Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 111
Rok Markežič
1
, Nikolaj Mole
1
, Iztok Naglič
2
, Boštjan Markoli
2
, Roman Šturm
1
1 Fakulteta za strojništvo, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija / Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
2 Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija / Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of 
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Napovedovanje spreminjanja trdote orodij  
med procesom tlačnega litja
Tool hardness change prediction during
high pressure die casting process
Povzetek
Orodja za tlačno litje so med obratovanjem izpostavljena cikličnim toplotnim in mehanskim 
obremenitvam, ki postopno vodijo do obrabe in nastanka poškodb na orodjih. Za 
zagotavljanje primerne trdote, trdnosti, žilavosti in mikrostrukturne stabilnosti orodij so ta pred 
začetkom uporabe ustrezno toplotno obdelana. Kljub temu pa prihaja med obratovanjem 
do neprestanega spreminjanja-razvoja mikrostrukture materiala, kar je posledica visokih 
obratovalnih temperatur in toplotnega utrujanja. Spreminjanje mikrostrukture vpliva 
na toplotno mehčanje in s tem na padec v trdoti materiala ter posledično zmanjšanje 
odpornosti orodij na obrabo in poškodbe. Poznavanje spreminjanja trdote orodij med 
procesom tlačnega litja je ključnega pomena za natančno napovedovanje obratovalne 
dobe in lokalizacije kritičnih mest že v fazi razvoja orodij. V članku je predstavljena novo 
razvita metoda za napovedovanje spreminjanja trdote orodij med procesom tlačnega litja. 
Metoda sloni na kinetičnem zakonu popuščanja, ki omogoča napovedovanje spreminjanja 
trdote na podlagi znanih toplotnih obremenitev. Uporaba metode je prikazana na primeru 
uporabe orodnega jekla za delo v vročem stanju Böhler W400 VMR (AISI H11), iz katerega 
je izdelano orodje, in tipičnega toplotnega obremenitvenega cikla pri tlačnem litju.
Ključne besede: tlačno litje, orodna jekla za delo v vročem stanju, toplotno mehčanje, 
kinetični zakon popuščanja, trdota
Abstract
High pressure die casting dies are during operation exposed to cyclic thermal and 
mechanical loads, which gradually lead to wear and damage of dies. To provide the 
needed hardness, strength, toughness and microstructural stability, dies are adequately 
heat treated prior to service. However, continuous microstructure evolution of die material 
occurs during service due to high operational temperatures and thermal fatigue conditions. 
Microstructure evolution causes thermal softening, loss of hardness and consequently 
reduction in damage and wear resistance. Understanding the loss of hardness of dies 
during die casting process is crucial for precise die lifetime predictions and localization 
of critical areas during die design phase. In this paper, a newly developed method for die 
hardness change predictions during die casting process is presented. The method is based 
on a tempering kinetic law, which allows the prediction of change in hardness  based on 
known thermal loadings. The application of the method is explained in case of use of the 
hot-work tool steel Böhler W400 VMR (AISI H11) as die material and a typical die casting 
thermal loading cycle.
Keywords: high pressure die casting, hot work tool steels, thermal softening, tempering 
kinetic law, hardness

