ACTA HISTRIAE
32, 2024, 3
UDK/UDC 94(05) ISSN 1318-0185ACTA HISTRIAE 32, 2024, 3, pp. 321-458
UDK/UDC 94(05) 
Zgodovinsko društvo za južno Primorsko - Koper
Società storica del Litorale - Capodistria
ACTA HISTRIAE
32, 2024, 3
KOPER 2024
ISSN 1318-0185
e-ISSN 2591-1767
ACTA HISTRIAE • 32 • 2024 • 3
ISSN 1318-0185                UDK/UDC 94(05)             Letnik 32, leto 2024, številka 3
e-ISSN 2591-1767
Darko Darovec
Gorazd Bajc, Furio Bianco (IT), Flavij Bonin, Paolo Broggio (IT), Stuart Carroll (UK), Àngel Casals 
Martínez (ES), Alessandro Casellato (IT), Dragica Čeč, Lovorka Čoralić (HR), Darko Darovec, Marco 
Fincardi (IT), Darko Friš, Aleksej Kalc, Borut Klabjan, Urška Lampe, Amanda Madden (USA), John 
Martin (USA), Robert Matijašić (HR), Aleš Maver, Darja Mihelič, Edward Muir (USA), Jeppe Büchert 
Netterstrøm (DK), Žiga Oman, Egon Pelikan, Luciano Pezzolo (IT), Jože Pirjevec, Claudio Povolo (IT), 
Marijan Premović (MNE), Colin Rose (CA), Luca Rossetto (IT), Vida Rožac Darovec, Tamara Scheer 
(AT), Polona Tratnik, Boštjan Udovič, Marta Verginella, Nancy M. Wingfield (USA), Salvator Žitko.
Žiga Oman, Urška Lampe, Boštjan Udovič, Jasmina Rejec
Cecilia Furioso Cenci (it.), Žiga Oman (angl.)
Žiga Oman (angl., slo.), Cecilia Furioso Cenci (it.)
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/ Inštitut IRRIS za raziskave, razvoj in strategije družbe, kulture in okolja / Institute IRRIS for 
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ACTA HISTRIAE • 32 • 2024 • 3
Volume 32, Koper 2024, issue 3UDK/UDC 94(05) ISSN 1318-0185
e-ISSN 2591-1767
VSEBINA / INDICE GENERALE / CONTENTS
Andreja Jaklič & Magdolna Sass: Foreign Direct Investment in 
Central and Eastern Europe After Two Decades of EU Enlargement: 
Slovenian and Hungarian Perspectives ...................................................................
Gli investimenti esteri diretti in Europa centro-orientale dopo 
due decenni di ampliamento dell’UE: prospettive slovene e ungheresi
Tuje neposredne investicije v srednji in vzhodni Evropi 20 let 
po veliki širitvi EU: primera Slovenije in Madžarske
Jana Arbeiter: Diplomatic Bridges: Two Decades of 
Slovenia’s Development Cooperation .....................................................................
Ponti diplomatici: due decenni di cooperazione allo sviluppo in Slovenia
Diplomatski mostovi: dve desetletji slovenskega razvojnega sodelovanja
Sabina Lange & Marjan Svetličič: Slovenia’s First and Second 
EU Council Presidency: Lessons Learnt to Enhance 
the Benefits of EU Membership .............................................................................
Prima e seconda presidenza slovena del consiglio dell’UE in Slovenia: lezioni 
apprese per migliorare i vantaggi dell’adesione all’UE 
Prvo in drugo predsedovanje Slovenije svetu evropske unije: nauki za povečanje 
koristi od članstva v Evropski uniji
Adriana Mezeg & Julija Rozman: Trends in the Translation 
of Slovenian Literature in the European Union: A Comparative Analysis 
of Published Works in 16 Languages (1991–2024) .................................................
Tendenze nella traduzione della letteratura slovena nell’Unione Europea: 
un’analisi comparativa delle opere pubblicate in 16 lingue (1991–2024)
Trendi prevajanja slovenske književnosti v Evropski Uniji: 
primerjalna analiza objavljenih del v 16 jezikih (1991–2024)
321
341
367
391
ACTA HISTRIAE • 32 • 2024 • 3
Thomas Bickl: European Bratstvo i jedinstvo? Slovenia’s Bilateral 
Relations with Croatia Through the Lens of EU Membership ................................
Bratstvo i jedinstvo europeo? Le relazioni bilaterali di Slovenia e Croazia 
attraverso la lente dell’appartenenza all’unione europea
Evropsko bratstvo i jedinstvo? Bilateralni odnosi Slovenije s 
Hrvaško skozi prizmo članstva v EU
Dragutin Papović: The Last Decades of the State of Duklja (Dioclia) ..................
Gli ultimi decenni dello stato di Doclea
Zadnja desetletja države Duklje (Dioclia)
OCENE
RECENSIONI
REVIEWS
Paolo Tomasella (a cura di): 
Nelle città della Venezia Giulia. Piani, progetti, fatti urbani 1924–1954 
(Aleksandar Kadijević) .........................................................................................
433
455
413
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S 
DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION
Jana ARBEITER
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences, Centre of International Relations, Kardeljeva ploščad 5, 
1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: jana.arbeiter@fdv.uni-lj.si
ABSTRACT
This article examines Slovenia’s international development co-operation since its acces-
sion to the European Union (EU) in 2004, focusing on its strategic priorities, challenges, and 
impact in regions such as the Western Balkans, Eastern Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. 
Using a historical and comparative approach, the study analyses policy documents, official 
development assistance (ODA) data and case studies to assess Slovenia’s role as a small 
donor state within the EU framework. The analysis sheds light on the evolution of Slovenian 
development diplomacy, the integration of development assistance into foreign policy objec-
tives and the challenges of policy coherence and resource allocation. The article also examines 
the opportunities Slovenia has to improve its development impact and strategic partnerships 
by better aligning with international standards and adapting to global dynamics.
Keywords: international development cooperation, Slovenian diplomacy, Western Bal-
kans, sustainable development, European Union
PONTI DIPLOMATICI: DUE DECENNI DI COOPERAZIONE ALLO 
SVILUPPO IN SLOVENIA
SINTESI
Questo articolo esamina la cooperazione internazionale allo sviluppo della Slovenia 
a partire dalla sua adesione all’Unione Europea (UE) nel 2004, concentrandosi sulle sue 
priorità strategiche, le sfide e gli impatti in regioni come i Balcani occidentali, l’Europa 
orientale e l’Africa sub-sahariana. Utilizzando un approccio storico e comparativo, lo studio 
analizza i documenti politici, i dati sull’aiuto pubblico allo sviluppo (APS) e alcuni casi di 
studio per valutare il ruolo della Slovenia come piccolo Stato donatore nel quadro dell’UE. 
