of blackboards plays a central role as they are conventionally fixed at the front, serving as the primary focal point for instructional and material delivery. Teachers extensively utilize these blackboards to present and illustrate key content during lessons. Given their pivotal role, students often exhibit a preference for seating arrangements in the front rows, positioning themselves close to the blackboard. This strategic seating choice is driven by the students' recognition of the advantages it offers. Students can gain optimal visibility of the board, hear more clearly for the teacher's presentations, as well as the convenience for notetaking. Being near the instructional focal point enhances their ability to actively engage with the material, ensuring a more enriched REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 300 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION and participatory learning experience. The effects of the seating arrangement on participation and assessment performance in a classroom (Rogers, 2020). (3) Classroom Accessibility Many students prefer seats near the classroom entrance. This choice is often driven by a desire for quicker access, whether to be the first to enter or to exit for recess, physical education, or other activities. Proximity to the door aligns with students' competitive nature and eagerness to participate early. In contrary, students seated further from the entrance may experience delays and feel less involved in the initial classroom interactions. (4) Windows and Openings Classrooms with visual access to the yard and school field are appealing to students. The preferred seating positions are seating close to a window that can provide visual access to the field or to the park, whereas for a high window not very selected by the student. Some prefer seats near windows to observe the outside scenery, school field conditions, and activities of friends from other classes. The exchange of information from inside to outside makes window seats popular. However, some teachers cover windows to prevent distractions, believing it may hinder learning. (5) Peers and Social Interaction Social connection plays a pivotal role in shaping student seating preferences. For elementary students, frequent peer interaction is essential, and proximity to close friends often increases comfort and engagement. Seating choices driven by social motivation contribute not only to a positive emotional climate but also foster collaborative learning and active participation in the classroom. Classroom Design and Flexibility Elementary school classrooms follow standardized layouts regulated by government, which limits structural flexibility. Nevertheless, these constraints should not hinder innovative and student-centred teaching practices. Teachers can make a substantial impact by creatively managing seating arrangements. Dynamic seating strategies— such as seat rotations, group-based configurations, or occasional free-choice seating—can break the monotony of static layouts and enhance student focus. There is no universal classroom seating arrangement that guarantees positive behavioural and academic outcomes for all types of tasks, as existing research clearly indicates K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 301. that the nature of the task—whether interactive or independent—should determine the appropriate seating configuration (Wannarka & Ruhl, 2008). Incorporating movable teaching tools, like portable blackboards, enables more flexible classroom orientations. Encouraging students to participate in decorating the class or creating learning materials (e.g., posters or project displays) fosters a sense of attachment over the space. Despite infrastructural limitations, a well-managed and responsive classroom environment can provide rich, varied learning experiences that maintain attachment and promote academic engagement. Conclusion The more compatible the school spaces are with children’s behaviour, the better they will foster student engagement. So where should students sit? Although this study was conducted on a small sample, it offers valuable insight into the potential benefits of dynamic seating arrangements. The study found that students’ seating preferences were influenced by spatial characteristics, opportunities for social engagement, and academic motivations. However, teachers rarely permit free seat selection, despite its positive impact on comfort and engagement. To enhance equal learning opportunities, teachers are encouraged to utilize the entire classroom space. Many students prefer front-row seats for better access to the teacher and instructional materials, while avoiding areas with limited visibility or engagement features. Encouraging movement within the classroom can help distribute teacher attention more evenly and improve the learning experience. Providing varied seating options can reduce monotony and enhance student focus. Allowing students to choose their seats fosters greater engagement, comfort, and academic achievement. Nevertheless, as findings may differ depending on the school context, further research with a broader sample is recommended. Acknowledgements This research is supported by the Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment under the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology of Republic Indonesia, and the Indonesia Endowment Funds for Education (LPDP) REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 302 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION References Allen, K.-A., Reupert, A., & Oades, L. (2021). Building Better Schools with Evidence-based Policy. Routledge. https://impact.chartered.college/article/howard-jones-applying-science- learning-classroom/ Ardiyanto, E., & Muharam, A. (2021). Primary School Student Learning Motivation in Online Learning During the Covid-19 Pandemic. The 3rd International Conference on Elementary Education, 3(1), 10–17. https://covid19.who.int/. Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results ofaholistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118– 133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.02.013 Bojović, I., & Antonijević, R. (2017). Students’ Motivation to Learn in Primary School. Open Journal for Psychological Research, 1(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.32591/coas.ojpr.0101.02011b Borzooeian, M. (2014). Place Attachment in Primary Schools. Arts and Design Studies, 22(0), 29–35. https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/ADS/article/view/14649 Cents-Boonstra, M., Lichtwarck-Aschoff, A., Lara, M. M., & Denessen, E. (2022). Patterns of motivating teaching behaviour and student engagement: a microanalytic approach. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 37(1), 227–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-021- 00543-3 Che Ahmad, C. N., Shaharim, S. A., & Abdullah, M. F. N. L. (2017). Teacher-student interactions, learning commitment, learning environment and their relationship with student learning comfort. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 14(1), 57–72. https://doi.org/10.12973/tused.10190a Domljan, D., Vlaovic, Z., & Grbac, I. (2010). Pupils’ Working Postures in Primary School Classrooms. PERIODICUM BIOLOGORUM, 112(1), 39–45. Fauziati, E. (2016). Child Friendly School: Principles and Practices. The First International Conference on Child - Friendly Education, 95–101. Gul, M., & Ozdemir, O. (2023). Eliminating Reading Difficulty in an Elementary 4th Grade Student Based on Learning Style. International Journal of Progressive Education, 19(2), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2023.534.2 Hendrizal, H., Chandra, C., & Kharisma, A. (2022). Attitude Development of Elementary School Students with the Character Education-based Discovery Learning Model. Jurnal Ilmiah Sekolah Dasar, 6(2), 346–354. https://doi.org/10.23887/jisd.v6i2.45572 Herga, N. R., & Fošnarič, S. (2017). Coordination of school science classroom furnishings with anthropometric parameters for 11–12-year-old children. Journal of Elementary Education, 10(1), 99–114. Hofer, M. (2007). Goal conflicts and self-regulation: A new look at pupils’ off-task behaviour in the classroom. Educational Research Review, 2(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2007.02.002 Joyce, S. S., Chundeli, F. A., & Vijayalaxmi, J. (2023). The Impact of Outdoor Environments on Children’s Behaviour: Insights from the Primary Schools in Vijayawada, India. ISVS E- Journal, 10(1), 24–36. Katemba, C. V., Tobing, J. H. L., & Putri, T. A. (2022). Do Kahoot! Games Enhance Vocabulary Learning? Journal of Elementary Education, 15(3), 393–408. https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.15.3.393-408.2022 Kliment, S. A. (2001). BUILDING TYPE BASICS FOR elementary and secondary schools. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kytta, M. (2004). The extent of children’ s independent mobility and the number of actualized affordances as criteria for child-friendly environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(2), 179–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(03)00073-2 Pirih, A. (2019). EXTENSIVE READING AND CHANGES TO READING MOTIVATION IN EFL AMONG SLOVENE PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS. Journal of Elementary Education, 12(4), 291–314. K. Rizki Satriaji, I. Santosa, A. Syarief & A. Wibisono: A Study of Classroom Potential Based on Elementary School Students’ Seating Position Preferences 303. Purnomo, B., & Aulia, F. (2018). Pelaksanaan Pengelolaan Kelas Di Sekolah Dasar. Jurnal Gentala Pendidikan Dasar, 3(I), 73–91. Purwaningrum, L., Funatsu, K., Xiong, J., Rosyidi, C. N., & Muraki, S. (2015). Effect of furniture weight on carrying, lifting, and turning of chairs and desks among elementary school children. PLoS ONE, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128843 Raresik, K. A., Dibia, I. K., & Widiana, I. W. (2016). Analisis Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Hasil Belajar Bahasa Indonesia Pada Siswa Kelas V SD Gugus VI. MIMBAR PGSD Undiksha, 4(1), 1–11. Rogers, K. (2020). The Effects of Classroom Seating Layouts on Participation and Assessment Performance in a Fourth Grade Classroom. Journal of Learning Spaces, 9(1), 31–41. Rohmanurmeta, F. M., & Farozin, M. (2016). Pengaruh Pengaturan Tempat Duduk Terhadap Motivasi Dan Hasil Belajar Pada Pembelajaran Tematik Integratif. Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu Pendidikan, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.21831/jpipfip.v9i1.10691 Saidi, A. I., Puspitasari, D. G., & Hermawan, F. F. (2023). A Semiotics Analysis of the Interior Design of an Indonesian Elementary and Junior High School Classroom. ISVS E-Journal, 10(10), 463–481. Satriaji, K. R., Danurdoro, D. H., Sakya, K. A., & Alfin, E. (2020). Kajian Kriteria Meja Belajar Bagi Siswa Sekolah Dasar Di Fasilitas Pengungsian. Jurnal IDEALOG, 5(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.25124/idealog.v5i1 Spencer, C., & Blades, M. (2005). Children and their Environments: Learning, Using and Designing Spaces. In Children and their Environments (Issue 1998). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511521232 Stewart, G., Webster, C. A., Stodden, D. F., Brian, A., Egan, C. A., & Weaver, R. G. (2019). The association of children’s participation in school physical activity opportunities with classroom conduct. International Journal of Educational Research, 97(December 2018), 22– 28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2019.06.008 Sutton, E., Brown, J. L., Lowenstein, A. E., & Downer, J. T. (2021). Children’s academic and social- emotional competencies and the quality of classroom interactions in high-needs urban elementary schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66(May), 101975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101975 Tobia, V., Sacchi, S., Cerina, V., Manca, S., & Fornara, F. (2022). The influence of classroom seating arrangement on children’s cognitive processes in primary school: the role of individual variables. Current Psychology, 41(9), 6522–6533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020- 01154-9 UNICEF. (2016). Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) and school readiness: Evaluation report. January. Valikhani, M., Ibrahim, R., & Dolah, M. S. (2016). The influences of furniture on children’s health and well-being at primary schoool. Jurnal Teknologi, 78(5), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v78.8305 van der Lans, R. M., Maulana, R., Helms-Lorenz, M., Fernández-García, C. M., Chun, S., de Jager, T., Irnidayanti, Y., Inda-Caro, M., Lee, O., Coetzee, T., Fadhilah, N., Jeon, M., & Moorer, P. (2021). Student Perceptions of Teaching Quality in Five Countries: A Partial Credit Model Approach to Assess Measurement Invariance. SAGE Open, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211040121 Wahyuningsih, A., Sumardjoko, B., Desstya, A., Minsih, & Widyasari, C. (2023). Lesson Plan for Elementary School Learning Based on Higher Order Thinking Skills. Jurnal Ilmiah …, 7(1), 159–167. https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/JISD/article/view/56642 Wannarka, R., & Ruhl, K. (2008). Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioural outcomes: A review of empirical research. Support for Learning, 23(2), 89–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9604.2008.00375.x REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 304 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Wardana, L. A., & Rulyansah, A. (2019). Pengembangan Model Ruang Kelas Berbasis Tematik di Sekolah Dasar. Sekolah Dasar: Kajian Teori Dan Praktik Pendidikan, 28(2), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.17977/um009v28i22019p125 Weinstein, C. S., & David, T. G. (1987). Spaces for Children: The Built Environment and Child Development. In Spaces for Children. Plenum Press. Author: Dr. Kukuh Rizki Satriaji, S.Ds., M.T., Associate professor, Human and Interior Research Group, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, email: kukuh.satriaji@itb.ac.id Izredni profesor, Raziskovalna skupina za človeka in notranjo opremo, Fakulteta za umetnost in oblikovanje, Tehnološki inštitut Bandung, Indonezija, e-pošta: kukuh.satriaji@itb.ac.id Dr. Imam Santosa, M.Sn., Associate professor, Human and Interior Research Group, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, email: imamz@itb.ac.id Izredni profesor, Raziskovalna skupina za človeka in notranjo opremo, Fakulteta za umetnost in oblikovanje, Tehnološki inštitut Bandung, Indonezija, e-pošta: imamz@itb.ac.id Achmad Syarief, S.Sn., M.Sc., Ph.D., Human and Industrial Products Research Group, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, email: asyarief@itb.ac.id Raziskovalna skupina za človeka in industrijske izdelke, Fakulteta za umetnost in oblikovanje, Tehnološki inštitut Bandung, Indonezija, e-pošta: asyarief@itb.ac.id Dr. Andriyanto Wibisono, S.Sn., M.Sn., Associate professor, Human and Interior Research Group, Faculty of Art and Design, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, email: and_wibisono@itb.ac.id Izredni profesor, Raziskovalna skupina za človeka in notranjo opremo, Fakulteta za umetnost in oblikovanje, Tehnološki inštitut Bandung, Indonezija, e-pošta: and_wibisono@itb.ac.id REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 305–325, September 2025 ENHANCING LEARNING PERFORMANCE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE ROLES OF PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVE THINKING CHALLENGES PHAM NGOC THIEN NGUYEN1,2, KHANH-TRINH TRAN1,2 & GIAM BUU LE3 1An Giang University, An Giang, Vietnam Potrjeno/Accepted 2Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 31. 7. 2025 3Tan Thanh 2 Primary School, Lai Vung District, Dong Thap Province, Objavljeno/Published Vietnam 30. 9. 