112 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 
1 Uvod
Orodja so zaradi visokih temperature, tlakov 
in hitrosti taline med procesom tlačnega 
litja izpostavljena cikličnim toplotnim in 
mehanskim obremenitvam. Posledično 
prihaja do obrabe in poškodbe površin 
toplih delov orodij, kar povzroča zaplete v 
procesu tlačnega litja, v najhujših primerih 
pa lahko vodi do porušitve in odpovedi 
orodja [1]. 
Obrabne in poškodbene mehanizme 
na orodjih med tlačnim litjem v splošnem 
delimo v štiri skupine: (1) nalepljanje, (2) 
korozija, (3) erozija, (4) toplotno utrujanje in 
nastanek razpok. Pri nalepljanju prihaja do 
adhezije materiala ulitka na površino orodja 
[2], [3]. Pojavlja se med fazo polnjenja 
orodja in strjevanja ulitka, vzrok za pojav 
nalepljanja pa je v kombinaciji metalurških 
in mehanskih učinkov [4]. Korozija orodij 
med tlačnim litjem je tesno povezana z 
mehanizmom nalepljanja, kaže pa se kot 
izguba materiala orodja s površine le-tega. 
Korozija je mehanizem metalurške narave 
in se pogosto pojavlja v kombinaciji z 
nalepljanjem na specifičnih mestih orodja 
[5]. Za razliko od nalepljanja in korozije 
pa je erozija izključno mehanske narave, 
prav tako pa se kaže kot izguba materiala 
orodja z njegove površine [6]. Intenzivnost 
nalepljanja, korozije in erozije je močno 
odvisna od temperature površine orodja. 
Višja kot je temperatura orodja, pogostejše 
in intenzivnejše je njihovo pojavljanje [5], 
[7], [8]. Temeljni vzrok za toplotno utrujanje 
in nastanek razpok na orodjih je v hitrih 
spremembah temperature in tlakov med 
procesom tlačnega litja. Visoke temperature 
ter visoke hitrosti segrevanja in ohlajanja 
površine orodja pospešujejo stopnjo tvorbe 
in rasti razpok na orodjih [9], [10]. 
Pred začetkom uporabe so orodja 
ustrezno toplotno obdelana z namenom 
zmanjšanja obrabe in poškodb orodij. Z 
1 Introduction
Dies are due to high temperatures, 
pressures and melt velocities during high 
pressure die casting process exposed to 
cyclic thermal and mechanical loading. 
Consequently, wear and damage gradually 
occur on dies, causing problems in the 
casting process and in worst cases, failures 
on dies [1].
Die wear and damage mechanisms 
are generally divided in four groups: (1) 
soldering, (2) corrosion, (3) erosion, (4) 
thermal fatigue and cracking. Soldering or 
die sticking appears as adhesion of cast 
material to the die surface [2], [3]. It occurs 
during filling and solidification phase and is 
caused by a combination of metallurgical 
and mechanical effects [4]. Corrosion of 
dies in die casting is related to soldering and 
is characterized by loss of die material from 
the die surface. It is a metallurgically driven 
process and it often occurs simultaneously 
with soldering on a particular region of 
a die [5]. Erosion, on the other   hand, 
is a mechanically driven process, also 
characterized by loss of die material from 
the die surface [6]. Die soldering, corrosion 
and erosion are strongly dependent on 
die surface temperature. Their occurrence 
increases with increasing die surface 
temperature [5], [7], [8]. The main cause for 
thermal fatigue and cracking of dies are high 
temperature and pressure gradients. Crack 
initiation and propagation are accelerated 
by higher temperatures and higher heating/
cooling rates of dies [9], [10].
To reduce damage and wear and to 
avoid failures, dies are adequately heat 
treated prior to service. In this way, the 
desired combination of strength, hardness 
and fracture toughness can be achieved 
[11]– [13]. However, due to high operating 
temperatures during the die casting 
process, evolution of the microstructure 

 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 113
ustrezno toplotno obdelavo zagotovimo 
optimalno trdnost, trdoto in žilavost [11]–
[13]. Kljub temu pa prihaja zaradi visokih 
obratovalnih temperature med procesom 
tlačnega litja do dodatnega spreminjanja 
mikrostrukture ter mehčanja materiala orodij 
[10]. Mehčanje se kaže kot padec v trdoti 
in obratovalni trdnosti materiala orodja, 
vzrok za to pa je v rasti drobnih karbidov 
in zmanjšanju gostote dislokacij v materialu 
pri visokih temperaturah [14]. Za uspešno 
zaviranje nastanka obrabe in poškodb ter 
za uspešno nadziranje obratovalne dobe je 
torej ključnega pomena dobro razumevanje 
razvoja mikrostrukture materiala orodij med 
obratovanjem.
Za popis pojava mehčanja jekel so 
bili razviti številni matematično-fizikalni 
modeli, ki slonijo na določenih fizikalnih 
zakonitostih. Eden od nedavno razvitih 
modelov je kinetični zakon popuščanja, 
predlagan s strani raziskovalca 
Caliskanogla in sodelavcev [15]. Predlagani 
zakon popuščanja popisuje časovno in 
temperaturno odvisno mehčanje materiala 
na osnovi srednje velikosti razvoja 
sekundarnih karbidnih izločkov v materialu, 
ki rastejo po principu Ostwaldovega 
mehanizma rasti. 
V članku je predstavljena uporaba 
metode za napovedovanje spreminjanja 
trdote orodij med procesom tlačnega litja. 
Uporaba metode je prikazana na primeru 
orodnega jekla za delo v vročem stanju 
Böhler W400 VMR (AISI H11), iz katerega 
je izdelano orodje, in tipičnega toplotnega 
obremenitvenega cikla pri tlačnem litju. 
2 Materiali in metode
V poglavju 2.1 je predstavljen kinetični 
zakon popuščanja, predlagan s strani 
raziskovalca Caliskanogla in sodelavcev 
[15], ki temelji na delu Lifshitza, Slyozova in 
continues and softening of the die material 
occurs [10]. Softening appears as loss of 
hardness and high temperature fatigue 
strength and is driven by progressive 
coarsening of fine carbides and reduction 
of the dislocation density in the die 
material at elevated temperatures [14]. 
Therefore, to reduce wear and damage 
and to successfully control the die lifetime, 
it is of great importance to understand the 
evolution of the microstructure of the die 
material during service.
For the description of the softening 
behaviour of steels, many mechanism-
based models have been developed. One of 
the most recent is the tempering kinetic law 
proposed by Caliskanoglu et al. [15], which 
relates time and temperature dependent 
softening to the evolution of the mean size 
of secondary carbide precipitates, based on 
the Ostwald ripening mechanism.
In this paper, the application of a 
method for die hardness change prediction 
during die casting process is presented. The 
application of the method is explained in 
case of use of the hot work tool steel Böhler 
W400 VMR (AISI H11) as die material and 
a typical die casting thermal loading cycle.
2 Materials and Methods
In section 2.1, the tempering kinetic law, 
proposed by Caliskanoglu et al. [15] and 
based on the work of Lifshitz, Slyozov 
and Wagner, is presented. The tempering 
kinetic law was described in more detail by 
Jilg and Seifert [16]. In section 2.2, the die 
temperature field calculation with use of the 
commercial software Magmasoft version 
5.3, module MAGMAhpdc, is explained.