I risultati evidenziano l’evoluzione della diplomazia dello sviluppo slovena, l’integrazione 
degli aiuti allo sviluppo negli obiettivi di politica estera e le sfide poste dalla coerenza politica 
e dell’allocazione delle risorse. L’articolo esplora anche le opportunità per la Slovenia di 
migliorare il suo impatto sullo sviluppo e i suoi partenariati strategici attraverso un migliore 
allineamento con gli standard internazionali e l’adattamento alle dinamiche globali.
Parole chiave: cooperazione internazionale allo sviluppo, diplomazia slovena, 
Balcani occidentali, sviluppo sostenibile, Unione Europea
Received: 2024-05-09                                                   DOI 10.19233/AH.2024.14
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
INTRODUCTION1
On the occasion of the 20th anniversary of its accession to the European Union 
(EU), Slovenia has undergone a significant transformation as a small diplomatic 
actor. Since gaining independence in 1991 and especially after joining the EU 
in 2004, the country has endeavoured to align its foreign policy with the general 
objectives of the EU while pursuing its strategic interests in the Western Balkans. 
However, Slovenia’s path in development co-operation has not been without chal-
lenges. While Slovenia has aligned itself with the EU’s development policy, its 
development efforts often reflect the tension between altruistic goals and pragmatic 
diplomatic (political and economic) interests in the region (Bučar, 2011; Udovič & 
Bučar, 2014; Udovič & Vojinović Jaćimović, 2019). As global development priori-
ties have shifted towards sustainable development and addressing challenges such 
as migration and climate change, Slovenian development diplomacy needs to adapt 
to these changing demands. The integration of such global priorities into Slovenia’s 
foreign policy strategy reflects the country’s efforts to harmonise national interests 
with its commitments to international development objectives.
One of the most important instruments for balancing these aims has been 
development co-operation.2 Over the past 20 years, Slovenia has not only trans-
formed itself from an aid recipient to an active donor country in 2004 and a mem-
ber of the Development Assistance Committee of the Organisation for Economic 
Cooperation and Development (DAC OECD) but has also sought to reshape its 
development cooperation to reflect changing global dynamics, regional priorities 
and the country’s growing role within the EU. At the centre of this evolution is 
Slovenia’s approach of using Official Development Assistance (ODA) to build 
diplomatic bridges through development cooperation. While the official narrative 
emphasises the use of ODA to improve economic and social stability in recipient 
countries and to support the integration of the Western Balkans into Euro-Atlantic 
structures, there is also a need to critically analyse the effectiveness and strategic 
coherence of these efforts (Bučar, 2011; Rogelj et al., 2023). For this reason, 
this article focuses not only on a historical overview of Slovenia’s development 
cooperation since EU accession, but also on the main phases, strategic priorities 
and possible future directions.
In the first years after its independence, the focus of Slovenian foreign policy was 
on gaining international recognition and securing membership in key international 
organisations, shifting the focus away from the ex-Yugoslav countries (Udovič & 
1 The present paper is the result of the authors’ research within the research programme P5-0177 
Slovenia and its Actors in International Relations and European Integrations. The author would also 
like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their comments on the first version of the text, which 
were helpful in revising and improving the analysis.
2 Development cooperation is one of the most important tools of development diplomacy, which is about 
using development assistance to achieve foreign policy objectives by building relationships, fostering 
good relations and strengthening a donor’s soft power (Zielińska, 2016).
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Bučar, 2016). However, after joining the EU in 2004, Slovenia faced new chal-
lenges and opportunities as it transformed from a post-socialist state to an active 
participant in the EU, which required a shift in Slovenia’s foreign policy orientation 
towards a more proactive engagement with its neighbouring regions. This shift was 
influenced not only by Slovenia’s strategic interest in the region, but also by its 
economic ties and the potential benefits of regional stability for its own security 
and economic growth (Mrak et al., 2007; Jaklič & Svetličič, 2016).3 Bučar (2011) 
highlights that Slovenia’s transition from a recipient of development assistance to 
a donor was characterised by a strategic emphasis on promoting stability in the 
Western Balkans through targeted development cooperation.4 However, this strategy 
was often characterised by Slovenia’s dual objectives of promoting development and 
attempting to advance its own economic interests at the same time (Udovič & Bučar, 
2014; Arbeiter et al., 2019).5 The prioritisation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, 
Kosovo, Montenegro, Macedonia and Albania in Slovenian development coopera-
tion reflects both Slovenia’s historical ties and its strategic interest in promoting 
stability and integration into Euro-Atlantic structures (Udovič & Bučar, 2014). By 
acting as a bridge between the EU and the Western Balkans, Slovenia has sought to 
use its unique position to promote regional cooperation and stability, strengthen its 
diplomatic influence in the region and create a favourable environment for its own 
economic interests (Mrak et al., 2007).6
Slovenia’s integration into the EU framework entailed the adoption of important 
legal and political framework conditions for the country’s development coopera-
tion. The 2006 International Development Cooperation Act (IDC Act) and the 2008 
Resolution on International Development Cooperation of the Republic of Slovenia 
until 2015 (ReIDC) were important milestones, but their implementation was some-
times inconsistent, reflecting the overall challenges of aligning national policies 
with international development objectives (Udovič & Bučar, 2014). Although the 
documents outlined Slovenia’s commitment to supporting sustainable develop-
ment, democratic governance and economic stability in its neighbouring regions 
3 While development cooperation is often presented as an altruistic effort to support development 
in recipient countries, it is often intertwined with strategic and self-interested motives of donor 
countries such as geopolitical influence and economic advantage (Arbeiter et al., 2019; Arbeiter 
& Bučar, 2022).
4 This also reflects Slovenia’s diplomatic identity, which is deeply rooted in its collective memory 
of regional conflict and historical transition (Kočan & Udovič, 2020; Udovič, 2022). By prioriti-
zing the Western Balkans, Slovenia wishes to use ODA as an extension of its diplomatic influence, 
with historical ties and collective memory of shared experiences guiding its foreign policy.
5 As Udovič and Bučar (2014) point out, Slovenia’s efforts are primarily aimed at the Western 
Balkans due to historical ties and strategic interests in promoting regional stability and econo-
mic cooperation.
6 Slovenia’s ODA focus on the Western Balkans not only reflects national strategic interests, but is also 
in line with the broader diplomatic focus of the EU, which has endeavoured to address the difficult 
past of its member and non-member states. Slovenia’s contribution to development in the region 
reflects the EU’s efforts to promote stability and reconciliation, even if these efforts face challenges 
in implementation (Zupančič et al., 2021).
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in line with broader EU development goals, various scholars pointed out that the 
practical application of these commitments often falls short, with policy coherence 
and effective implementation remaining a challenge (Bučar & Milosavljević, 2011; 
Arbeiter et al., 2019).