2025 CORRESPONDING AUTHOR/KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR npnthien@agu.edu.vn Abstract/Izvleček This study investigated the roles of problem-solving and creative thinking activities in primary science education. Participants included 64 third-grade and 62 Keywords: fifth-grade students in Southern Vietnam, with half assigned to experimental problem-solving, creativity, learning groups and the others to control groups. The experimental groups, which received performance, primary structured lessons, outperformed the control groups, which received traditional education, vietnamese instruction. Results highlight the positive impact of integrating these activities on students. academic performance, supporting the effectiveness of structured support in enhancing learning outcomes. Izboljšanje učne uspešnosti v osnovnem izobraževanju: Vloge reševanja problemov in izzivov kreativnega mišljenja Ključne besede: reševanje problemov, kreativnost, učna V študiji preučujemo vpliv aktivnosti reševanja problemov in kreativnega mišljenja uspešnost, na pouk naravoslovja v osnovni šoli. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 64 učencev tretjega osnovnošolsko razreda in 62 učencev petega razreda iz Južnega Vietnama, pri čemer je bila izobraževanje, Južni polovica razporejena v eksperimentalne skupine, druga polovica pa v kontrolne. Vietnam. Eksperimentalne skupine, ki so prejemale strukturirane učne ure, so dosegle boljše čni glas, branje besed, UDK/UDC: rezultate kot kontrolne skupine, ki so uporabljale tradicionalne učne metode. 373.3.091.3 Rezultati poudarjajo pozitiven vpliv vključevanja teh aktivnosti na učno uspešnost in podpirajo učinkovitost strukturirane podpore pri izboljšanju učnih dosežkov. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.4930 Besedilo / Text © 2025 Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 306 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction The integration of problem-solving and creative thinking into educational curricula has gained increasing attention in recent decades, reflecting a broader shift from traditional, rote-based instruction to approaches that emphasize cognitive flexibility and innovation (Kim et al., 2013; Lin and Cho, 2011; Lin et al., 2025; Mumford et al., 1997; van Hooijdonk et al., 2020). These skills are now widely regarded as essential for preparing students to navigate the complexities of modern life and learning environments. This pedagogical shift is especially relevant in primary education (Abdollahi et al., 2018; Güllühan, 2021; Ramos Salazar and Hayward, 2018). Education systems worldwide increasingly recognize the crucial role of these skills in developing cognitive abilities (Orakci, 2023; Wang, 2021), critical thinking (Kanbay and Okanli, 2017; Song et al., 2022), and overall academic achievement (Erdem, 2022; Guven and Cabakcor, 2013; Karabay and Meşe, 2024; Rodríguez-Fornells and Maydeu- Olivares, 2000). When effectively integrated into the curriculum, these activities enhance both student engagement and adaptability (Elias et al., 2003; Karabay and Meşe, 2024; Kim et al., 2013). However, there are findings that problem-solving and creative thinking skills may not always be beneficial for learners (Avci and Durak, 2023; Stark et al., 1998; Sung, 2017). Despite the growing body of literature on the topic, there remains a notable gap in empirical research examining the direct impact of problem-solving and creative thinking activities on academic achievement in primary school contexts. Much of the existing research focuses on general benefits or older student populations, leaving limited evidence on how these approaches compare to more traditional, teacher-led instruction at the primary level. This study seeks to address this gap by examining whether the integration of structured problem-solving and creative thinking activities into classroom instruction can improve academic performance among primary school students. By comparing these approaches to conventional teaching methods, this research aims to provide evidence on their effectiveness in enhancing academic outcomes. Problem-Solving and Creative Thinking in Education Problem-solving and creative thinking are essential educational skills that empower students to tackle complex challenges and develop innovative solutions. Problem- solving involves systematically identifying, analysing, and resolving issues (Orakci, Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 307 2023; Wang, 2021), while creative thinking supports the generation of original and effective ideas (Redifer et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2022). Together, these skills build adaptability, critical thinking, and innovation, enabling learners to explore and refine multiple solutions in response to evolving demands (Noh, 2017; Redifer et al., 2021; Rosen et al., 2020; Worwood and Plucker, 2017). Problem-solving and Creative Thinking Linked to Learning Achievement Extensive research has shown strong links between both these skills and student achievement. Creative thinking enhances performance by encouraging students to explore diverse solutions and build confidence in their ideas (Fan and Sun, 2024; Yang and Zhao, 2021). Similarly, problem-solving skills correlate with academic success, particularly in managing complex tasks and sustaining motivation (Byun and Lee, 2014; Elias et al., 2003; Zhang and Hwang, 2023). Students with stronger problem-solving abilities tend to perform better across subjects, demonstrating deeper understanding and persistence in learning (Ginsburg-Block and Fantuzzo, 1998). Integration of Problem-solving and Creative Thinking into Primary Education Effective integration of these skills is evident in various primary education contexts worldwide. For instance, Ginsburg-Block and Fantuzzo (1998) found that primary school students who engaged in problem-solving outperformed peers in both computation and word problems, while also showing higher motivation, self- concept, and social competence. Niu et al. (2022) similarly found that supportive environments for grades 3–6 enhanced both academic achievement and creative capacity, creating a positive feedback loop for performance. Sebastian and Huang (2016) showed that students with high creativity—especially in generating novel solutions—excelled academically, while van Hooijdonk et al. (2020) confirmed that creative problem-solving aligns with divergent thinking and achievement in primary settings. However, not all studies showed direct effects. Sung (2017) reported no significant relationship between problem-solving ability and achievement, highlighting that contextual factors may mediate outcomes. Collectively, these findings highlight the value of embedding problem-solving and creative thinking into early education—not only to support academic success but also to foster motivation and socio-emotional development. They also underscore the need for further investigation, particularly in comparing problem-solving and REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 308 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION creative thinking approaches with traditional instructional methods across diverse educational contexts. Comparison of Problem-Solving and Creative Thinking with Traditional Instructional Methods Traditional methods, often teacher-centred and content-driven, rely heavily on direct instruction, lectures, and memorization. While effective for delivering standardized content, these approaches may limit student engagement and the development of higher-order thinking skills. In contrast, research consistently finds that instructional approaches emphasizing problem-solving and creativity lead to stronger cognitive outcomes (Segundo- Marcos et al., 2023; Yang, 2015). Meta-analyses show that student-centred methods significantly enhance creativity and academic performance compared to traditional methods. However, Stark et al. (1998) found that no instructional method proved superior across all outcomes, suggesting the importance of matching teaching strategies to specific learning goals. These findings support the growing shift toward incorporating creative and problem-based tasks, while also calling for more nuanced understanding of when and how these strategies are most effective. The aims of the study are grounded in established educational theories, including constructivist and discovery learning frameworks. Constructivist perspectives, including those of Piaget (1970) and Vygotsky (1978), emphasize active, social learning, while Bruner’s discovery learning theory promotes engagement with content through exploration rather than passive reception (Ozdem-Yilmaz & Bilican, 2020). Bruner’s theory encourages learning environments that are engaging, efficient, and student-centred, enhancing collaboration and critical thinking through project- based, real-world tasks (Gorbunova et al., 2023). Additionally, reflective practice helps strengthen cognitive flexibility and deepen students’ understanding (Murawski, 2014), leading to richer, more impactful learning experiences. Grounded in constructivist and discovery learning perspectives, this study investigated how structured problem-solving and creative thinking activities could be integrated into primary science education, with a particular focus on the Vietnamese context. Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 309. Context of the Study Vietnamese primary education has undergone significant reforms in recent decades, shifting from a predominantly teacher-centred approach toward more student- centred pedagogies (Ministry of Education and Training [MOET], 2018). The Vietnamese primary curriculum emphasizes core knowledge acquisition, with science education traditionally delivered through direct instruction and memorization techniques (Hoang, 2023; Tran et al., 2022). Primary education spans grades 1-5 (ages 6-11), with science education formally introduced in grade 3 as a distinct subject (MOET, 2018). Studies in the Vietnamese context have increasingly emphasized the importance of problem-based learning in fostering creativity, critical thinking, and real-life application skills—especially in elementary education (Thu et al., 2024). Although Vietnam has made substantial progress in educational reform, the implementation of student-centred approaches such as problem-solving and creative thinking in general still faces significant systemic challenges (Van Quang, 2023). Research has been conducted on effective strategies for nurturing students’ problem-solving and creative abilities through targeted instructional tasks (Hằng, 2025). These studies highlight the feasibility and effectiveness of implementing creativity-focused instruction across diverse school settings (Dang et al., 2023). Despite ongoing reforms, the structured and content-focused nature of the national curriculum may place constraints on the integration of exploratory learning activities. This tension between curriculum requirements and pedagogical innovation provides the backdrop for the current study, which seeks to evaluate structured problem- solving and creative thinking activities within the constraints of Vietnam’s primary science education framework. Lessons designed in this study To align with the aims of the study, third and fifth grades were strategically selected, since they represent distinct cognitive stages while providing a suitable age gap for comparison. Third grade marks the transition from basic literacy to comprehension- based learning (Kim et al., 2015), while fifth graders exhibit greater cognitive maturity, making them more receptive to complex learning interventions (e.g., Stefanou and Parkes, 2003; Wijekumar et al., 2014). This age range (8–11) encompasses critical academic and social developments, making it particularly REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 310 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION relevant for evaluating educational interventions (Kim et al., 2015; Stefanou and Parkes, 2003). Building on a constructivist and discovery learning framework, this study designed two science lessons tailored to Vietnamese primary students, in accordance with the curriculum prescribed by MOET. These lessons explicitly integrated problem- solving and creative thinking activities to promote cognitive engagement, exploration, and real-world application of scientific concepts. Lesson on the Movement of the Earth for grade 3: This lesson, part of the grade 3 curriculum, aimed to strengthen students’ understanding of Earth’s movements and their observable effects, such as day and night and seasonal changes. It introduced these abstract scientific concepts through age-appropriate explanations and interactive tasks, encouraging students to think critically and connect learned content to their daily experiences. Students investigated why the Earth experiences day and night and seasonal variation, which occur due to Earth’s rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. These processes were simplified to suit the developmental stage of young learners while promoting engagement and conceptual clarity. A variety of learning activities were incorporated to reinforce these concepts, including observing and comparing the sky during day and night, using models and videos to demonstrate Earth’s rotation, identifying Earth’s position in the Solar System, exploring the causes of seasonal changes, and constructing simple models to represent the day-night cycle. In addition to supporting scientific understanding, the lesson emphasized the development of problem-solving and creativity. Students were encouraged to apply their knowledge through hands-on experiments, imaginative model-building, and group discussions. These tasks supported active learning and helped students bridge theoretical knowledge with real-world phenomena. Solar-Powered Vehicles for grade 5: This lesson introduced students to renewable energy concepts within the grade 5 curriculum, focusing specifically on the application of solar energy in technology. Through the design and construction of a solar-powered vehicle, students explored how scientific knowledge could be translated into technological solutions. The lesson guided students through foundational concepts related to electricity and energy efficiency. They learned to describe how electrical circuits operate in solar- powered cars, explain the roles of conductors and insulators, demonstrate how Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 311. sunlight generates electricity through solar panels, assemble and test a simple solar- powered vehicle, while identifing ways to conserve energy at home and school. Beyond the acquisition of technical knowledge, the lesson promoted 21st-century competences, including self-directed learning, collaboration, creativity, and responsibility. Students participated in a range of activities such as analysing circuit components, experimenting with various materials, and discussing how solar panels convert light into electricity. They then applied their understanding in a practical task—constructing and testing solar-powered cars—where assessment focused on both process (engagement, teamwork, problem-solving) and product (functionality of the model). These experiential learning opportunities not only deepened content comprehension but also enhanced critical thinking and collaborative skills. Research Hypotheses Drawing on the literature review, this study formulates hypotheses to address critical gaps in understanding how problem-solving and creative thinking activities influence primary school students’ academic achievement. While previous research has highlighted the general benefits of these approaches in education (Fan and Sun, 2024; Yang and Zhao, 2021), their specific impact on primary school students’ academic performance—particularly in the Vietnamese context—remains underexplored. Moreover, although positive outcomes have been observed across various educational levels (Sebastian and Huang, 2016), examining these relationships within Vietnam’s primary education system contributes to understanding their effectiveness in diverse cultural and educational settings. These research directions are grounded in constructivist theories and discovery learning principles (Ozdem-Yilmaz and Bilican, 2020) and seek to address context- specific implementation challenges identified in previous studies (van Hooijdonk et al., 2020). Building on evidence that active learning approaches enhance student engagement and understanding compared to traditional methods (Segundo-Marcos et al., 2023; Yang, 2015), the first hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis 1: Primary school students who receive structured instructional support incorporating problem-solving and creative thinking activities will demonstrate significantly better academic performance compared to those receiving traditional teacher-directed instruction. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 312 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The second hypothesis is informed by research showing that problem-solving and creative thinking activities can enhance academic motivation (Ginsburg-Block and Fantuzzo, 1998) and improve achievement (Niu et al., 2022). These findings suggest that similar benefits may extend to academic areas within the Vietnamese primary education context. Hypothesis 2: The integration of problem-solving and creative thinking activities into instructional lessons will have a significant positive effect on primary school students’ academic achievement. These hypotheses will be tested through a comparative analysis of student performance under different instructional approaches, providing empirical evidence for the efficacy of integrating problem-solving and creative thinking activities into primary education. Method Participants The study sample comprised students from grades 3 (aged 8) and 5 (aged 10) at a primary school in southern Vietnam. Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained from both students and their legal guardians. Given the requirement for informed consent, convenience sampling was employed. Specifically, grade 3C (n = 32) and grade 5D (n = 31) were designated as the control groups. Within each grade level, group assignment (experimental vs. control) was conducted at the class level to ensure balanced representation and comparable sample sizes for the instructional interventions. Procedure General Procedure: Before the lessons, students were asked to prepare in advance and complete a pre-test (for the experimental groups). During the lessons, both experimental and control group students followed their teacher’s instructions and the lesson procedures. After the lessons, students in both groups completed the same test again to measure learning achievement. Each lesson was conducted within the standard 35 to 45-minute period, which is typical of Vietnamese primary school classes. Procedure for Teaching the Lesson on “The Movement of the Earth”: The lesson began with introductory activities designed to spark student curiosity about the Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 313. Earth’s movements. Through guided questions on day-night cycles and seasonal changes, students began exploring fundamental astronomical concepts. The first activity focused on understanding the phenomena of day and night through hands-on investigation. Using globes and flashlights, students explored why the sky appeared bright during the day and dark at night. They then engaged in artistic exercises, comparing day and night scenes and illustrating key elements such as the Sun, stars, and shadows. The second activity introduced seasonal changes by examining Earth’s orbital positions. Students practiced critical thinking by identifying the seasons corresponding to Vietnam’s position in its orbit and discussing suitable clothing for each season. In the creative extension, they assumed the role of fashion designers, creating and presenting seasonal outfits appropriate for Vietnam’s climate. The third activity delved into Earth’s rotation and revolution. With a globe, students observed how Vietnam’s position relative to the Sun generated day-night cycles. They developed an understanding of the 24-hour day and expressed their learning by writing narratives from the perspective of characters experiencing daily light and darkness in Vietnam. The next activity expanded the scope to explore Earth’s place in the Solar System. Students imagined themselves as astronauts, discussed Earth’s location and movement in space, and constructed Solar System models using craft materials to represent planetary positions and orbits. The lesson concluded with a comprehensive review of key concepts: Earth’s rotation causing day-night cycles, its revolution leading to seasonal changes, and its placement in the Solar System. Assessment encompassed student participation, problem- solving abilities, and creative output. Finally, students were encouraged to observe and identify astronomical phenomena in their everyday lives. Procedure for Teaching the Lesson on “Solar-Powered Vehicles”: The lesson began by introducing renewable energy, with a focus on solar power as a sustainable alternative to conventional energy sources. Visual demonstrations of solar-powered devices and guided discussion helped students develop a foundational understanding of solar energy applications in daily life. In the first activity, students worked in groups to assemble basic lighting circuits using solar panels, bulbs, and wire. This experience developed their troubleshooting skills as they encountered and resolved common technical challenges. They then REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 314 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION applied their learning by designing solar-powered solutions to address local community needs, which they shared through presentations and group discussion. The second activity involved constructing solar-powered model vehicles. Students collaborated to assemble the cars, explored how the components functioned, and tested their performance under varying light conditions. They added creative flair by personalizing their vehicles and writing imaginative stories about their cars’ purpose and journeys. The third activity focused on managing electricity safely. Students identified unsafe electrical practices and collaborated to develop guidelines for responsible energy use. They communicated these safety principles creatively through posters and diagrams, incorporating symbols, slogans, and clear visuals. The lesson concluded by consolidating knowledge across solar energy use, device construction, and electrical safety. In closing discussions, students reflected on how they could implement renewable energy solutions and safe practices in their daily environments, bridging classroom learning with real-world application. Data Collection and Analysis Academic performance was measured by the total score on a structured test based on Bloom’s taxonomy. In the experimental group, a pre-test was given at the start of each lesson to gauge prior understanding, followed by a post-test to measure learning gains. These lessons incorporated problem-solving and creative thinking tasks. The control group received traditional instruction on the same content without such activities and completed the same post-test to allow comparison. The test, based on Bloom’s taxonomy, assessed key concepts at multiple cognitive levels. Each test (for “The Movement of the Earth” and “Solar-Powered Vehicles”) included five questions—three multiple-choice and two short-answer: two targeting knowledge, two comprehension, and one application. Each item was scored out of 2 points, resulting in a maximum total score of 10. Questions were scored using a rubric, and total scores were used for analysis. Using identical assessment across groups ensured valid comparison. For data analysis, independent samples t-tests were used to compare post-test scores between groups (testing Hypothesis 1), while paired samples t-tests compared pre- and post-test scores within the experimental group to assess individual progress (testing Hypothesis 2). Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 315. Results The pre- and post-test results are presented in Table 1. The results indicate significant improvement in the experimental group’s performance on both science topics after the intervention. Within the topic about the Movement of the Earth, the experimental group showed a substantial increase from pre-test (M = 3.4, SD = 1.4) to post-test (M = 8.8, SD = 2.1). This upward tendency indicates that the experimental intervention had a powerful effect on participants’ understanding of concepts related to the Earth’s Movement. When comparing post-test scores, the experimental group’s mean was significantly higher than the control group’s mean (M = 6.2, SD = 1.9), highlighting the intervention’s effectiveness. Regarding the topic about Solar-Powered Vehicles, the experimental group demonstrated a considerable improvement from pre-test (M = 4.9, SD = 1.6) to post-test (M = 9.4, SD = 1.4). This positive progression suggests that the experimental intervention substantially enhanced participants’ comprehension of concepts related to Solar-Powered Vehicles. When comparing post-test scores, the experimental group’s mean was significantly higher than the control group’s mean (M = 5.5, SD = 1.5), further supporting the intervention’s efficacy. Table 1. Pre- and post-test results of academic performance Academic Pre-test of experimental Post-test of experimental Post-test of control performance group group group Earth’s Movement M 3.4 8.8 6.2 SD 1.4 2.1 1.9 Paired t-test results: df = 31; t = 11.7; p < .001 Independent t-tests results: df = 31; t = 5.2; p < .001 Solar-Powered Vehicles M 4.9 9.4 5.5 SD 1.6 1.4 1.5 Paired t-test results: df = 30; t = 12.5; p < .001 Independent t-tests results: df = 30; t = 9.1; p < .001 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 316 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Regarding hypotheses testing, an independent-samples t-test revealed that the post- test scores of the experimental group were significantly higher than those of the control group for the Movement of the Earth, t(31) = 5.2, p < .001. Similarly, independent-samples t-test results indicated a significant difference between the experimental group and the control group’s post-test scores for Solar-Powered Vehicles, t(30) = 9.1, p < .001. These findings demonstrate that primary school students who received structured instructional support incorporating problem- solving and creative thinking activities achieved significantly higher academic performance compared to those receiving traditional teacher-directed instruction, thus confirming Hypothesis 1. For the topic of the Movement of the Earth, a paired-samples t-test showed a statistically significant increase from pre-test to post-test, t(31) = 11.7, p < .001. Similarly, for the topic of Solar-Powered Vehicles, the experimental group’s post- test scores (M = 9.4, SD = 1.4) were significantly higher than their pre-test scores, t(30) = 12.5, p < .001. The significant improvement in test scores from pre-test to post-test confirms that the integration of problem-solving and creative thinking activities into instructional lessons had a substantial positive effect on primary school students’ academic achievement, supporting Hypothesis 2. Discussion The findings of this study demonstrate that incorporating problem-solving and creativity-focused activities into science education significantly enhances student learning outcomes. Across both topics—“The Movement of the Earth” and “Solar- Powered Vehicles”—students in the experimental groups consistently outperformed their peers in the control groups, with statistically significant gains in post-test scores. This improvement mirrors findings from previous studies (e.g., Segundo-Marcos et al., 2023; Yang, 2015), which suggest that integrating problem-solving and creative thinking activities leads to better cognitive development than traditional teaching methods. These enhancements are likely due to how such activities support active learning, collaboration, and student engagement—key principles of effective instruction in primary education. For example, Niu et al. (2022) found that active, supportive classroom environments significantly improve academic achievement among students in grades 3–6. Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 317. Specifically, problem-solving activities had a substantial positive impact on academic performance. Students in the experimental group, who engaged in structured problem-solving tasks, achieved higher post-test scores than those in traditional settings. This finding aligns with constructivist learning theories, which emphasize active student involvement in building knowledge. However, it is important to note that while performance improved, some studies (e.g., Kopp et al., 2014; Stark et al., 1998) point to a possible trade-off with students’ self-perception. Thus, educators should ensure that cognitively demanding activities are delivered in emotionally supportive environments. Creative thinking activities also played a crucial role in enhancing student outcomes. As demonstrated by Nguyen et al. (2024), interdisciplinary and imaginative approaches fostered both competence and engagement. These methods helped students connect abstract scientific concepts to real-life contexts, improving both comprehension and retention. This aligns with findings by Segundo-Marcos et al. (2023) and Sebastian and Huang (2016), who emphasized the role of creative thinking in developing cognitive flexibility and academic achievement. In particular, Fan and Sun (2024), found that creative engagement boosted student confidence and motivation, which in turn contributed to improved learning. When given opportunities to explore and express ideas creatively, students produced more original solutions and demonstrated a deeper understanding of content, making the learning experience both effective and memorable (Denervaud et al., 2021; Sebastian and Huang, 2016; Segundo-Marcos et al., 2023). These findings align with constructivist and discovery learning theories, which emphasize that students build knowledge most effectively through active participation. The cognitive benefits of problem-solving and creative tasks are supported by several mechanisms. These include deeper information processing, which aids in long-term memory and retention (Chi, 2009; Roediger and Butler, 2011), and improved conceptual understanding through application in varied contexts (Hmelo- Silver, 2004; Jonassen, 2010). Additionally, such tasks encourage critical thinking and analytical reasoning, as students engage in structured approaches to complex challenges (Xu et al., 2023). Together, these mechanisms help explain the performance gains observed in the experimental group. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of these methods depends on thoughtful implementation. While their benefits are well-documented, some studies have reported mixed or negative outcomes. For instance, Avci and Durak (2023) found REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 318 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION that poorly structured problem-based learning activities—especially in tech- enhanced environments—led to confusion and disengagement when students lacked background knowledge. Similarly, individual factors like cognitive readiness, prior knowledge, and motivation are critical to the success of open-ended tasks (Kalyuga, 2007; Kanfer, 1990; Zhang et al., 2022). Teacher readiness is another crucial factor. Effective implementation of creative and inquiry-based approaches requires educators to have strong content knowledge, instructional confidence, and positive beliefs about student learning. Studies on pre- service teachers show that those who meet these criteria are more successful in guiding students through innovative learning (Dobber et al., 2017; Ertmer and Simons, 2006; Gholam, 2019; Letina and Kegel, 2024). Furthermore, balancing guided instruction with open-ended inquiry is essential to avoid overwhelming students while still promoting higher-order thinking (Chaojing, 2023; Kirschner et al., 2006; Mangtani, 2024). In sum, while problem-solving and creativity-focused strategies hold great promise, their success hinges on context-sensitive implementation. This includes aligning instructional design with learner needs, supporting teacher development, and providing sufficient scaffolding to help all students benefit from cognitively challenging, engaging tasks. Implications and limitations The findings of this study have significant implications for educational practice and policy while acknowledging certain limitations. At the institutional level, school administrators should prioritize the development of problem-solving and creativity-oriented learning environments starting in primary education. This includes providing necessary materials, access to technology, and adaptable classroom spaces that support collaboration and creative expression. Timetabling should also allow for extended engagement in complex tasks, moving beyond rigid, traditional lesson periods. For classroom practice, teachers should integrate structured problem-solving and creative thinking into appropriate subjects—particularly science, where this study has demonstrated clear benefits. Successful integration requires deliberate planning and professional development to equip teachers with the skills and resources needed. Educators should cultivate supportive environments where students feel safe to Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 319. share ideas, conduct simple experiments, and engage in exploratory activities. Active learning strategies, such as project-based learning and collaborative group tasks, can strengthen students’ critical thinking and creative capacity. Assessment methods should be adapted to reflect broader learning goals. In addition to factual recall, assessments should evaluate students’ ability to apply knowledge creatively and solve problems. This can include open-ended questions, rubric-based evaluations of creative processes, and multi-stage tasks that document students’ problem-solving journeys. For instance, science tests might include a section where students design an experiment to address a new problem, with scoring based on both scientific accuracy and originality. At the policy level, education authorities should support the integration of problem- solving and creativity across subjects. This could involve professional development frameworks focused on balancing direct instruction with inquiry-based methods, incentive systems for schools demonstrating innovative pedagogy, and curriculum guidelines that allocate time for open-ended exploration alongside core content. Despite these promising implications, several limitations must be noted. The study was conducted in a single school in Vietnam, which limits the generalizability of the results. Cultural and systemic factors, such as an emphasis on rote learning or standardized testing, may impact the feasibility of implementing these methods elsewhere. Schools in such contexts may require a gradual transition and stronger institutional support. Additionally, socioeconomic disparities may restrict access to essential resources, influencing the equity of implementation across different school settings. Future research should explore the long-term impact of problem-solving and creative teaching approaches across varied educational contexts. Qualitative data, including classroom observation, student interviews on metacognitive strategies, and teacher reflection journals, could yield richer insights into how these strategies shape learning experiences and outcomes. Conclusion This study offers strong evidence that integrating problem-solving and creativity- focused activities into primary science education significantly enhances student learning outcomes. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 320 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The consistent outperformance of experimental groups underscores the effectiveness of this instructional approach and supports a growing body of literature advocating active, student-centred learning. The success of this method can be attributed to its alignment with how children naturally learn—through exploration, experimentation, and imaginative thinking. By combining structured problem-solving with opportunities for creative expression, educators can design classrooms that not only improve academic achievement but also nurture essential skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, and innovation. Looking ahead, future research should examine the long-term effects of these strategies across different grade levels and subject areas. Investigating which specific elements—such as task design, scaffolding techniques, or the balance between guidance and autonomy—contribute most to improved outcomes can help refine instructional practices. As education systems continue to evolve, the findings of this study provide practical insights for creating more engaging and effective learning environments, while reinforcing the importance of balancing open-ended exploration with structured support to foster higher-order thinking without overwhelming learners. References Abdollahi, A., Abu Talib, M., Carlbring, P., Harvey, R., Yaacob, S. N., and Ismail, Z. (2018). Problem- solving skills and perceived stress among undergraduate students: The moderating role of hardiness. Journal of Health Psychology, 23(10), 1321-1331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316653265 Avci, U., and Durak, H. Y. (2023). Innovative thinking skills and creative thinking dispositions in learning environments: Antecedents and consequences. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 47, Article 101225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101225 Byun, T., and Lee, G. (2014). Why students still can't solve physics problems after solving over 2000 problems. American Journal of Physics, 82(9), 906-913. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.4881606 Chaojing, M. (2023). A study on strategies for cultivating higher-order thinking skills in primary and secondary school students. Frontiers in Educational Research, 6(20), 67-71. Chi, M. T. (2009). Active-constructive-interactive: a conceptual framework for differentiating learning activities. Topics in Cognitive Science, 1(1), 73-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756- 8765.2008.01005.x Dang, H. T. T., Thi Bui, D., and Nhan, T. T. (2023). Enhancing creativity in secondary school mathematics: A quasi-experimental, mixed methods study in Vietnam. Issues in Educational Research, 33(2), 488-509. Denervaud, S., Christensen, A. P., Kenett, Y. N., and Beaty, R. E. (2021). Education shapes the structure of semantic memory and impacts creative thinking. NPJ Science of Learning, 6(1), Article 35. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-021-00113-8 Dobber, M., Zwart, R., Tanis, M., and van Oers, B. (2017). Literature review: The role of the teacher in inquiry-based education. Educational Research Review, 22, 194-214. Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 321. Elias, L. C. D., Marturano, E. M., Motta, A. M. D., and Giurlani, A. G. (2003). Treating boys with low school achievement and behavior problems: Comparison of two kinds of intervention. Psychological Reports, 92(1), 105-116. https://doi.org/10.2466/PR0.92.1.105-116 Erdem, C. (2022). A comparative meta-analysis of the effects of problem-based learning model on K- 12 students' cognitive outputs. Educational Studies, 50 (6), 1498-1519. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2022.2103650 Ertmer, P., and Simons, K. (2006). Jumping the PBL Implementation Hurdle: Supporting the Efforts of K–12 Teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1005 Fan, L. J., and Sun, L. (2024). Associations between personality, creative thinking and learning, self- efficacy and academic achievement: a cross-sectional survey of coaches in Chinese art schools. Kybernetes. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-04-2024-0904 Gholam, A. P. (2019). Inquiry-based learning: Student teachers’ challenges and perceptions. Journal of Inquiry and Action in Education, 10(2), 6. Ginsburg-Block, M. D., and Fantuzzo, J. W. (1998). An evaluation of the relative effectiveness of NCTM standards-based interventions for low-achieving urban elementary students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 560-569. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.3.560 Gorbunova, A., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., and Costley, J. (2023). Are Inductive Teaching Methods Compatible with Cognitive Load Theory? Educational Psychology Review, 35(4), Article 111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09828-z Güllühan, N. U. (2021). Social Problem-Solving Activities in The Life Skills Course: Do Primary School Students Have Difficulty Solving Daily Life Problems? Egitim ve Bilim – Education and Science, 46(207), 63-84. https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2021.9396 Guven, B., and Cabakcor, B. O. (2013). Factors influencing mathematical problem-solving achievement of seventh grade Turkish students. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 131-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.10.003 Hằng, N. V. T. (2025). Educating Vietnamese primary students about creativity competency through teaching theme-based lessons. Pastoral Care in Education, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2025.2470842 Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3 Hoang, V. V. (2023). Interpreting MoET's 2018 General Education English Curriculum. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 38, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnuf.4866 Jonassen, D. (2010). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning environments. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203847527 Kalyuga, S. (2007). Expertise Reversal Effect and Its Implications for Learner-Tailored Instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 509-539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-007-9054-3 Kanbay, Y., and Okanli, A. (2017). The effect of critical thinking education on nursing students' problem-solving skills. Contemporary Nurse, 53(3), 313-321. https://doi.org/10.1080/10376178.2017.1339567 Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation and individual differences in learning: An integration of developmental, differential and cognitive perspectives. Learning and Individual Differences, 2(2), 221-239. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/1041-6080(90)90023-A Karabay, F. H., and Meşe, C. (2024). The effect of mobile scaffolding on academic achievement and cognitive load of third grade students in mathematical problem solving. Asia Pacific Education Review, 26, 227-246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09951-8 Kim, S., Chung, K., and Yu, H. (2013). Enhancing Digital Fluency through a Training Program for Creative Problem Solving Using Computer Programming. Journal of Creative Behavior, 47(3), 171-199. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.30 Kim, Y. S., Al Otaiba, S., and Wanzek, J. (2015). Kindergarten predictors of third grade writing. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 27-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.009 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 322 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Kirschner, P., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. (2006). Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 Kopp, B., Hasenbein, M., and Mandl, H. (2014). Case-based learning in virtual groups - collaborative problem solving activities and learning outcomes in a virtual professional training course. Interactive Learning Environments, 22(3), 351-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2012.680964 Letina, A., and Kegel, L. (2024). Learning and Teaching Historical Content in Primary Education. Journal of Elementary Education, 17(3), 259-274. Lin, C. Y., and Cho, S. (2011). Predicting Creative Problem-Solving in Math From a Dynamic System Model of Creative Problem Solving Ability. Creativity Research Journal, 23(3), 255-261. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2011.595986 Lin, Y. N., Hsia, L. H., and Hwang, G. J. (2025). Developing students' creative problem-solving strategies in the context of blended sports education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(1), 190-207. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13495 Mangtani, A. J. (2024). Pedagogical, andragogical, and heutagogical approaches. In Instructional Design Unleashed: Unlocking Professional Learning Potential with UX, Agile and AI Methods (pp. 155-250). Springer. MOET. (2018). Chương trình tổng thể Chương trình giáo dục phổ thông 2018 (General Framework of the General Education Curriculum 2018). Retrieved from https://moet.gov.vn/tintuc/Pages/CT- GDPT-Tong-The.aspx?ItemID=8421 Mumford, M. D., Supinski, E. P., Baughman, W. A., Costanza, D. P., and Threlfall, K. V. (1997). Process-based measures of creative problem-solving skills .5. Overall prediction. Creativity Research Journal, 10(1), 73-85. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1001_8 Murawski, L. M. (2014). Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond. Journal of Learning in Higher Education, 10(1), 25-30. Nguyen, H.-N., Nguyen, H.-D., and Ta, T.-T. (2024). Enhancing technology competence among primary students through STEAM lessons applying the design thinking process. Journal of Elementary Education, 17(2), 189-207. Niu, W. H., Cheng, L., Duan, D. A., and Zhang, Q. Y. (2022). Impact of Perceived Supportive Learning Environment on Mathematical Achievement: The Mediating Roles of Autonomous Self- Regulation and Creative Thinking. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 781594. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.781594 Noh, Y. (2017). A study of the effects of library creative zone programs on creative thinking abilities. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 49(4), 380-396. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000616650933 Orakci, S. (2023). Structural relationship among academic motivation, academic self-efficacy, problem solving skills, creative thinking skills, and critical thinking skills. Psychology in the Schools, 60(7), 2173-2194. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22851 Ozdem-Yilmaz, Y., and Bilican, K. (2020). Discovery Learning—Jerome Bruner. In B. Akpan and T. J. Kennedy (Eds.), Science Education in Theory and Practice: An Introductory Guide to Learning Theory (pp. 177-190). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- 43620-9_13 Piaget, J. (1970). Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child. Orion. Ramos Salazar, L., and Hayward, S. (2018). An Examination of College Students' Problem‐Solving Self‐ Efficacy, Academic Self‐Efficacy, Motivation, Test Performance, and Expected Grade in Introductory‐Level Economics Courses. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 16. https://doi.org/10.1111/dsji.12161 Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, Khanh-Trinh Tran & Giam Buu Le: Enhancing Learning Performance in Primary Education: The Roles of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking Challenges 323. Redifer, J. L., Bae, C. L., and Zhao, Q. (2021). Self-efficacy and performance feedback: Impacts on cognitive load during creative thinking. Learning and Instruction, 71, Article 101395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101395 Rodríguez-Fornells, A., and Maydeu-Olivares, A. (2000). Impulsive/careless problem solving style as predictor of subsequent academic achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(4), 639- 645. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00127-0 Roediger, H. L., 3rd, and Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003 Rosen, Y., Stoeffler, K., and Simmering, V. (2020). Imagine: Design for Creative Thinking, Learning, and Assessment in Schools. Journal of Intelligence, 8(2), Article 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence8020016 Sebastian, J., and Huang, H. (2016). Examining the relationship of a survey based measure of math creativity with math achievement: Cross-national evidence from PISA 2012. International Journal of Educational Research, 80, 74-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2016.08.010 Segundo-Marcos, R., Carrillo, A. M., Fernández, V. L., and González, M. T. D. (2023). Age-related changes in creative thinking during late childhood: The contribution of cooperative learning. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 49, Article 101331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101331 Song, Y., Lee, Y., and Lee, J. (2022). Mediating effects of self-directed learning on the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving in student nurses attending online classes: A cross-sectional descriptive study. Nurse Education Today, 109, Article 105227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2021.105227 Stark, R., Gruber, H., Renkl, A., and Mandl, H. (1998). Instructional effects in complex learning: Do objective and subjective learning outcomes converge? Learning and Instruction, 8(2), 117-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(97)00005-4 Stefanou, C., and Parkes, J. (2003). Effects of Classroom Assessment on Student Motivation in Fifth- Grade Science. The Journal of Educational Research, 96(3), 152-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670309598803 Sung, E. (2017). The influence of visualization tendency on problem-solving ability and learning achievement of primary school students in South Korea. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 26, 168- 175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2017.10.007 Thu, H. N. T., Kim, P. D. T., and Le Thi, D. (2024). Using Problem-Based Situations in Teaching for Elementary School Students: A Study on the Vietnamese Curriculum. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 9(5). Tran, T., Nguyen, C., and Nguyen, L. (2022). Educational Innovation in Vietnam: Opportunities and Challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003202424 van Hooijdonk, M., Mainhard, T., Kroesbergen, E. H., and van Tartwijk, J. (2020). Creative problem solving in primary education: Exploring the role of fact finding, problem finding, and solution finding across tasks. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100665 Van Quang, N. (2023). Developing problem-solving and creativity skills in high school students through chemistry teaching in Vietnam: Current status and solution. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Growth Evaluation, 4(6), 321-327. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4 Wang, Y.-P. (2021). Effects of Online Problem-Solving Instruction and Identification Attitude Toward Instructional Strategies on Students' Creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 771128. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.771128 Wijekumar, K., Meyer, B. J. F., Lei, P. W., Lin, Y. C., Johnson, L. A., Spielvogel, J. A., and Shurmatz, K. M. (2014). Multisite Randomized Controlled Trial Examining Intelligent Tutoring of Structure Strategy for Fifth-Grade Readers. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 7(4), 331-357. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2013.853333 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 324 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Worwood, M., and Plucker, J. A. (2017). Domain Generality and Specificity in Creative Design Thinking. In F. Darbellay, Z. Moody, & T. Lubart (Eds.), Creativity, Design Thinking and Interdisciplinarity (pp. 83-97). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7524- 7_6 Xu, E., Wang, W., and Wang, Q. (2023). The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 10(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023- 01508-1 Yang, J., and Zhao, X. H. (2021). The effect of creative thinking on academic performance: Mechanisms, heterogeneity, and implication. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 40, Article 100831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100831 Yang, X. T., Zhang, M. M., Zhao, Y. H., Wang, Q., and Hong, J. C. (2022). Relationship between creative thinking and experimental design thinking in science education: Independent or related. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 46, Article 101183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101183 Yang, Y. T. C. (2015). Virtual CEOs: A blended approach to digital gaming for enhancing higher order thinking and academic achievement among vocational high school students. Computers & Education, 81, 281-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.004 Zhang, D., and Hwang, G. J. (2023). Effects of Interaction between Peer Assessment and Problem- Solving Tendencies on Students' Learning Achievements and Collaboration in Mobile Technology-Supported Project-Based Learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 61(1), 208-234, Article 07356331221094250. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331221094250 Zhang, Y., Paquette, L., Bosch, N., Ocumpaugh, J., Biswas, G., Hutt, S., and Baker, R. S. (2022). The evolution of metacognitive strategy use in an open-ended learning environment: Do prior domain knowledge and motivation play a role? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 69, 102064. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102064 Authors: Pham Ngoc Thien Nguyen, PhD Lecturer, Faculty of Education, An Giang University (VNU-HCM), No. 18 Ung Van Khiem Street, Long Xuyen, An Giang, Vietnam, e-mail: npnthien@agu.edu.vn Predavatelj, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza An Giang (VNU-HCM), št. 18 Ung Van Khiem Street, Long Xuyen, An Giang, Vietnam, e-pošta: npnthien@agu.edu.vn Khanh-Trinh Tran, MA Lecturer, Faculty of Education, An Giang University (VNU-HCM), No. 18 Ung Van Khiem Street, Long Xuyen, An Giang, Vietnam, e-mail: tktrinh@agu.edu.vn Predavatelj, Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza An Giang (VNU-HCM), št. 18 Ung Van Khiem Street, Long Xuyen, An Giang, Vietnam, e-pošta: tktrinh@agu.edu.v Giam Buu Le, BA Teacher, Tan Thanh 2 Primary School, Lai Vung District, Dong Thap Province, Vietnam, e-mail: lbgiam.c1tanthanh2@laivung.edu.vn Učitelj, osnovna šola Tan Thanh 2, okrožje Lai Vung, provinca Dong Thap, Vietnam, e-naslov: lbgiam.c1tanthanh2@laivung.edu.vn REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 325–342, September 2025 EFFECTIVENESS OF A COMPUTER GAME FOR RECOGNIZING AND UNDERSTANDING FACIAL EMOTIONS IN HEARING-IMPAIRED CHILDREN MOZHGAN GHANAT1, ESMAEIL ZARAII ZAVARAKI1, FATEMEH JAFARKHANI1 & MORTEZA BAKHTIARVAND2 Potrjeno/Accepted 1Educational Technology, Department of Educational Technology, Allameh 22. 4. 2025 Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran 2 Objavljeno/Published Institute of Educational Science, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, 30. 9. 2025 Germany KORESPONDENČNI AVTOR/CORRESPONDING AUTHOR mozhgan.ghanat@gmail.com Abstract/Izvleček The present study evaluates the effectiveness of the EMOFIT computer game on the recognition and understanding of facially expressed emotions in 6-10- year-old hearing-impaired children. This quasi-experimental, pre-test-post- Keywords: Computer Game, Facial test design study, with control and experimental groups, was conducted with Emotion Recognition, the participation of thirty children. The results showed significant Facial Emotion improvement in emotion understanding, especially in adaptation (e.g., η² = Understanding, Hearing 0.84), with slight improvement in naming (e.g., η² = 0.57). Results suggest that Impairments. games like EMOFIT can effectively improve impaired social skills and Ključne besede: emotional development among children. računalniška igra, Učinkovitost računalniške igre za prepoznavanje in razumevanje prepoznavanje obraznih čustev, razumevanje čustev pri otrocih z okvarami sluha obraznih čustev, okvare V študiji ocenjujemo učinkovitost računalniške igre "EMOFIT" pri sluha. prepoznavanju in razumevanju obraznih čustev pri otrocih z okvarami sluha, starih od 6 do 10 let. V kvazieksperimentalni študiji s pred- in potestom ter UDK/UDC kontrolno in intervencijsko skupino (vsaka n = 15) je sodelovalo 30 otrok. [159.925.8:616.28- Rezultati kažejo, da "EMOFIT" izboljšuje razumevanje čustev (npr. η² = 008.14]:004 0,85), zlasti pri prilagajanju (η² = 0,84), medtem ko so izboljšave pri poimenovanju manjše (η² = 0,57). Ti izsledki poudarjajo potencial iger, kot je "EMOFIT", za izboljšanje socialnih veščin in čustvenega razvoja otrok z okvarami sluha. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.4926 Besedilo / Text © 2021Avtor(ji) / The Author(s) To delo je objavljeno pod licenco Creative Commons CC BY Priznanje avtorstva 4.0 Mednarodna. Uporabnikom je dovoljeno tako nekomercialno kot tudi komercialno reproduciranje, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem, javna priobčitev in predelava avtorskega dela, pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja izvirnega dela. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 326 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Introduction Emotion is a physiological response to specific events or situations, observable through changes in voice tone, facial expressions, body movements, or heart rate (Garcia-Garcia et al., 2022). Facial emotion recognition and understanding involve analysing facial movements and classifying them into interpretive categories, such as happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, fear, and surprise (Ekman & Friesen, 2003). These skills connect to John Miller’s information processing theory, which says we use mental, internal, and social clues together to understand emotions and handle social situations (Garcia-Garcia et al., 2022; Jones et al., 2018). Facial emotion recognition and understanding are critical for effective communication and social interaction. Impairment in these skills can lead to social communication difficulties, since they are closely linked to theory of mind and emotional intelligence (Torres et al., 2016). Emotional understanding is primarily acquired through interpersonal interactions, such as listening, observing, and participating in social exchanges (Soltaninejad et al., 2022). However, auditory impairment can disrupt these processes, leading to delays in emotional knowledge among hard-of-hearing (HoH) children (Ludlow et al., 2012). HoH children often face challenges in recognizing and understanding emotions, owing to increased cognitive demands and atypical socialization of emotions (Lieu et al., 2020). They may also misinterpret facial expressions, which can affect their theory of mind and emotion regulation skills (Qi et al., 2024). While studies suggest that HoH children can distinguish between emotions, such children often struggle to understand emotions in specific contexts or to translate this ability into real-life performance, like talking with friends or family (Fayazi et al., 2021). These challenges may stem from delays in language acquisition and perceptual processing rather than auditory impairments alone (Dyck et al., 2004; Sidera et al., 2017). Two hypotheses explain emotional recognition and understanding in HoH children. The deficit hypothesis posits that auditory deprivation during childhood leads to deficits in these skills, potentially due to language-based impairments or theory of mind deficits (Wiefferink et al., 2013). Conversely, the enhancement hypothesis suggests that HoH children may develop heightened sensitivity to emotional expressions because of their reliance on visual information and sign language (Hao and Su, 2014; Jones et al., 2018). For example, Hao and Su (2014) found that deaf children using sign language spotted emotions faster than hearing peers in some Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 327. tasks. But studies backing the deficit idea often miss how social settings affect emotional understanding (Cirasa et al., 2024). Recent advances in educational technology have highlighted the potential of digital games to support emotional and social development in children with special needs. Papoutsi et al. (2022) demonstrated that digital games foster emotional connection and empathy, while Lee and Loo (2021) emphasized their role in improving emotional well-being in HoH children. However, few studies have explored the cognitive sequence of emotion recognition and understanding in this population. This study addresses this gap by investigating the effectiveness of the computer game EMOFIT (Emotion-Focused Interactive Training) in enhancing facial emotion recognition and understanding in HoH children. Specifically, it poses this question: Can EMOFIT enhance HoH children’s ability to recognize and understand facial emotions, compared to the effect of regular activities? Literature Review Recognition and Understanding of Facial Emotions in Children with Hearing Impairments Research highlights that social media and digital tools can boost non-verbal communication and emotional learning in children with hearing impairments (HoH), supporting game-based interventions (Toofaninejad et al., 2017) Children with hearing impairments are often at risk of developing age-inappropriate socio- emotional competences due to challenges in recognizing and understanding non- verbal emotional cues (Tsou et al., 2021a). Emotional recognition and understanding are critical for interpreting others’ actions, sharing emotions, and building interpersonal relationships. Impairment in these skills can lead to deficits in social interaction (Torres et al., 2016). Unlike neurological conditions such as autism, the difficulties faced by HoH children are primarily attributed to auditory impairment and delay in language acquisition rather than to structural brain abnormalities (Hong and Lv, 2025). Research indicates that HoH children often possess a smaller emotional vocabulary compared to their hearing peers, which can hinder their ability to interpret emotional language and social cues (Tsou et al., 2021a). For example, children with cochlear implants may recognize facial emotions but struggle to understand the emotional context of language (Sahana and Manjula, 2024). Additionally, HoH children may lack knowledge about the causes of emotions and social rules, leading to misinterpretation of emotional cues (Sidera et al., 2020). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 328 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Hearing impairment can also have long-term effects on cognitive development, particularly in emotional and situational contexts (Nikkhoo and Hassanzadeh, 2018). Tsou et al. (2022) found that HoH children exhibit deficiencies in recognizing complex emotions like sadness, which require significant mental representations. Eye-tracking studies reveal that these children often shift their attention from ambiguous information to more visually observable cues, suggesting a compensatory strategy to minimize misunderstandings in daily communication. This reliance on visual perception can serve as an effective pedagogical strategy, although there is no evidence to suggest that HoH children are inherently more inclined to learn visually than aurally (Shield et al., 2023). Still, some studies disagree; Jones et al. (2018) say dynamic visuals beat static ones for emotion recognition, but results vary. However, the small samples in Jones et al. (2018) limit generalizability, and small sample sizes in older studies further restrict what we can trust. Dynamic visual stimuli are more effective than static ones in enhancing emotion recognition among HoH children, and increasing stimulus intensity improves performance in emotion detection (Jones et al., 2018). However, differences in teaching methods and cultural contexts can influence outcomes. For instance, East Asian children may experience higher emotional arousal when observing the emotions of others compared to Western children, which could mean games need cultural tweaks (Tsou et al., 2021a). Gender differences have also been observed, with HoH boys experiencing more socio-emotional difficulties than girls, suggesting games might need simpler design for boys (Laugen et al., 2016). Computer Games and Children with Hearing Impairment Digital games have emerged as effective tools for enhancing learning and emotional development in HoH children. These games provide detailed, realistic information and can improve visual-spatial attention, comprehension, and memory (Albash and Turkestani, 2023; Holmer et al., 2020). Interactive multimedia games, in particular, have been shown to enhance critical emotional and cognitive skills, including emotion regulation, empathy, problem-solving, and self-esteem (Kuo et al., 2024). The design of educational games for HoH children emphasizes clear on-screen text, visual cues, immediate feedback, and age-appropriate content (Melonio and Gennari, 2013). Action, adventure, and puzzle genres are particularly suitable for this population because of their simpler interaction mechanisms and narrative structures (Lotfi et al., 2014). Incorporating elements such as challenges, rewards, and fantasy can increase motivation and engagement (Cano et al., 2021). Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 329. Key factors in educational game design include the game objectives, mechanics, interaction, and narrative. Active and student-centred learning approaches are prevalent in game design for HoH children, with a focus on accessibility and engagement (Costa et al., 2019). Guidelines for designing accessible games include limiting on-screen information, maintaining an uncluttered layout, and minimizing distracting visual elements. Single-player games with progressive challenges and coherent information are preferred, since these reduce cognitive load and enhance focus (Chan et al., 2022; dos Passos Canteri et al., 2015a). Although digital games have advanced learning for HoH children, few games focus on emotional recognition and understanding, which are key skills for their social development. This study bridges this gap by testing EMOFIT, a game designed to enhance facial emotion recognition and understanding in 6-10-year-old HoH children. Unlike broader digital tools, EMOFIT uses research-backed features, like visual cues and progressive challenges, to meet a specific need in HoH education, building on the visual learning strengths noted in prior studies (e.g., Jones et al., 2018; Tsou et al., 2021a). Materials and Methods Sample and Sampling Method The study population consisted of hard-of-hearing (HoH) children aged 6 to 10 years undergoing speech therapy at two centres in Arak city. A purposive sampling method was used to select thirty participants, divided into two groups of fifteen each (intervention and control). The age distribution was as follows: eight children (26.7%) aged six, six (20%) aged seven, four (13.3%) aged eight, six (20%) aged nine, and six (20%) aged ten. The gender distribution included thirteen males (43.3%) and seventeen females (56.7%), with a mean age of 7.86 years (SD = 1.52). Inclusion criteria included the following: 1. No additional disorders besides hearing impairment. 2. Average IQ. 3. Proficiency in Persian as a native language. 4. No familiarity with sign language. 5. No history of cochlear implantation. 6. Parents with normal hearing. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 330 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION The sample size of thirty was limited by practical constraints, including restricted access to HoH children and challenges in controlling confounding variables, such as varying degrees of hearing loss (mild to profound), time since diagnosis (6 months to 10 years), and prior therapy exposure. This smaller sample was chosen to provide an initial exploration of EMOFIT’s effectiveness, laying the groundwork for future studies with larger, more diverse populations. The gender distribution (56.7% female, 43.3% male) reflects the available participants at the centres, though gender effects were not a primary focus of this study. Some parents declined participation, which may introduce selection bias; moreover, data on non-participants were unavailable because of privacy restrictions. These limitations are further explored in the Discussion section, with plans for future research to increase sample size and balance gender to improve generalizability and statistical power. Facial Emotion Recognition and Understanding Test An online test based on Ekman and Friesen’s (2003) images was used to assess facial emotion recognition. The test included thirty-six images representing six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, fear, and surprise. The reliability coefficient was 0.85 (Tsou et al., 2021b), and its validity and reliability were confirmed in the Iranian cultural context. The test comprised four components: 1. Differentiation: Identifying specific emotions from images (e.g., “Which picture shows someone happy?”). 2. Naming: Labelling emotions displayed in images (e.g., “How does the man/woman look?”). 3. Correspondence: Matching emotions to scenarios (e.g., “A boy/girl received a toy box as a gift. How do they feel?”). 4. Adaptation: Inferring emotions from scenarios without explicit cues (e.g., “A child received a prize from their teacher/parent. How do you think the child feels?”). Each component included six questions, totalling twenty-four questions. The test was untimed and provided no feedback to avoid influencing responses. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, and validity was confirmed through content validity (12 experts) and internal correlation validity (Pearson’s coefficient > 0.7). Table 1 presents some of the scenarios utilized in the emotion correspondence and adaptation components. Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 331. Table 1. Emotion Scenarios Approved by Experts in the Current Study Based on Prior Research (Dyck et al., 2004; Ziv et al., 2013) Emotion Correspondence Scenario Adaptation Scenario Sadness The child’s ice cream fell to the ground The fish in the baby’s aquarium have and melted. The child is sad. What does died. How do you think the child he look like? feels? Happiness The child received a toy box as a gift. The child was given a prize by the The child is happy. What does he look teacher/their parents. How do you like? think the child feels? Anger The cat broke the grandmother’s vase. The children broke the neighbour’s The grandmother gets angry. What windows with a ball. How do you does she look like? think the neighbour feels? Surprise A rabbit jumped out of the child’s bag. A bunch of flowers came out of the The child is surprised. What does he child’s pocket. How do you think the look like? child feels? Disgust The child’s hands were dirty before The bird has soiled the child’s eating the apple. The child hates grime. clothes. How do you think the child What does he look like? feels? Fear The child was left alone in a dark room. The bear is chasing the child. How The child is afraid. What does he look do you think the child feels? like? EMOFIT Game Design EMOFIT, a puzzle-based computer game, enhances emotion recognition and understanding in HoH children through eight stages, each with five rounds, targeting four objectives: differentiation, naming, correspondence, and adaptation. Using a trial-and-error approach with four characters (mother, father, daughter, son), it aligns with design principles for HoH children (e.g., Melonio and Gennari, 2013; Chan et al., 2022) and educational game frameworks (Shi and Shih, 2015). Table 2 details its elements: a spinning wheel introduces six emotions individually; puzzles offer clear instructions and feedback (stars/stickers); screens minimize distractions, and a consistent layout tracks progress with stars, ensuring accessibility with culturally relevant scenarios for 6-10-year-old HoH children. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 332 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Table 2. Review of EMOFIT Game Features Based on Design Elements of Digital Game-Based Learning Game Module Guidelines/Instructions EMOFIT Implementation Element Objectives Gameplay and •Present small amounts of • Each emotion and scenario is of the Game Instruction information at a time. presented individually with each wheel spin. •Use informative and • Puzzle pieces and symbols coherent images. depict emotions and scenarios. Game Gameplay and •Provide clear objectives •Players assemble puzzle pieces Mechanism Instruction and instructions. to create emotions and apply them to scenarios. •Offer immediate •Yellow stars and celebratory feedback. stickers reward success. •Mechanics remain consistent • Maintain consistent across stages. patterns and rules. Fantasy Graphics and •Avoid vague or unfamiliar •Challenging words are Interface words. minimized for clarity. •Minimize distracting •Puzzle screens are free from movement stimuli. distractions. Game Training- •Use age-appropriate •Images and characters are Value Learning genres and images. suitable for the target age group. • Puzzles effectively convey concepts. Player Gameplay and •Provide concise •Scenario descriptions are Interaction Instruction instructions and essential concise. information. • Each wheel spin offers five •Limit the number of random choices; each face choices. requires three correct pieces. Freedom Training- • Use human-like avatars. • The game features a family of Learning four human characters. Narrative Graphics and • Maintain consistent item •Layout and colours are Interface placement and consistent across stages. combinations in the •Progress menu displays stars progress menu. collected. Feeling Gameplay and •Focus on a single •Primary task: assembling Instruction interactive task or emotions on the character’s face communication channel at using visual cues. a time. Challenges Player/Learner •Include progressive •Challenges progress from challenges with external simple to complex (e.g., single- rewards. column to three-column puzzles). Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 333. Social Player/Learner •Prefer single-player •Players independently place Aspects games. puzzle pieces. •Scenarios are culturally relevant •Aim for high-quality and grounded in real-life design. experiences. Mystery/P Player/Learner •Use visual cues or •Images depict scenarios; uzzle- animation to direct sentences describe scenarios Oriented attention to relevant from Stage 5 onward. information. Game Mechanics, stages, and procedure In EMOFIT, players select an emotion using a rotating wheel and assemble a matching puzzle, earning positive feedback like celebratory stickers for correct placements and yellow stars for completed puzzles, while incorrect attempts allow retries without penalties. The game’s eight stages progress across five rounds each: Stages 1–2 introduce six basic emotions with puzzles increasing from 3 to 6 pieces for differentiation; Stages 3–4 involve choosing correct pieces from a larger set to name emotions; Stages 5–6 require matching emotions to on-screen scenarios, and Stages 7–8 focus on inferring emotions from scenarios without direct cues. Developed on the Storyline platform, EMOFIT was evaluated by speech-language pathologists and educational technologists for clarity and usability, with Figure 1 showing stage examples and Figure 2 illustrating feedback for responses. The study spanned six phases over five weeks, with twelve sessions of 30 minutes each. It began with Phase 1, a pre-assessment using the facial emotion recognition test, followed by Phase 2, where children adapted to the game after initial control struggles eased within two sessions. Phase 3 emphasized differentiation and naming, with peer assistance reflecting growing comfort, while Phase 4 introduced correspondence and adaptation, using pair or trio play to boost engagement. Phase 5 saw continued play with improved skills, and Phase 6 concluded with a post- assessment using the same test. The control group engaged in standard centre activities like speech therapy and group play without digital games, while the intervention group used EMOFIT on laptops. Initial challenges, such as mouse difficulties due to poor hand-eye coordination in five children and table height issues affecting three shorter participants, were addressed with touchpads and adjustable seating, minimizing disruption despite slight delays in early sessions. Therapists provided technical support without influencing emotional learning outcomes REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 334 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Figure 1. Top left: Display of the spinning wheel and selection of the emotion “happiness.” Top middle: The emotion “happiness” presented with a low level of challenge in stage 1. Top right: The emotion “surprise” presented with a high level of challenge in stage 3. Bottom left: The emotion “happiness” alongside a contextual cue in the bottom left corner of the image in stage 5. Bottom middle: The emotion “anger” presented with a high level of challenge in stage 7. Bottom right: The emotion “disgust” presented with a high level of challenge in stage 8. Figure 2. Left: Feedback after correctly constructing the emotion in the puzzle. Right: Feedback image for an incorrect answer. Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 335. Results Descriptive Statistics Table 3 reports the means and standard deviations for facial emotion recognition and understanding components. In the pre-test, the experimental (n=15) and control (n=15) groups showed similar performance across differentiation (4.67±0.98 vs. 4.00±1.75), naming (3.67±1.40 vs. 3.50±1.15), correspondence (3.00±1.69 vs. 3.40±1.20), and adaptation (2.47±1.13 vs. 2.80±1.30). Post-test results revealed that the experimental group using EMOFIT outperformed the control group: differentiation (6.00±0.00 vs. 3.80±1.70), naming (5.13±1.06 vs. 3.33±1.11), correspondence (5.07±0.80 vs. 3.27±1.16), and adaptation (5.00±0.53 vs. 2.60±1.24). Total scores for emotion recognition (11.13±1.06 vs. 7.13±2.26) and understanding (10.07±0.96 vs. 5.87±2.07) also improved significantly. Skewness and kurtosis values (-2 to +2) confirmed normal data distribution. Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation of Test Results Components Experimental Control Skewness Kurtosis (n=15) (n=15) Pre-test Differentiation 4.67 (0.98) 4.00 (1.75) -0.51 -0.46 Naming 3.67 (1.40) 3.50 (1.15) -0.05 0.40 Correspondence 3.00 (1.69) 3.40 (1.20) 0.203 -0.704 Adaptation 2.47 (1.13) 2.80 (1.30) 0.75 0.082 Emotion 8.23 (1.80) 7.40 (2.30) 0.13 -0.78 Recognition Emotion 5.47 (2.36) 6.10 (2.15) 1.14 0.42 Understanding Post-test Differentiation 6.00 (0.00) 3.80 (1.70) -1.16 -0.026 Naming 5.13 (1.06) 3.33 (1.11) -0.12 -0.98 Correspondence 5.07 (0.80) 3.27 (1.16) -0.40 -0.94 Adaptation 5.00 (0.53) 2.60 (1.24) -0.43 -1.29 Emotion 11.13 (1.06) 7.13 (2.26) -0.44 -1.28 Recognition Emotion 10.07 (0.96) 5.87 (2.07) -0.33 -1.35 Understanding Note: Skewness and kurtosis values ranged from -2 to +2, confirming data normality REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 336 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Hypothesis Testing Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) tested the intervention’s effects. Assumptions of homogeneity were met: Levene’s test (p>0.05) for variance and Box’s M test (p>0.05) for covariance matrices were non-significant. Effect of EMOFIT on Emotion Recognition and Understanding Wilks’ lambda indicated a significant intervention effect on combined emotion recognition and understanding (F=3.138, p=0.01, Wilks’ Λ=0.246). The experimental group showed significant gains in recognition (F=109.098, p=0.001, η²=0.80, indicating a large effect) and understanding (F=147.808, p=0.001, η²=0.85, indicating a large effect), explaining 80% and 85% of the variance, respectively. Effect of EMOFIT on Emotion Recognition Components Wilks’ lambda confirmed a significant effect on recognition components (F=54.143, p=0.01, Wilks’ Λ=0.187).The experimental group improved in differentiation (F=41.19, p=0.001, η²=0.61, indicating a large effect) and naming (F=35.36, p=0.001, η²=0.57, indicating a large effect), accounting for 61% and 57% of the variance, respectively. Effect of EMOFIT on Emotion Understanding Components Wilks’ lambda showed a significant effect on the understanding components (F=92.054, p<0.01, Wilks’ Λ=0.120). The experimental group excelled in correspondence (F=49.75, p=0.001, η²=0.65, indicating a large effect) and adaptation (F=136.13, p=0.001, η²=0.84, indicating a large effect), explaining 65% and 84% of the variance, respectively. Discussion The Effect of EMOFIT on Facial Emotion Recognition and Understanding Findings show that EMOFIT significantly enhanced facial emotion recognition and understanding in hard-of-hearing (HoH) children (n=30), with a stronger effect on understanding, particularly adaptation (η²=0.84). This success can be attributed to several factors: Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 337. Visual Symbols and Realistic Scenarios: The use of visual symbols tailored to each scenario aligns with previous research emphasizing the importance of visual aids in enhancing emotion recognition (Shield et al., 2023; Tsou et al., 2021b). Realistic and culturally relevant scenarios further contributed to the game’s effectiveness (Holmer et al., 2020; Albash and Turkestani, 2023). Cognitive Engagement: The game required children to form new cognitive associations to solve problems, reinforcing cognitive processing and aligning with findings by Cano et al. (2021). Motivation and Engagement: The interactive and engaging nature of computer games enhanced motivation, consistent with studies by Chan et al. (2022), Lee and Loo (2021), and El Mawas et al. (2019). Design Principles: The game adhered to the macro-design elements of educational games and followed a comprehensive framework for children with hearing impairments. Specific design guidelines, such as clear visual cues and progressive challenges, further supported its efficacy (Chan et al., 2022; Mascio et al., 2013; Melonio and Gennari, 2013). Future research should compare games designed with these principles to those without to further validate their effectiveness. The Effect of EMOFIT on Facial Emotion Recognition (Differentiation and Naming) EMOFIT notably improved recognition skills, especially differentiation (η²=0.61), over naming (η²=0.57).This aligns with studies showing that dynamic modes (e.g., games) are more effective than static modes (e.g., pictures) for emotion differentiation in HoH children (Dyck et al., 2004; Jones et al., 2018). The game’s design minimized distractions and used clear, unambiguous patterns, optimizing performance in differentiation. The naming component showed less improvement, likely because of the game’s focus on differentiation. However, the incorporation of progressive challenges and trial-and-error methods facilitated accurate emotion naming, guided by the modules on “Graphics and User Interface” and “Gameplay and Training” (Chan et al., 2022; dos Passos Canteri et al., 2015b). The Effect of EMOFIT on Emotion Understanding (Correspondence and Adaptation) The game exhibited a greater impact on understanding (η²=0.85) than on recognition (η²=0.80), consistent with studies by Ludlow et al. (2010). This finding contrasts with Ziv et al. (2013) but aligns with Fayazi et al. (2021), who found that associating emotions with specific situations enhances understanding. The adaptation component showed the most significant improvement, likely due to these three factors: Culturally Relevant Scenarios: The game incorporated scenarios aligned with the “play and learning” module and “contextual relevance” criterion (dos Passos Canteri et al., 2015b). REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 338 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Age-Appropriate Challenges: The adaptation of challenges to the participants’ age range positively influenced motivation and engagement. Real-World Experiences: The use of real-world experiences and visual symbols in later stages of the game enhanced emotional adaptation, as supported by Tsou et al. (2021b). This suggests the game’s potential utility in speech therapy and special education settings. However, the small sample (n=30) and skewed gender distribution (56.7% female) may limit generalizability, since individual differences (e.g., degree of hearing loss, time since diagnosis) and selection bias from parental refusals could have influenced the results. Larger, balanced samples in future research will address these limitations. Conclusion This study examined the effect of EMOFIT on facial emotion recognition (differentiation, naming) and understanding (correspondence, adaptation) in thirty children with hearing impairments, aged 6 to 10. EMOFIT significantly enhanced these skills, with greater improvement observed in understanding (η² = 0.85) than in recognition (η² = 0.80). Among the subskills, adaptation showed the highest gains (η² = 0.84), likely due to the use of culturally relevant scenarios, while naming showed the least improvement (η² = 0.57). The program’s success may be attributed to its educational design principles, culturally aligned content, and age-appropriate challenges, although prior training and therapist guidance may also have played a role. However, the study’s generalizability is limited by factors such as the small sample size (n = 30), skewed gender distribution (56.7% female), potential selection bias due to parental refusals, and individual differences (e.g., degree of hearing loss, time since diagnosis). As one of the few studies to examine these emotional skills in a cognitive sequence (from differentiation to adaptation) within this age group and cultural context, the findings support EMOFIT’s potential application in speech therapy centres and special education classrooms to enhance social interaction skills. Future research should involve larger, more balanced samples to further explore inter-individual and cross-cultural differences. Limitations and Future Directions This study’s sample of thirty participants from one cultural background, with a skewed gender distribution (56.7% female), selection bias from parental refusals, and unexamined individual differences (e.g., degree of hearing loss, time since diagnosis), Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 339. limits generalizability. Future research should use larger, more diverse samples across age groups beyond 6-10 years to test broader applicability. The intervention’s long-term effects on real-world interactions remain unassessed, requiring follow-up studies at 3-12 months. Detailed design guidelines are also needed for inclusive games tailored to the needs of hearing-impaired children. Combining EMOFIT with behavioural therapy could enhance outcomes. Acknowledgments We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the director and founder of, and trainers at the speech therapy centre for their invaluable support and assistance in conducting this research. References Albash, N. I., & Turkestani, M. H. (2023). Educational interventions for deaf and hard-of-hearing children in preschool: A systematic review. Early Years, 44(3-4), 570-584. https://doi.org/1– 0.1080/09575146.2023.2192437 Cano, S., Naranjo, J. S., Henao, C., Rusu, C., & Albiol-Pérez, S. (2021). Serious game as support for the development of computational thinking for children with hearing impairment. Applied Sciences, 11(1), 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010115 Chan, G. L., Santally, M. I., & Whitehead, J. (2022). Gamification as technology enabler in SEN and DHH education. Education and Information Technologies, 27(7), 9031-9064. https://doi.org/1– 0.1007/s10639-022-10984-y Cirasa, C., Høgsdal, H., & Conti, D. (2024). “I see what you feel”: An exploratory study to investigate the understanding of robot emotions in deaf children. Applied Sciences, 14(4), 1446. https:/– /doi.org/10.3390/app14041446 Costa, C., Marcelino, L., Neves, J., & Sousa, C. (2019, October). Games for education of deaf students: A systematic literature review. In L. Elbaek, G. Majgaard, A. Valente, & S. Khalid (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th European Conference on Game-Based Learning (pp. 170-181). Academic Conferences and Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.34190/GBL.19.113 dos Passos Canteri, R., García, L. S., Felipe, T. A., Antunes, D. R., & Iatskiu, C. E. (2015a). An evaluation method of educational computer games for deaf children based on design guidelines. In M. Antona & C. Stephanidis (Eds.), Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction: Access to Learning, Health and Well-Being: 9th International Conference, UAHCI 2015, Held as Part of HCI International 2015, Los Angeles, CA, USA, August 2-7, 2015, Proceedings, Part III (pp. 409-419). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20684-4_40 dos Passos Canteri, R., García, L. S., de Souza, T. A. F., & Iatskiu, C. E. A. (2015b, April). Video games in education of deaf children: A set of practical design guidelines. In S. Hammoudi, L. A. Maciaszek, M. M. Missikoff, M. J. Roseman, & J. Becker (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (Vol. 3, pp. 122-129). SCITEPRESS. https://doi.org/10.5220/0005397701220129 Dyck, M. J., & Denver, E. (2003). Can the emotion recognition ability of deaf children be enhanced? A pilot study. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 8(3), 348-356. https://doi.org/1– 0.1093/deafed/eng019 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 340 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Dyck, M. J., Farrugia, C., Shochet, I. M., & Holmes‐Brown, M. (2004). Emotion recognition/understanding ability in hearing or vision‐impaired children: Do sounds, sights, or words make the difference? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(4), 789-800. https:/– /doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00272.x Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (2003). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues. Malor Books. El Mawas, N., Bratu, M., Caraman, D., & Muntean, C. H. (2019, March). Investigating the learning impact of game-based learning when teaching science to children with special learning needs [Conference session]. 30th Annual Conference of the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education (SITE), Las Vegas, NV, United States. https://hal.science/hal- 02251329 Fayazi, B. L., Ariyanpur, M., & Rahimzadeh, F. (2021). The effects of linguistic interventions on the recognition of facial emotional expressions in hearing-impaired students. Middle East Journal of Disability Studies, 11. http://jdisabilstud.org/article-1-1517-fa.html Garcia-Garcia, J. M., Penichet, V. M., Lozano, M. D., & Fernando, A. (2022). Using emotion recognition technologies to teach children with autism spectrum disorder how to identify and express emotions. Universal Access in the Information Society, 21(4), 809-825. https://doi.o– rg/10.1007/s10209-021-00818-y Hao, J., & Su, Y. (2014). Deaf children's use of clear visual cues in mindreading. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(11), 2849-2857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.07.034 Holmer, E., Rudner, M., Schönström, K., & Andin, J. (2020). Evidence of an effect of gaming experience on visuospatial attention in deaf but not in hearing individuals. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 534741. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.534741 Hong, M., & Lv, S. (2025). The current situation and influencing factors of social adaptation of hearing impaired middle school students: A qualitative research. Current Psychology, 44(10), 8245–8256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-07184-x Jones, A. C., Gutierrez, R., & Ludlow, A. K. (2018). The role of motion and intensity in deaf children’s recognition of real human facial expressions of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 32(1), 102- 115. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1289894 Kuo, H. J., Yeomans, M., Ruiz, D., & Lin, C.-C. (2024). Video games and disability—A risk and benefit analysis. Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences, 5, 1343057. https://doi.org/10.3389/fres– c.2024.1343057 Laugen, N. J., Jacobsen, K. H., Rieffe, C., & Wichstrøm, L. (2016). Predictors of psychosocial outcomes in hard-of-hearing preschool children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 21(3), 259- 267. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enw005 Lee, H. M., & Loo, P. A. (2021). Gamification of learning in early age education. Journal La Edusci, 2(2), 44-50. https://doi.org/10.37899/journallaedusci.v2i2.380 Lieu, J. E., Kenna, M., Anne, S., & Davidson, L. (2020). Hearing impairments in children: A review. JAMA, 324(21), 2195-2205. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.17647 Lotfi, E., Belahbib, A., & Bouhorma, M. (2014). Application of analytic hierarchical process method for video game genre selection. International Journal of Computer Applications, 96(16), 30-37. https://doi.org/10.5120/16881-6888 Ludlow, A., Heaton, P., Rosset, D., Hills, P., & Deruelle, C. (2010). Emotion recognition in children with profound and severe deafness: Do they have a deficit in perceptual processing? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(9), 923-928. https://doi.org/10.1080– /13803391003596447 Mascio, T. D., Gennari, R., Melonio, A., & Vittorini, P. (2013). Designing games for deaf children: First guidelines. International Journal of Technology Enhanced Learning, 5(3-4), 223-239. https://doi.o– rg/10.1504/IJTEL.2013.059493 Melonio, A., & Gennari, R. (2013). How to design games for deaf children: Evidence-based guidelines. In P. Vittorini, R. Gennari, I. Marenzi, T. Mascio, & F. Prieta (Eds.), 2nd International Workshop Mozhgan Ghanat, Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, Fatemeh Jafarkhani & Morteza Bakhtiarvand: Effectiveness of a Computer Game for Recognizing and Understanding facial Emotions in Hearing-Impaired Children 341. on Evidence-based Technology Enhanced Learning (pp. 85-94). Springer. https://doi.– org/10.1007/978-3-319-00554-6_11 Nikkhoo, F., & Hassanzadeh, S. (2018). A systematic review of behavioral and emotional problems in children with hearing impairment [Review article]. Journal of Exceptional Education, 4(153), 41- 54. http://exceptionaleducation.ir/article-1-1412-fa.html Papoutsi, C., Drigas, A. S., & Skianis, C. (2022). Serious games for emotional intelligence’s skills development for inner balance and quality of life: A literature review. Retos: Nuevas Tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 46, 199-208. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos– .v46.91866 Qi, L., Zhang, H., Nie, R., & Du, Y. (2024). Resilience promotes self-esteem in children and adolescents with hearing impairment: The mediating role of positive coping strategy. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, Article 1341215. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1341215 Sahana, P., & Manjula, P. (2024). Vocal emotion perception in children using cochlear implant. The Journal of International Advanced Otology, 20(5), 383–389. https://doi.org/10.5152/iao.– 2024.241480 Shield, A., Graham, P., & Neild, R. (2023). Educational strategies for deaf children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Perspectives on Early Childhood Psychology and Education, 5(2), 7. https://doi.org/10.58948/2834-8257.1062 Shi, Y. R., & Shih, J. L. (2015). Game factors and game‐based learning design model. International Journal of Computer Games Technology, 2015(1), 549684. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/549684 Sidera, F., Amadó, A., & Martínez, L. (2017). Influences on facial emotion recognition in deaf children. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 22(2), 164-177. https://doi.org/10.1093– /deafed/enw072 Sidera, F., Morgan, G., & Serrat, E. (2020). Understanding pretend emotions in children who are deaf and hard of hearing. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 25(2), 141-152. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enz040 Soltaninejad, Z., Khosrowabadi, R., & Nejati, V. (2022). Emotion recognition task in typically developing children: Design and psychometric properties. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Cognition, 1(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.29252/jncog.1.1.63 Toofaninejad, E., Zaraii Zavaraki, E., Dawson, S., Poquet, O., & Sharifi Daramadi, P. (2017). Social media use for deaf and hard of hearing students in educational settings: A systematic review of literature. Deafness & Education International, 19(3-4), 144-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/– 14643154.2017.1411874 Torres, J., Saldaña, D., & Rodríguez-Ortiz, I. R. (2016). Social information processing in deaf adolescents. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 21(3), 326-338. https://doi.org/10.109– 3/deafed/enw030 Tsou, Y.-T., Li, B., Eichengreen, A., Frijns, J. H., & Rieffe, C. (2021a). Emotions in deaf and hard-of- hearing and typically hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 26(4), 469- 482. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enab022 Tsou, Y.-T., Li, B., Kret, M. E., Frijns, J. H., & Rieffe, C. (2021b). Hearing status affects children’s emotion understanding in dynamic social situations: An eye-tracking study. Ear and Hearing, 42(4), 1024-1033. https://doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0000000000000994 Tsou, Y.-T., Li, B., Kret, M. E., Sabino da Costa, I., & Rieffe, C. (2022). Reading emotional faces in deaf and hard-of-hearing and typically hearing children. Emotion, 22(6), 1307. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000863 Wiefferink, C. H., Rieffe, C., Ketelaar, L., De Raeve, L., & Frijns, J. H. (2013). Emotion understanding in deaf children with a cochlear implant. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18(2), 175- 186. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/ens042 Ziv, M., Most, T., & Cohen, S. (2013). Understanding of emotions and false beliefs among hearing children versus deaf children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 18(2), 161-174. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/ens073 REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 342 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Authors Mozhgan Ghanat, M.A. in Educational Technology Department of Educational Technology, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran, Dehkade-ye Olampik, Tehran, 1489684511, Iran, e-mail: mozhgan.ghanat@gmail.com, ORCID: https://orcid.o– rg/0009-0006-1274-9467 Oddelek za izobraževalno tehnologijo, Univerza Allameh Tabataba’i, Teheran, Iran, Dehkade-ye Olampik, Teheran, 1489684511, Iran, e-pošta: mozhgan.ghanat@gmail.com, ORCID: https://orcid.– org/0009-0006-1274-9467 Esmaeil Zaraii Zavaraki, PhD Full Professor of Educational Technology, Department of Educational Technology, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran, Dehkade-ye Olampik, Tehran, 1489684511, Iran, e-mail: zavaraki@atu.ac.ir, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3584-4118 Redni profesor izobraževalne tehnologije, Oddelek za izobraževalno tehnologijo, Univerza Allameh Tabataba’i, Teheran, Iran, Dehkade-ye Olampik, Teheran, 1489684511, Iran, e-pošta: zavaraki@atu.ac.ir, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3584-4118 Fatemeh Jafarkhani, PhD Assistant Professor of Educational Technology, Department of Educational Technology, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran, Dehkade-ye Olampik, Tehran, 1489684511, Iran, e-mail: fjafarkhani@atu.ac.ir, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3052-3457 Docentka za izobraževalno tehnologijo, Oddelek za izobraževalno tehnologijo, Univerza Allameh Tabataba’i, Teheran, Iran, Dehkade-ye Olampik, Teheran, 1489684511, Iran, e-pošta: fjafarkhani@atu.ac.ir, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3052-3457 Morteza Bakhtiarvand, PhD Postdoctoral Researcher, Institute of Educational Science, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany, Seminarstraße 20, 49074 Osnabrück, Germany, e-mail: m.bakhtiarvand@atu.ac.ir, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3853-5476 Podoktorski raziskovalec, Inštitut za izobraževalne znanosti, Univerza v Osnabrücku, Osnabrück, Nemčija, Seminarstraße 20, 49074 Osnabrück, Nemčija, e-pošta: m.bakhtiarvand@atu.ac.ir, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3853-5476 NAVODILA AVTORJEM Osnovni namen revije je povezati širok spekter teoretičnih izhodišč in praktičnih rešitev v izobraževanju ter tako spodbujati različne metodološke in vsebinske razprave. Uredniški odbor združuje strokovnjake in raziskovalce iz več evropskih držav in s tem želi ustvariti možnosti za živahen dialog med raznovrstnimi disciplinami in različnimi evropskimi praksami, povezanimi z izobraževanjem. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje torej objavlja prispevke, ki obravnavajo pomembna, sodobna vprašanja na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja, uporabljajo primerno znanstveno metodologijo ter so slogovno in jezikovno ustrezni. Odražati morajo pomemben prispevek k znanosti oziroma spodbudo za raziskovanje na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja z vidika drugih povezanih ved, kot so kognitivna psihologija, razvoj otroka, uporabno jezikoslovje in druge discipline. Revija sprejema še neobjavljene članke, ki niso bili istočasno poslani v objavo drugim revijam. Prispevki so lahko v slovenskem, angleškem ali nemškem jeziku. Sprejemanje člankov v objavo Prejete prispevke najprej pregleda urednik/založniški odbor in ugotovi, ali vsebinsko ustrezajo konceptu in kriterijem revije. 1. Če prispevek ustreza konceptu in kriterijem revije, ga uredniški odbor pošlje dvema anonimnima recenzentoma. Članek, ki je vsebinsko skladen s konceptom revije, vendar ne ustreza drugim kriterijem, lahko uredništvo vrne avtorju, da ga popravi. 2. Avtor dobi recenzirani prispevek vključno z morebitnimi priporočili za izboljšave/popravke, v primeru zavrnitve pa z navedenimi razlogi zanjo. 3. Končno odločitev o objavi članka sprejme urednik na temelju priporočil recenzentov. Pri tem utemeljitve za svojo odločitev ni dolžan navesti. 4. Besedilo prispevka mora biti pripravljeno v skladu z Navodili avtorjem. 5. Avtor jamči, da so v prispevku predstavljeni podatki natančni, verodostojni in izvirni. Ko je članek sprejet v objavo, avtor podpiše Izjavo o etičnosti raziskovanja in Izjavo avtorja o izvirnosti prispevka. Vsi prispevki gredo skozi postopek za ugotavljanje plagiatorstva. Navodila za oblikovanje besedila Pri pripravi besedila prispevka upoštevajte naslednja navodila: 1. Tipkopis oddajte kot dokument v programu Microsoft Windows. Nabor pisave je Times New Roman, velikost črk 12 za osnovno besedilo in 10 za povzetka v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku, literaturo in citate, če so daljši od treh vrstic, razmik med vrsticami pa je 1,5. Velikost pisave v tabelah in naslovih tabel ter grafov je 10; razmik med vrsticami pa enojni. Širina tabele naj ne presega 12,5 cm. Besedilo naj bo obojestransko poravnano. Vodilni naslovi naj bodo zapisani krepko, prvi podnaslovi ležeče, drugi podnaslovi pa navadno. Naslovov in strani ne številčite in ne uporabljajte velikih tiskanih črk. 2. Besedilo prispevka naj ne presega 38.000 znakov s presledki, vključno s povzetki, literaturo in ključnimi besedami. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 338 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 3. Naslov prispevka naj ne presega 15 besed in naj bo v slovenskem in angleškem jeziku. 4. Prispevek naj ima na začetku povzetek v slovenskem jeziku ter njegov prevod v angleškem jeziku (oziroma obratno) in naj ne presega 100 besed. Za povzetkom naj bo 5 ključnih besed. Poleg povzetkov naj prispevek na koncu prispevka, pred literaturo, vsebuje daljši povzetek (500-700 besed) v angleščini, če je članek napisan v slovenščini. 5. V prispevku ne uporabljajte ne sprotnih ne končnih opomb. 6. Vire navajajte v skladu s standardom APA (American Psychological Association). V seznam literature vključite samo v tekočem besedilu navedene vire, ki jih uredite po abecednem vrstnem redu. 7. V posebnem dokumentu pošljite naslednje podatke: ime in priimek avtorja, akademski naziv, organizacijo, kjer je avtor zaposlen, elektronski naslov, naslov bivališča in naslov prispevka. Primeri: Knjige: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov, kraj, založba. Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Članki v revijah: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, ime revije, letnik, številka, strani. Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport, 50(1), 11–15. Prispevki v zbornikih: priimek, začetnica imena avtorja, leto izida, naslov prispevka, podatki o knjigi ali zborniku, strani, kraj, založba. Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Šolska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27–34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD. Vključevanje reference v tekst: če gre za dobesedno navedbo, napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto izdaje in stran (Lipovec, 2005, str. 9), če pa gre za splošno navedbo, stran izpustimo (Lipovec, 2005). Prispevke avtorji oddajo na spletni aplikaciji: https://journals.um.si/index.php/education/about/submissions. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 338 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION GUIDELINES The basic purpose of the journal JEE is to cover a broad spectrum of education theory and its implications for teaching practice, seeking to bridge and integrate diverse methodological and substantive research. The Editorial Board brings together academics and researchers from different European countries, who seek to promote a vigorous dialogue between scholars in various fields both central and related to scientific enquiry in education. Articles accepted for publication in JEE should address an important, up to date issue in education, apply appropriate research methodology, and be written in a clear and coherent style. Accepted articles should make significant contributions to the field. In addition, JEE accepts articles which promote advances in education from closely related fields, such as cognitive psychology, child development, applied linguistics and others. JEE does not publish articles that have appeared elsewhere or have been concurrently submitted to or are already under consideration for publication in other journals. The languages accepted for the papers eligible for publication in JEE are Slovene and English. Paper Acceptance Procedure After a paper is submitted to JEE, the editor/publishing board first establishes if it is within the journal's domain of interests and meets the journal's requirements for style and quality. 1. If the paper meets the standard and the concept of the journal, it is sent to reviewers. JEE uses a double-blind review. Papers which are within the journal's domain but do not meet its requirements for style or quality, may be returned to the author for revision. 2. The reviewed papers are returned to the authors with reviewers’ feedback and suggestions for improvement or an indication of the reasons for a rejection. 3. The decision regarding publication is made by the editor after considering the reviewers’ recommendations. The editorial board is under no obligation to provide justification for its decision. 4. The text of the paper should be edited in accordance with the Submission Guidelines. 5. Authors must certify that the data cited in the article are, to the best of their knowledge, accurate, reliable and authentic. When the article is accepted for publication, the author has to sign the Publishing Ethics Statement and the Statement of Authenticity. Manuscripts will also be submitted to plagiarism detection software. Preparation of Copy Follow these instructions for the preparation of the manuscript: 1. Submit your manuscript as a Word file. Use Times New Roman: 12 pt, for main text and 10 pt, for abstract in Slovene and English, and for references and quotations of three lines or more. All text must be 1.5 spaced and justified. The fint size in table and diagram titles is 10; the line spacing is single. Maximum table width is 12,5 cm. The text should bi aligned on both sides. Use boldface type for first level headings, italics for second level headings and regular type for all other headings. Do not number headings. Do not number headings or use uppercase. REVIJA ZA ELEMENTARNO IZOBRAŽEVANJE 338 JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 2. The length of your paper should not exceed 38,000 characters with spaces including the abstracts, bibliography, and key words. 3. The title of your article should not exceed 15 words. The title should be written in English and in Slovene. 4. At the beginning of the manuscript include an abstract (up to 100 words) in the language of the article, and its translation into the other language, followed by 5 key words. In addition to the abstracts also include a longer summary (about 500-700 words) at the end manuscript, before reference - in English if the article is in Slovene and in Slovene if the article is in English.Do not use either footnotes or endnotes. 5. Do not use either footnotes or endnotes. 6. Quote references in accordance with the American Psychological Association (APA) style. Include only the sources cited in current text, arranged in alphabetical order. 7. Send a separate document with the following information: author’s name and family name, address, full title of the article, academic title, affiliation and e-mail address. Example: Books: last name and name of the author, year of publication, title, location, press. Duh, M. (2004). Vrednotenje kot didaktični problem pri likovni vzgoji. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. Articles from Magazines: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, name of the magazine, year, issue number, page(s). Planinšec, J. (2002). Športna vzgoja in medpredmetne povezave v osnovni šoli. Šport, 50 (1), 11–15. Academic Journals: last name and name of the author, year published, title of the article, information about the journal, page(s). Fošnarič, S. (2002). Obremenitve šolskega delovnega okolja in otrokova uspešnost. V M. Juričič (ur.), Šolska higiena: zbornik prispevkov (str. 27–34). Ljubljana: Sekcija za šolsko in visokošolsko medicino SZD. Citing sources in the body of the text: If a direct quotation is cited, write the last name of the author, year it was published and page number. Put this information in parenthesis (Lipovec, 2005, pg. 9). If the information is paraphrased, leave out the page number (Lipovec, 2005). Manuscripts should be uploaded at https://journals.um.si/index.ph–p/education/about/submissions.