114 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 
Wagnerja. Obravnavani zakon popuščanja 
je podrobneje opisan v delu Jilga in 
Seiferta [16]. V poglavju 2.2 je opisan 
postopek izračuna temperaturnih polj 
na orodju med procesom tlačnega litja z 
uporabo komercialnega programskega 
paketa Magmasoft, različica 5.3, modul 
MAGMAhpdc.
2.1 Kinetični zakon popuščanja
Kot že omenjeno, zakon popuščanja, 
predlagan s strani Caliskanogla in 
sodelavcev [15], povezuje proces mehčanja 
materiala z razvojem srednje velikosti 
sekundarnih karbidnih izločkov v materialu 
pri povišanih temperaturah. Model za 
napovedovanje spreminjanja trdote 
materiala med procesom izotermnega 
popuščanja je predstavljen v enačbi (1), 
kjer H predstavlja trdoto materiala po 
času t pri konstantni temperaturi T, H
i
 
trdoto materiala v mehkem stanju, B
H
 
materialno lastnost utrjevanja, k konstanto 
rasti izločkov, r
0 
pa začetni srednji polmer 
sekundarnih karbidnih izločkov. H
i
 in B
H
 
sta materialni lastnosti, odvisni od trdote 
materiala v mehkem stanju in trdote 
materiala po začetni toplotni obdelavi. 
Konstanta rasti izločkov k je definirana v 
enačbi (2), kjer k
I 
predstavlja temperaturno 
odvisno materialno lastnost, Q aktivacijsko 
energijo popuščanja in R plinsko konstanto 
idealnega plina (8,13143 J mol
-1
 K
-1
).
            (1)
                 (2)
2.1 Tempering Kinetics
Like already mentioned, the tempering 
kinetic law, proposed by Caliskanoglu 
et al. [15], relates the softening of the 
material to the evolution of the mean size of 
secondary carbide precipitates at elevated 
temperature. The relation for hardness 
change prediction due to isothermal 
softening is presented in Eq. (1), where 
H represents the hardness of the material 
after time t at constant temperature T, 
Hi the intrinsic hardness, BH the particle 
hardening related material property, k 
the coarsening constant and r
0
 the initial 
secondary carbide precipitates mean 
radius. H
i
 and B
H
 are material properties 
related to the hardness of the annealed 
state of the material and the initial hardness 
of the material, respectively. The coarsening 
constant k is defined in Eq. (2), where kI 
represents the temperature dependent 
material property, Q the activation energy 
of the tempering transformation and R the 
perfect gas constant (8.13143 J mol
-1 
K
-1
).
            (1)
                  (2)
In Figure 1, hardness measurement 
results during thermal softening resistance 
tests of the hot work tool steel Böhler W400 
VMR (AISI H11) are shown with differently 
shaped dots. During thermal softening 
resistance tests, samples of the analysed 
material were held at a constant temperature 
for different times and hardness change in 
time was investigated. Tests at different 
constant temperatures were carried out. 