Over the past two decades, Slovenia’s development cooperation strategy 
has gone through several development phases characterised by shifts in focus, 
geographical priorities and thematic areas. In the first phase (2004–2010), im-
portant framework conditions were created and Slovenia’s development policy 
was harmonised with that of the EU, while the political and economic transition 
of the Western Balkan countries was actively supported through bilateral aid and 
technical assistance. The following phase (2010–2015) involved a strategic con-
solidation and expansion of Slovenian development cooperation with a broader 
geographical focus and greater integration into EU development initiatives (Ar-
beiter et al., 2019). In recent years, Slovenia has sought to adapt its development 
cooperation in response to new global challenges such as the migration crisis, 
climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic. The latest Development Coopera-
tion and Humanitarian Aid Strategy of the Republic of Slovenia (MFA, 2019a) 
for the period 2023–2030 reflects these changes and emphasises the Sustainable 
Development Goals (SDGs), humanitarian aid and a stronger focus on building 
resilience in fragile states, which is in line with Slovenia’s commitment to inter-
national solidarity and the promotion of peace, security and human rights world-
wide. Thus, it seems that by further build diplomatic bridges through targeted 
development cooperation, Slovenia aims to increase its influence and contribute 
to a more stable and prosperous international environment.
This paper will provide a comprehensive historical overview of Slovenia’s de-
velopment co-operation since its accession to the EU, focusing on the key phases, 
achievements and challenges of the last 20 years. It will also analyse possible future 
directions of Slovenia’s development cooperation strategy in the light of new global 
and regional dynamics. By examining Slovenia’s evolving role as a donor country 
within the EU framework, the paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of 
the opportunities and challenges faced by small states in shaping an effective devel-
opment co-operation policy, understood as one of the most important instruments 
of mature diplomacy in the world. This paper is divided into four main sections. 
The first two sections provide a historical overview of Slovenia’s development 
cooperation since its accession to the EU in 2004, discussing the legal and institu-
tional framework and analysing the strategic priorities. The analysis of Slovenia’s 
development cooperation is divided into two main periods to reflect the country’s 
changing role in the international development landscape: before and after joining 
the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) in 2013. The first period 
(2004–2013) covers Slovenia’s first years as a donor country after its accession to 
the European Union in 2004, during which time Slovenia focused on establishing 
a legal and institutional framework for development cooperation, aligning its poli-
cies with EU objectives and prioritising regional stability in the Western Balkans. 
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The second period (2013–2024) represents Slovenia’s development cooperation 
efforts as a DAC member, characterised by a more strategic and structured ap-
proach to official development assistance, a stronger alignment with international 
development standards and an increased commitment to global priorities such as 
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This division allows for a nuanced 
analysis of the evolution of Slovenia’s development cooperation strategy from a 
regional focus to a broader engagement in global development efforts, reflecting 
the country’s growing responsibility and influence within the international donor 
community. The third section discusses the challenges Slovenia has faced in the 
different phases of its development policy. The final section discusses possible 
opportunities for Slovenia’s development cooperation, taking into account cur-
rent global trends and political changes in the EU.
THE FOUNDING YEARS: SLOVENIA’S ESTABLISHMENT 
AS A DONOR COUNTRY (2004–2013)
Following its accession to the European Union (EU) in 2004, Slovenia’s approach 
to international development cooperation changed significantly. As a new member 
state, Slovenia had to align its policies with the EU’s development objectives, which 
focus on poverty eradication, international development and later on sustainable 
development, the promotion of human rights and democracy worldwide. This align-
ment required the creation of a solid legal and policy framework to guide Slovenia’s 
development cooperation efforts and integrate them into the broader EU context 
(Bučar & Udovič, 2007; Mrak et al., 2007; Udovič & Bučar, 2014; 2016).
Initially, Slovenia focussed on establishing a basic legal and institutional 
structure through the IDC Act (2006) and the subsequent ReIDC (PISRS, 2008), 
as shown in Table 1. These frameworks were designed to align with EU develop-
ment objectives while reflecting Slovenia’s strategic interests, particularly in the 
Western Balkans. The IDC Act emphasised the importance of aligning Slovenia’s 
development goals with EU policies while considering Slovenia’s national in-
terests. It established the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as the central coordinating 
body for development cooperation, responsible for policy formulation, coordina-
tion of aid programmes and compliance with international commitments (Udovič 
& Bučar, 2014).
Building on the IDC Act, Slovenia adopted the Resolution on International 
Development Cooperation of the Republic of Slovenia until 2015 (ReIDC) in 
2008. The ReIDC (PISRS, 2008) set out Slovenia’s strategic priorities for de-
velopment cooperation, emphasising geographical and thematic priority areas. 
The ReIDC identified the Western Balkans as a priority area determined by 
Slovenia’s historical ties and its strategic interest in promoting regional stability 
and development (Mrak et al., 2007). This alignment with the EU’s development 
policy framework emphasises Slovenia’s commitment to principles such as aid 
effectiveness, ownership and partnership.
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
The focus on the Western Balkans – particularly Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia 
and Kosovo – was at the centre of Slovenia’s ODA strategy during this period (Mrak 
et al., 2007; Udovič & Bučar, 2016; Rogelj et al., 2023). This focus also reflects Slo-
venia’s diplomatic and foreign policy ambitions and shows that, at least strategically 
and at a declaratory level, Slovenia wanted to use ODA as a tool not only to support 
the development of the region, but also to consolidate its role as a diplomatic bridge 
between the EU and the Western Balkans. Slovenia wanted to use its own post-socialist 
transition experience to support the political and economic reforms of its neighbours, 
strengthen institutional capacity and promote regional cooperation. These efforts were 
closely aligned with the EU’s broader objectives, which prioritised good governance, 
human rights and sustainable development as part of the EU enlargement process 
(Arbeiter et al., 2019).
An important trend during this period was the gradual increase in Slovenia’s 
ODA. From 2005 to 2013, Slovenia’s total ODA increased steadily from EUR 
29.02 million to EUR 46.22 million (MFA, 2019b; OECD, 2020; 2024; MFEA, 
2023). This growth in ODA reflects Slovenia’s commitment to becoming an active 
Year Document Main Objectives Geographical Priorities
Other important 
Points
2006
Act on International 
Development 
Cooperation of the 
Republic of Slovenia
(Zakon o medna-
rodnem razvojnem 
sodelovanju Republi-
ke Slovenije)
Eradication of poverty in 
developing countries
Developing 
countries eligible 
for ODA (OECD 
DAC criteria)
Ministry of Foreign 
Affairs as the national 
coordinator
Promotion of peace, hu-
man security, democracy, 
and good governance
Emphasising policy 
coherence
Sustainable development 
(economic, social, 
environmental)
Creation of a 
framework for bilateral 
and multilateral deve-
lopment cooperationProvision of basic social 
services
2008
Resolution on 
International Deve-
lopment Cooperation 
of the Republic of 
Slovenia until 2015
(Resolucija o 
mednarodnem ra-
zvojnem sodelovanju 
Republike Slovenije 
za obdobje do leta 2015)
Alignment with interna-
tional development goals 
(MDGs)
Western Balkans 
and neighbouring 
regions
Strengthening partner-
ships with international 
organisations and 
NGOs
Improving the effective-
ness of aid
Promoting human 
rights, democracy, and 
the rule of law
Focus on priority 
sectors (good governance, 
education, economic 
development)
Contribution to global 
peace and security
Table 1: Legal and institutional structure of Slovenian development cooperation 2004–2013 
(own elaboration based on documents mentioned).