 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 115
Na Slika 1 so s točkami predstavljeni 
rezultati meritev trdot med testi toplotnega 
popuščanja orodnega jekla za delo v vročem 
stanju Böhler W400 VMR (AISI H11). 
Vzorci analiziranega materiala so bili med 
testi toplotnega popuščanja izpostavljeni 
konstantni povišani temperaturi za 
različno dolge čase testiranja. Testi 
so se izvajali pri različnih konstantnih 
temperaturah, spremljal pa se je razvoj oz. 
spreminjanje trdote materiala v odvisnosti 
od časa testiranja pri določeni konstantni 
temperaturi. Pred začetkom testiranja so 
bili vsi vzorci toplotno obdelani na enako 
začetno stanje. Iz rezultatov meritev trdot 
so bile določene vrednosti aktivacijske 
energije Q in temperaturno odvisne 
materialne lastnosti k
I
. Črtkane krivulje 
na Sliki 1 predstavljajo rezultate napovedi 
spreminjanja trdote, izračunane z uporabo 
predstavljenega zakona popuščanja. Na 
Sliki 2 je prikazana temperaturna odvisnost 
konstante rasti izločkov k.
Z uporabo predstavljenega zakona 
popuščanja in ob poznanih temperaturnih 
Čas / Time (h)
Trdota / Hardness (HRC)
Slika 1. Rezultati meritev trdote na vzorcih med 
testi toplotnega mehčanja in rezultati izračuna 
spreminjanja trdote
Figure 1. Hardness measurement results on 
samples during thermal softening resistance 
tests and calculated hardness change prediction 
results
eksperiment / experiment
model / model
Temperatura / Temperature (°C)
Slika 2.  Temperaturna odvisnost konstante rasti izločkov k
Figure 2. Temperature dependence of the coarsening constant k
Prior to testing, all samples were heat treated 
to the same initial condition. From hardness 
measurement results, values of activation 
energy Q and temperature dependent 

116 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 
poljih na orodju je možen izračun 
spremembe trdote orodja med procesom 
tlačnega litja. 
2.2 Izračun temperaturnih polj  
 na orodju
Za izračun temperaturnih polj na orodju 
med procesom tlačnega litja, ki so 
zahtevana za napovedovanje spreminjanja 
trdote, je bil uporabljen komercialni 
programski paket Magmasoft, različica 5.3, 
z modulom MAGMAhpdc. Izračunani so bili 
temperaturni profili na površini orodja med 
tipičnim procesom tlačnega litja, opisanim s 
strani Markežiča in sodelavcev [17], kjer je 
bilo orodje uporabljeno za litje aluminijeve 
zlitine AlSi9Cu3Fe. Izračunan časovno-
temperaturni potek na določenem mestu 
orodja med celotnim ciklom tlačnega litja je 
prikazan na Sliki 3. 
3 Rezultati in diskusija
Na podlagi predhodno izračunanega 
temperaturnega profila na površini 
material property kI were obtained. Dashed 
lines in Figure 1 represent the hardness 
change prediction results, calculated with 
the use of the tempering kinetic law. In 
Figure 2, the temperature dependence of 
the coarsening constant k is shown.
With the use of the presented tempering 
kinetic law and known temperature fields on 
die, die hardness change predictions during 
casting process can be calculated.
2.2 Die Temperature Calculations
For the calculation of die temperature fields 
during a high pressure die casting process, 
needed for hardness change predictions, 
commercial software Magmasoft version 
5.3 with module MAGMAhpdc was used. 
Die surface temperature profiles during a 
typical high pressure die casting process 
were calculated, described by Markežič 
et al. [17], where the die was used for 
casting of aluminium alloy AlSi9Cu3Fe. The 
calculated die surface temperature profile 
on a specific region of the die surface is 
presented in Figure 3.
Čas / Time (s)
Temperatura / Temperature (°C)
Faza priprave orodja / Die preparation phase
Izpihovanje orodja / Die blowing
Mazanje orodja / Die sprying
Zapiranje orodja / 
Die close
Faza polnjenja in strjevanja taline /  
Die filling and solidification phase
Slika 3. Temperaturni profil na površini orodja med procesom tlačnega litja
Figure 3. Die surface temperature profile during a high pressure die casting cycle