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
donor, despite its relatively small size and economic capacity. By increasing its aid, 
Slovenia wanted to demonstrate its commitment to global development goals and 
position itself as a reliable partner in EU development.
As Arbeiter and Bučar (2020) emphasise, the global level of ODA did not fall 
excessively after the 2008 financial crisis and the real results only became visible 
after 2011.7 In the case of Slovenia, ODA funding actually increased in 2009 and 
the impact of the crisis was only reflected in the budget allocated to ODA in 2010 
(Table 2). The real challenges for Slovenia’s ODA efforts due to the global financial 
crisis thus only emerged after 2013.
The growth of Slovenia’s ODA from 2005 to 2013 shows a steady increase in 
the total volume of ODA over the years, but also illustrates that Slovenia has not 
met its commitment to increase ODA to 0.33% of gross national income (GNI) by 
2015, as shown in Chart 1. Despite efforts to increase development aid, reflected 
in occasional peaks, Slovenia’s ODA as a percentage of GNI remained well be-
low target. There was a modest upward trend with a peak of 0.15%, probably 
reflecting a brief increase in aid flows, but the subsequent plateau suggests that 
economic constraints and competing national priorities make it difficult to sustain 
this growth. This highlights the challenges Slovenia has faced in reconciling eco-
nomic constraints at home with its international development commitments and 
7 A 1% decrease in ODA was recorded in 2011, followed by a 4% decrease in 2012 (World Bank, n.d.)
Table 2: Slovenia’s ODA 2005–2013 (own elaboration based on MFA (2014) and 
OECD (2024)).
Year Bilateral Aid (Millions EUR)
Multilateral Aid 
(Millions EUR)
Total ODA 
(Millions EUR)
ODA as % of 
GNI
2005 11.96 17.06 29.02 0.11%
2006 13.99 21.09 35.08 ↑ 0.12%
2007 17.38 22.14 39.52 ↑ 0.12%
2008 20.32 26.55 46.87 ↑ 0.13%
2009 18.16 33.11 51.27 ↑ 0.15%
2010 17.87 27.47 45.34 ↓ 0.13%
2011 13.53 31.58 45.11 ↓ 0.13%
2012 14.86 30.62 45.48 ↑ 0.13%
2013 15.35 30.87 46.22 ↑ 0.13%
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
mirrors similar struggles in other EU member states that joined the EU after 2002 
(Arbeiter & Bučar, 2020).
One of the main features of Slovenian ODA in these years was also a strong 
emphasis on multilateral aid, as Chart 2 shows. A significant share of Slovenian 
development assistance was channelled through multilateral organisations such 
as EU institutions, United Nations agencies and other international development 
organisations (Bučar, 2011). The higher share of multilateral contributions primar-
ily reflects the share of Slovenia’s contribution to the EU budget and is only to a 
Chart 1: ODA as % of GNI (own elaboration based on OECD (2024)).
Chart 2: Slovenia’s bilateral and multilateral ODA (2005–2013) 
(own elaboration based on OECD (2024)).
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lesser extent an expression of Slovenia’s strategic orientation to capitalise on its EU 
membership by contributing to EU-led development initiatives (OECD, 2020). This 
is evidenced by the fact that the allocation of multilateral ODA to EU institutions 
averaged 83% (OECD Data Explorer, n.d.).8
To summarise, Slovenia’s development cooperation from 2004 to 2013 was 
characterised by significant change, driven by the country’s integration into the EU 
framework and the introduction of sound legal and policy guidelines. Despite its 
modest economic size, Slovenia demonstrated a strong commitment to increasing 
its ODA contributions and aligning its strategic priorities with broader EU and 
global objectives. However, challenges such as economic constraints and the global 
financial crisis impacted Slovenia’s ability to achieve its ODA targets, in particular 
reaching the commitment of 0.33% of GNI by 2015. An important milestone on 
this path, however, was Slovenia’s accession to the OECD DAC in 2013, which 
elevated the country to the ranks of the world’s top donors and underlined its com-
mitment to meeting international standards for aid effectiveness and transparency.
STRATEGIC ENGAGEMENT: SLOVENIA’S EXTENDED ENGAGEMENT 
IN INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (2014–2024)
The period from 2014 to 2024 marks a significant evolution in Slovenia’s ap-
proach to international development cooperation, characterised by both successes 
and critical challenges, as highlighted in the OECD Development Cooperation Peer 
Review (2017). The adoption of several strategic documents during this period 
reflects Slovenia’s efforts to align its development policy with international stand-
ards while recognising its unique context as a small, emerging donor country. The 
Slovenian strategy (2019) clarifies the alignment with global development frame-
works such as the SDGs and emphasises priorities such as sustainable development, 
climate action and the fight against migration. Although the strategy reflects global 
commitments, Slovenia faces the challenge of fully realising these priorities due 
to limited resources and the need to reconcile regional stability, particularly in the 
Western Balkans, with these broader international goals. This dual focus reveals 
both opportunities and tensions in the declaratory and actual implementation of 
Slovenia’s development co-operation.
During this period, Slovenia adopted important legal frameworks that shaped 
its approach to development co-operation and humanitarian assistance (Table 3). 
These include the Resolution on Development Cooperation and Humanitarian 
Aid (PISRS, 2017), the Act on Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid 
(PISRS, 2018a), the Decree on the Implementation of International Development 
Cooperation and Humanitarian Aid (PISRS, 2018b) and the Development Coopera-
tion and Humanitarian Aid Strategy until 2030 (2019).
8 In 2009, the share of multilateral ODA allocated to EU institutions decreased to 65.73%, but already 
increased to 94.79% in 2010 (OECD Data Explorer, n.d.).
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Table 3: Legislative and institutional structure of Slovenia’s development cooperation 
2014–2024 (own elaboration based on the documents mentioned).
Year Document Main Objectives Geographical Priorities Other important Points
2017 Resolution on Devel-
opment Cooperation 
and Humanitarian Aid 
of the Republic of 
Slovenia
(Resolucija o med-
narodnem razvojnem 
sodelovanju in 
humanitarni pomoči 
Republike Slovenije)
Contributing to balanced 
global development 
Western 
Balkans, European 
Neighbourhood, 
Sub-Saharan Africa
Policy coherence for 
development 
Promotion of peace, stabil-
ity, and inclusive societies 
Raising public awareness 
and global education 
Fight against climate 
change 
Commitment to increase the 
ODA share of GNI
Provide humanitarian 
assistance during crises
2018 Act on Development 
Cooperation and 
Humanitarian Aid
(Zakon o medna-
rodnem razvojnem 
sodelovanju in 
humanitarni pomoči 
Republike Slovenije)
Contribution to global 
poverty reduction 
Western 
Balkans, European 
Neighbourhood, 
Sub-Saharan Africa 
(Least Developed 
Countries)
Guidelines for the distribu-
tion of ODA funds
Promotion of human rights 
and sustainable develop-
ment
Emphasising partnerships 
with NGOs and the private 
sector
Harmonisation with 
international standards for 
development cooperation
Role of the Ministry of 
Foreign Affairs as coordina-
tor
2018 Decree on the 
Implementation of 
International Develop-
ment Cooperation and 
Humanitarian Aid 
of the Republic of 
Slovenia
(Uredba o izvajanju 
mednarodnega razvoj-
nega sodelovanja in 
humanitarne pomoči 
Republike Slovenije)
Operationalisation of the 
strategic objectives of Slove-
nian development cooperation 
and humanitarian aid
As defined in 
the relevant 
strategies (Western 
Balkans, European 
Neighbourhood, 
Sub-Saharan 
Africa)
Roles and responsibilities 
of the various government 
agencies
Establish procedures for the 
implementation of develop-
ment and humanitarian 
projects
Specifies the framework for 
project selection, resource 
allocation, monitoring and 
evaluation
Ensures alignment with EU 
and international standards 
for aid effectiveness
Emphasis on transparency 
and accountability in the 
use of development funds
2019 Development 
Cooperation and 
Humanitarian Aid 
Strategy of the 
Republic of Slovenia 
until 2030
(Strategija 
mednarodnega razvoj-
nega sodelovanja in 
humanitarne pomoči 
Republike Slovenije 
do leta 2030)
Eradication of poverty and 
inequality 
Western Balkans 
(60–70% of 
aid), European 
Neighbourhood, 
Sub-Saharan Africa 
Focus on thematic priorities 
(employment, climate change, 
governance, crisis response)
Promoting sustainable 
development
Strengthening institutions 
and raising public aware-
ness
Strengthening humanitarian 
aid and resilience
Regular evaluations to 
adapt the strategy
Effective and inclusive 
partnerships 
Managing for results
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Each of these documents set objectives such as contributing to global poverty 
reduction, promoting human rights and sustainable development, and harmo-
nising Slovenian efforts with international and EU standards for development 
cooperation.
However, the first OECD Peer Review for Slovenia (2017) identified several 
critical issues that Slovenia needs to address in order to improve its effectiveness 
as a donor. While Slovenia has made progress in establishing a comprehensive 
policy framework, the review pointed to gaps in implementation, particularly 
in ensuring policy coherence and coordination between different government 
agencies and sectors. The review also pointed to the need for a more strategic 
approach to resource allocation, particularly in targeting limited ODA resources 
to the areas with the greatest impact (OECD, 2017).
The analysis of Slovenia’s ODA trends from 2014 to 2022, as shown in Table 
4, reveals a period of strategic adjustments and responses to both external pres-
sures and evolving domestic priorities. During this period, Slovenia’s total ODA 
increased significantly, reflecting a commitment to strengthening its international 
development role. However, this growth was not without fluctuations, as evidenced 
by the decline in 2017, which can be attributed to budgetary constraints and shifts 
in strategic focus (Arbeiter & Bučar, 2020). From 2014 to 2016, Slovenia’s ODA 
experienced significant growth, with a notable peak in 2016, as shown in Chart 3, 
primarily due to higher multilateral contributions. This increase was in line with 
Table 4: Slovenia’s ODA 2014–2022 (own elaboration based on MFA (2018; 2019b; 
2020; 2022; 2023).
Year Bilateral ODA (EUR millions)
Multilateral ODA 
(EUR millions)
Total ODA (EUR 
millions) % of GNI for ODA
2014 15.19 31.19 46.38 ↑ 0.13% 
2015 22.62 34.48 57.11 ↑ 0.15%
2016 25.22 48.33 73.55 ↑ 0.19%
2017 22.11 45.12 67.23 ↓ 0.16%
2018 24.81 45.95 70.76 ↑ 0.16%
2019 27.77 49.68 77.44 ↑ 0.16%
2020 26.49 53.12 79.61 ↑ 0.17%
2021 38.96 59.29 98.25 ↑ 0.19%
2022 82.31 77.34 159.66 ↑ 0.29%
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global and European responses to the Syrian refugee crisis and other international 
humanitarian needs, demonstrating Slovenia’s alignment with EU-wide priorities 
(OECD, 2017). The subsequent decline in 2017 reflects adjustments in domestic 
budgeting and possibly a recalibration of development priorities.
The period from 2018 onwards was characterised by a recovery and a steady increase 
in ODA, which culminated in a significant increase in 2022. This increase in 2022 
was mainly influenced by relatively high allocations of Slovenia’s funds for Ukrainian 
refugees and humanitarian aid to this country. Slovenia, like many other donors, has 
reallocated funds to support reconstruction and address the immediate challenges posed 
by the war.
Despite the overall increase in ODA, the percentage of GNI allocated to ODA 
remained below Slovenia’s target of 0.33% by 2030. This shortfall points to the ongo-
ing challenges of scaling up financial commitments amid economic constraints and 
competing national priorities. Like the majority of countries that joined the EU between 
2004 and 2007 and failed to achieve internationally agreed targets for development 
co-operation (Zrinski & Bučar, 2015), Slovenia also belongs to this club. The increase 
to 0.29% of GNI in 2022 reflects a significant increase in the volume of ODA, which 
was mainly influenced by high allocations for Ukrainian refugees and humanitarian aid 
for Ukraine.
A significant portion of ODA was spent on multilateral aid and fluctuated between 
48% and 67% of total ODA over the period analysed. This indicates a strategic prefer-
ence for channelling aid through international organisations such as the EU and the UN, 
but also, and more importantly, the share of Slovenia’s contribution to the EU budget. 
However, as is often noted, small donors use multilateral aid to maximise their impact 
by contributing to broader, collective efforts (OECD, 2017).
Chart 3: Slovenia’s total ODA and its % of GNI (2014–2022) 
(own elaboration based on MFA (2018; 2019b; 2020; 2022; 2023)).
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However, the reliance on multilateral contributions also emphasises the challenges 
Slovenia faces in scaling up its bilateral aid initiatives, which are critical to building 
direct partnerships and promoting long-term development impact. Slovenia’s devel-
opment co-operation efforts have often been hampered by fragmented coordination 
between various actors, including ministries, NGOs and international partners. This 
fragmentation has led to inefficiencies in project implementation and a lack of clear, 
strategic priorities (OECD, 2017).