 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 117
orodja med procesom tlačnega litja, 
predstavljenega na Sliki 3, in z uporabo 
zakona popuščanja, opisanega v poglavju 
2.1, je bilo izračunano spreminjanje trdote 
orodja v odvisnosti od števila ciklov tlačnega 
litja. Rezultati napovedi spreminjanja trdote 
med procesom tlačnega litja so prikazani na 
Sliki 4.
Iz analize krivulje na Sliki 4 lahko 
ugotovimo, da trdota orodja pada z 
večanjem števila ciklov tlačnega litja. Iz 
oblike krivulje lahko dodatno zaključimo, da 
je najintenzivnejši padec trdote v začetnih 
ciklih procesa tlačnega litja, nato pa se 
hitrost padanja trdote postopoma znižuje z 
večanjem števila ciklov. 
Predstavljena metoda za 
napovedovanje spreminjanja trdote 
materiala med procesom tlačnega litja je 
uporabna za napoved spreminjanja trdote 
celotnega orodja. Tako lahko v kombinaciji 
z vplivi ostalih obrabnih in poškodbenih 
mehanizmov lokaliziramo kritična mesta na 
orodju že v fazi razvoja le-tega.
3 Results and Discussion
Based on the previously calculated die 
surface temperature profile during a high 
pressure die casting cycle, presented in 
Figure 3, and with use of the tempering 
kinetic law, described in Section 2.1, the die 
hardness change with increasing number 
of casting cycles was calculated. The 
predicted hardness change profile is shown 
in Figure 4.
As predicted by the developed method, 
die hardness decreases with increasing 
number of casting  cycles. From the shape 
of the curve in Figure 4 it can be concluded 
that the time-hardness drop rate has the 
highest value at the beginning of the casting 
process and it gradually decreases with 
increasing number of casting cycles.
The presented method for hardness 
change prediction during high pressure 
die casting process is applicable to the 
hardness change calculation of the entire 
die. In this way, in conjunction with other 
wear and damage mechanisms, the 
localization of critical die areas is possible 
already in the die design phase.
Število ciklov / Number of cycles (-)
Trdota / Hardness (HRC)
Slika 4. Rezultati napovedi spreminjanja trdote med procesom tlačnega litja
Figure 4. The predicted die hardness change during a high pressure die casting process

118 Livarski vestnik, letnik 69, št. 2/2022 
4 Conclusions
The application of a method for die hardness 
change prediction during die casting 
process is presented in this paper. The 
use of the method is explained on a case 
of high pressure die casting of aluminium 
alloy AlSi9Cu3Fe with a die manufactured 
from hot-work tool steel Böhler W400 VMR 
(AISI H11). The calculation of die surface 
temperature fields, needed for hardness 
change predictions, was conducted with 
use of the commercial software Magmasoft 
version 5.3. The presented method could 
be used for localization of critical die areas 
in the die design phase and for improved 
prediction and control of die lifetime.
4 Zaključki
V članku je bila predstavljena metoda za 
napovedovanje spreminjanja trdote orodij 
med procesom tlačnega litja. Uporaba 
metode je bila prikazana na primeru procesa 
tlačnega litja aluminijeve zlitine AlSi9Cu3Fe 
in orodja, izdelanega iz orodnega jekla za 
delo v vročem stanju Böhler W400 VMR 
(AISI H11). Izračun temperaturnih polj 
na orodju med procesom tlačnega litja 
je bil izveden z uporabo komercialnega 
programskega paketa Magmasoft, različica 
5.3. Predstavljena metoda omogoča 
lokalizacijo kritičnih mest na orodjih že v fazi 
razvoja ter omogoča izboljšano napoved 
in nadziranje obratovalne dobe orodij za 
tlačno litje.
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AKTUALNO / CURRENT
Pregled livarskih prireditev v letu 2022 / 2023
Datum dogodka Ime dogodka Mesto in država
14. - 16. 09. 2022 62. IFC Portorož 2022 Portorož, Slovenija
05. - 07. 10. 2022 Evropska konferenca tlačnega litja cinka Koblenz, Nemčija
16. - 20. 10. 2022
74. svetovni livarski kongres in generalna 
skupščina WFO
Busan, J. Korea
06. - 07. 10. 2022 Randhofenski dan lahkih kovin Salzburg, Avstrija
27. - 28. 10. 2022 Ledebur-Kolokvium Freiberg, Nemčija
12. - 16. 06. 2023 Mednarodni sejem metalurgije in livarstva (GIFA) Duesseldorf, Nemčija