The allocation of Slovenia’s bilateral ODA to specific geographical regions from 
2014 to 2022 partly reflects a strategic approach that is consistent with Slovenia’s legal 
and institutional framework. The data shows that the Western Balkans consistently 
received the largest share of Slovenia’s bilateral ODA during this period, emphasising 
Slovenia’s commitment to regional stability and integration. However, this approach 
has been criticised for its fragmentation and lack of targeted impact, as Slovenia’s aid 
was spread thinly across several countries, resulting in numerous small projects with 
limited transformative potential (OECD, 2017).
The Western Balkans remains a priority for Slovenia’s bilateral ODA (Chart 4) and 
consistently receives a significant share of bilateral ODA, peaking at almost 74% in 
2017. In 2022, however, there was a notable decrease to 23% (EUR 19.31 million), with 
the largest share of bilateral ODA allocated to the Africa region, which received 27% of 
total bilateral ODA (EUR 22.8 million).
Chart 4: Geographical allocation of Slovenia’s bilateral ODA in € million (2014–2022) 
(own elaboration based on MFA annual reports (MFA, 2018; 2019b; 2020; 2022; 2023)).
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Although the largest portion of Slovenia’s bilateral ODA is earmarked for 
the Western Balkans, a detailed analysis, as shown in Table 5, reveals that each 
country received a relatively modest share of total bilateral aid to the region. 
This fragmentation contributed to a dilution of Slovenia’s overall develop-
ment impact, as resources were spread too thinly to achieve significant results 
(OECD, 2017).
The share of bilateral ODA for Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central 
Asia was relatively modest and generally fluctuated between 1% and 10%. This 
allocation and the visible fluctuations (Chart 4) reflect changing geopolitical 
priorities and responses to regional crises. The main recipients in this region 
were Ukraine, Moldova, Syria and Palestine. Slovenia’s assistance to this region 
was often driven by the need to support democratic transitions, human rights 
and socio-economic reforms, which is in line with the objectives of the EU’s 
Eastern Partnership (Arbeiter & Bučar, 2020). Nevertheless, Slovenia’s aid ef-
forts were again spread across too many initiatives, which reduced the potential 
effectiveness of interventions and hampered efforts to effectively monitor and 
evaluate their impact (OECD, 2017).
Table 5: The percentage of total bilateral ODA for the countries of the Western 
Balkans (2014–2022) (own elaboration based on MFA annual reports MFA (2018; 
2019b; 2020; 2022; 2023)).
Year
North 
Macedo-
nia (%)
Montenegro 
(%)
Kosovo 
(%)
Bosnia and 
Herzegovina 
(%)
Serbia 
(%)
Albania 
(%)
Turkey 
(%)
2014 13.86 7.58 5.01 15.91 6.25 1.96 0.39
2015 10.09 5.09 4.24 14.61 6.29 0.29 0.20
2016 10.89 4.88 4.42 12.45 7.86 2.32 5.96
2017 14.19 5.61 7.18 19.28 12.05 0.71 10.40
2018 15.61 5.48 3.84 15.65 16.10 0.32 4.67
2019 16.83 5.55 3.56 18.17 12.85 1.04 3.03
2020 20.05 3.66 3.92 20.62 16.66 1.12 3.13
2021 15.74 3.19 2.29 16.14 12.51 0.17 1.11
2022 7.41 1.10 1.02 6.69 6.05 0.33 0.57
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Africa’s share of bilateral ODA remained relatively low until 2020 and then 
increased dramatically from 0.84% in 2020 to 18.88% in 2021 and further to 
27.80% in 2022.9 This was related to the cancellation of clearing debt to some 
countries and was unfortunately not a strategic decision to redirect ODA to less 
developed countries. However, it is certain that this measure by Slovenia is at 
least partly related to the desire to gain the support of African countries for its 
candidature for a seat as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. 
However, an important player alongside the official channels are non-governmental 
organisations (NGOs),10 which are very active in Africa. One example of this is 
9 Main recipients of bilateral ODA in African region were Ruanda and Uganda (OECD, 2017; MFA, 2023).
10 The Slovenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs regularly publishes public tenders for the implementation of 
international development projects for NGOs. As Arbeiter and Bučar (2020) found, NGOs often improve 
economic opportunities at the micro level with their projects and thus increase the chances of survival in 
specific communities.
Fig. 1: Development project of Caritas Slovenia: Women’s entrepreneurship develop-
ment in agriculture in south-east Serbia (Caritas Slovenia, 2024a). More informa-
tion about the project is available at https://www.gov.si/podrocja/zunanje-zadeve/
mednarodno-razvojno-sodelovanje-in-humanitarna-pomoc/razvojni-in-humanitarni-
projekti/razvoj-zenskega-podjetnistva-v-kmetijstvu-v-jv-srbiji/
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the Slovenian Caritas, which implements international development cooperation 
projects and programmes in Central African countries (Figure 2), particularly in 
rural areas in Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Malawi, the Central African Republic, 
Madagascar and Botswana, with a priority on water and food supply, education and 
healthcare (Caritas Slovenia, n.d.). However, similar to other regions, Slovenia’s 
scattered aid initiatives in several African countries lack a coherent strategic focus, 
further fragmenting the country’s overall development efforts (OECD, 2017). 
Bilateral ODA allocations to East and Southeast Asia remained relatively low 
throughout the period, reflecting a more limited strategic interest compared to 
other regions. However, the slight increases in aid in 2018 and 2022 show that 
Slovenia is responding (declaratively) to emerging global issues such as climate 
change and economic development, particularly in countries such as Vietnam 
and Myanmar, which are among the main recipients of EU aid programmes. The 
lack of a clear strategic framework for these allocations suggests that Slovenia’s 
limited resources could be better utilised through a more targeted and strategic 
approach (OECD, 2017).
Fig. 2: Development project of Caritas Slovenia: Ensuring sustainable primary educa-
tion capacity for children in Nyangungu, Burundi (Caritas Slovenia, 2024b). More in-
formation about the project is available at https://www.karitas.si/mednarodna-pomoc/
humanitarna-in-razvojna-pomoc-afrika/
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The geographical distribution of bilateral ODA in Slovenia indicates a strat-
egy that attempts to balance national interests, regional stability and alignment 
with EU foreign policy objectives. The consistent focus on the Western Balkans 
underlines Slovenia’s commitment to promoting stability in its immediate 
neighbourhood, while the selective engagement in Eastern Europe, Central Asia 
and Africa reflects the response to the EU’s broader development policy and 
global challenges. However, the fragmented distribution of Slovenian aid across 
countries (and regions) poses a major challenge. Slovenia’s limited resources 
require a more concentrated approach to ODA allocation, focusing on fewer re-
gions and sectors where it can have a greater impact and increase its diplomatic 
leverage (Arbeiter & Bučar, 2020). Going forward, Slovenia’s ability to sustain 
and strategically deploy its ODA will depend on its ability to adapt to changing 
geopolitical dynamics, reduce fragmentation and maintain alignment with the 
EU and international development frameworks (OECD, 2017).
NAVIGATING COMPLEXITY: CHALLENGES IN 
SLOVENIAN DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION
Slovenia’s development cooperation has evolved considerably since its ac-
cession to the EU in 2004. However, it faces several challenges that affect its 
effectiveness and its ability to achieve strategic objectives. These challenges 
are driven by internal constraints, such as limited resources and institutional 
capacity, and external factors, such as global crises and complex regional dy-
namics. Understanding these challenges is crucial for identifying opportunities 
for improvement and strengthening Slovenia’s role as a donor country.
One of the biggest challenges for Slovenia’s development cooperation is the 
limitation of financial and human resources. Slovenia’s ODA remains below 
the EU average and is far from the international target of 0.7% of GNI set 
by the UN. In 2022, Slovenia’s ODA amounted to 0.29% of GNI, which is an 
improvement on previous years but still falls short of the commitments of other 
EU member states (OECD, 2022). This limited funding restricts Slovenia’s 
ability to implement large-scale, impactful development projects and limits its 
flexibility to respond to new global needs.
In addition, Slovenia’s development efforts are constrained by insufficient 
human resources and institutional capacity. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and 
other ministries involved in development cooperation are understaffed, making 
it difficult to plan, implement and monitor development programmes. This lack 
of qualified personnel also affects Slovenia’s ability to effectively engage in 
international policy dialogue and coordinate with other donors, further limiting 
its influence and impact in the development sector (Arbeiter et al., 2019).
The second identified challenge is achieving policy coherence, which re-
quires that national policies in areas such as trade, agriculture and migration 
do not undermine development objectives (Arbeiter et al., 2019). However, 
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Slovenia struggles to ensure coherence between its various policy areas, leading 
to potential conflicts that could undermine the effectiveness of its development 
assistance. For example, trade or agricultural policies designed to protect do-
mestic interests may unintentionally harm developing countries and run counter 
to Slovenia’s development goals.
Although Slovenia has committed itself to the principles of policy coherence 
for development in its development strategy, practical implementation has often 
been hampered by a lack of coordination between ministries and authorities. 
The fragmented approach to policymaking can lead to inconsistencies where 
domestic policies can conflict with Slovenia’s international development goals, 
reducing the effectiveness of development assistance and in some cases even 
cancelling out its positive impact (OECD, 2017; Arbeiter et al., 2019; Arbeiter 
& Bučar, 2020).
The rapidly evolving global landscape poses ongoing challenges for Slove-
nia’s development cooperation. The COVID-19 pandemic, climate change and 
increasing migration flows have required Slovenia to adopt a more flexible and 
adaptive approach to its development strategy. While Slovenia has proven that 
it is able to respond to these crises – for example, it has increased its support 
for healthcare systems during the pandemic – it can only scale up its efforts 
to a limited extent due to resource constraints. Dealing with climate change 
and environmental sustainability is another area where Slovenia faces chal-
lenges. Although the country has integrated climate action into its development 
strategy, there is a need for more comprehensive, cross-sectoral approaches 
that recognise the complexity of environmental problems in partner countries. 
Developing such approaches requires better coordination and stronger policy 
frameworks (Arbeiter & Bučar, 2020).
Another challenge is geopolitical constraints and regional dynamics. Slo-
venia’s development cooperation is also influenced by broader geopolitical 
dynamics, particularly its involvement in the Western Balkans. The region’s 
complex political environment and the Western Balkan countries’ varying com-
mitment to EU integration create a difficult context for Slovenia’s development 
activities. The challenge of reconciling Slovenia’s strategic focus on the West-
ern Balkans with its responsibilities as an EU member state can lead to tensions. 
Slovenia’s development policy must be in line with EU objectives while taking 
into account its unique geopolitical interests. This makes it difficult to pursue a 
coherent and effective development strategy. In addition, Slovenia must manage 
its role within the EU and harmonise its national interests with broader Euro-
pean priorities (Bučar & Udovič, 2014). Very importantly, however, the focus 
on the Western Balkans is not only a strategic choice, but is also characterised 
by Slovenia’s collective memory of its shared history, which is an important 
driver in supporting a country’s diplomatic identity. By supporting the develop-
ment of the region, Slovenia is engaging in what Kočan and Udovič (2020) 
call ‘diplomacy with collective memory diplomacy’, using its own historical 
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experiences to guide its diplomatic actions and strengthen relations within the 
region. However, juggling all these aspects can often be difficult and often leads 
to a lack of strategic focus.
Slovenia’s bilateral aid is often criticised for its fragmentation and lack of 
geographical focus. Although Slovenia has always prioritised the Western Balkans, 
aid is spread across numerous countries and projects (Chart 5), which reduces the 
overall impact. The OECD Peer Review emphasises that the distribution of Slove-
nian aid across several countries leads to a limited strategic focus, which weakens 
the effectiveness of development measures (OECD, 2017). A more focussed ap-
proach, concentrating on fewer countries or projects, could potentially improve the 
strategic impact and effectiveness of Slovenia’s ODA.
Slovenia’s development cooperation faces several challenges. However, these 
challenges also offer Slovenia the opportunity to increase its development im-
pact, build strategic partnerships and align its efforts with global development 
priorities. By capitalising on its unique strengths and addressing its weaknesses, 
Slovenia can continue to play a significant role in international development and 
contribute to global efforts towards sustainable development.
Chart 5: Top 10 recipients of Slovenia’s bilateral ODA (2014–2022) (own elaboration 
based on annual reports on Slovenia’s Development Cooperation (MFA, 2017; 2018; 
2019b; 2020; 2022; 2023)).
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CONCLUSION: STRATEGIC INSIGHTS AND 
SEIZING OPPORTUNITIES
Over the past two decades, as Slovenia celebrates the 20th anniversary of 
its accession to the EU, the country has been at a pivotal point in its journey 
as a diplomatic and development actor. Slovenian development cooperation 
has undergone a significant transformation, evolving from a newly established 
donor to an experienced partner in international development. It has navigated 
through complex geopolitical dynamics, economic constraints and changing 
global development priorities. This dual role of reconciling national interests 
with the realisation of international goals has shaped Slovenia’s declaratory 
development strategy, particularly in the Western Balkans. This article traces 
Slovenia’s path, which has been characterised by both opportunities and chal-
lenges, reflecting the complexity of navigating global development dynamics as 
a small state within the EU framework.
Analysing Slovenia’s development cooperation strategy reveals several im-
portant findings. First, Slovenia’s development efforts have consistently focussed 
on the countries of the Western Balkans, a region with which it shares historical 
ties and strategic interests. This focus is reflected, at least at the declaratory level, 
in the significant share of Slovenia’s bilateral ODA to countries such as Bosnia 
and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Albania. In 
practice, however, the amount of aid to individual countries varies greatly, which 
in reality reflects the lack of a long-term strategy. Although one might think 
that Slovenia’s strategy should be linked to sharing its post-socialist transition 
experience in order to support political and economic reforms in these countries, 
promote their integration into Euro-Atlantic structures and thereby strengthen 
regional stability and Slovenia’s own security and economic interests. The reality 
is often related to current politics and the (global) crisis, especially the lack of 
clear ideas in the selection of so-called priority countries, which change too often 
without the reasons being clear.
Second, Slovenia’s integration into the EU framework has required the adop-
tion of important legal and policy frameworks, such as the International Develop-
ment Cooperation Act of 2006 (IDC Act) and the Resolution on International 
Development Cooperation until 2015 (ReIDC) of 2008. While these frameworks 
have aligned Slovenia’s development goals with EU policies, their implementa-
tion has been uneven, reflecting the overall challenges in policy coherence and 
alignment of national policies with international development objectives.
Thirdly, the evolution of Slovenia’s development cooperation strategy has 
been characterised by shifts in focus, geographical priorities and thematic areas. 
In the first phase (2004–2010), Slovenia established important framework condi-
tions and harmonised its development policy with that of the EU by actively 
supporting the political and economic transition in the Western Balkans. The 
subsequent phase (2010–2015) was about strategic consolidation and expansion 
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with a broader geographical focus and stronger integration into EU development 
initiatives. More recently, Slovenia has sought to adapt its development coopera-
tion to new global challenges such as the migration crisis, climate change and the 
COVID-19 pandemic, which is reflected in the Development Cooperation and 
Humanitarian Aid Strategy for 2023–2030.
Looking to the future and despite the identified challenges, Slovenia has 
several promising opportunities to strengthen its role in international develop-
ment. One of the most important opportunities lies in building and strengthening 
strategic partnerships, particularly with the countries of the Western Balkans and 
other regions undergoing similar transformations. Slovenia should capitalise on 
its unique experience as a post-socialist country and EU member, as it is well 
positioned to provide valuable support in the areas of governance, rule of law and 
democratic transition. However, to truly assume a leadership role in the region, 
Slovenia should forge closer ties, promote stability and develop a clear long-term 
strategy for its role in the Western Balkans.
Slovenia’s participation in EU development initiatives such as the European 
Development Fund and the Neighbourhood, Development and International 
Cooperation Instrument also represents a strategic opportunity. By aligning 
its development efforts with broader EU strategies, Slovenia can increase 
its impact through joint initiatives and thus increase its visibility and influ-
ence within the international development community. This alignment not 
only strengthens Slovenia’s development co-operation, but also ensures that 
its efforts are more effectively integrated into the broader EU development 
framework.
The global sustainable development agenda, particularly the SDGs, offers 
another significant opportunity for Slovenia. By integrating the SDGs into its 
national policies, Slovenia has created a comprehensive framework for tackling 
a range of development challenges, from poverty reduction to climate action. 
Slovenia’s commitment to the SDGs, as outlined in its Development Coopera-
tion and Humanitarian Aid Strategy, positions the country well to contribute 
to global efforts to achieve these goals. In addition, Slovenia’s progress in 
integrating the SDGs into its national development strategy could improve its 
ability to attract funding and partnerships for SDG-related projects, further 
enhancing its impact.
Improving policy coherence and coordination remains a key opportunity for 
Slovenia to increase the effectiveness of its development cooperation. Strength-
ening a whole-of-government approach to development that ensures coordina-
tion between all relevant ministries and agencies is essential to reducing policy 
incoherence and maximising the impact of Slovenia’s development assistance. 
By promoting greater awareness of development issues across government and 
improving coordination between ministries, Slovenia can streamline its efforts 
and better align its policies with its international development goals, for which 
it could also utilise all available diplomatic means.
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
Slovenia’s development co-operation over the last two decades illustrates the 
path of a small state navigating the complexities of international development. 
By harmonising its strategic interests with its commitments to international 
development goals, Slovenia has demonstrated its ability to make a meaningful 
contribution to regional stability and global development. In the future, Slove-
nia’s development cooperation, and thus development diplomacy, will need to 
focus on capitalising on the country’s unique strengths, such as its experience 
with democratic governance and EU membership, while addressing the chal-
lenges related to policy coherence, limited resources and the changing global 
landscape. In this way, Slovenia can further enhance its role as a constructive 
and influential player in international development and contribute to a more 
stable and prosperous international environment.
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Jana ARBEITER: DIPLOMATIC BRIDGES: TWO DECADES OF SLOVENIA’S DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION, 341–366
DIPLOMATSKI MOSTOVI: DVE DESETLETJI SLOVENSKEGA 
RAZVOJNEGA SODELOVANJA
Jana ARBEITER
Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za družbene vede, Center za mednarodne odnose, 
Kardeljeva ploščad 5, 1000 Ljubljana
e-mail: jana.arbeiter@fdv.uni-lj.si
POVZETEK
Članek ponuja celovito analizo slovenskega mednarodnega razvojnega 
sodelovanja med letoma 2004 in 2024, podrobno opisuje razvoj, strateške 
prednostne naloge ter vlogo mednarodnega razvojnega sodelovanja v okviru 
zunanje politike. Članek podrobneje proučuje, kako je Slovenija uporabljala 
razvojno pomoč kot diplomatsko orodje, zlasti v kontekstu Evropske unije (EU), 
za spodbujanje regionalne stabilnosti in podporo trajnostnemu razvoju. Razi-
skava, ki uporablja zgodovinskoprimerjalno metodologijo, analizira politične 
dokumente, podatke o uradni razvojni pomoči in konkretne študije primerov 
ter opredeljuje ključne faze slovenskih prizadevanj za razvojno sodelovanje. 
Ugotovitve poudarjajo premike v geografskih in tematskih težiščih Slovenije, s 
posebnim poudarkom na Zahodnem Balkanu, medtem ko se je geografski fokus 
zaradi globalnih izzivov razširil tudi na Vzhodno Evropo, Podsaharsko Afriko 
in druge regije. Študija obravnava izzive, kot so omejeni finančni in človeški 
viri in potreba po skladnosti politik. Poleg tega članek prepoznava priložnosti 
za Slovenijo za krepitev razvojnega sodelovanja prek strateških partnerstev, 
izboljšanja institucionalnih zmogljivosti in boljšega usklajevanja z mednaro-
dnimi razvojnimi cilji ter cilji EU. Ugotovitve prispevajo k boljšemu razumeva-
nju vloge malih držav v mednarodnem razvoju in diplomaciji ter izpostavljajo 
potencial Slovenije, da s ciljno usmerjenimi in kontekstu prilagojenimi ukrepi 
prispeva k regionalni stabilnosti in trajnostnemu razvoju.
Ključne besede: mednarodno razvojno sodelovanje, slovenska diplomacija, Zahodni 
Balkan, trajnostni razvoj, Evropska unija
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